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Where in the body would you find the Scalens muscles?	Massage Therapy for the Scalene Muscles by Paul Ingraham , Vancouver, Canada bio I am a science writer and a former Registered Massage Therapist with a decade of experience treating tough pain cases. I was the Assistant Editor of ScienceBasedMedicine.org for several years. I’ve written hundreds of articles and several books, and I’m known for readable but heavily referenced analysis, with a touch of sass. I am a runner and ultimate player. • more about me • more about PainScience.com illustrations by Paul Ingraham, Gary Lyons, Jim Smith, Elizabeth Boylan Trigger points ( TrP s), or muscle knots, are a common cause of stubborn and strange aches and pains, and yet they are under-diagnosed. The 14 Perfect Spots ( jump to list below ) are trigger points that are common and yet fairly easy to massage yourself — the most satisfying and useful places to apply pressure to muscle. For tough cases, see the advanced trigger points treatment guide . Pain Location detail Deep within the Anatomical Bermuda Triangle, a region on the side of the neck, is the cantankerous scalene muscle group. Massage therapists have vanished while working in this mysterious area, never to be seen again. The region and its muscles are complex and peculiar, and many less-trained massage therapists have low confidence working with them. This article explains how the scalene muscles are involved in several common pain problems in the neck, chest, arm, and upper back, and how to treat pain in these areas by massaging the scalenes. The scalenes are a difficult muscle group to work with, but rewarding! “It’s my hand, doc. My hand hurts.” The scalenes are a strange muscle group If you have stubborn or severe neck pain, you may prefer to start with my advanced neck pain tutorial. The scalenes are often involved in common neck pain and headaches , but that's just the tip of the iceberg. Seriously, this is a weird area: the scalenes often harbour TrPs with more diverse and peculiar symptoms than any other muscle tissue in the body. The primary mechanism for this strangeness is the phenomenon of “referred pain.” Pain in the scalenes is often felt just about anywhere but the scalenes themselves. Instead of your scalenes, your arm or chest might hurt instead. 1 Referred pain effects are par for the course with all muscle pain or any other internal pain — for instance, heart attacks are felt in the shoulder and arm — but the scalene muscles consistently produce unusually complex, variable, and extensive patterns of referred pain. The results can be a bit bizarre, causing symptoms that most people never guess are coming from the scalenes, even doctors and therapists. ZOOM Spreading pain Just like the pain of a heart attack spreads from the heart into the shoulder and arm, the pain of painful scalene muscles spreads throughout the chest, upper back, and chest, the arm and hand, and the side of the head. Pain referred to the back may feel like a penetrating pain stabbing through the torso. And scalene TrPs can also have several other “interesting” (in the sense of the Chinese curse 2 ) effects: on your voice, on swallowing, on emotions, on sensations that sweep through the entire head, the sinuses, hearing, and teeth. I have found scalene TrPs to be obviously clinically relevant to conditions as seemingly unrelated as: a professional singer with a mysterious degradation of quality in his voice (helped by releasing scalene and other throat trigger points) at least two patients with severe chronic sinus infections that they’d actually had surgery to try to correct (one of them virtually cured by scalene trigger point release alone, the other significantly helped) several people with severe cases of what I call “brick back,” where the space between the shoulder blades feels so stiff and stuck that it’s like there’s a cinder block there instead of bone and muscle cutting off blood and nerve supply to the arm, because tight scalenes can impinge the brachial artery and brachial nerve plexus in the neck the sensation of a lump in the throat in the absence of an actual mass (“globus sensation”) 3 So scalene trigger points are “drama queens,” with symptoms and consequences that seem out of proportion to such small and obscure muscles. They often contribute to anything else that goes wrong in the whole region. Like a gang, scalene TrPs can be counted on to mess up the neighbourhood. The anterior scalene in particular is a trouble-maker, causing and complicating many other problems. The anatomy of the Anatomical Bermuda Triangle The scalenes fan out from the sides of the neck bones to attach to the ribs, above the collarbone. 4 The scalene group consists of three muscles: the anterior, middle, and posterior scalenes. They generally attach to the sides of the neck vertebrae at the top and to the uppermost ribs at the bottom. So the scalenes are mostly head pullers: they pull the head from side to side. And although they certainly do move the neck, they are also breathing muscles, because of the way they pull up on the ribs. And here’s some more weirdness that makes this muscle group quite interesting: in some people the scalene muscles even reach down between the ribs and attach directly to the top of the lungs, In some people the scalene muscles even reach down between the ribs & attach directly to the top of the lungs. the only muscles that attach directly to the lungs other than the diaphragm. They pull up on the pleura, the membrane that shrink-wraps the lungs. A strange muscle group indeed! Such anatomical variability is actually fairly common throughout our bodies. 5 The scalenes as a group are not hard to find, but they are intricate in their details. They fill the space between three obvious structures that form the triangle: the collarbone the trapezius muscle on top of your shoulder the long V-shaped throat muscles (sternocleidomastoid or, if that’s too much of a mouthful, just the SCM ) Where is Perfect Spot No. 4 and the scalene muscle group? Perfect Spot 4 is somewhere in the triangle. There is one particular spot, in the belly of the middle scalene, that I think is the most common clinically significant trigger point — the spot most likely to feel important patients — but I don’t want to send you on a wild goose chase trying to locate exactly that spot. Any location within the triangle could prove to be important, so you should definitely explore. Things change, too: Perfect Spot 4 might be in one corner of the triangle one day, and in another corner the next. Precise self-treatment isn’t necessary — a willingness to gently experiment is. The best way to approach this area as a helper is from above the head, with the recipient face up. Without a massage table, it works well to place his or her head in the corner of a bed. Hold your fingers flat and place the pads of your fingertips in the hollow of the triangle: above the collarbone, in front of the massive trapezius muscle along the top of the shoulder, and on the outside of the prominent V-shaped sternocleidomastoid muscles of the throat. In this position, your hands will be angled inward a bit, and roughly pointing at the sternum. Now press down and perhaps a little inwards with a fairly broad pressure — finger pads, not finger tips — on the ropy muscles that fill the triangle. By using a broad pressure, you can easily stimulate some TrPs and stiff muscle without having to worry about being too accurate. Explore in the triangle with your fingertips, using small circles to find the ropy bands of muscles, gently strumming across them. The area is a rich minefield of trigger points, any of which might be worthwhile and interesting. Danger! If you’re foolish. This area is a little vulnerable, obviously: there is a possibility of impinging blood vessels or nerves. Do not massage this area vigorously, and (for pity’s sake) do not use tools here. Duh. If you do touch the carotid artery or the jugular vein, the pulse is obvious — just back off. It’s not an appealing place to rub. You no more want to rub your carotid artery than your eyeball. Smaller vessels are not a concern, and nerves are remarkably robust — they tolerate more pressure than most people realize — but it would still be foolish to take chances in this area. Anything else? The trachea and voice box are delicate, but also too central to get in the way of scalene massage, and no one would tolerate any careless pressure there. How should scalene massage feel? Massage feels better on some muscles than others. 6 The scalenes are not really pleasurable to massage, in general. The throat is a vulnerable body part, so many people feel threatened by pressure here — beware of underestimating it, 7 and all the more so if you aren’t confident that massage is safe, or if you don’t understand the strange sensations that are so common in this area. That vulnerability seems to translate into sensitivity, so even a gentle approach may feel a bit hot, nasty, and dodgy at first — not really the kind of trigger point you want to mess around with for fun. Wow, sign me up! Sounds great, doesn’t it? But it’s not all bad news. Some people enjoy scalene massage right out of the box, and others can come to appreciate it after a period of “working through” and getting used to the uglier sensations. But the best case scenario is when you are actually solving a problem: if your scalenes are in distress and causing a chronic pain problem, then it’s going to feel more like you’re finding the right place to scratch an itch that you couldn’t reach before. Maximize your chances of a positive experience by moving slowly and respectfully, and massaging the scalenes with broader, less “poky” pressure. Such pressure is more likely to produce the best case scenario: a peculiar deep ache spreading into the head, chest, back, and/or arm. At its best, scalene massage feels challenging but “profound.” The spectacular referral patterns make the scalenes feel important, the key to the region. As an entire limb “lights up” with referred pain from a light pressure in the neck, many people will say something like, “Holy $%!@$#$!, what the hell is that?” No muscle produces more amazed comments. As an entire limb “lights up” with referred pain from a light pressure in the neck, many people will say something like, “Holy $%!@$#$!, what the hell is that?” This is generally true of all referred pain, and it’s equally true of all the Perfect Spots, but “some trigger points are more equal than others.” The scalenes may be awkward and uncomfortable to massage at first, but this Perfect Spot can be very impressive in the end. So be prepared for anything, and take it easy. Although you might have to “work through” a little unpleasant sensation to get to the better sensations, this doesn’t mean “no pain, no gain” — do not be brutal in this area. Patients need a little time to adjust and “accept” the stimulation in this area. Persist respectfully, and there is a fair to middling chance that the sensation will change from hot to warm, from sharper to achier. It might make the transition in five minutes, or it might take a few days of sweet-talking the area. But there is a reasonable limit to how much you should try. If the effort doesn’t start to develop a bright side after a reasonable amount of time, then this Perfect Spot isn’t so perfect, and you should let it go. Tennis, meet elbow Tennis is the traditional way to get a case of tennis elbow, but it’s not the only way. The respiration connection (theoretical but plausible) Many common aches and pains, particularly around the head, neck and shoulders, may be caused in part by inefficient breathing. It’s just a theory, but the connection between dysfunctional breathing and pain is straightforward in principle: if the diaphragm doesn’t do its job well, muscles in the upper chest (pectoralis minor) and throat (sternocleidomastoid and scalenes) try to take over. Unfortunately, these muscles just aren’t built for routine respiration, and they can exhaust themselves to the point of irritation and injury. A cascade of consequences may result, from garden variety stiffness to seemingly unlikely and severe consequences such as rotator cuff injuries, whiplash and thoracic outlet syndrome — a constellation of painful upper body conditions. And the strange, cranky scalenes are the most likely muscles to cause symptoms in this scenario. For more information, see The Respiration Connection . The connection If it exists, the connection between dysfunctional breathing and pain is straightforward in principle: if the diaphragm doesn’t do its job well, muscles in the upper chest (pectoralis minor) and throat (sternocleidomastoid and scalenes) try to take over. Unfortunately, these muscles aren’t built for routine respiration, and they exhaust and eventually injure themselves. A cascade of potential consequences results. Anything that makes breathing more difficult could easily provoke over-use of the scalenes. There are many possibilities, but probably the most common and preventable is smoking — which is also risk-factor for chronic pain independently, 8 so it’s a double whammy. This is pure speculation, but smokers could not only have more trigger points in their accessory respiratory muscles, but nastier ones, more painful and persistent. A surprising relationship between the scalenes and tennis elbow This tennis elbow connection is a good example of how odd and clinically relevant the scalenes can be to conditions they don’t seem to have anything to do with at first. The scalene muscle group has surprising importance to a condition called “tennis elbow” or lateral epicondylitis, which commonly afflicts typists as well as racquet sports players. It is generally characterized as an inflammatory condition, but it is rarely that simple. 9 It is likely that myofascial TrPs, particularly Perfect Spot No. 5 in the muscles of the forearm, play a significant role in any case of tennis elbow. And Perfect Spot No. 4 seems, in turn, to significantly affect Perfect Spot No. 5. Travell and Simons write, “Scalene muscle trigger points are frequently the key to [treatment of] forearm extensor digitorum trigger points.” That is, trigger points on the back of the forearm. 10 So an interesting benefit to treating Perfect Spot No. 4 is that it may be a key to treating Perfect Spot No. 5 ! About Paul Ingraham I am a science writer, former massage therapist, and I was the assistant editor at ScienceBasedMedicine.org for several years. I have had my share of injuries and pain challenges as a runner and ultimate player. My wife and I live in downtown Vancouver, Canada. See my full bio and qualifications , or my blog, Writerly . You might run into me on Facebook or Twitter . Appendix A: Is trigger point therapy too good to be true? Trigger point therapy isn’t too good to be true: it’s just ordinary good. It can probably relieve some pain cheaply and safely in many cases. Good bang for buck, and little risk. In the world of pain treatments, that’s a good mix. But pain is difficult and complex, no treatment is perfect, and there is legitimate controversy about the science of trigger points . Their nature remains somewhat puzzling, and the classic image of a tightly “contracted patch” of muscle tissue may well be wrong. What we do know is that people hurt, and it can often be helped. The Perfect Spots are based on a decade of my own clinical experience as a massage therapist, and years of extensive science journalism on the topic. Want to know more? This is the tip of the iceberg. I’ve written a whole book about it … ZOOM Not too good to be true. Just ordinary good. Trigger point therapy isn’t a miracle cure, but it is a valuable life skill. Practically anyone can benefit at least a little, and many will experience significant relief from stubborn aches and pains. The first several sections are free. Appendix B: Quick Reference Guide to the Perfect Spots — Miscellaneous improvements. Notes This is because our nervous systems generally struggle to isolate where pain is coming from when it’s deeper than the skin. A pinprick on the skin we can locate precisely, but the location of muscle pain often feels out of focus — we just don’t have the neurological “wiring” to get a clear signal. The net effect is sensory confusion. And the confusion seems to be greater with the scalenes than with other muscles. BACK TO TEXT “May you live in interesting times” is one part of a three-part curse that is supposedly “ancient Chinese,” but is probably actually English or American in origin. According to Wikipedia , “The Chinese language origin of the phrase, if it exists, has not been found, making its authenticity doubtful.” The other two parts of the curse are the less famous “may you come to the attention of those in authority” and “may you find what you are looking for.” BACK TO TEXT Globus is the unexplained sensation of a lump in the throat, which is common and often alarming. Although many cases are “all in your head,” many cases probably have subtle physical causes, basically anything that irritates the throat (tonsil stones, acid reflux, Eagle syndrome, cysts, etc). For more information, see A Lump in My Throat: A globus hystericus story, with a side of science. BACK TO TEXT Yes, you heard me right: ribs! We actually have ribs above our collarbones. The rib cage and lungs are quite “tall,” and this area is the very top of your rib cage. In rare cases, people even have a small extra rib at the top, one vertebrae higher than normal. BACK TO TEXT	The Neck
"Which car manufacturer makes the models ""Felicia"", ""Octavia"" and ""Superb""?"	Working With The Scalenes \|\| Massage Therapy Articles Working With The Scalenes myofascial techniques By Til Luchau Originally published in Massage Bodywork magazine, January/February 2011. Copyright 2011. Associated Bodywork and Massage Professionals . All rights reserved. It is the scalanes' slanting, inclined, and tilted orientation that gives rise to their name. Scalene is a transliteration from Greek, meaning "skew": neither parallel nor perpendicular. This angled arrangement, in addition to making the scalenes powerful side-benders and rotators of the neck, puts them in position to align and stabilize the upright cervical column, much as would the angled rigging of a ship's mast (Image 2). At least, that's how the scalenes function when they're balanced. When they're shorter or tighter on one side, their angled left/right and anterior/posterior arrangement can cause them to literally "skew" the neck and upper ribs. This means that scalenes are involved in these postural and positional issues: - Torticollis (wry neck) is a persistent and often painful torsion of the neck, typically accompanied by asymmetrical scalene spasm and rigidity. - In both head-forward postures, as well as the "dowager's hump" pattern, the anterior scalenes are often hard, tight, and short, pulling the lower cervical vertebra forward into a rigidly flexed position (Image 3). - Although usually considered cervical flexors, once the neck is extended (as in the cervical lordosis that often accompanies a head-forward position), the scalenes can become cervical extensors. This change in function is a result of both their upper and lower attachments now being posterior to the articulations they affect, making it impossible for the scalenes to counterbalance the lack of length in the posterior neck (Image 4). Shortness in the scalenes will thus perpetuate and reinforce the cervical lordosis. The scalenes are involved in other conditions as well: - Scalenes are often injured in whiplash injuries, especially when lateral forces are involved. (Although working the scalenes can dramatically aid recovery from whiplash, massage is most appropriate with "cold" whiplash--fixed, chronic, older injuries. Direct work on the scalenes can aggravate whiplash symptoms when applied too soon after an injury, too aggressively, or in the presence of "hot" whiplash signs (muscular spasm, autonomic activation, instability, or guarding).1 - Because the scalenes also aid in forced inspiration by lifting the first two ribs, they are often chronically shortened when there are respiratory issues, such as asthma. - The scalenes stabilize the base of the neck against the asymmetrical forces of being right- or left-handed. For this reason, people who habitually use their dominant hand to apply force (such as manual therapists), will have scalenes that are often significantly tighter on the side opposite the dominant hand. - The deep pleural ligaments (Image 5: transversopleural, vertebropleural, and not pictured, costopleural) are fibrous bands that anchor the endothoracic fascia around the lungs to C7, T1, and the first rib. Lying deep to the scalenes and roughly parallel to their oblique arrangement, the pleural ligaments can have effects similar to the scalenes on the alignment and mobility of the base of the neck. - Because the nerves of the brachial plexus pass between the anterior and the medial scalenes, crowding here can exacerbate symptoms of neurovascular compression (such as thoracic outlet syndrome). Working the scalenes is indicated when there is numbness or tingling in the ulnar nerve distribution area (the small and ring fingers and medial hand, Image 7), especially when symptoms worsen with forced inhalation (which engages the scalenes) or neck rotation (which scissors the brachial plexus between the anterior and medial scalenes, Image 6). Anterior Scalene Technique These are all good reasons to include scalenes whenever you address the neck. However, working them directly can be tricky. The scalenes are often more contracted and denser than the tissues around them. (Researcher V. Janda classifies the scalenes as "tonic" muscles, meaning that when stressed they are prone to tightness rather than weakness, which may explain why they're so often contracted.)2 The scalenes also lie close to the sensitive nerves of the brachial plexus (Image 5). This combination of hardness and proximity to nerves makes it difficult to use any degree of pressure or sliding without causing referred nerve pain. However, if we avoid sliding on them, and first slacken the scalenes by approximating their attachments, we can address them more comfortably and at much deeper levels. To accomplish this, begin by cradling your client's head in one hand (Image 8). With the other hand, use the broad touch of several finger pads together to feel for the hard, longitudinally angled bellies of the anterior and medial scalenes, just above the clavicle and deep to the sternocleidomastoid. The hardest structure you feel here that isn't bone is usually the anterior scalene. Now lift the head, gently flexing the neck around the static fulcrum of your other hand. You'll feel the bellies of the scalenes press against your finger pads as you do this; apply just enough posterior pressure to resist the anterior movement of the scalenes and lower cervicals. This combination of vectors bends the anterior scalenes around your fulcrum hand and encourages the cervicals to drop posteriorly, reducing their tendency toward anteriority (Image 9). If this feels "nervy" to your client, or especially if he or she feels tingling in the fingers or hands when you apply pressure, reposition your touch so that it is comfortable, usually by shifting slightly medially. Shift too far medially or too high, though, and you'll be near the carotid artery, jugular vein, or vagus nerve--none of which like direct pressure. Keep your touch broad, soft, and sensitive. It should never be uncomfortable to your client. Once you have the counterforces of flexion and posterior pressure comfortably in place, resist the temptation to slide, nudge, or otherwise move your fingers on the delicate scalenes. Instead, wait for the body to respond. After three to six breaths, you'll typically feel the scalenes and lower cervicals ease and drop posteriorly as the tissues soften and the nervous system adapts. This is the sign that it's OK to move to a new position. By releasing and moving your fulcrum position (rather than by sliding), you can then work higher or lower parts of the scalenes. Feel for left/right asymmetries in the scalenes, and in the deeper plural ligaments (Image 5) once the scalenes' tone is reduced. Alternatively, you can shift your fulcrum slightly lateral, adding a bit of cervical sidebending around your finger pads to access the medial and posterior scalenes (Image 10). Wait for release and softening in each place. Stay in verbal contact with your client about any referred nerve pain. Be patient; wait for the release. Of course, you'll want to work the scalenes only after you've done other preparatory work to warm up the outer layers of the neck, and to accustom your client to your touch. Before you finish, be sure to work the scalenes on both sides; if you find asymmetrical patterns, the amount of time you spend on each side will be different. Finish your scalene work with integrative, balancing, soothing techniques; even if you avoided pressing directly on the nerves of the brachial plexus, working the tonic scalenes can be sympathetically activating rather than parasympathetically calming. "Mother Cat" Technique In addition to the scalene work discussed, a technique we call the "Mother Cat" is meant to calm the tissues of the neck. You've seen what happens when a mother cat picks up her kitten by the scruff of its neck--the kitten goes limp. This reflex is the source of the name we've given this technique, since humans also seem to let go, relax, and surrender with posterior traction on their neck fascia. Like a kitten being carried by its mother, people relax when their cervical fascias are eased. To perform the Mother Cat technique, wrap a soft hand around the back of your supine client's neck, encompassing as much of both sides as possible. With the palm and fingers of your full hand, grasp and gather the outer layers of the nape of the neck straight backward toward the posterior midline (that is, toward the floor), applying gentle posterior traction to the outer layers of superficial fascia and trapezius. Allow the tissue layers to slowly slide out from under your hands a bit. Repeat several times, switching hands if you wish. Although we're working both sides of the neck at the same time, the different shape of the left and right hands will allow you to access different aspects with each. Our aim is to both ease the outer tissues of the neck and to shift the autonomic tone of our client's nervous system. Accordingly, let your pace be slow, steady, and patient as you repeat this technique, feeling for both tissue restrictions and for your client's parasympathetic relaxation response. Although this technique's calming effects make it an ideal follow-up to the scalene work described earlier, these same properties make it an effective way to prepare a client for deep work as well. I originally learned this technique from William "Dub" Leigh, who called it "milking the neck," a name which hints at the repetitive, hypnotic motion that gives it its effectiveness. Dub, in turn, said he learned it from the legendary body therapy pioneer Moshe Feldenkrais, who (according to Dub) would patiently "milk the neck" for the first 10 minutes of his hands-on Functional Integration sessions. Feldenkrais, a scrappy Ukrainian-Israeli physicist and Judo champion (who, incidentally, taught Israeli Prime Minister Ben-Gurion how to stand on his head), reportedly claimed that with just this technique and enough time, he "could have any man eating" out of his hand. If you're inclined to try this experiment, do let me know the results, but please remember, along with great power, comes great responsibility. Til Luchau is a member of the Advanced-Trainings.com faculty, which offers distance learning and in-person seminars throughout the United States and abroad. He is also a Certified Advanced Rolfer and teaches for the Rolf Institute. Contact him via [email protected] and Advanced-Trainings.com's Facebook page. Notes 1. For more on "hot" and "cold" whiplash, see "Myofascial Techniques: Working with Whiplash, Part 1," Massage Bodywork, March/April 2010, page 108; "Myofascial Techniques: Working with Whiplash, Part 2," Massage Bodywork, May/June 2010, page 108. 2. V. Janda, "Muscles and Cervicogenic Pain Syndromes," in Physical Therapy of the Cervical and Thoracic Spine, ed. Ruth Grant (New York: Churchill Livingstone, 1988). Sidebars:	i don't know
"""Say what you want"" (1997) and ""In our lifetime"" (1998) were hits for which group?"	Texas \| New Music And Songs \| Texas About Texas Taking their name from the Wim Wenders film Paris, Texas, the Scottish pop/rock band Texas recorded a series of multi-million-selling albums (Southside, White on Blonde, The Hush), as well as many hit singles including "Say What You Want," "In Our Lifetime," and "Summer Son." Bass player Johnny McElhone (born April 21, 1963, Glasgow, Scotland) organized the band in Glasgow in 1986. McElhone, a veteran of the bands Altered Images and Hipsway, brought in singer and rhythm guitarist Sharleen Spiteri (born November 7, 1967, Glasgow, Scotland), lead guitarist Ally McErlaine (born October 31, 1968, Glasgow, Scotland), and drummer Stuart Kerr (born March 16, 1963, Glasgow, Scotland). Paris, Texas boasted a score by Ry Cooder, whose slide guitar playing heavily influenced McErlaine, and Spiteri sang without any discernible Scottish accent, giving the band a distinctly American sound. Texas made their concert debut in March 1988 at Dundee University in Scotland. McElhone's previous connection with Mercury Records through Hipsway led to the label's signing the band, which initially tried to record with Bernard Edwards of Chic as producer before settling on Tim Palmer instead. The first result of this association was the single "I Don't Want a Lover," the initial effort of the writing team of Spiteri and McElhone, which Mercury released in the U.K. in January 1989. On March 4, it peaked at number eight. Southside (the title referring to a neighborhood of Glasgow), the debut album, was released in March and peaked at number three at the end of the month. As Texas toured the U.K. and Europe, three more singles were released from the album but failed to reach the Top 40; nevertheless, Southside eventually sold more than two million copies worldwide. Meanwhile, Mercury released "I Don't Want a Lover," and Southside was released in the U.S. in July. The single broke into Billboard's Album Rock Tracks and Modern Rock Tracks radio charts before finally entering the Hot 100, where it peaked at number 77 on September 30; the album peaked at number 88 a week later. Texas continued to tour Europe in 1990 before beginning work on their second album. Kerr left and was replaced on the drums by Richard Hynd (born June 17, 1965, Aberdeen, Scotland), and keyboard player Eddie Campbell (born July 6, 1965, Glasgow, Scotland), who had been playing with them live, became an official member of the band. Mothers Heaven was released in September 1991 and proved to be a commercial disappointment, peaking at number 32 in the U.K. on October 5. In the U.S., the track "In My Heart" reached the Modern Rock Tracks chart as Texas made their first visit to the U.S. in November, but the album failed to chart. "Alone with You," the album's third single, returned them to the British Top 40, reaching number 32 on February 15, 1992, but their first substantial hit single since "I Don't Want a Lover" was a one-off cover of Al Green's "Tired of Being Alone," which peaked at number 19 on May 9. Again, after touring primarily in Europe, Texas retired to write and record another album, this time turning to Paul Fox as producer and recording at Bearsville Studio in Woodstock, New York, which gave them their title, Ricks Road, the name of the dirt road leading to the studio. "So Called Friend," released in advance of the album in August 1993, peaked at number 30 in the U.K. on September 11. (It was later used as the theme song for the U.S. television series Ellen, starring Ellen DeGeneres [1994-1998], and in the 1996 feature film Last Dance, starring Sharon Stone.) A second single, "You Owe It All to Me," reached number 39 on October 30, before Ricks Road finally appeared in November, hitting number 18 on November 13. The album was not released initially in the U.S., but it eventually came out in 1994 as the band made several trips -- in March, May-June, and August-September -- to tour in North America. Despite this effort, like Mothers Heaven, Ricks Road failed to chart in the U.S., selling a meager 38,000 copies. The band wrote off the American market thereafter, concentrating primarily on Europe. One more single from Ricks Road, "So in Love with You," made the British Top 40, peaking at number 28 on February 12, 1994. But by the time Texas closed their touring in support of the album in December, they was ready for an extended break, and little was heard from the band over the next two years, while they worked on their fourth album with producer Mike Hedges. They re-emerged with a hometown concert in Glasgow on December 5, 1996, and in January 1997 came the advance single "Say What You Want," which became their biggest hit yet, peaking at number three on January 25. That surprising comeback was followed by the album White on Blonde, which entered the British charts at number one on February 15, 1997. It remained in the charts nearly two years, selling 1.7 million copies in the U.K. alone and throwing off three more Top Ten hits: "Halo," "Black Eyed Boy," and "Put Your Arms Around Me." The band spent the year touring extensively in Europe and made their first trip to Australia in May. (They did not tour the U.S., where White on Blonde finally was released on August 5, 1997, as "Say What You Want" appeared in the comedy Picture Perfect, starring Jennifer Aniston, although they did find time for a promotional trip in October. The album did not chart, but Hollywood continued to favor the group, with "Put Your Arms Around Me" appearing in the 1998 film Ever After, starring Drew Barrymore.) On February 9, 1998, Texas appeared at the BRIT Awards, performing "Say What You Want" in the company of rapper Method Man of Wu-Tang Clan. The seemingly unlikely pairing led to a new recording of the song, and the single "Say What You Want (All Day and Every Day)" by Texas featuring Wu-Tang Clan (actually, just Method Man and RZA) entered the U.K. charts at number four on March 21. The band played shows periodically during 1998 while working on its next album. That fifth album was prefaced by the leadoff single "In Our Lifetime," which entered the British charts at number four on May 1, 1999. The Hush, which followed within weeks, showed the band as consisting of Spiteri, McElhone, Campbell, and McErlaine; soon after, it was announced that Mikey Wilson was the new drummer. The album entered the charts at number one on May 22, 1999. Second single "Summer Son" reached number five in August, but "When We Are Together" stopped at number 12 in November, capping Texas' run of consecutive Top Ten British hits at seven. Touring continued throughout 1999. Texas' next single was "In Demand," a Top Ten hit released in October 2000 that prefaced The Greatest Hits, which hit number one in Britain in November and spawned a second new track, "Inner Smile," that reached the Top Ten in January 2001, and the band launched an extensive European tour. (By this time, Mercury wasn't even bothering to release Texas' records in the U.S.) In July, they issued a remixed version of their first hit, "I Don't Want a Lover," which made the Top 20. Spiteri then took time off to have a baby, giving birth to a daughter on September 9, 2002. So, more than two more years passed before the October 2003 release of their sixth album, Careful What You Wish For, which was prefaced by the single "Carnival Girl," featuring Kardinal Offishall, a Top Ten hit. (The credits announced that Neil Payne was the new drummer, replacing Wilson, and that a new guitarist, Tony McGovern, had joined.) The album peaked at number five and also featured the Top 40 hit "I'll See It Through." By November 2005, when their seventh album, Red Book, was released, Texas' commercial fortunes had declined, but the disc was still able to debut in the Top Ten in France, the band's most reliable market. (The album marked the addition of keyboard player Michael Bannister.) "Sleep," a duet between Spiteri and Paul Buchanan of the Blue Nile, was excerpted as the album's third single in January 2006 and made the U.K. Top Ten. In 2008, the release of Sharleen Spiteri's first solo album, Melody, marked the beginning of a hiatus for the band; she released another, The Movie Songbook, in 2010. Reunion plans were put on hold after McErlaine suffered a brain aneurysm in late 2009, but less than two years later, Texas were on the road again. A record contract followed, and in 2013 the band released The Conversation via PIAS. Featuring contributions from Richard Hawley and Bernard Butler, it reached number four on the British charts and would later be certified silver. Two years later, Texas celebrated their quarter-century anniversary with Texas 25, where the group reworked selected hits with the assistance of the production outfit Truth & Soul. Texas 25 appeared in February 2015. ~ William Ruhlmann, Rovi Hear more of	Texas
In the Natural World what is Ornithophily?	Texas — Listen for free on Spotify Texas Play on Spotify Taking their name from the Wim Wenders film Paris, Texas, the Scottish pop/rock band Texas recorded a series of multi-million-selling albums (Southside, White on Blonde, The Hush), as well as many hit singles including "Say What You Want," "In Our Lifetime," and "Summer Son." Bass player Johnny McElhone (born April 21, 1963, Glasgow, Scotland) organized the band in Glasgow in 1986. McElhone, a veteran of the bands Altered Images and Hipsway , brought in singer and rhythm guitarist Sharleen Spiteri (born November 7, 1967, Glasgow, Scotland), lead guitarist Ally McErlaine (born October 31, 1968, Glasgow, Scotland), and drummer Stuart Kerr (born March 16, 1963, Glasgow, Scotland). Paris, Texas boasted a score by Ry Cooder , whose slide guitar playing heavily influenced McErlaine, and Spiteri sang without any discernible Scottish accent, giving the band a distinctly American sound. Texas made their concert debut in March 1988 at Dundee University in Scotland. McElhone's previous connection with Mercury Records through Hipsway led to the label's signing the band, which initially tried to record with Bernard Edwards of Chic as producer before settling on Tim Palmer instead. The first result of this association was the single "I Don't Want a Lover," the initial effort of the writing team of Spiteri and McElhone, which Mercury released in the U.K. in January 1989. On March 4, it peaked at number eight. Southside (the title referring to a neighborhood of Glasgow), the debut album, was released in March and peaked at number three at the end of the month. As Texas toured the U.K. and Europe, three more singles were released from the album but failed to reach the Top 40; nevertheless, Southside eventually sold more than two million copies worldwide. Meanwhile, Mercury released "I Don't Want a Lover," and Southside was released in the U.S. in July. The single broke into Billboard 's Album Rock Tracks and Modern Rock Tracks radio charts before finally entering the Hot 100, where it peaked at number 77 on September 30; the album peaked at number 88 a week later. Texas continued to tour Europe in 1990 before beginning work on their second album. Kerr left and was replaced on the drums by Richard Hynd (born June 17, 1965, Aberdeen, Scotland), and keyboard player Eddie Campbell (born July 6, 1965, Glasgow, Scotland), who had been playing with them live, became an official member of the band. Mothers Heaven was released in September 1991 and proved to be a commercial disappointment, peaking at number 32 in the U.K. on October 5. In the U.S., the track "In My Heart" reached the Modern Rock Tracks chart as Texas made their first visit to the U.S. in November, but the album failed to chart. "Alone with You," the album's third single, returned them to the British Top 40, reaching number 32 on February 15, 1992, but their first substantial hit single since "I Don't Want a Lover" was a one-off cover of Al Green 's "Tired of Being Alone," which peaked at number 19 on May 9. Again, after touring primarily in Europe, Texas retired to write and record another album, this time turning to Paul Fox as producer and recording at Bearsville Studio in Woodstock, New York, which gave them their title, Ricks Road, the name of the dirt road leading to the studio. "So Called Friend," released in advance of the album in August 1993, peaked at number 30 in the U.K. on September 11. (It was later used as the theme song for the U.S. television series Ellen, starring Ellen DeGeneres [1994-1998], and in the 1996 feature film Last Dance, starring Sharon Stone.) A second single, "You Owe It All to Me," reached number 39 on October 30, before Ricks Road finally appeared in November, hitting number 18 on November 13. The album was not released initially in the U.S., but it eventually came out in 1994 as the band made several trips -- in March, May-June, and August-September -- to tour in North America. Despite this effort, like Mothers Heaven, Ricks Road failed to chart in the U.S., selling a meager 38,000 copies. The band wrote off the American market thereafter, concentrating primarily on Europe. One more single from Ricks Road, "So in Love with You," made the British Top 40, peaking at number 28 on February 12, 1994. But by the time Texas closed their touring in support of the album in December, they was ready for an extended break, and little was heard from the band over the next two years, while they worked on their fourth album with producer Mike Hedges. They re-emerged with a hometown concert in Glasgow on December 5, 1996, and in January 1997 came the advance single "Say What You Want," which became their biggest hit yet, peaking at number three on January 25. That surprising comeback was followed by the album White on Blonde, which entered the British charts at number one on February 15, 1997. It remained in the charts nearly two years, selling 1.7 million copies in the U.K. alone and throwing off three more Top Ten hits: "Halo," "Black Eyed Boy," and "Put Your Arms Around Me." The band spent the year touring extensively in Europe and made their first trip to Australia in May. (They did not tour the U.S., where White on Blonde finally was released on August 5, 1997, as "Say What You Want" appeared in the comedy Picture Perfect, starring Jennifer Aniston, although they did find time for a promotional trip in October. The album did not chart, but Hollywood continued to favor the group, with "Put Your Arms Around Me" appearing in the 1998 film Ever After, starring Drew Barrymore.) On February 9, 1998, Texas appeared at the BRIT Awards, performing "Say What You Want" in the company of rapper Method Man of Wu-Tang Clan . The seemingly unlikely pairing led to a new recording of the song, and the single "Say What You Want (All Day and Every Day)" by Texas featuring Wu-Tang Clan (actually, just Method Man and RZA ) entered the U.K. charts at number four on March 21. The band played shows periodically during 1998 while working on its next album. That fifth album was prefaced by the leadoff single "In Our Lifetime," which entered the British charts at number four on May 1, 1999. The Hush, which followed within weeks, showed the band as consisting of Spiteri , McElhone, Campbell, and McErlaine; soon after, it was announced that Mikey Wilson was the new drummer. The album entered the charts at number one on May 22, 1999. Second single "Summer Son" reached number five in August, but "When We Are Together" stopped at number 12 in November, capping Texas' run of consecutive Top Ten British hits at seven. Touring continued throughout 1999. Texas' next single was "In Demand," a Top Ten hit released in October 2000 that prefaced The Greatest Hits, which hit number one in Britain in November and spawned a second new track, "Inner Smile," that reached the Top Ten in January 2001, and the band launched an extensive European tour. (By this time, Mercury wasn't even bothering to release Texas' records in the U.S.) In July, they issued a remixed version of their first hit, "I Don't Want a Lover," which made the Top 20. Spiteri then took time off to have a baby, giving birth to a daughter on September 9, 2002. So, more than two more years passed before the October 2003 release of their sixth album, Careful What You Wish For, which was prefaced by the single "Carnival Girl," featuring Kardinal Offishall , a Top Ten hit. (The credits announced that Neil Payne was the new drummer, replacing Wilson, and that a new guitarist, Tony McGovern, had joined.) The album peaked at number five and also featured the Top 40 hit "I'll See It Through." By November 2005, when their seventh album, Red Book, was released, Texas' commercial fortunes had declined, but the disc was still able to debut in the Top Ten in France, the band's most reliable market. (The album marked the addition of keyboard player Michael Bannister.) "Sleep," a duet between Spiteri and Paul Buchanan of the Blue Nile , was excerpted as the album's third single in January 2006 and made the U.K. Top Ten. In 2008, the release of Sharleen Spiteri 's first solo album, Melody, marked the beginning of a hiatus for the band; she released another, The Movie Songbook, in 2010. Reunion plans were put on hold after McErlaine suffered a brain aneurysm in late 2009, but less than two years later, Texas were on the road again. A record contract followed, and in 2013 the band released The Conversation via PIAS . Featuring contributions from Richard Hawley and Bernard Butler , it reached number four on the British charts and would later be certified silver. Two years later, Texas celebrated their quarter-century anniversary with Texas 25, where the group reworked selected hits with the assistance of the production outfit Truth & Soul. Texas 25 appeared in February 2015. ~ William Ruhlmann, Rovi Read More Show less	i don't know
Built by the Neville's in the 14th century, in which county is Raby Castle?	Castles of England/County Durham - Wikibooks, open books for an open world Castles of England/County Durham Mostly 16th century, fragments remain of medieval castle, residence of the Bishop of Durham. Barnard Castle Substantial medieval portions including 5 towers incorporated in 19th century rebuilding. Durham Castle Much altered during continuous occupation since c.1072. Lambton Castle Wedding venue / Earl of Durham Later additions demolished following subsidence. Lumley Castle 140115th century tower, formerly in Yorkshire. Raby Castle Probably built as a hunting lodge for the Neville family of Raby Castle. Scargill Castle South-west tower and adjoining wall possibly medieval. Witton Castle Extended 1790–5. Used as a leisure centre for a caravan site. Auckland Castle in County Durham Auckland Castle (also known as Auckland Palace or locally as the Bishop's Castle or Bishop's Palace) is a castle in the town of Bishop Auckland in County Durham. The castle has been the official residence of the Bishop of Durham since 1832. However, it has been owned by the diocese for more than 800 years, being established as a hunting lodge for the Prince Bishops of Durham. It is more like a Gothic country house than a true castle with a military function. The castle is surrounded by 800 acres of parkland, which was originally used by the Bishops for hunting. In around 1183 Bishop Pudsey established a manor house on the site. Bishop Bek, who preferred the town as his main residence over Durham Castle due to its proximity to hunting grounds, later converted the manor house into a castle. After the dis-establishment of the Church of England, at the end of the first civil war, Auckland Castle was sold to Sir Arthur Hazelrig, who demolished much of the castle, including the chapel, and built a mansion. Barnard Castle Barnard Castle is a ruined medieval castle situated in the town of the same name in County Durham. A stone castle was built on the site of an earlier defended position from around 1095 to 1125 by Guy de Balliol. Between 1125 and 1185 his nephew Bernard de Balliol and his son Bernard II extended the building. In 1216 the castle was besieged by Alexander II of Scotland. It was still held by the Balliol family although its ownership was disputed by the Bishops of Durham. When John Balliol was deposed as King of Scotland in 1296 the castle was passed to the Bishop of Durham. Around 1300 Edward I granted it to the Earl of Warwick. In 1477 during the Wars of the Roses, Richard, Duke of Gloucester (later Richard III) took possession of the castle, which became one of his favourite residences. Over the next two centuries the Nevilles enlarged and improved the estate and created a substantial and impressive castle. However when Charles Neville, 6th Earl of Westmorland was attainted for his leading role in the Rising of the North the Neville estates were sequestered. Bishopton Castle in County Durham Bishopton Castle was a medieval castle in County Durham. It was built by Roger de Conyers in 1143, in the village of Bishopton, near to the town of Darlington. [1] Constructed in a motte-and-bailey design, the castle had two baileys, rather than the usual one, and originally had two large enclosures beyond the baileys. [2] In the 12th century it was surrounded by a low artificial lake, fed by the brook to the west, and could only be accessed by causeways. [3] De Conyers built the castle during a dispute with William Cumin, who laid claim to be the Bishop of Durham; de Conyers supported Cumin's rival, William of St. Barbara. [4] Historian Lise Hull believes that the licence to crenellate given to de Conyers for his castle may be the first recorded instance of this in England. [5] Bowes Castle in County Durham . Bowes Castle was built on the site of a Roman fort that guarded the Stainforth Pass through the Pennines. The castle was constructed between 1171 and 1174. During its history it was besieged twice, once in 1216 and again in 1322. Shortly after the second siege it was abandoned and fell into ruin. Brancepeth Castle from the east, showing the two 19th-century gate towers (right) and older chapel and curtain walls (centre and left) Brancepeth Castle is in the village of Brancepeth in County Durham]] some five miles south west of the city of Durham. A succession of buildings has been on the site. The first was a Norman castle built by the Bulmers, which was rebuilt by the Nevilles in the late 14th century. For many years the castle was owned by the Neville family until in 1569 it was confiscated by the Crown following the family's involvement in the Rising of the North. Brancepeth Castle in 1782, before its 19th-century expansion West side of the castle. The 19th-century addition to an older section of the castle can be seen below the left turret. There have been a number of other owners since that time. In the early 17th century the estate was granted by the Crown to Robert Carr, 1st Earl of Somerset, from whom it subsequently confiscated the castle back due to his involvement in a poisoning scandal. In 1636, three men who had bought the castle from the King's Commissioners in 1633 sold it to Ralph Cole of Newcastle. His grandson, Ralph Cole MP, sold the property in about 1720 to Sir Henry Belaysyse. In 1796 the castle was acquired by the Russells. The present building is largely a 19th-century restoration carried out in the 1820s by John Matthew Russell and improved in the mid-19th century by architect Anthony Salvin for William Russell, (High Sheriff of Durham in 1841). Lumley Castle Lumley Castle is a 14th century quadrangular castle at Chester-le-Street near to the city of Durham. It is named for its original creator, Sir Ralph Lumley, who converted his family manor house into a castle in 1389 after returning from wars in Scotland. However, after being implicated in a plot to overthrow Henry IV he was imprisoned and ultimately executed, forfeiting his lands to the Earl of Somerset. In 1421 the ownership of the Castle reverted to Sir Ralph Lumley's grandson, Thomas. South−east corner of Walworth Castle Walworth Castle is a 16th century mansion house, built in the style of a medieval castle and situated at Walworth, County Durham near Darlington. It was completed around 1600, probably by Thomas Holt for Thomas Jenison. It stands on the site of a former manor house or castle built in the 12th century by the Hansard family. The castle is built of partially rendered limestone rubble, and the roof is of Welsh slate. The west tower is older, and has gunloops, narrow trefoil−headed and round−headed windows. It has a main, south−facing building of five bays and three storeys between two four−storey, round, angle towers, with east and west wings on the north side, making up three sides of a square originally open to the north. However a range of early 19th century buildings on the north side of the square now encloses the courtyard. Some flagstones of unknown date were discovered in situ in the cellar or basement of the castle in 2002. Internal renovation took place in 1740, so that the interior now has important mid−18th century features, such as Palladian plasterwork and Rococo details. In 1864 the main staircase was rebuilt and the west wing was given a new front. Witton Castle Witton Castle is a much altered 15th century castle, which is the centrepiece of a holiday and caravan country park at Witton le Wear near Bishop Auckland. Sir Ralph Eure obtained a licence to crenellate his manor house in 1410 and created the castle. The castle was held by Royalist Sir William Darcy during the English Civil War. He compounded for the return of his confiscated estate which was sold by his descendant Henry Darcy to William Cuthbert in 1743. The castle later passed to Hopper but was severely damaged in a fire which in 1796 destroyed most of the castle interior. In 1816 Sir William Chaytor of Croft Hall, Yorkshire purchased the castle estate for £78,000 and restored the fabric and rebuilt the interior in modern style. The estate was rich in coal and Witton Park colliery was sunk in 1825.	Durham
From which club did Manchester City sign Kevin De Bruyne for £55 million in 2015?	Lord Barnard – obituary Lord Barnard – obituary Lord Barnard 4 May 2016 • 5:06pm The 11th Lord Barnard, who has died aged 92, was the model of a traditional landowner, combining management of his extensive estates in County Durham and Shropshire, and his medieval family seat, Raby Castle, near Staindrop, Co Durham, with an old-fashioned commitment to the local community. “A close friend described him as 'a modern day Plantagenet Palliser with his love of his estates and the people on them'” A close friend described John Barnard as “a modern day Plantagenet Palliser with his love of his estates and the people on them”, particularly the farming communities of Upper Teesdale, with Raby Estates’ distinctive whitewashed farms. He had a deep love of the countryside and also cared greatly for the environment, winning awards for conservation. Guided by his strong Anglican faith, he held fast to a traditional yet humane view of English society; modern “accountancy farming” was a concept alien to him. He wanted the countryside to flourish and not be built over, and he wanted it to remain a working community. The estate and the people on it always came before commercial return. Viewers of Addicted to Sheep (February 8 2016, BBC Four), Magali Pettier’s documentary about a farming family from Upper Teesdale (in which Lord Barnard turned up as genial prize-giver at the Langdon Beck Sheep Show), would have a good idea of how he saw his role. Raby Castle Credit: Alamy Raby had been in Lord Barnard’s family since 1626 when the castle and estate were bought by his ancestor Sir Henry Vane, Treasurer of the Household and Principal Secretary of State to Charles I, and it remained in the family even after his son, Sir Henry Vane the Younger, a republican and Parliamentarian during the English Civil War, was executed in 1662, shortly after the Restoration. Through a grandmother Barnard was also a direct descendant of the powerful Nevilles of Raby, who had built the original castle in the 14th century. The castle was the birthplace and family home of Cecily Neville, mother of Edward IV and Richard III, but both castle and estates were confiscated by the Crown following the Rising of the Northern Earls in 1569. Raby Castle has some of the most outstanding examples of medieval, Regency and Victorian architecture and interiors in England, but when Lord Barnard inherited as the 11th holder of the barony on his father’s death in 1964, he faced a huge backlog of maintenance, which he addressed with characteristic dedication. This included a five-year extensive restoration of the Octagon Drawing Room, a rare survivor of a Victorian interior, which involved refurbishing silk damask wall panels, curtains and swags with copies from original designs from the 1860s. Barnard also opened the castle, its grounds and gardens to thousands of visitors every summer and let the park out for events, including concerts, country fairs, fun days and car rallies. Although he was a somewhat reserved man, at the end of a working day visitors might glimpse him on his mountain bike, feeding the ducks, inspecting his ancient herds of red and fallow deer, or the herd of Longhorn cattle that he had established in the park. Lord Barnard Harry John Neville Vane was born at Raby Castle on September 21 1923, the eldest son of Christopher Vane, the 10th Lord Barnard, and Sylvia Mary Straker. The Barnard barony had been created in 1698 by William III for Christopher Vane, the son of Sir Henry Vane the Younger, who had inherited Raby after his father’s execution, and who went on to serve as MP for County Durham and later Boroughbridge. John Vane, as he was then known, was educated at Eton College and when war was declared he volunteered as a despatch rider for the Home Guard. On leaving school in 1942 he joined the RAF Volunteer Reserve, training in South Africa as a flying officer, though he never saw combat. After the war he joined the Northumberland Hussars (TA), serving as an officer, latterly a lieutenant-colonel, for 20 years. He was also honorary colonel of the 7th (Durham) Light Infantry. A friend who served under him saw a rather different side to his normally restrained character at “rather boozy” dinners where he was “very relaxed and very funny”. While his father was still alive, John became involved in running parts of the Raby estate, and in the 1950s he served as a councillor for the Moderate Party in the Labour stronghold of County Durham. After succeeding to the barony on his father’s death in 1964, he took his place on the cross-benches of the House of Lords, remaining there until the New Labour government removed the rights of all but 92 hereditary peers to sit in the Lords. Raby Castle Credit: Alamy As a landowner, Lord Barnard took a particular interest in forestry and wildlife and moorland conservation, serving as vice-president of the Game and Wildlife Conservation Trust. His work to attract game and song birds, waterfowl and waders (including a successful recovery programme for the black grouse), resulted in the Raby estate winning the coveted 1998 Laurent-Perrier Wild Game Conservation Award. He also dedicated much of his time to Freemasonry, as Provincial Grand Master of Durham for 30 years and senior Grand Warden of the United Lodge of England in 1970-71, hosting many fundraising Gala Days in Raby Park in aid of the Freemasons’ chosen charities. Lord Barnard held many positions in local business, community and wildlife organisations, and charities including the British Red Cross Society, of which he became honorary vice-president; he was awarded the Red Cross Queen’s Badge of Honour for “exceptional service of the highest order” to the Society. “He was a lover of tradition but a champion of eccentrics” Ian Galletley When his local newspaper, the Teesdale Mercury, was ailing in 1983, Barnard came to its rescue, becoming its owner and director. While he never interfered with its editorial line, Ian Galletley, a columnist for the paper, recalled him as a man of strong opinions and understated wit: “He was a lover of tradition but a champion of eccentrics. His humour was sometimes sly but he loved wit and elegance in language. He spoke up for the endangered countryside and its people. He cared for the land. He could be infuriating but he encouraged those he cared for or agreed with. He was a product of his background but open to challenge. His letters were beautiful examples of terse art.” Later his daughter Carolyn took the reins to oversee the paper’s modernisation into the digital era. At the age of 63, having missed out on university due to the war, Lord Barnard surprised friends and family members by enrolling at Durham University Business School and taking an MSc in Management Studies. Lord Barnard’s liking for music and opera sometimes took him to the big cities, but it was always a relief to him to return to Raby. He served as a Deputy Lieutenant then, for 18 years, as Lord Lieutenant and Custos Rotulorum of County Durham. In 1952 he married Lady Davina Cecil, daughter of the 6th Marquess of Exeter, with whom he had four daughters and a son. Although the marriage was dissolved in 1992, they remained friends and neither remarried. His son Harry (the Hon Henry Francis Cecil Vane), born in 1959, succeeds to the barony. Lord Barnard, born September 21 1923, died April 3 2016 Follow the latest Telegraph Obituaries news READ MORE ABOUT:	i don't know
Which opera is set aboard HMS Indomitable during the French wars?	Celebrating Britten in Sweden, with Billy Budd Celebrating Britten in Sweden, with Billy Budd Overview Audio Selections The Story Who's Who Britten's opera is set at sea, on the British man-of-war H.M.S. Indomitable, during the Napoleonic wars in 1797. The opera presents portraits of a number of crew members, but the story focuses on three main characters -- a naïve, strapping young sailor named Billy Budd; his nemesis, the Master-at-Arms John Claggart; and the ship's beloved Captain Vere, or "Starry Vere," as the sailors call him. In a brief prologue, we see Captain Vere as an old man, looking back on his life, unable to forget the story of the young sailor Billy Budd, and Billy's fate at the hands of the officers on board the H.M.S. Indomitable. ACT ONE takes us back to that ship. The crew is on stage, busy at work, being bullied and whipped by their overseer. They sing a sea shanty with the refrain, "Oh heave away, heave!" Un deck, three prisoners have been brought on board. They're merchant marines who've been pulled off their ship and are about to be pressed into duty on the Indomitable. While questioning them, the Master-at-Arms, John Claggart, reveals his nasty side. One of the three men is a handsome young sailor named Billy Budd. He's cheerful and open hearted. He does, however, have a stutter, which comes out when he's in distress, at times leaving him frustrated and angry. When Billy realizes he's not going back to his old ship, he shouts a farewell to his mates. The ship is called Rights of Man, and in calling its name, Billy is misunderstood by his new officers to be encouraging dissent. They tell Claggart to keep an eye on him. Claggart goes them one better. He instructs his underling, Squeak, to deliberately provoke Billy. Meanwhile, Claggart orders Billy to remove his "fancy neckerchief: "This is a Man-o'-War," he says. Then, with a leering glance, he adds, "Take pride in yourself, Beauty, and you'll come to no harm." An old sailor named Dansker warns Billy about Claggart, but the young man pays little mind. In the next scene, Captain Vere is in his cabin, reading classic literature and musing on the parallels between his own times and those of the ancients. When he invites his officers in for drinks, they warn him about the new guy, Billy Budd. Vere waves them off; Billy is high-spirited, he tells them, but he's an innocent. In the final scene of Act One, the sailors are singing shanties up on deck. Billy goes down to his berth and finds Squeak rummaging through his things. The two men begin to fight. Claggart appears, realizes that Squeak has bungled his mission, and to conceal his own role has Squeak packed off to the brig. Claggart then insinuates himself into Billy's good graces, praising the young man's beauty and goodness. But as he later sings, it's exactly those qualities that inspire his own determination to destroy Billy. Claggart then sends for a sailor called the Novice, and forces him to attempt to bribe Billy into starting a mutiny. When the Novice does this, Billy resists, and then gets angry. As the two scuffle, the old man Dansker finds them, and calms Billy down. He then warns him -- again -- to beware of Claggart. As ACT TWO begins, the H.M.S. Indomitable is stuck in a thick fog. The men are champing at the bit to engage in battle. John Claggart, the ship's devious Master-at-Arms, tells Captain Vere that he thinks Billy Budd is a mutineer. Suddenly the fog begins to lift, and the sails of a French ship are visible. Vere orders his men to pursue the vessel and prepare for battle. But when he orders the cannon to fire, the shots fall short. The mist returns, and any chance of a battle ends. Claggart again approaches the captain, and this time he's more more insistent. He tells Vere he has proof that Billy accepted a bribe of gold in exchange for starting a mutiny. Vere is angry, but still refuses to believe Claggart -- preferring to confront Billy himself. Vere, alone in his cabin, sings of his confidence that Billy is innocent. But when Claggart brings Billy in for questioning, Billy becomes so upset that he begins to stammer. He simply can't speak, and in a panic he strikes out with unintentional violence. His blow knocks Claggart to the floor, and he lies still. Kneeling over the fallen Master-at-Arms, Vere discovers that Claggart is dead. He sends Billy away and summons his officers. In a despairing monologue, he blames himself for the catastrophe. When the officers arrive, they quickly convene a court. Confronted with the charge of murder, Billy can only explain that his stammer prevented him from answering Claggart's false accusation: "I had to say it," he claims, "with a blow." Everyone knows that Billy did not mean to kill Claggart, but naval law is uncompromising. The penalty for striking and killing an officer is death by hanging. The officers are forced to condemn Billy. In the next scene, just before dawn, Billy accepts his fate, in a moving soliloquy set to some of the opera's most beautiful music. As it ends, he seems to see himself after death, saying, "I'm sleepy, and the oozy weeds about me twist." Dansker comes to Billy and tells him the men are on his side; he just has to say the word and the crew will mutiny and free him. Billy refuses. The ship's company then assembles on deck. Billy is brought in, and the First Lieutenant reads from the Articles of War, ending with the mandatory sentence of death. In his final farewell, Billy sings a blessing to Captain Vere. All the men, including the officers, echo his cry. On a mast, Billy is readied for hanging. At the moment of his death, the officers sense a rumbling among the sailors. It builds and builds, threatening to burst. Only Captain Vere remains motionless and silent. Finally, the officers force the men to disperse. The opera ends with a quiet epilogue. As in the opening prologue, we see Captain Vere as an old man. He acknowledges that he could have saved Billy, but chose not to. He claims he has found peace, but the music tells a different story. Dissonant chords overshadow his words, and the opera comes to a close with Vere sadly recalling his time, long ago, as commander of the Indomitable. Social sharing	Billy Budd
How many gallons of ale in a butt?	Billy Budd review at Glyndebourne Lewes \| Review \| Opera \| The Stage Billy Budd review at Glyndebourne Lewes Share Now Theatre director Michael Grandage makes his long-awaited operatic debut with a new production of Britten's unsettling 1951 masterpiece to open the Glyndebourne season. Christopher Oram's designs, making finely judged use of the stage of Sussex opera house, are outstanding, presenting the tension and claustrophobia aboard HMS Indomitable during the French Wars of 1797 with vivid authority. The action strikes forward into the auditorium to tremendous effect. With conductor Mark Elder leading the musical performance with an immaculate sense of balance and flow, all the words of E M Forster and Eric Crozier's libretto comes across, and the immense power and subtlety of Britten's score are wonderfully realised. Under Grandage's scrupulously observed direction, the characters and their interaction resonate and engage throughout a piece where a metaphysical sense of conflict between good and evil has a palpable presence amongst its political and sexual themes. A masterpiece of emotional ambiguity, Billy Budd here seizes the audience and grips throughout. The central performances are all remarkable. Jacques Imbrailo makes an important career step with his assumption of Billy. In imposing voice, he has the difficult task of presenting a character of natural goodness and entirely succeeds. As his eventual victim and nemesis, John Claggart, Phillip Ens emanates both evil and an almost terrifying sense of inner suffering. Not quite in his best voice on the first night, John Mark Ainsley nevertheless identifies the tight-buttoned rectitude of Captain Vere, inescapably caught between the two. The smaller roles are superbly done and the chorus magnificent. An exceptional evening. Production Information Glyndebourne, Lewes, May 20-June 27 Composer	i don't know
Name the year - Prince Charles marries Camilla Parker Bowles, Pope John Paul II dies and Liverpool beat AC Milan to win the European Cup?	Lyn Paul website: Lyn Paul then... 2005 The Paperboy The Return Of Freda Danby After appearing in Blood Brothers for more than seven years, Lyn Paul calls it quits on Saturday, 8th January. Linda Nolan returns as Mrs. Johnstone, but when she falls ill, Lyn comes back for a week to keep the show going. Friday, 25th February is National Doodle Day. Lyn Paul contributes a "doodle bug" which is auctioned on eBay in aid of two charities - Epilepsy Action and The Neurofibromatosis Association. Some of the other celebrities supporting National Doodle Day 2005 include: actor and author Maureen Lipman, who is the Patron of National Doodle Day, Hugh Grant, Kylie Minogue and Sir Cliff Richard. Don't dawdle, get doodling! Jan In the UK the Freedom Of Information Act comes into force on 1st January. Mahmoud Abbas, the Chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO), wins a landslide victory in the Palestinian presidential election held on 9th January. On 13th January The Sun newspaper publishes a picture on its front page of Prince Harry wearing a swastika armband at a fancy dress party. The Prince apologises for "any offence or embarrassment" caused by his "poor choice of costume." Sir Mark Thatcher, son of the former Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, makes an unscheduled appearance in the Cape High Court on 13th January. He pleads guilty to unwittingly aiding a plot to overthrow the President of Equatorial Guinea. He incurs a four-year suspended sentence and a fine of 3 million rand. The world's biggest passenger aircraft, the Airbus A380, is launched at a ceremony in Toulouse on 18th January. The plane successfully completes its maiden flight on 27th April. On 20th January George Bush is inaugurated for a second term as US President. Actress Patsy Rowlands, known for her appearances in the '70s sitcom Bless This House and nine of the Carry On films, dies on 22nd January, aged 71. The American TV presenter Johnny Carson, famous for hosting The Tonight Show, dies on 23rd January in Los Angeles, aged 79. Jim Capaldi, once the drummer with the group Traffic, dies on 28th January, aged 60. Elections for a new National Assembly are held in Iraq on 30th January. Feb Ariel Sharon, the Israeli Prime Minister, and Mahmoud Abbas, the new Palestinian President, call a halt to four-and-a-half years of conflict when they meet at Sharm el-Sheikh in Egypt on 8th February. Playwright Arthur Miller dies on 11th February, aged 89. Rafik Hariri, the former Prime Minister of Lebanon, is assassinated in a bomb attack in Beirut on Valentine's Day. Yusuf Islam is awarded "substantial damages" and receives apologies from The Sun and The Sunday Times, both of which had published articles alleging that he had supported terrorism. The Kyoto protocol - a series of measures requiring countries to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gasses - comes into force on Wednesday, 16th February. A hunting ban comes into force in England and Wales on Friday, 18th February, making it illegal to hunt foxes with dogs. After a week-long meeting of archbishops, the Anglican Church fails to resolve its dispute over homosexuality. A communiqué issued on 24th February requests that the Episcopal Church (USA) and the Anglican Church of Canada "voluntarily withdraw their members from the Anglican Consultative Council". Three British soldiers, each accused of abusing Iraqi prisoners, are given jail sentences and discharged from the army, following a 22-day court martial in Osnabruck, Germany. At least 115 people are killed in a suicide car-bomb attack on 28th February in Hillaj, south of Baghdad. Mar Giuliana Sgrena, an Italian journalist held hostage in Iraq, is wounded when US troops open fire on her car as she heads for Baghdad airport on 4th March. Nicola Calipari, a secret service agent travelling with her, is killed. Following protests, which had brought down the pro-Syrian government in Lebanon, Syrian troops begin a withdrawal from Beirut on 7th March. Comedian Dave Allen dies in London on Thursday, 10th March, aged 68. The Commission for Africa report is launched at the British Museum on 11th March, calling upon the world's wealthiest nations to double aid to Africa, remove trade barriers and help stamp out corruption. After almost thirty hours of parliamentary debate, the Prevention of Terrorism Bill is given Royal assent. MPs agree to review the controversial legislation in 12 months. On 17th March the five sisters and fiancée of Robert McCartney, a Belfast man murdered in an IRA shooting on 30th January, meet with the US President George Bush, who backs them in their campaign for justice. Monty Python's Spamalot opens on Broadway at the Shubert Theatre on the same day. The former British Prime Minister Lord Callaghan dies on 26th March, the eve of his 93rd birthday and only 11 days after the death of his wife, Audrey. On 28th March, little more than three months after the tsunami disaster, an earthquake shakes the coast of Indonesia. Apr Elections in Zimbabwe, claimed by the opposition to be fraudulent, give Robert Mugabe's Zanu-PF party a two-thirds majority. The result allows the President to change the constitution to install a successor without immediately calling elections. Pope John Paul II dies on 2nd April. The novelist Saul Bellow, who won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1976, dies on 5th April, aged 89. Prince Rainier III of Monaco, the world's second longest-reigning monarch, dies on 6th April, aged 81. Prince Charles and Camilla Parker Bowles postpone their wedding to avoid clashing with the Pope's funeral. They are married in a private civil ceremony at the Guildhall in Windsor on 9th April. Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip attend the blessing of the marriage, which is held shortly afterwards in St. George's Chapel, Windsor Castle. Following the break down of negotiations between MG Rover and a possible Chinese investor, Shanghai Automotive, the UK government provides a £6.5 million loan to stave off redundancies. When last-ditch efforts to save the company fail, the government pledges a further £150 million aid package. Kamel Bourgrass, an illegal immigrant from Algeria who had been previously tried and convicted of murdering DC Stephen Oake, is jailed for 17 years for masterminding a plot to release deadly poisons in the UK. Sales of music downloads are included in the UK singles chart for the first time on 17th April. Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger is elected Pope on 19th April. He takes the name Pope Benedict XVI. Sir John Mills, star of films such as Scott Of The Antarctic, Great Expectations and Ryan's Daughter, dies on 23rd April, aged 97. 71 people are killed on 25th April when a Japanese commuter train derails and crashes into an apartment block in Osaka. May Tony Blair leads the Labour Party to a third consecutive victory in the UK general election held on 5th May, despite winning only 35.2% of the votes cast and the support of just 21.6% of all those entitled to vote. After losing his seat David Trimble stands down as the leader of the Ulster Unionists. US sports tycoon Malcolm Glazer secures a controlling 75% stake in Manchester United. Uzbekistan troops crush an uprising in Andijan on Friday, 13th May. Kylie Minogue cancels the remaining dates on her Showgirl tour after being diagnosed with breast cancer. On 20th May The Sun newspaper publishes photographs of Saddam Hussein in prison wearing only his underwear. On 21st May Helena Paparizou wins the Eurovision Song Contest for Greece with the song My Number One. The UK entry, Touch My Fire by Javine, finishes in 22nd place. French voters reject the proposed European Union constitution in a referendum held on 29th May. Jun On 1st June voters in the Netherlands also vote against the European Union constitution. Anne Bancroft, best-known for her role as Mrs. Robinson in the film The Graduate, dies of cancer in New York on 6th June, aged 73. Sir Del and Sir Tel: actor David Jason and broadcaster Terry Wogan are awarded knighthoods in the Queen's birthday honours list. Dame Judi Dench is made a Companion of Honour. French journalist Florence Aubenas is released on Saturday, 11th June, after 157 days of captivity in Iraq. Her mother Jacqueline comments: "I thought I knew what the word happiness meant. It's much better than I thought." On Monday, 13th June Michael Jackson is found not guilty of all charges at the end of his four-month child abuse trial in Santa Maria, California. European leaders fail to reach agreement on the EU budget at a summit meeting in Brussels, which ends acrimoniously on 17th June. On 28th June Canada becomes the third country, after Belgium and the Netherlands, to legalise same-sex marriages. On 30th June Spanish MPs also approve a new law permitting same-sex marriages. 187 MPs vote in favour, with 147 against and four abstentions. Scottish MPs vote by 97 to 17, with one abstention, to introduce a ban on smoking in enclosed public spaces, commencing in March 2006. Jul On 1st July the UK takes over the Presidency of the European Union. Luther Vandross, the singer, songwriter and producer whose hits included the 1992 duet with Janet Jackson The Best Things In Life Are Free, dies on 1st July, aged 54. On 2nd July, prior to the G8 summit in Gleneagles, Live8 concerts are held in London's Hyde Park and at nine other locations around the world. The Hyde Park concert features Bono, Elton John, Paul McCartney, Madonna and the Scissor Sisters. In an open letter to the G8 leaders Bob Geldorf writes: "Twenty years ago at Live Aid we asked for charity. Today at Live8 we want justice for the poor." The International Olympic Committee announces on 6th June that the 2012 Olympic Games will be held in London. The celebrations are short-lived. On 7th June London is brought to a stand still by four suicide bomb attacks during the morning rush hour - three on the London Underground and one on a bus. A fortnight later, on 21st July, London's transport network is again disrupted by four similar bomb attacks. Sir Edward Heath, Prime Minister of the UK from 1970-74, dies on 17th July, a week after his 89th birthday. Long John Baldry, famous for his 1967 hit Let The Heartaches Begin, dies on 21st July, aged 64. Eugene Record, lead singer with the Chi-lites, dies on 22nd July, aged 64. The Egyptian Red Sea resort of Sharm el-Sheikh is rocked by bomb blasts on 23rd July. At least 20 people are injured on 28th July when a tornado hits Birmingham. In a statement released on 28th July, the IRA announces "an end to the armed campaign." On 29th July a black eighteen-year-old, Anthony Walker, is attacked with an axe while waiting at a bus stop in Liverpool with his white girlfriend and a cousin. He dies in hospital early the next morning. Fox Interactive Media buys MySpace for $580m. Aug King Fahd of Saudi Arabia dies on 1st August after 22 years on the throne. He is succeeded by his half-brother Crown Prince Abdullah. More than 1,000 people are reported dead, following heavy monsoon rains in Mumbai and the surrounding areas of western India. On 3rd August an Air France Airbus A340 crash-lands at Toronto airport. All 309 passengers and crew on board scramble to safety before the plane erupts in flames. Former Foreign Minister Robin Cook dies on 6th August, aged 59, while hill walking in Scotland. Barbara Bel Geddes, who found fame as Miss Ellie in the soap-opera Dallas, dies on 8th August, aged 82. The US space shuttle Discovery returns safely to earth on 9th August, landing at Edwards Air Force Base at 13.12 BST (5.12 PST). A Helios Boeing 737 (Flight ZU522) crashes into a mountainside north-east of Athens on Sunday, 14th August, killing all 121 passengers and crew on board. Former Northern Ireland Secretary Mo Mowlam dies on 19th August, aged 55. On 23rd August Israeli troops complete the forced eviction of Jewish settlers from Gaza. Hurricane Katrina hits New Orleans on 29th August. A. J. Holloway, the Mayor of Biloxi, comments: "This is our tsunami." On 31st August hundreds of Shia pilgrims are killed in northern Baghdad in a stampede sparked by rumours that there was a suicide bomber in the crowd. Sep Hosni Mubarak is re-elected in Egypt's first contested Presidential elections, held on Wednesday, 7th September. On 8th September the President of the Ukraine, Viktor Yushchenko, sacks his government. Faria Alam, the former Football Association secretary, who claimed that she was unfairly dismissed following her affair with the England Manager Sven Goran Eriksson, loses her employment tribunal claim for compensation. Thousands gather in Trafalgar Square on 13th September to celebrate the England cricket team's victory in the Ashes Test series. Two days later Marc Quinn's controversial statue of a disabled woman, Alison Lapper Pregnant, is unveiled in Trafalgar Square. Hurricane Rita sweeps into Texas and Louisiana on 24th September, though the storm is less destructive than had been anticipated. On 26th September the IRA announces that it has put its arms and explosives beyond use. This is confirmed by the Canadian decommissioning expert General John de Chastelain. Oct 26 people are killed on 1st October in three suicide bomb attacks at restaurants in the Bali resorts of Jimbaran and Kuta. Comedian Ronnie Barker dies on Monday, 3rd October, aged 76. His erstwhile comedy partner Ronnie Corbett pays tribute to him, saying: "Ronnie was pure gold in triplicate: as a performer, a writer and a friend." Mud slides and flooding caused by Hurricane Stan lay waste to large areas of Guatemala and neighbouring countries in Central America. Boy George is arrested at his home in New York's Little Italy on Friday, 7th October on suspicion of possessing cocaine. Kashmir is devastated by a an earthquake on Saturday, 8th October. 73,000 people are killed, millions are left homeless. On 10th October, three weeks after the inconclusive German general election held on 18th September, the Chancellor Gerhard Schröder finally concedes defeat to the Christian Democrats led by Angela Merkel. On 13th October up to 200 pro-Chechen fighters attack the Russian city of Nalchik. The deposed president of Iraq, Saddam Hussein, goes on trial on Wednesday, 19th October, charged with crimes against humanity. Hurricane Wilma, at one point the strongest hurricane ever recorded, strikes the Gulf coast of Mexico on 21st October. On 27th October rioting starts in the Parisian suburb of Clichy-sous-Bois. 59 people are killed and 210 injured in three bomb attacks in Delhi on Saturday, 29th October. Nov The UK's Work and Pensions Secretary, David Blunkett, who resigned as Home Secretary in December 2004, resigns again on 2nd November. The nightly rioting that begun in Paris on 27th October, spreads to other French cities on 4th November. Jersey Boys, a jukebox musical featuring the hits of the Four Seasons, opens at the August Wilson Theatre on Broadway on 6th November. The musical makes its West End debut at London's Prince Edward Theatre in February 2008. On 9th November UK MPs vote by 322 to 291 against a government proposal, which would have allowed the police to detain suspected terrorists for up to 90 days without charging them. Fifty-six people are killed on 9th November in three suicide bomb attacks on hotels in Amman, Jordan. Lord Lichfield, famous for his photographs of Royalty, celebrities and calendar models, dies on 11th November, aged 66, after suffering a stroke. Gary Glitter is arrested at Ho Chi Minh City airport on 19th November and held on suspicion of committing "lewd acts" with children. On 21st November the Israeli Prime Minister Ariel Sharon announces on television that he is quitting the right-wing Likud party to form a "new national liberal" party. Angela Merkel is elected as Germany's first woman Chancellor on 22nd November. The former Manchester United and Northern Ireland footballer George Best dies in London's Cromwell Hospital on 25th November, aged 59. At a press conference in London Take That announce that they are to reform (without Robbie Williams) for a tour of the UK and Ireland in April 2006. On Sunday, 27th November French surgeons carry out the world's first face transplant on a woman who had been savaged by a dog. Dr. John Sentamu, Britain's first black archbishop, is inaugurated as the Archbishop of York on 30th November. Dec On 6th December David Cameron wins the election to be leader of the UK Conservative Party. Comedian Richard Pryor dies of a heart attack on 10th December, aged 65. At 6.00am on 11th December explosions at the Buncefield fuel depot near Hemel Hempstead cause a massive fire, described by the chief fire officer for Hertfordshire, Roy Wilsher, as "the largest incident of its kind in peacetime Europe." 43 people are injured, two seriously. Parliamentary elections are held in Iraq on 15th December. On the same day a Henry Moore sculpture worth £3million is stolen from the grounds of the Henry Moore Foundation in Much Hadham, Hertfordshire. On Monday, 19th December the UK's first civil partnership ceremonies for gay and lesbian couples are held at Belfast City Hall. On Wednesday, 21st December Sir Elton John and his long-term partner David Furnish attend a civil partnership ceremony at Windsor Guildhall. Kerry Packer, the Australian media tycoon whose World Series changed the face of international cricket, dies on 26th December, aged 68. In the Charts I Bet You Look Good On The Dancefloor Audio Bullys featuring Nancy Sinatra Shot You Down Tony Christie featuring Peter Kay (Is This The Way To) Amarillo Charlotte Church Wake Me Up When September Ends Natalie Imbruglia [Eurovision Song Contest: UK entry] Elton John Electricity (from the musical Billy Elliot) Kaiser Chiefs I Predict A Riot / Sink That Ship The Killers All About You / You've Got A Friend McFly The Importance Of Being Idle Oasis Pussycat Dolls featuring Busta Rhymes Don't Cha Streets Of Love / Rough Justice Jessica Simpson These Boots Are Made For Walkin' Status Quo The Party Ain't Over Yet Stereophonics Black Horse And The Cherry Tree U2 Sometimes You Can't Make It On Your Own Shayne Ward When You Tell Me That You Love Me Robbie Williams You Could Have It So Much Better Goldfrapp The Dangermen Sessions, Volume One Madonna Confessions On A Dance Floor Paul McCartney Chaos And Creation In The Backyard Katie Melua Waiting For The Sirens' Call Oasis The Assassination Of Richard Nixon Batman Begins Charlie And The Chocolate Factory The Chronicles Of Narnia: The Lion, The Witch And The Wardrobe Closer Harry Potter And The Goblet Of Fire Hitch The Hitchhiker's Guide To The Galaxy Hotel Rwanda The League Of Gentlemen's Apocalypse The Magic Roundabout Melinda and Melinda (Woody Allen) Miss Congeniality 2: Armed and Fabulous Monster-In-Law Star Wars Episode III: Revenge of the Sith Tim Burton's Corpse Bride Wallace & Gromit: The Curse Of The Were-Rabbit War Of The Worlds The Bigger Picture with Graham Norton Bleak House Dick and Dom's Ask The Family Doctor Who 8 Out Of 10 Cats Extras I'm A Celebrity - Get Me Out Of Here (Series 5) Jamie's School Dinners The National Lottery: Come And Have A Go (Julian Clary) OFI Sunday Strictly Come Dancing (Series 3) Strictly Dance Fever To The Ends Of The Earth The Two Ronnies Sketchbook Andrew Flintoff Darts: Phil Taylor wins the Professional Darts Corporation World Championship for the 12th time. Raymond van Barneveld wins the British Darts Organisation World Championship for the fourth time with a 6-2 victory over Martin Adams. Tennis: the centenary of the Australian Open is celebrated with victories for Serena Williams in the women's singles (a three sets winner over Lindsay Davenport) and for Marat Safin in the men's singles (a winner in four sets against Lleyton Hewitt). Justine Henin-Hardenne wins the women's singles title at the French Open for the second time, defeating Mary Pierce 6-1, 6-1 in the final. Rafael Nadal wins the men's singles title, defeating Mariano Puerta in the final (6-7. 6-3, 6-1, 7-5). The women's singles final at Wimbledon is a repeat of the 2000 final, with Venus Williams once again beating Lindsay Davenport. Williams comes back from match point down in the second set to win 4-6. 7-6, 9-7. The men's singles final is a repeat of the 2004 final. Victory again goes to Roger Federer, who beats Andy Roddick 6-2, 7-6, 6-4. Roddick is knocked out in the first round at the US Open, along with the defending women's singles champion Svetlana Kuznetsova. Victory goes to Kim Clijsters, who secures her first Grand Slam singles title with a straight sets win over Mary Pierce (6-3, 6-1). Roger Federer retains his men's singles title, beating Andre Agassi in the final in four sets (6-3, 2-6, 7-6, 6-1). Sailing: Ellen MacArthur sets a new world record for sailing solo around the world, completing her non-stop voyage in 71 days, 14 hours, 18 minutes and 33 seconds. Snooker: Ronnie O'Sullivan wins the UK Masters, defeating John Higgins 10-3 in the final. At the World Snooker Championship O'Sullivan loses in the quarter-finals. He is succeeded as World champion by 22-year-old Shaun Murphy, who beats Matthew Stevens 18-16 in the final. At the UK Championship in December snooker veteran Steve Davis is beaten 10-6 in the final by the rising star of the game, 18-year-old Ding Junhui. Rugby: Wales win the Six Nations championship, completing the team's first grand slam since 1978 with a 32-20 victory over Ireland. Horse Racing: the Grand National is won by the 7/1 favourite Hedgehunter, ridden by Ruby Walsh. Motivator, the 3/1 favourite, wins the Derby. Scorpion, ridden by Frankie Dettori, wins the St. Leger Stakes. Best Mate, three times a winner of the Cheltenham Gold Cup, dies of a heart attack on his return to racing at Exeter on 1st November. Golf: Tiger Woods wins the US Masters for the fourth time and The Open (St. Andrews) for the second time. Michael Campbell wins the US Open. Phil Mickelson wins the USPGA at Baltusrol. Athletics: Paula Radcliffe wins the London Marathon women's race for the third time, despite having to make an unscheduled toilet break five miles from the end. Martin Lel wins the men's race. Radcliffe also wins the women's marathon at the World Championships in Helsinki. Football: Chelsea win the Premiership title with three matches to spare. Arsenal win the FA Cup final, beating Manchester United 5-4 in a penalty shoot out. Roy Keane quits the club in November and on 15th December signs for Celtic. Liverpool beat AC Milan 3-2 on penalties after a 3-3 draw in the final of the European Champions League. UEFA changes its rules to allow Liverpool the chance of defending the title in the 2005-06 competition. Boxing: former world heavyweight champion Mike Tyson retires after losing a fight at the MCI Center in Washington to Irish boxer Kevin McBride. Motor racing (Formula 1): the US Grand Prix turns into a six-car farce when the seven teams using Michelin tyres withdraw from the race on safety grounds. Michael Schumacher scores a hollow victory, with Ferrari team-mate Rubens Barrichello in second place. At the Brazilian Grand Prix, on 25th September, the Renault driver Fernando Alonso becomes the youngest-ever Formula 1 World Drivers' Champion with a third-place finish behind the McLaren drivers Juan Pablo Montoya and Kimi Raikkonen. Alonso completes the season in style with victory in the China Grand Prix on 16th October. His win secures the constructors' championship for Renault. Motorcycling: Valentino Rossi wins the MotoGP Championship for the fifth year in a row. Cycling: Lance Armstrong retires after winning the Tour de France for the seventh successive year. After winning, he says: "This is a hard sporting event and hard work wins it. Vive Le Tour forever." Cricket: the England team wins the Summer Test series against Australia, re-gaining the Ashes after 16 years. Page-turners	two thousand and five
Which art movement was formed in 1905 in Dresden by Ernst Kirchner and Erich Heckel amongst others?	England Events in History - BrainyHistory Years England Events in History 2015 Event - The remains of Richard III, King of England from 1483 to 1485, are escorted in a royal funeral procession; the remains were discovered in Leicester in 2012 and will be reburied at the Leicester Cathedral 2015 Event - The New England Patriots win their fourth Super Bowl title, beating the Seattle Seahawks 28-24; Patriots quarterback Tom Brady is named MVP and is now one of only three quarterbacks to have won three Super Bowls 2015 Event - A powerful blizzard covers Boston and nearby New England areas with over two feet of snow under winds that reach over 70 miles per hour; New York City had expected the same weather effects but was spared 2014 Event - The Church of England announces that it has changed its rules to allow female bishops; the church has allowed female priests for the last 20 years but has not allowed women to serve in higher positions until now 2013 Event - A vote by the General Synod of the Church of England approves legislation allowing women bishops to be ordained by 2014 2013 Event - The upper house of the U.K. approves of the Marriage (Same Sex Couples) Bill; starting in 2014, gay marriage will be allowed in England and Wales 2013 Event - In England, a man is arrested for charges related to the attack on 'The Hay Wain' painting, completed by artist John Constable in 1821; the work is considered one of England's greatest and most popular paintings 2013 Event - In the House of Commons, MP's approve of the Marriage (Same Sex Couples) Bill, advancing the right for gay marriage in England and Wales 2013 Event - Mervyn King, Governor of the Bank of England announces that the 5 pound bank note, to be circulated in 2016, will feature Winston Churchill 2013 Event - Scientists in Spain publish a study in the 'New England Journal of Medicine' that claims a Mediterranean diets, high in olive oil, nuts, fish and fresh fruits, reduce the risk of heart disease 2013 Event - At a University of Leicester media conference, it is announced that during a 2012 archeological dig in Leicester, the skeleton they unearthed is confirmed to be the remains of King Richard III of England 2012 Event - Heavy rain and high winds across England and Wales kill two people and flood 800 homes 2012 Event - In Surrey, England, a message found on the leg of a pigeon from WWII stumps GCHQ code-breakers, who say the message hidden in the code may never be revealed 2012 Event - Europe's tallest, habitable, free-standing structure, The Shard, which stands at 1,016 feet (309.6 metres) officially opens in London, England 2012 Event - In England, lawmakers ban the display of tobacco products, hoping the move will lead to a reduction in the number of youths who smoke 2012 Event - A power blackout in Northern England causes as many as 50,000 homes to have a power blackout after heavy winds, snow and ice bring down electricity cables 2012 Event - An amateur astronomer in Peterborough, England, discovers a new, Neptune-sized exoplanet 2011 Event - In a bid to attract international sponsorship, England's Newcastle United F.C. rebrands the St. James' Park stadium as the Sports Direct Arena 2011 Event - The Bank of England pumps an additional 75 billion pounds into the British economy via quantitative easing 2011 Event - P. J. Harvey's album 'Let England Shake' wins best album in the United Kingdom and Ireland 2011 Event - New England's state of Vermont experiences the worst flooding in 100 years 2011 Event - In England, two men who created a Facebook site to incite violence during the riots are sentenced to four years imprisonment 2011 Event - Riots in England continue; Prime Minister David Cameron hires U.S. law enforcement officer Bill Bratton to advise on dealing with gang-related violence 2011 Event - Queen Elizabeth II's granddaughter, Zara Phillips marries Mike Tindall, an England rugby union international 2011 Event - In England, the guest list for the wedding of Prince William and Kate Middleton is released 2011 Event - In London, England, international leaders take part in a conference focused on military action and the future of Libya 2011 Event - In London, England, hundreds of thousands march in Trafalgar Square to protest government budget cuts 2011 Event - A large, rare, Andy Warhol self-portrait in red and white sells for $10.79 million pounds at Christie's auction house in London, England 2011 Event - In one of the biggest upsets in NFL history, the New York Jets defeat the New England Patriots 2010 Event - University students in England and Wales protest the government's plan to increase tuition fees and make higher education funding cuts 2010 Event - A U.S. federal investigation results in 47 foreign-born gang members arrested in New England, half are arrested in the state of Maine 2009 Death - Kelly Groucutt, bass player, Electronic Light Orchestra, ELO, musician, pop, rock, rock and roll genres, dies in Worcester, England, at age 63 2008 Death - Paul Scofield, dies in England, of leukemia, at 86 2007 Death - Deborah Kerr, dies in England, at 86 2006 Death - Jack Wild, actor, theater, stage, Academy Award nominee at age 16 for role of Artful Dodger in film production of 'Oliver!', favorite subject, teen magazines, dies of cancer, in Tebworth, England, at age 53 2005 Death - Fay Godwin, British photographer, noted for black-and-white landscapes of British coast and countryside, took portraits of literary figures, Saul Bellow, Salman Rushdie, Anthony Powell, dies at age 74, in Hastings, England 2005 Event - Super Bowl XXXIX, the New England Patriots win 24-21 over the Philadelphia Eagles 2004 Event - Super Bowl XXXVIII, Reliant Stadium, Houston, New England Patriots beat Carolina Panthers 32-29 2002 Death - Princess Margaret of England, royalty, dies at 71 2002 Event - Super Bowl XXXVI, Louisiana Superdome, New Orleans, New England Patriots beat St. Louis Rams 20-17 2000 Death - Brian Statham, cricketer, 20th century's leading fast bowler, inducted into ICC Cricket Hall of Fame, 2009, dies in Stockport, England, of leukemia, at age 69 1998 Event - New England Patriot David Meggett arrested in Toronto on sex assault charges 1997 Death - Jeffrey Bernard, journalist, wrote column, 'Low Life', for The Spectator magazine, dies in Soho, England, after refusing dialysis treatment 1997 Event - Bob Dylan hospitalized in England with histoplasmosis 1997 Event - Diane Blood, 32, in England, won right to use her dead husbands sperm 1997 Death - Bohumil Hrabal, Czechoslovakian writer, storyteller, wrote hyper-realist texts, studied at Charles Univerisity in Prague, known for novels titled Closely Watched Trains and I Served the King of England, dies at 82 1997 Event - Super Bowl XXXI, Louisiana Superdome, New Orleans, Green Bay Packers beat New England Patriots 35-21 1997 Event - Eddo Brandes takes ODI hat-trick vs. England at Harare 1997 Event - Zimbabwe clean-sweep ODI series vs. England 3-0 1996 Event - Zimbabwe and England draw Bulawayo Test Cricket with England need 1 to win 1996 Event - Start of 1st Test Cricket match between Zimbabwe and England 1996 Event - Mashonaland defeat England in first-class tour match 1996 Event - Jayasuriya hammers 82 off 44 balls (13x4 3x6) vs. England in WC QF 1996 Death - Cyril Poole, cricket (Notts 1946-62, England 1951-52 in 3 Tests), dies 1995 Event - Rosemary West, found guilty in England, of killing 10 women 1995 Event - Meyrick Pringle takes cricket hat-trick in England tour game at Soweto 1995 Death - Roye England, modeller/museum curator, dies at 88 1995 Event - Dominic Cork takes hat-trick in England Test Cricket win vs. WI 1995 Death - Harold Larwood, cricket (98 wkts bowling for England 1926-34), dies at 91 1995 Event - Deputy Governor of Bank of England, Rupert Pennant-Rea, resigns following revelations of his affair with a freelance journalist 1995 Event - Greg Blewett scores century on Test debut vs England, Adelaide 1994 Event - Shane Warne takes a hat-trick vs. England at cricket MCG 1994 Death - Warwick Hutton, illustrator, artist, author, created illustrations for children's books, worked with texts by Hans Christian Andersen, dies at 55 of cancer in Cambridge, England 1994 Death - Roy Castle, singer, musician, jazz trumpet player, television celebrity, starred in BBC's 'The Roy Castle Show', dies at age 62 in Buckinghamshire, England 1994 Death - Shepherd Mead, London England, dies of stroke at 80 1994 Event - Chunnel linking England and France officially opens 1994 Event - Brian Lara scores 375 for WI vs England to beat Sobers' record 1994 Event - England Cricket all out for 46 at Port-of-Spain 1994 Event - Lara scores 167 for WI vs. England at Georgetown 1994 Event - Church of England ordains 1st 33 women priests 1994 Death - Derek Jarman, English director (Last of England), dies at 52 1993 Event - Storm hits West Europe, 11 killed in England 1993 Event - 30th Ryder Cup: U.S. beats Europe, 15-13 at The Belfry, England 1993 Event - Croupier of casino in Bristol England, shoots a 4, a record 8 times 1993 Death - Ken England, U.S. screenwriter (Good Girls Go to Paris), dies at 82 1993 Event - Graham Thorpe scores 114 on Test Cricket debut, England vs. Australia 1993 Event - Boon completes 15th Test cricket century, 164* vs. England at Lord's 1993 Event - Toru Takemitsu's "Archipelago" premieres in Aldeburgh England 1993 Event - Robin Smith scores 167 in England Texaco Trophy loss vs. Australia 1993 Event - IRA-bomb kills 3 year old in Warrington England 1993 Event - Sri Lanka beat England in Test match by 5 wickets 1993 Event - India complete a 3-0 series drubbing of England 1993 Event - Vinod Kambli scores 224 vs. England at Bombay, 411 balls, 23 fours 1993 Death - Leslie Townsend, cricket all-rounder (England in 4 Tests 1930-34), dies 1992 Event - Anglican Church and Church of England OK female priests 1992 Event - England get 7-363 in 55 overs vs Pakistan, then world ODI record 1992 Death - Patrick A Devlin, England, judge/lead house of Lords, dies 1992 Event - England honors her dead soldiers in the Falkland Is war 1992 Event - John Majors, (C) elected Prime Minister of England 1992 Event - Pakistan defeats England by 22 runs to win World Cup 1992 Event - England beat South Africa in rain-ruined cricket World Cup semi final 1992 Event - Zimbabwe beat England by 9 runs in World Cup at Albury 1991 Event - Test Cricket debut of Mike Whitney versus England at Old Trafford 1991 Event - 29th Tennis Fed Cup: Spain beats USA in Nottingham England (2-1) 1991 Event - Lisa Olson brings suit against NFL New England Patriots for sexual harassment 1991 Event - Craig McDermott takes 8-97 vs. England at the WACA 1991 Event - Boon completes ninth Test century, 121 vs. England at Adelaide 1991 Event - Mark Waugh scores ton in 1st Test Cricket innings, vs. England Adelaide 1990 Event - England and France complete Chunnel 1990 Event - US, England, France, U.S.S.R., East and West Germanys sign agreements allowing 2 Germanys to merge 1990 Event - Italy beats England in soccer's World Cup consolation game 1990 Event - Curtly Ambrose takes 8-45 in cricket vs England at Bridgetown 1990 Event - U.S., England, France and England give Germany OK to reunify 1989 Event - 28th Ryder Cup: U.S. and Europe draw, 14-14 at The Belfry, England 1989 Event - Geoff Marsh and Mark Taylor complete 329 opening stand vs. England 1989 Event - Australia take 3-0 series lead over England to regain Cricket Ashes 1989 Birthday - Daniel Radcliffe, born in Hammersmith, England, actor, famous for playing role of Harry Potter in film series, 'Harry Potter' 1989 Event - 96 crushed to death at Sheffield Soccer Stadium in England 1989 Event - 1,000 muslims burn Rushdies' "Satanic Verses" in Bradfort England 1989 Event - Boeing 737-400 crashes in England, 46 die 1988 Event - Malcolm Marshall takes 7-22 at Old Trafford, England all out 93 1988 Event - Aluminum contaminates Cornish England's water supply 1988 Event - Mark Greatbatch scores 107* vs. England on Test Cricket debut 1988 Event - David Boon's 6th Test Cricket century, 184* vs. England at Sydney 1987 Event - Digging begins to link England and France under English Channel 1987 Event - Young man survives 7 attempts at suicide in Somerset England 1987 Event - Abdul Qadir takes 9-56 against England at Lahore 1987 Event - Australia beat England by 7 runs to win cricket World Cup 1987 Event - 175-kph winds cause blackout in London, much of southern England 1987 Event - Los Angeles Rams beat Dallas Cowboys 28-27 in London, England (NFL expo) 1987 Event - Pakistan all out 708 vs. England at The Oval, Botham 3-217 1987 Event - Javed Miandad scores 260 vs. England at The Oval, 28 fours 1 six 1987 Event - Chicago Bears beat Dallas Cowboys 17-6 in London, England (NFL expo) 1987 Event - Pakistan score their 1st innings win over England, at Leeds 1987 Birthday - Joss Stone, born in Dover, England, singer, actress, multi-platinum album, 'The Soul Sessions', top ten hit song, 'You Had Me', sold over 10 million albums worldwide 1987 Death - Gerald Moore, England, pianist (Am I Too Loud), dies at 87 1987 Event - England beat Australia 2-0 to win the World Series Cup 1986 Event - Mrs Davina Thompson makse medical history by having the 1st heart, lung and liver transplant (Papworth Hospital in Cambridge, England) 1986 Event - David Boon's fourth Test century, 103 vs. England at Adelaide 1986 Event - West Indies complete 5-0 demolition of England 1986 Event - Viv Richards century off 56 balls vs. England in Antigua Test Cricket 1986 Event - Superbowl XX: Chicago Bears beat New England Patriots, 46-10 in New Orleans Superbowl MVP: Richard Dent, Chicago, DE 1985 Event - 26th Ryder Cup: Europe beat U.S., 16 -11 at The Belfry, England 1985 Event - Race riot in Birmingham England 1985 Event - England regain Cricket Ashes by beating Australia at The Oval 1985 Event - Nicholas Mark Sanders (England) begins circumnavigation of globe, covering 13,035 road miles in 78 days, 3 hours, 30 minutes 1985 Event - Soccer stadium in Bradford England catches fire; 53 die 1985 Birthday - Keira Knightley, born in Teddington, England, actress, films include, 'Pride and Prejudice', 'Atonement', Pirates of the Caribbean' triology, made $32 million in 2007 1985 Event - National Union of Mine Workers in England end a 51 week strike 1985 Event - 1st day/night game at the MCG, Australia vs. England 1985 Event - Azharuddin scores second Test century in second Test (v England) 1985 Death - Don Brennan, cricket wicketkeeper (England in 2 Tests 1951), dies 1984 Event - Test Cricket debut of Mohammad Azharuddin, vs. England at Calcutta 1984 Event - West Indies complete 5-0 series annihilation of England 1984 Birthday - Gareth Gates, born in Bradford, England, singer finalist on show, 'Pop Idol', sold over 3.5 million records; hit song, 'Unchained Melody', voted 'The Record of the Year' in 2002 1984 Event - England's MusicBox begins satellite transmission to Europe 1984 Event - Viv Richards hits 189* (170 balls) vs. England, ODI cricket record 1984 Event - National Union of Mine Workers in England begin a 51 week strike 1984 Event - New Zealand beat England (82 and 93) by an innings in 3 days 1984 Death - Ravindara Mhatrem, Indian diplomat, killed in England 1984 Event - Ravindara Mhatrem, Indian diplomat, kidnapped in England (killed 0203) 1983 Event - World's greatest robbery 25,000,000 pounds of gold, Heathrow, England 1983 Event - 1st cruise missile placed, Greenham Common, England 1983 Event - Minnesota Vikings beat St. Louis Cardinals 28-10 in London, England (NFL expo) 1983 Event - New Zealand score their 1st Test Cricket match victory in England 1983 Event - Anti-nuke demonstrators link arms in 14-mile human chain in England 1983 Event - Australia regain the Ashes with a 2-1 series win vs. England 1982 Event - England defeat Australia by three runs at cricket MCG 1982 Death - Anthony C B Chapman, England, formula 1 racer, dies at 54 1982 Event - Kepler Wessels scores century in 1st Test Cricket (162 vs. England) 1982 Death - Dorothy [Little-]Round, England, tennis star (Never on Sunday), dies 1982 Event - English ship Mary Rose, which sank during an engagement with France in 1545, raised at Portsmouth, England 1982 Birthday - Billie Piper, born in Swindon, England, singer, actress, pop singer, appeared as Rose Tyler in television series, 'Doctor Who' 1982 Death - Max Winders Maximilien, brought Belgium gold reserve to England, dies 1982 Death - Clifford M Curzon, England, pianist, dies at 75 1982 Event - Botham scores 208 in 225 balls, England vs. India at The Oval 1982 Death - Richard A Butler, England, Minister of Finance, dies at 79 1982 Event - Commencement of Sri Lanka's 1st Test Cricket match, vs. England 1982 Death - Ben Nicholson, England, painter/sculptor (Circle), dies at 87 1982 Event - John Sharples of England finishes disco dancing 371 hours 1982 Event - 5.9 earthquake in New England and Canada; 1st since 1855 1981 Event - 24th Ryder Cup: U.S., 18 -9 at Walton Heath GC, England 1981 Event - Dirk Wellham scores 103 on Test Cricket debut, vs. England at Lord's 1981 Event - Prince Charles of England weds Lady Diane Spencer 1981 Event - England set for innings loss vs. Australia, Botham hits 100 in 87 balls 1981 Event - Test cricket debut of Terry Alderman, vs. England at Trent Bridge 1981 Event - Sebastian Coe of England sets 800m record (1:41.73) in Florence 1981 Event - George Harrison releases "Somewhere in England" 1980 Death - Jim Parks Sr, Kent cricket all-rounder (only Test for England), dies 1980 Event - John Arlott calls his last game, England vs. Australia at Lord's 1980 Event - Michael Bracey ends 59 h 55 m trapped in an elevator, England 1980 Event - West Indies beat England 2-0 to win 1st World Series Cup 1979 Birthday - Michael Owen, born in Chester, England, professional soccer player, striker, plays for Manchester United 1979 Birthday - Kelly Brook, born in Rochester, England, model, actress, appeared in 'Strictly Come Dancing' celebrity dance competition, appeared in film, 'Sorted' 1979 Death - Bill Farrimond, England cricket wicketkeeper (4 Tests 1930-35), dies 1979 Event - India need 438 to win vs. England, game ends at 8-429 1979 Death - E J "Tiger" Smith, England cricket wicket-keeper 1911 - 1914, dies 1979 Event - David Gower 200* in England score of 5-633 vs. India at Edgbaston 1979 Death - Doug Meintjes, South Africa cricket pace bowler (v England 1922-23), dies 1979 Event - West Indies beat England by 92 runs to win Cricket World Cup 1979 Event - Canada all out 45 in Cricket World Cup vs. England, in 40 3 overs 1979 Event - 200th running of horse's Derby in England 1979 Birthday - Jonny Wilkinson, born in Frimley, England, professional rugby union player, member of the England national team, considered one of the world's best rugby players 1979 Death - C I J Smith, cricket all-rounder (5 Tests for England 1935-37), dies 1978 Event - Test Cricket debut of Allan Robert Border, vs. England at the MCG 1978 Event - Test Cricket debut of Rodney Hogg, vs. England at the Gabba 1978 Birthday - Louise Joy Brown, born in Oldham, England, world's 1st "test tube baby" 1978 Birthday - Katie Price, born in Brighton, England, Jordan, model, businesswoman, television personality, tabloid, celebrity magazine subject, topless model, appeared on 'I'm a Celebrity... Get Me Out of Here!' show 1978 Event - 118 Unification church couples wed in England 1978 Death - George Paine, lefty cricket spinner (for England in WI 1935), dies 1978 Event - England all out 64 for 1st loss to New Zealand in cricket (Boycott captain) 1978 Event - Snowstorm hits New England, parts of RI (54" (137cm)) 1978 Event - Geoff Boycott captains England for the 1st time, vs. Pak Karachi 1977 Event - Test Cricket debut of Abdul Qadir, vs. England at Lahore 1977 Death - Reg Perks, England cricket pace bowler (1938-39), dies 1977 Event - 22nd Ryder Cup: U.S., 12 -13 at Royal Lytham and St. Annes England 1977 Death - Leopold Stokowski, symphonic conductors, dies in England, at 95 1977 Event - England regain cricket Ashes by taking a 3-0 series lead over Australia 1977 Birthday - Tom Brady, born in San Mateo, California, professional football player, quarterback, played for New England Patriots, won two Super Bowl MVP awards 1977 Event - Dennis Lillee takes 6-26, England all out 95 in Centenary Test 1977 Birthday - Chris Martin, born in Exeter, England, singer, songwriter, musician, member and lead vocalist of Coldplay band, married to Gwyneth Paltrow 1977 Event - Heavy blizzard in New England claims 100 lives 1977 Birthday - Orlando Bloom, born in Canterbury, England, actor, appeared in 'The Lord of the Rings', 'Pirates of the Caribbean', 'Kingdom of Heaven' films 1976 Birthday - Edward Ellis, tackle for the New England Patriots 1976 Event - England all out for 71 vs. WI at Old Trafford, Holding 14 5-7-17-5 1976 Event - Harold Wilson resigns as James Callaghan becomes Prime Minister of England 1976 Birthday - Chris Canty, cornerback for the New England Patriots 1976 Death - Harry Elliott, England cricket wicketkeeper (3 Tests 1927-34), dies 1976 Birthday - Emma Bunton, born in Barnet, England, singer, songwriter, member of Spice Girls girl band, which sold over 35 million albums, nicknamed, 'Baby Spice' 1975 Birthday - Jacques Kallis, cricketer, South African Test all-rounder vs. England 1995 1975 Birthday - Kate Winslet, born in Reading, England, actress, Titanic, Jude, Hamlet, Get Back 1975 Event - Veronica and Colin Scargill (England) complete tandem bicycle ride, a record 18,020 miles around the world 1975 Event - Viv Richards out for 291 vs. England at Cricket Oval 1975 Birthday - Mathew Gates, born in Baldock, England, dance skater, & Chalom-1995 Nat, Jr. champ 1975 Birthday - Brandon Mitchell, defensive end for the New England Patriots 1975 Event - Gary Gilmour takes 6-14 in Cricket World Cup semi vs. England 1975 Birthday - Jamie Oliver, born in Clavering, England, known as 'The Naked Chef', check, media personality, television series include, 'Jamie's Ministry of Food' 1975 Birthday - Atta-ur-Rehman, cricketer, Pakistani quickie, debut vs. England, age 17 1975 Event - Dog spectacles patented in England 1975 Birthday - Chris Silverwood, cricketer, England Test pace bowler vs. Zimbabwe 1996 1975 Birthday - Damon Denson, guard for the New England Patriots 1975 Event - Fastest Earth-bound object, 7200 kph, in vacuum centrifuge, England 1975 Event - Australia beat England by 171 runs in 4th Test to regain Ashes 1974 Event - Zaheer Abbas scores 240 Pakistan vs. England at The Cricket Oval 1974 Event - India's 1st one-day international (v England, Headingley) 1974 Birthday - Vernon Crawford, linebacker for the New England Patriots 1974 Event - Lawrence Rowe completes 302 vs. England Bridgetown, 36 fours 1 six 1974 Birthday - Matt Lucas, born in Paddington, England, comedian, actor, known for 'Little Britain' television show 1974 Event - Veronica and Colin Scargill (England) begin tandem bicycle ride a record 18,020 miles around the world, completed on August 27, 1975 1974 Birthday - Ty Law, NFL cornerback for the New England Patriots 1974 Birthday - Glen Chapple, cricketer, Lancashire and England A pace bowler 1974 Birthday - Kate Moss, Addiscomb Surrey England, model, Calvin Klein 1974 Event - England begins 3 day work week during mine strike 1973 Death - Robert A Watson-Watt, England, physicist (radar), dies at 81 1973 Death - John Rostill, born in Kings Norton, England, composer, bass guitarist, member, The Shadows, The Internst, rock and roll, pop genres, dies at 31 in Radlett, Hertfordshire 1973 Birthday - Scott Rehberg, tackle for the New England Patriots 1973 Birthday - Sedrick Shaw, running back for the New England Patriots 1973 Birthday - Caroline Hall, Bristol England, golfer, Curtis Cup 1992 1973 Birthday - Lawyer Milloy, strong safety for the New England Patriots 1973 Birthday - Rupert Grant, NFL fullback for the New England Patriots 1973 Birthday - Devin Wyman, defensive tackle for the New England Patriots 1973 Birthday - Eddie Cade, NFL full safety for the New England Patriots 1973 Event - Frank Hayes scores 106 on Test Cricket debut vs. WI as England lose 1973 Birthday - Kate Beckinsale, born in London, England, actress, films include, 'Pearl Harbor', 'Nothing But the Truth', 'Underworld', 'Serendipity' 1973 Birthday - Stephen Clarke, born in Sutton Coldfield, England, Canada swimmer, 1992, 1996 Olympics Bronze 1973 Birthday - Heath Irwin, guard for the New England Patriots 1973 Birthday - Tedy Bruschi, linebacker for the New England Patriots 1973 Event - 1st WHA championship, New England Whalers beat Win Jets, 4 games to 1 1973 Birthday - Curtis Martin, NFL running back for the New England Patriots 1973 Birthday - Lee Westwood, born in Workshop, England, professional golfer, top 10 in the Official World Golf Rankings between 1998 - 2001 1973 Birthday - Dave Wohlabaugh, corner for the New England Patriots 1973 Death - Arthur Wood, cricket wicket-keeper (England 1938-39), dies 1973 Birthday - Jane March, born in Edgeware, England, actress, Lover 1973 Birthday - Chris Sullivan, defensive end for the New England Patriots 1972 Birthday - Jude Law, born in Lewisham, England, actor, producer, director, Academy Award nominee for movie 'Cold Mountain' 1972 Birthday - Adam Vinatieri, WLAF punter/kicker, Amsterdam Admirals, New England Patriots 1972 Birthday - Derrick Cullors, running back for the New England Patriots 1972 Event - England beat India by six wickets in the 1st Test Cricket at Delhi 1972 Event - Chandrasekhar takes 8-79 India vs. England at Delhi 1972 Birthday - Ted Johnson, NFL inside linebacker for the New England Patriots 1972 Birthday - Sandrine Holt, born in London, England, actress, model, appeared in '24' as Evelyn Martin and 'The L Word' television series 1972 Birthday - Thandie Newton, born in London, England, actress, appeared in films, 'The Pursuit of Happyness', 'Mission Impossible II', 'The Chronicles of Riddick' 1972 Birthday - Malachy Loye, cricketer, Northamptonshire and England "A" batsman 1972 Birthday - Geri Halliwell, born in Watford, England, author, philanthropist, known as 'Ginger Spice' from band, the Spice Girls, representative for the United Nations Population Fund 1972 Birthday - Jay Barker, NFL quarterback for the New England Patriots 1972 Birthday - Bruce Walker, NFL nose tackle for the New England Patriots 1972 Death - Vincent Valentine, WI cricket pace bowler (England 1933), dies 1972 Birthday - Larry Whigham, NFL safety for the New England Patriots 1972 Birthday - Paras Mhambrey, Indian cricket pace bowler, Test vs. England 1996 1972 Birthday - Emma Ridley, Hanpstead, England, actress, Return to Oz 1972 Birthday - Josh Taves, defensive end for the New England Patriots 1972 Birthday - Kendricke Bullard, NFL wide receiver for the New England Patriots 1972 Birthday - Dave Wohlabaugh, NFL center and guard for the New England Patriots 1972 Birthday - Dietrich Jells, wide receiver for the New England Patriots 1972 Birthday - Ted Johnson, linebacker for the New England Patriots 1972 Birthday - Lovett Purnell, wide receiver for the New England Patriots 1972 Birthday - Chad Eaton, defensive tackle for the New England Patriots 1972 Birthday - Drew Bledsoe, NFL quarterback for the New England Patriots 1972 Birthday - Alcides Catanho, NFL outside linebacker for the New England Patriots 1971 Birthday - Mark Lathwell, cricketer, England opening batsman vs. Australia 1993 1971 Birthday - Dido Armstrong, born in London, England, known as 'Dido', singer, songwriter, album, 'No Angel' sold over 16 million copies worldwide, 'Life for Rent' sold over 12 million copies 1971 Birthday - Willie McGinest, NFL outside linebacker for the New England Patriots 1971 Birthday - Marrio Grier, fullback for the New England Patriots 1971 Birthday - Heath Te-Ihi-O-Te-Rangy Davis, cricket bowler, New Zealand open vs. England 1994 1971 Birthday - Anthony Whiteman, England, 800m/1500m runner 1971 Birthday - Jimmy Hitchcock, NFL cornerback for the New England Patriots 1971 Event - England becomes 6th nation to have a satellite (Prospero) in orbit 1971 Birthday - Ronnie Irani, cricketer, Essex all-rounder, England 1996 1971 Birthday - Natalie Jay, Hendon England, actress, Baywatch 1971 Birthday - Chesney Lee Haskes, England, singer, Feels So Alive 1971 Birthday - Stella McCartney, born in London, England, fashion designer, daughter of Sir Paul McCartney and Linda McCartney, designed clothing lines for the Gap, H&M, Target 1971 Birthday - John Burke, NFL tight end for the New England Patriots 1971 Event - India beat England by 4 wickets, their win against the Poms 1971 Birthday - David Walliams, born in Surrey, England, actor, appeared on 'Little Britain', 'Neighbours', 'Capturing Mary', television shows 1971 Birthday - Paul Newlove, born in Pontrefract, England, professional rugby league soccer player, played in the 1980s, 1990s and 2000s 1971 Birthday - Dominic Cork, cricketer, England all-rounder Hat-trick vs. WI 1995 1971 Birthday - Jayne Fenner, born in Four Marks, England, U.S. sailing 1992 Olympics 1971 Birthday - Charlotte Gainsbourg, born in London, England, actress, Little Thief 1971 Birthday - Ed Giddins, cricketer, promising Sussex pace bowler, England A 1995 1971 Birthday - Troy Brown, NFL wide receiver for the New England Patriots 1971 Event - Test Cricket debut of Imran Khan, vs. England at Edgbaston (5, 0-36, 0-19) 1971 Birthday - Paul Bettany, born in Shepherd's Bush, England, actor, films include, 'A Beautiful Mind', 'The Heart of Me' 1971 Birthday - Troy Barnett, NFL defensive end for the New England Patriots 1971 Birthday - Corey Croom, NFL running back for the New England Patriots 1971 Birthday - Eric England, NFL defensive end for the Arizona Cardinals 1971 Birthday - Finidi George, born in Part Harcourt, Nigeria, soccer player, played as a midfielder for Ajax, played Football World Cups in 1994 and 1998, played in England and Spain 1971 Birthday - Edward Fryatt, born in Rochdale, England, Nike golfer, 1994 NCAA West Regional 1971 Event - Boston Patriots become New England Patriots 1971 Birthday - Hason Graham, NFL wide receiver for the New England Patriots 1971 Birthday - Marty Moore, NFL inside linebacker for the New England Patriots 1971 Death - George Wood, England cricket wicketkeeper (v South Africa 1924), dies 1971 Event - Rolling Stones left England for France to escape taxes 1971 Event - The Rolling Stones leave England for France to escape taxes 1971 Birthday - Sean Holcomb, NFL linebacker for the New England Patriots 1971 Birthday - Helen Dobson, Skegness England, golfer, 1993 State Farm Rail Classic 1971 Birthday - Max Lane, NFL tackle for the New England Patriots 1971 Event - England regains cricket Ashes with a 2-0 series win 1971 Birthday - Amanda Holden, born in Bishop's Waltham, England, actress, judge on television show, 'Britain's Got Talent' 1971 Event - Only Test Cricket for Ken Eastwood, who scored 5 and 0 Australia vs. England 1971 Birthday - Pat O'Neill, NFL punter/place kicker for the New England Patriots 1971 Event - Dennis Lillee takes 5-84 in his 1st Test bowl, vs. England 1971 Birthday - Chris Slade, NFL outside linebacker for the New England Patriots 1971 Event - Test debut of Dennis Keith Lillee, vs. England at Adelaide 1971 Birthday - Vincent Brisby, NFL wide receiver for the New England Patriots 1971 Birthday - Lisa Snowdon, born in Hertfordshire, England, model, television personality, host of 'Britain's Next Top Model' 1971 Event - John Snow takes 7-40 for England to beat Australia by 299 runs 1971 Event - 1st one-day international, Australia vs. England at the MCG 1971 Birthday - Kevin Lee, NFL wide receiver for the New England Patriots 1970 Event - Would have been start of Australia/England Test Cricket at MCG, washed out 1970 Event - Greg Chappell scores 108 on Test debut vs. England at the WACA 1970 Event - Start of the 1st Test match at the WACA, vs. England 1970 Event - Test Cricket debut of Rodney "Iron Gloves" Marsh vs. England, Brisbane 1970 Birthday - Dino Philyaw, NFL running back for the New England Patriots 1970 Birthday - Vernon Lewis, NFL cornerback for the New England Patriots 1970 Birthday - Dwayne Provo, cornerback for the New England Patriots 1970 Birthday - Emily Lloyd, born in London, England, actress, Wish You Were Here, In Country 1970 Birthday - Ione Skye, born in [Leitch], Hertfordshire, England, actress, Say Anything 1970 Birthday - Mark Ilott, cricketer, England left-arm pace bowler 1993- 1970 Birthday - Alan Shearer, born in Newcastle upon Tyne, England, professional soccer player, striker, record goal scorer for Newcastle and Premier League, philanthropist 1970 Birthday - Mandy Smith, England, rocker, I Just Can't Wait, wife of Bill Wyman 1970 Birthday - Todd Rucci, NFL guard for the New England Patriots 1970 Birthday - Min Patel, cricketer, in Mumbai England left-arm spinner vs. India 1996 1970 Birthday - Carlos Yancy, NFL cornerback for the New England Patriots 1970 Birthday - Mike Bartrum, tight end for the New England Patriots 1970 Birthday - David Frisch, NFL tight end for the New England Patriots 1970 Birthday - Brandon Moore, NFL tackle for the New England Patriots 1970 Birthday - Todd Collins, linebacker for the New England Patriots 1970 Birthday - Robert Croft, cricketer, Glamorgan off-spinner, England 1996- 1970 Event - Grateful Dead's in England, 1st performance outside of U.S. 1970 Birthday - Naomi Campbell, born in London, England, model/actress, Cool as Ice, Unzipped 1970 Birthday - Corwin Brown, NFL safety, New York Jets, New England Patriots 1970 Event - Miriam Hargrave of England passes her drivers test on 40th try 1970 Birthday - Mark Wheeler, NFL defensive tackle, Tampa Bay Buccaneers, New England Patriots 1970 Birthday - Reggie White, NFL nose tackle for the New England Patriots 1970 Event - U.S. casts their 1st United Nations Security Council veto (Support England) 1970 Birthday - Rachel Weisz, born in London, England, actress, model, appeared in films, 'About a Boy', 'The Constant Gardener', 'Constantine', 'Runaway Jury' 1970 Birthday - Will Moore, NFL wide receiver, New England Patriots, Jacksonville Jaguars 1970 Birthday - Alistair Brown, cricketer, Surrey and England ODI opening batsman 1996 1970 Birthday - Gabrielle Anwar, Laleham England, actress, Body Snatchers 1970 Birthday - Dean Headley, cricket, grandson of George, England ODI quick 1996 1970 Birthday - Ian Salisbury, cricketer, Sussex and England leg-spinner 1992-96 1969 Birthday - Keith Piper, cricketer, Warwickshire and England A wicketkeeper 1969 Birthday - Craig White, cricketer, England all-rounder 1994-95, AIS graduate 1969 Birthday - Ferric Collons, NFL defensive end for the New England Patriots 1969 Birthday - Terry Glenn, wide reciever for the New England Patriots 1969 Birthday - Nick Knight, cricketer, England opening batsman 1995- 1969 Birthday - Peter Martin, cricketer, Lancashire and England pace bowler 1995 1969 Birthday - Terry Ray, NFL strong safety for the New England Patriots 1969 Birthday - Dwayne Sabb, NFL outside linebacker for the New England Patriots 1969 Event - 18th Ryder Cup: Draw, 16-16 at Royal Birkdale, England 1969 Birthday - Helen Labdan, born in Bracknell, England, model, page 3 1969 Birthday - Mark Ealham, cricketer, Kent and England Test all-rounder 1996 1969 Birthday - Mike Gisler, NFL guard/center for the New England Patriots 1969 Birthday - Mike Gisler, corner for the New England Patriots 1969 Birthday - Mike Jones, NFL defensive end for the New England Patriots 1969 Birthday - Ben Coates, NFL tight end for the New England Patriots 1969 Birthday - Graham Thorpe, cricketer, England LHB Century on Test debut 1993 1969 Birthday - Alan Mullally, cricketer, England left-arm pace bowler 1996 1969 Birthday - Simon Brown, cricketer, Durham pace bowler, England 1996 1969 Birthday - Martin McCague, cricketer, in Ulster AIS product, England quickie 1993-94 1969 Birthday - Mica Paris, born in South London, England, born Michelle Wallen, rocker, singer, actress, radio and television presenter, known for 1988 debut platinum-selling album 'So Good' 1969 Birthday - Tim Roberts, NFL defensive end for the New England Patriots 1969 Birthday - Shaun Udal, cricketer, Hants off-spinner, England to Australia 1994-95 1969 Birthday - Pat Harlow, NFL tackle for the New England Patriots, Oakland Raiders 1969 Birthday - Steve Israel, NFL cornerback for the San Francisco 49ers, New England Patriots 1969 Birthday - Sam Gash, NFL running back for the New England Patriots 1969 Birthday - Shawn Jefferson, NFL wide receiver, San Diego Chargers, New England Patriots 1969 Birthday - Naveen Andrews, born in London, England, actor, appeared on television show, 'Lost' as Sayid Jarrah 1969 Birthday - Martin Bicknell, cricketer, England pace bowler 1993 1969 Death - Fred Price, cricket wicket-keep (England, vs. Australia Headingley 1938), dies 1969 Event - Concorde jetliner's 1st test flight from Bristol England 1968 Birthday - Mark Harding, Bath England, keeper of Internet biographies 1968 Birthday - Steve Lofton, NFL cornerback, Carolina Panthers, New England Patriots 1968 Event - Ron Hill sets record 10-mile run (46:44) at Leicester England 1968 Birthday - Adrian Dale, cricketer, prolific Glamorgan and England A batsman 1968 Birthday - Naomi Watts, born in Shoreham, England, British-Australian actress, films include 'Mulholland Drive', 'King Kong' 1968 Birthday - Guy Ritchie, born in Hatfield, England, filmmaker, screenwriter, music video director, directed 'Snatch', 'Lock, Stock and Two Smoking Barrels' 1968 Birthday - Catherine Bell, born in London, England, actress, known for role as Lt. Colonel Sarah MacKenzie on 'JAG' television show, 1997 - 2004 1968 Birthday - Shahid Anwar, cricketer, Pakistani all-rounder 1996 England tour 1968 Event - Australia all out for 78 vs. England at Lord's 1968 Death - Maurie Sievers, cricket medium-pacer (Austral vs. England 1936-37), dies 1968 Birthday - Jay Darlington, born in London, England, keyboardist, Kula Shaker 1968 Birthday - Ritchie Woodhall, born in Woodside, Telford, England, boxer, athlete, television and radio broadcaster, bronze medal winer, 1988 Seoul Olympics, 1990 Gold Commonwealth Games 1968 Birthday - Nasser Hussain, cricketer, Essex and England batsman 1968 Birthday - Mike Atherton, cricketer, Lancashire batsman and England captain 1968 Birthday - Penny "Stamper" Davis, Carlisle England, Canadian 470 yachter, 1996 Olympics 1968 Birthday - Chris Lewis, cricketer, in Guyana England all-rounder 1968 Birthday - Heather Mills, Aldershot England, model/writer, Out on a Limb 1967 Birthday - Scott Zolak, NFL quarterback for the New England Patriots 1967 Birthday - Richard Stemp, cricketer, Yorkshire and England A left-arm spinner 1967 Birthday - Marina Augusta Baker, Windsor England, playmate, Mar, 1987 1967 Birthday - Tara Fitzgerald, Sussex England, actress, Siren 1967 Birthday - Maurice Hurst, NFL cornerback for the New England Patriots 1967 Event - Beatles' Magical Mystery Bus driven around England 1967 Birthday - Myron Guyton, NFL full safety for the New England Patriots 1967 Birthday - Neil Smith, cricketer, Warwickshire and England A all-rounder 1967 Birthday - Lance Painter, Bedford England, pitcher for the Colorado Rockies 1967 Birthday - Debee Ashby, born in Coventry, England, topless model, There's Girl in My Soup 1967 Birthday - Tim Burgess, born in Salford, England, rocker, lead singer, songwriter for The Charlatans, member of The Chavs 1967 Birthday - Paul Gascoigne, born in Dunston, England, professional soccer player, nicknamed Gazza, midfielder, capped 57 times for the England national soccer team 1967 Event - U.S.S.R. ratifies treaty with England and U.S. banning nuclear weapons in space 1967 Birthday - Bobby Abrams, NFL outside linebacker for the New England Patriots 1967 Event - Dominica gains independence from England 1967 Birthday - Andrew Dunkley, Kent England, golfer, 1991-93 Co-Captain University of W Fla 1967 Birthday - Olivia d'Abo, born in London, England, actress, Wonder Years, Single Guy 1967 Birthday - Richard Blakey, cricketer, England wicket-keeper in India 1993 1966 Birthday - Aaron Jones, NFL defensive end for the New England Patriots 1966 Birthday - Nicholas Rowe, born in London, England, actor, Young Sherlock Holmes 1966 Birthday - Vanessa Angel, born in London, England, actress, Another Chance 1966 Event - Bechuanaland gains independence from England, becomes Botswana 1966 Birthday - Simone Jacobs, England, 4X100m relayer 1984 Olympics bronze 1966 Birthday - Zefross Moss, NFL tackle, Detroit Lions, New England Patriots 1966 Birthday - Rosey Edeh, born in London, England, Canadian 400m hurdler, Olympics-4-92, 96 1966 Event - England beats West Germany 4-2 for soccer's 8th World Cup in London 1966 Birthday - Annabel Croft, born in England, tennis star 1966 Birthday - Samuel West, born in England, actor, theater director, appeared in 'Howards End', 'Jane Eyre', Van Helsing', 'Notting Hill' , 'Complicity' films, among others 1966 Birthday - Billy Downes, Camden, New Jersey, Nike golfer, 1994 New England Classic 1966 Birthday - Sophia Crawford, born in London, England, actress, Power Rangers 1966 Birthday - David Meggett, NFL running back, New York Giants, New England Patriots 1966 Birthday - Phil Tufnell, cricketer, England slow lefty and slower fieldsman 1966 Birthday - Samantha Karen Fox, born in East End London, England, singer, Touch Me 1966 Birthday - Matthew Maynard, cricketer, big hitting Glamorgan and England player 1966 Birthday - Alan Davies, born in Loughton, England, actor, writer, comedian, star in 'Jonathan Creek' television series 1966 Birthday - Wendy James, born in London, England, vocalist, Transvision Vamp-Velveteen 1966 Birthday - Phillip De Freitas, cricket pace bowler, in Dominica England 1986-95 1966 Event - Bob Cowper makes 307 vs. England at the MCG, 727 minutes, 20 fours 1966 Birthday - Tom Tupa, NFL punter/quarterback, Cleveland Browns, New England Patriots 1966 Event - Lawry and Simpson complete 244 opening stand vs. England, Adelaide 1966 Birthday - Trish Johnson, Bristol England, LPGA golfer, 1993 Las Vegas 1966 Birthday - Bob Kratch, NFL guard for the New England Patriots 1965 Birthday - David Baker, Sheffield England, U.K. cyclist 1965 Event - Test Cricket debut of Doug Walters vs. England at the Gabba 1965 Birthday - Andy Beal, Germany, Canadian Tour golfer, 1989 West of England Pro 1965 Event - 16th Ryder Cup: U.S. wins 19 -12 at Royal Birkdale, England 1965 Event - London's Post Office Tower opens, tallest building in England 1965 Birthday - Bruce Armstrong, NFL tackle for the New England Patriots 1965 Birthday - Lennox Lewis, born in West Ham, England, professional boxer, won World heavyweight championship three times, 1988 Olympic Games gold medalist 1965 Birthday - Angus Fraser, cricketer, England right-arm pace bowler 1989- 1965 Birthday - J. K. Rowling, born in Yate, England, author, 'Harry Potter' series of fantasy novels, listed as the 12th richest woman in Britain, 2008, with a net worth of $798 million 1965 Birthday - Tim Munton, cricketer, England pace bowler in two Tests 1992 1965 Birthday - Slash, born in Stoke-on-Trent, England, born Saul Hudson, musician, played lead guitar for Guns N' Roses. 1985 - 1006, founded band Slash's Snakepit and Velvet Revolver 1965 Birthday - Alex Winter, born in London, England, actor, Bill and Ted's Excellent Adventure 1965 Death - Bill Hitch, England cricket fast-bowler (7 Tests 1911-21), dies 1965 Birthday - Suzanne Peta Strudwick, born in Knutsford, England, golfer, 1995 British Open-7th 1965 Birthday - Paul Jarvis, cricketer, England pace bowler 1988-93 1965 Birthday - Cathy Tyson, born in Liverpool, England, actress, Serpant and Rainbow 1965 Birthday - Elizabeth Hurley, born in Basingstroke, England, actress, Christabel 1965 Birthday - Damien Hirst, born in Bristol, England, artist, richest living artist to date, 'For the Love of God' a diamond-encrusted scull sculpture, sold for 50 million pounds in 2007 1965 Birthday - John Schofield, born in Barnsley, England, professional soccer player, midfielder, manager of Lincoln City, assistant manager, Cheltenham Town 1965 Birthday - Zahid Sadiq, born in Kenya, cricketer, right-handed batsman, played for Surrey County Cricket Club, Derbyshire County Cricket Club, England 1965 Birthday - Piers Morgan, born in England, editor of tabloids, the Daily Mirror, News of the World, judge on television show, 'Britain's Got Talent' and 'America's Got Talent' 1965 Birthday - John Stephenson, cricketer, England opening bat in one Test vs. Australia 1989 1965 Birthday - Alison Armitage, born in London, England, actress, Acapulco HEAT 1965 Birthday - Brittany York, born in London, England, playmate, Oct, 1990 1965 Birthday - Andrew Jameson, born in Crosby, England, competitive swimmer, sports commentator for the BBC, won gold medal for 100m butterfly in 1987 European Championships 1965 Birthday - Ricky Reynolds, NFL cornerback for the New England Patriots 1965 Birthday - Jemma Redgrave, born in London, England, actress, Buddha of Suburbia 1965 Birthday - Henry Thomas, defensive tackle, Detroit Lions, New England Patriots 1965 Birthday - Vincent Brown, NFL inside linebacker for the New England Patriots 1965 Birthday - Joely Richardson, born in London, England, actress, known for film, '101 Dalmatians', appeared in 'Nip/Tuck' television drama 1965 Birthday - Vinnie Jones, born in Watford, England, professional soccer player, midfielder, won 1988 FA Cup Final with Wimbledon, actor, appeared in 'The Midnight Meat Train' 1965 Birthday - Julia Ormond, born in London, England, actress, Sabrina, Legends of the Fall 1964 Birthday - Gail Harris, Dewsbury England, actress, Virtual Desire 1964 Birthday - Ian Hart, born in Liverpool, England, actor, theater, television, film roles include, 'Michael Collins', 'Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone' 1964 Birthday - Clive Owen, born in Coventry, England, appearance in film, 'Closer', won Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor 1964 Event - Constellation (U.S.) beats Sovereign (England) in 20th America's Cup 1964 Birthday - Paul Taylor, cricketer, England left-arm pace bowler in one Test 1993 1964 Event - England all out 611 in reply to Australia's 8-656 Match a draw 1964 Birthday - Stephanie Maynor, born in Chester, England, golfer, 1995 PING Welch's-13th 1964 Birthday - Alison Wyeth, Isle West Middlesex England, 1.5k/5k runner 1964 Birthday - Sammi Davis-Voss, born in Kidderminster, England, actress, Hope and Glory 1964 Birthday - Steve Rhodes, cricketer, England wicket-keeper 1994-95 1964 Birthday - Peter Such, cricketer, England off-spinner 1993- 1964 Birthday - Earl Charles Spencer, Sandringham England, brother of Princess Diana 1964 Birthday - Sara Gomer, born in Torquay, England, professional tennis player, ranked 46th in the World, September, 1988 1964 Birthday - John Parrott, born in Liverpool, England, professional snooker player, winner, World Snooker Championship, 1991, won UK Championship title, 1991 1964 Birthday - Dean Spriddle, Plymouth, England, Canadian Tour golfer, 1994 Oak Valley 1964 Birthday - Ruth Picardie, born in Reading, England, journalist, editor, The Guardian, The Independent newspapers, author of Before I Say Goodbye, memoir of living with breast cancer 1964 Birthday - Helen Marina Lucy Windsor, England, daughter of Prince Edward 1964 Birthday - Paul Parker, born in West Ham, London, athlete, soccer player, commentator, critical player at 1990 World Cup with England, manager, Blue Square Premier League 1964 Birthday - John Morris, cricketer, England right-hand batsman vs. India 1990 1964 Event - Beatles arrive back in England after their 1st U.S. visit 1964 Event - Hanumant Singh scores 105 India vs. England on debut at Delhi 1964 Death - W L Cornford, England cricket wicket-keeper (4 Tests vs. New Zealand 1930), dies 1964 Birthday - Victoria Sellers, born in London, England, actress, Crime Zone, Warlords 1964 Death - Terence Hanbury White, novelist (England Have My Bones), dies at 57 1964 Event - Bapu Nadkarni 32-27-5-0 vs. England, 21 maiden overs in a row 1963 Event - "Doctor Who," the long-running British sci-fi series debuts in England 1963 Birthday - Corinne Russell, Birmingham England, comedienne, Benny Hill Show 1963 Birthday - Nicollette Sheridan, Worthing England, actress, Paige-Knots Landing 1963 Event - England's Dartford-Purfleet tunnel under Thames opens 1963 Birthday - Robert Bailey, cricketer, England batsman in four Tests 1988-90 1963 Birthday - Deborah Moore, born in London, England, actress, Danielle-Day of Our Lives 1963 Birthday - Keith Byars, NFL running back, Miami Dolphins, New England Patriots 1963 Birthday - Hugh Morris, cricketer, England lefty opening batsman 1991 1963 Birthday - Laura Davies, Coventry England, LPGA golfer, 1989 Lady Keystone Open 1963 Event - W I beat England 2-1 in series, 1st holders of Wisden Cricket Trophy 1963 Birthday - Richard Illingworth, cricketer, England slow-left-armer 1991- 1963 Birthday - Jack Russell, superb England cricket wicket-keeper, 36 Tests 1988-94 1963 Event - U.S., Russia and England sign nuclear Test ban treaty 1963 Birthday - Steve Thomas, born in Stockport, England, NHL left wing for the New Jersey Devils 1963 Event - Famous cricket draw at Lord's as England hang on against the Windies 1963 Birthday - George Michael, born in Bushey, England, singer, songwriter, member of band Wham!, famous song, 'Careless Whisper', sold over 100 million records 1963 Birthday - Wally Masur, born in Southampton, England, tennis coach, professional tennis player from Australia, won Australian Junior Championships at age 18 1963 Birthday - Natasha Richardson, born in London, England, actress, Gothic, Handmaid's Tale 1963 Birthday - Dermot Reeve, cricketer, in Hong Kong England all-rounder 1992 1963 Birthday - Devon Malcolm, cricketer, in Jamaica England fast bowler 1989-95 1963 Birthday - Rob Andrew, born in Richmond, England, professional rugby player, director, played for Nottingham and Newcastle, nickname 'Squeaky' 1963 Birthday - Jeff Dellenbach, NFL center, New England Patriots, Green Bay Packers Superbowl 31 1963 Birthday - David Capel, cricketer, England all-rounder in 15 Tests 1987-90 1963 Birthday - Stephen McGann, Liverpool England, actor, Catherine the Great 1963 Birthday - Andrew Ridgeley, England, rock guitarist, Wham-Wake Me Up 1963 Birthday - Jane Horrocks, Lancashire England, actress, Absolutely Fabulous 1963 Event - Spin bowler Bobby Simpson takes 5-57 for Australia vs. England 1963 Birthday - Jason Connery, born in London, England, actor, Robin Hood 1962 Birthday - Ralph Fiennes, born in Suffolk, England, actor, English Patient 1962 Birthday - Steve DeOssie, NFL inside linebacker for the New England Patriots 1962 Birthday - Carey Elwes, born in London, England, actor, Glory, Princess Bride 1962 Birthday - Beatie Edney, born in London, England, actress, Diary of a Mad Old Man 1962 Birthday - Philip Newport, cricketer, England pace bowler in 3 Tests 1988-91 1962 Birthday - Mark Haddon, born in Northampton, England, novelist, poet, wrote, 'The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-time', written from perspective of boy with Asperger syndrome 1962 Birthday - Joanne Catherall, Sheffield England, rock vocalist, Human League 1962 Birthday - William Roberts, NFL guard, New York Jets, New England Patriots 1962 Birthday - Neil Foster, cricketer, England right-fast medium 1962 Birthday - Angela Bailey, England, Canadian 4X100m relayer 1984 Olympics silver 1962 Birthday - Paul Webb, born in Essex, England, musician, producer, bass player, member of reggae band Eskalator, joined band TalkTalk in 1981, produced album 'The Year of the Leopard' with James Jorkston in 1996 1962 Death - Emanuel Stickelberger, Swiss writer (Holbein in England), dies at 77 1962 Birthday - Phil Lewis, born in London, England, rock vocalist, LA Guns-It's Over Now 1961 Birthday - Gladstone Small, cricketer, in Barbados England quickie with no neck 1961 Event - 14th Ryder Cup: U.S., 14 -9 at Royal Lytham and St. Annes, England 1961 Birthday - Alan Wells, cricketer, England Test batsman vs. WI in one Test 1995 1961 Birthday - Antonia De Sancha, born in London, England, lover of British MP David Mellor 1961 Birthday - Joanne Whalley-Kilmer, Manchester England, actress, Kill Me Again 1961 Birthday - Jared Harris, born in London, England, actor, known for role of Lane Pryce on 'Mad Men' television series 1961 Birthday - Neil Mallender, cricketer, England pace bowler in two Tests 1992 1961 Event - England applies for membership in European Common Market 1961 Event - Benaud rips through England team for Aussie win at Old Trafford 1961 Birthday - Mike Watkinson, cricketer, England off-spinner all-rounder vs. WI 1995 1961 Birthday - Richard Allen Garriott, born in Cambridge, England, computer game designer, Origin 1961 Birthday - Diana, Princess of Wales, born in Park House, England, first wife of Charles, Prince of Wales, mother of Princes William and Harry, noted for philanthropy 1961 Birthday - Curt Smith, born in Bath, England, rock bassist/vocalist, Tears For Fears 1961 Birthday - [Genevieve] Alison Moyet, Essex England, rock vocalist, Yaz, Alf 1961 Birthday - Boy George, born in Eitham, England, singer, songwriter, successful band, Culture Club, hit song, 'Do You Really Want to Hurt Me?', 'Karma Chameleon' 1961 Event - Test Cricket debut of William Morris Lawry, vs. England at Edgbaston, 57 1961 Birthday - Tim Roth, born in London, England, actor, Reservoir Dogs, Vincent and Theo 1961 Birthday - Blyth Tait, England, New Zealand equestrian 3 day event, 1996 Olympics gold 1961 Birthday - Jay Aston, London, England, singer, youngest member of British pop group, Bucks Fizz, founded Jay Aston Theatre Arts School 1961 Birthday - Norman Cowans, cricketer, England fast bowler in 19 Tests 1982-85 1961 Birthday - Keren Jane Woodward, born in Bristol, England, rock vocalist, Bananarama-Venus 1961 Birthday - Ellery Hanley, born in Leeds, England, rugby league player, honored by the Queen in January, 1990, for his services to the game 1961 Birthday - Imogen Stubbs, Rothbury England, actress, Summer Story 1961 Birthday - Andy Taylor, England, rock guitarist, Duran Duran-Hungry Like the Wolf 1961 Birthday - Joey Benjamin, cricket pace bowler, in St. Kitts England in 1994 1961 Birthday - Gillian Gilbert, Manchester England, rocker, New Order-Round and Round 1960 Birthday - Carolyn Seaward, Devonshire England, Miss United Kingdom, 1979 1960 Birthday - Kim Wilde, Smith, England, rock vocalist, 'You Keep Me Hanging On' 1960 Birthday - Tilda Swinton, born in London, England, actress, Orlando 1960 Birthday - Kim Thompson, Bath England, actress, Stealing Heaven 1960 Birthday - Django Bates, born in Beckenham, England, jazz musician, founder, Human Chain, plays tenor horn, keyboards, piano 1960 Birthday - Colin Firth, born in Hampshire, England, actor, Femme Fatale, Hostages 1960 Birthday - Hugh Grant, born in London, England, 4 Weddings and a Funeral, 9 Months 1960 Birthday - Daniel Woodgate, born in London, England, drummer, member of band, Madness, known by his nickname Woody 1960 Birthday - Lonny Chin, born in Liverpool, England, playmate, Jan, 1983 1960 Birthday - Jo Durie, born in Bristol, England, professional tennis player, tennis commentator, ranked 5th in the World, winner of two Grand Slam titles 1960 Birthday - Katie Rabbet, born in London, England, Prince Andrew's former girlfriend 1960 Birthday - Kim Barnett, cricketer, England batsman and occasional leggie 1988-89 1960 Birthday - Mark Burnett, born in London, England, television producer, creator of based reality television to the U.S., created shows, 'Survivor' and 'The Apprentice' 1960 Death - Harry Pollitt, England, Britsh communist chairman (1956-60) 1960 Event - Geoff Griffin takes a hat-trick South Africa vs. England Lord's 1960 Birthday - John Taylor, born in England, rock bassist, Duran Duran-Girls on Film 1960 Birthday - Adrian Paul, born in London, England, actor, Dance to Win, Highlander 1960 Birthday - Martyn Moxon, cricketer, England batsman in ten Tests 1986-89 1960 Birthday - Paula Yates, born in London, England, Mrs. Bob Geldof/rocker/writer, Blondes 1960 Birthday - Steve Clark, born in Hillsborough, England, rock guitarist, Def Leppard 1960 Birthday - Michael Whitaker, born in England, equestrian rider, showjumper, award-winner, won team Silver medal in 1984 Olympic Games, team Gold medal in 1985 European Championships 1960 Birthday - Jon Agnew, cricketer, England pace bowler late 80's 1960 Birthday - Lee Ann Michelle, born in Surrey, England, playmate, Feb, 1979 1960 Birthday - Holly Johnson, England, rock vocalist, Frankie Goes To Hollywood 1960 Event - Riot curtails third days play at Port-Of-Spain WI vs. England 1960 Birthday - Sean Kerly, born in Whitstable, Kent, England, Sean Robin Kerly, athlete, field hockey player, awarded bronze medal at 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles, 1984, scored eight goals at 1988 Olympics in Seoul, playing for Great Britain and Northern Ireland squad 1960 Birthday - Tim Curtis, cricketer, England righty batsman in 5 Tests 1988-89 1960 Event - Sobers and Worrell complete 399 stand for 4th wkt vs. England 1959 Birthday - Tracey Ullman, born in Slough, England, singer and actress, Tracey Ullman Show 1959 Birthday - Andre Tippett, NFL linebacker for the New England Patriots 1959 Birthday - Lesley Tomlinson, Derbyshire England, cyclist 1996 Olympics 1959 Birthday - Maxwell Caulfield, Derbyshire England, actor, Miles-The Colbys 1959 Birthday - Paul McGann, born in Liverpool, England, actor, breakout role in BBC's The Monocled Mutineer, appeared as Eighth Doctor in 1996 television movie, Dr. Who 1959 Birthday - Sarah Magaret Fergusson, Fergie, born in London, England, Duchess of York 1959 Birthday - Tony Eason, football quarterback for the New England Patriots 1959 Birthday - Simon Cowell, born in Brighton, England, entrepreneur, producer of television shows, 'Britain's Got Talent', 'American Idol', owner of publishing house, Syco 1959 Birthday - Greg Bruckner, Inglewood California, Nike golfer, 1992 New England Classic 1959 Event - England complete 5-0 series drubbing of India 1959 Birthday - Anne Hobbs, born in Nottingham, England, professional tennis player, played singles but primarily a doubles specialist, tennis coach, consultant in sports psychology 1959 Birthday - Bruce French, cricketer, England wicketkeeper in 16 Tests 1986-88 1959 Birthday - Martin Atkins, born in Coventry, England, Martin Clive Atkins, rocker, musician, worked with post-punk, industrial group Public Image Ltd., Ministry 1959 Event - Abbas Ali Baig scores 112 for India vs. England on debut 1959 Birthday - Stuart Young-Black, born in Cheshire, England, Canadian equestrian 1996 Olympics 1959 Event - 1st telecast transmitted from England to U.S. 1959 Birthday - Hugh Laurie, born in Oxford, England, James Hugh Calum Laurie, actor, writer, musician, comedian, comedy partner, Stephen Fry, known for the Fry and Laurie double act, appears in successful Fox television drama House, playing role of Dr. Gregory House 1959 Birthday - Amanda Pays, born in London, England, actress, Max Headroom, Off Limits 1959 Event - World's 1st hovercraft (SR-N1) tested at Cowes England 1959 Birthday - Cathryn Harrison, born in London, England, actress, Old Woman in Black Moon 1959 Birthday - Julian Clary, born in Teddington, England, comedian, novelist, employs campy delivery style, emphasizing use of double entendre, innuendo, videos of stage acts include 'My Glittering Passage', 'The Mincing Machine Tour' 1959 Event - Empire Day renamed Commonwealth Day in England 1959 Birthday - Graham Dilley, cricketer, England wicket-taker of 80's 1959 Birthday - Charles Hendry, born in West Sussex, England, politician, Conservative Member of Parliament for Wealden 1959 Birthday - Sean Bean, born in Handsworth, England, actor, television, appeared in series 'Sharpe', films include 'The Lord of the Rings', 'GoldenEye' 1959 Birthday - Emma Thompson, born in England, actress, Henry V, Howards End, Oscar-1992 1959 Birthday - Martin Weston, born in Worcester, England, athlete, professional cricketer, played for Worcestershire 1979 - 1995 1959 Birthday - Terry Hall, born in Coventry, England, singer, The Specials, member of Fun Boy Three, The Colourfield, collaborated with Sinead O'Connor, David A Stewart and others 1959 Birthday - Sammy Lee, born in Liverpool, England, professional soccer player, midfielder, played for Liverpool, represented England fourteen times 1959 Event - Australia 1-200 1st day 4th Test vs. England, Adelaide Oval 1959 Birthday - Paul Terry, cricketer, in Germany Two Tests England vs. WI 1984 1958 Birthday - Carmel, McCourt, England, rocker, Storm, More More More 1958 Birthday - Tim Robinson, cricketer, solid England opener in 29 Tests 1984-89 1958 Birthday - Terry Lee Miall, England, rock drummer, Adam and The Ants 1958 Event - Columbia (U.S.) beats Sceptre (England) in 18th America's Cup 1958 Birthday - Lita Rossana Ford, born in London, England, metal guitarist, Kiss Me Deadly 1958 Birthday - Lesley Player, born in Redhill, England, Sarah Fergusson's father's lover 1958 Birthday - Lita Ford, born in London, England, vocalist, Kiss Me Deadly, Runaways 1958 Birthday - Kate Bush, born in Plumstead, England, singer and songwriter, Wild Things 1958 Birthday - Mark Lester, born in Oxford, England, actor, Oliver, Prince and Pauper 1958 Event - 1st parking meter installed in England (625 installed) 1958 Event - C A Milton scores 104* on Test Cricket debut, England vs. New Zealand Headingley 1958 Birthday - Jennifer Saunders, born in Sleaford, England, actress, Absolutely Fabulous 1958 Birthday - Mark Benson, cricketer, played Test England vs. India 1986, 30 and 21 1958 Event - New Zealand all out 47 vs. England at Lord's Laker 4-13, Lock 5-17 1958 Birthday - Tony Pigott, cricketer, England pace bowler in a Test vs. New Zealand 1984 1958 Birthday - Monte Lynch, cricketer, Surrey batsman, WI Rebel, England ODI player 1958 Birthday - Toyah Wilcox, Birmingham, England, rocker, I Want to Be Free 1958 Birthday - Frances Barber, Wolverhampton England, actress, Castaway 1958 Birthday - Daniel Day-Lewis, born in England, actor, Last of the Mohicans, My Left Foot 1958 Birthday - Tony Sibson, born in Leicester, England, professional boxer, Middleweight, Light heavyweight, during the 1970's and 1980's 1958 Event - 1st march against nuclear weapons (Aldermaston England) 1958 Birthday - Fiona Reynolds, director/Council for Protection of Rural England 1958 Birthday - Gary Numan, Gary Webb, born in Hammersmith, England, vocalist, Replicas 1958 Birthday - Andy Gibb, born in Manchester England, singer and TV host, Solid Gold 1958 Birthday - Miranda Richardson, born in Southport England, actress in Damage, Crying Game 1958 Birthday - Ian Woosnam, born in Oswestry, England, nicknamed 'Woosie', 'Wee Welshman', 'Woosers', Welsh, professional golfer, played first European Tour, 1979, won Swiss Open, 1982, number one in Official World Golf Rankings in 1991, awarded O.B.E. 2007 New Years Honors List 1958 Birthday - Lorraine Michaels, Canterbury England, playmate, April, 1981 1958 Birthday - Alexander W. B. Lyle, Shrewsbury England, PGA golfer, 1988 Phoenix Open 1958 Birthday - Lorraine Michaels, Canterbury England, playmate, Apr, 1981 1958 Birthday - Jez Strode, born in England, born Jeremy Strode, drummer, musician, pop band genre, member of British pop band, Kajagoogoo 1957 Birthday - Ian Burden, S Yorks England, rock bassist, Human League-Only Human 1957 Birthday - Cy Curnin, Londo, England, rock vocalist, Fixx-Sign of Fire 1957 Event - 2 commuter trains collide in heavy fog killing 92 (St. John's England) 1957 Birthday - Chris Joyce, born in Manchester, England, drummer, played with Simply Red, new wave, punk rock, alternative rock genres 1957 Birthday - Chris Cowdrey, cricketer, son of Colin, captain of England 1988 1957 Birthday - Jayne Torvill, England, ice skater, Torvill and Dean, Gold Medal 1984 Olympics, Bronze Medal 1994 Olympics 1957 Event - 12th Ryder Cup: Britain - Ireland, 7 - 4 at Lindrick GC, England 1957 Birthday - Chris Broad, cricketer, prolific England opening batsman 1984-89 1957 Birthday - Mari Wilson, born in Neasden, England, singer, influenced by early 1960s pop music songs 1957 Birthday - Bill Athey, cricketer, England batsman in 23 Tests 1980-88 1957 Birthday - Pete Jones, born near Watford, England, rocker, British bass guitarist, member of Public Image Ltd. 1957 Birthday - David Bintley, born in Huddersfield, England, choreographer, artistic director, The Royal Ballet, Birmingham Royal Ballet 1957 Birthday - Rachel Ward, born in Cornwell Manor, England, actress, Thorn Birds 1957 Birthday - Stephen Fry, born in Hampstead, England, actor, comedian, film director, starred in comedy series, 'Absolute Power', film 'Wilde' 1957 Birthday - Rat Scabies, Chris Miller, Surrey England, rock drummer, Damned 1957 Event - Peter Loader takes a cricket hat-trick England vs. WI Headingley 1957 Birthday - Nicholas Alexander Faldo, born in England, PGA golfer, 1992 British Open 1957 Birthday - Alan Donnelly, born in England, politician, Labor Party, leader, European Parliamentary Labor Party, 1998 - 2005, founded, serves, as executive chairman of public affairs company, Sovereign Strategy, represents President of Federation Internationale de l'Automobile, at Grand Prix 1957 Birthday - Peter Murphy, born in Northampton, England, vocalist, goth rock genre, member of rock group, Bauhaus, released solo albums Deep, Love Hysteria, nicknamed, 'The Godfather of Goth' 1957 Birthday - Astro, Terrence Wilson, England, rock vocalist, UB40-Red Red Wine 1957 Birthday - David Gleeson, Norfolk England, U.S., rower 1996 Olympics 1957 Birthday - Tom Bailey, born in England, rocker, Thompson Twins-Doctor Doctor 1957 Birthday - Neal Radford, cricketer, Zambia England pace bowler in 3 Tests 1986-88 1957 Birthday - Stephen Jones, born in Wirral Peninsula, England, British milliner, considered the most radical, prolific milliner of the late 20th-early 21st-century 1957 Event - Test Cricket debut for Rohan Kanhai vs. England at Edgbaston 1957 Birthday - Duncan Goodhew, born in England, Olympic gold medalist, most famous swimmer in the UK, author, motivational speaker 1957 Birthday - Siouxsie Sioux, Susan Ballion, Kent England, Siouxsie and Banshees 1957 Birthday - Sid Vicious, John Simon Ritchie, England, bassist, Sex Pistols 1957 Birthday - Jo Brand, born in Hastings, England, stage name, 'The Sea Monster', stand up comedian, embraced alternative comedy movement, employing use of monotone delivery, pauses, image inspired by radicalized feminism 1957 Birthday - Eric Bristow, "Crafty Cockney", England, dart thrower, 5 World Masters 1957 Birthday - Graeme Fowler, cricketer, England left-handed opener early 80s 1957 Birthday - Paul Downton, cricketer, England wicket-keeper in 80's 1957 Birthday - David Gower, cricketer, elegant England left-handed batsman 1978 - 1992 1957 Birthday - Robin Cousins, England, figure skater, 1980 Olympics gold 1957 Birthday - Mike Gatting, born in Kingsbury, England, cricketer, played for the Middlesex County Cricket Club, ECB Managing Director of Cricket Partnerships 1957 Birthday - Ian Stanley, born in High Wycombe, England, Ian Christopher Stanley, keyboardist, musician, songwriter, record producer, member of Tears for Fears band, made multi-platinum selling album 'Songs from the Big Chair' 1957 Event - Hughie Tayfield takes 9-113 vs. England, 13 wkts for match 1957 Event - Cavern Club (Beatle's) opens on Matthews Street in England 1957 Birthday - C Michael Foale, Louth England, astronaut, STS-45, 56, 63, 84/86 1956 Birthday - David Sedaris, born in London, England, writer, comedian, published, 'Barrel Fever', 'Naked', 'Me Talk Pretty One Day' 1956 Birthday - Patrick Murray, born in Greenwich, England, actor, appeared in 'Scum', Breaking Glass', 'Curse of the Pink Panther' films 1956 Event - England and France pull troops out of Egypt 1956 Birthday - Tony Franklin, NFL kicker, Philadelphia Eagles, New England Patriots 1956 Birthday - Ian Craig Marsh, England, rocker, Heaven 17-Electric Dreams 1956 Birthday - Jonathan Palmer, born in London, England, professional racecar driver, entrepreneur, Formula Championship winner, CEO, MotorSport Vision 1956 Birthday - Mike Score, Liverpool England, rock guitarist, Flock Of Seagulls 1956 Birthday - Rob Fisher, Bath England, rock keyboardist, Naked Eyes 1956 Birthday - Juliet Stevenson, Essex England, actress, Secret Rapture, Life Story 1956 Event - England's 1st large scale nuclear power station opens 1956 Birthday - Sebastian Coe, born in Chiswick, England, politician, Conservative party, former athlete, Olympic gold medalist 1980 and 1984, considered greatest middle distance runner ever 1956 Birthday - Jaki Graham, born in Birmingham, England, singer, 1994 hit 'Ain't Nobody', number one on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Play chart 1956 Event - England retain cricket Ashes, Jim Laker 46 wickets in the series 1956 Birthday - Kim Cattrall, born in Liverpool, England, actress, Mannequin, Star Trek VI 1956 Birthday - Gordon Bruks, England, Dr/cosmonaut 1956 Birthday - Sidath Wettimuny, Sri Lanka cricket opener, 190 vs. England Lords 1984 1956 Event - King Faisal of Iraq begins visit to England 1956 Birthday - [Peter] Marc Almond, Merseyside England, vocalist, Soft Cell 1956 Event - 85th British Golf Open: Peter Thomson shoots a 286 at Hoylake England 1956 Birthday - Matt Bahr, NFL kicker, New England Patriots, New York Giants 1956 Birthday - Nick Cook, cricketer, England lefty slow bowler in 15 Tests 1983-89 1956 Birthday - Steve Hogarth, Kendal England, vocals, "Brave" 1956 Birthday - Sue Barker, born in Paignton, England, professional tennis player, television presenter with the BBC, won singles title at the French Open, highest career singles ranking was third in the World 1956 Birthday - Sonia M. Lannaman, born in England, 4X100m relayer, Olympic-bronze-1980 1956 Event - Weather forecasting phone line set up in London England 1956 Birthday - Jon Walmsley, Lancashire England, actor, Jason-Waltons 1956 Birthday - Pamela Cossey, England, model/sister of transsexual Tula 1956 Birthday - Paul Parker, cricketer, one Test England vs. Australia 1981 1956 Birthday - David Smith, cricketer, England lefty batsman in 2 Tests vs. WI 1986 1956 Birthday - Trudie Styler, England, wife of Sting/sponsor, Rainforest Concert 1956 Birthday - Rowan Atkinson, England, comedian/actor, Mr Bean, Blackadder 1955 Birthday - Graeme Stevenson, cricketer, England medium pacer 1980-81 1955 Birthday - Ian Greig, cricketer, brother of Tony Two Tests for England 1982 1955 Event - Clement Attlee resigns as chairman of England's Labour Party 1955 Birthday - Joe Leeway, born in Islington, England, musician, songwriter for the Thompson Twins, played bongos, congas for album, 'A Product of ... (Participation)' 1955 Birthday - Ghulam Parkar, cricketer, Indian batsman vs. England 1982 1955 Birthday - Steve Ovett, England, runner, Olympics-800m gold, 1500m bronze-1980 1955 Birthday - Gary Streeter, born in Hampshire, England, educated at King's College London, Member of Parliament for South West Devon 1955 Event - Commercial TV begins in England 1955 Birthday - David Jasper, British principal, St. Chad's College Durham England 1955 Birthday - Teresa Ann Savoy, born in London, England, actress, Caligula 1955 Event - 2 killed, many dazed when lightning strikes Ascott racetrack, England 1955 Birthday - Mike Corby, born in Windsor, England, rocker, guitarist, keyboard player, member of The Basbys 1955 Birthday - Simon Bailey, born in Halifax, England, Reverend Simon Bailey, priest, Anglican, Labor Party member, socialist historian associates include Dorothy Thompson, J.B. Priestly, E.P Thompson 1955 Birthday - Sally E. Silverstone, born in Walthamstow, England, Co-Captain, Biosphere 2 1955 Birthday - Tony Allcock, born in Leicestershire, England, bowler, two-time world outdoor singles champion, 1992, 1996, world singles champion 1986, 1987, 2002, won silver medal in men's singles event at 1994 Commonwealth Games in Victoria, Canada 1955 Birthday - Tim Berners-Lee, born in London, England, computer scientist, credited with inventing the World Wide Web, proposed in March, 1989 1955 Birthday - Hazel O'Connor, Coventry, England, singer and actress, Breaking Glass 1955 Birthday - John Hutton, born in Westcliff-on-Sea, England, politician, Labor Member of Parliament for Secretary of State for Defence 1955 Birthday - John Nunn, born in London, England, champion chess player, chess writer, publisher, mathematician, once ranked among the world's top ten, two-time champion in chess problem solving 1955 Birthday - Piers J. Sellers, Sussex England, PhD and astronaut 1955 Birthday - Henry Bellingham, born in Cheltenham, England, politician, Conservative Party, Member of Parliament for North West Norfolk 1955 Event - New Zealand cricket all out for 26 vs. England at Eden Park 1955 Birthday - Garry Christian, born in Liverpool, England, rocker, musician, singer, played with brother Russell and Roger Christian in sophisti-pop band, The Christians, known for late 1980's, early 1990's chart-topping hits 1955 Birthday - Jools Holland, born in Blackheath, England, born Julian Miles Holland, composer, singer, pianist, television presenter, founder of band, Squeeze, hosts show titled, 'Later... with Jools Holland' 1955 Birthday - Simon Rattle, born in England, orchestra conductor, Birmingham Symphony Orchestra 1954 Birthday - Alex Cox, born in Bebington, Mereyside, England, screenwriter, film director, independent film producer, actor, author, directed film 'Repo Man', wrote book '10,000 Ways to Die' 1954 Birthday - Dennis Stratton, born in London, England, rock guitarist, Iron Maiden 1954 Birthday - Chris Tavare, cricketer, England opener and occasional scorer of runs 1954 Event - Britain, England, France and U.S.S.R. agree to end occupation of Germany 1954 Birthday - Suru Nayak, cricketer, two Tests for India vs. England 1982 1954 Event - Hurricane Carol strikes Long Island/New England, kills 68 1954 Event - Hurricane Carol (1st major named storm) hits New England, 70 die 1954 Birthday - Tula, Barry Kenneth Cossey, England, transsexual, For Your Eyes Only 1954 Birthday - Derek Warwick, born in Alresford, England, racecar driver, at age 16, won Superstox English Championship and age 18, won the World Championship at Wimbledon Stadium 1954 Birthday - John Lloyd, England, tennis star, former husband of Chris Everet 1954 Birthday - Michael Chetwood, born in Telford, England, rocker, musician, played for pop band T'Pau, which had Top 40 hits in the United Kingdom in the 1980's 1954 Birthday - Lynn Frederick, Middlesex England, actress, Schizophrenia 1954 Birthday - Allan Lamb, cricketer, Langebaanweg, Cape Prov, 79 Tests for England 1954 Birthday - Michael O'Brien, born in Worcester, England, Mike O'Brien, politician, Labor Party, since 1992, serves as Member of Parliament for North Warwickshire, served as Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Home Affairs, became Minister of State for Health Services, 2009 1954 Birthday - Pete Byrne Bath England, rocker, Naked Eyes 1954 Birthday - Phil Neale, born in Scunthorpe, England, cricketer, coach, team manager, played for Worcestershire, played football for Lincoln City, Scunthorpe United, 1989 Wisden Cricketer of the Year 1954 Birthday - Judith Weir, born in Cambridge, England, composer, professor of music at Cardiff University, Artistic Director, Spitafields Festival, Composer in Association for the City of Birmingham Symphony Orchestra 1954 Birthday - Judi Bowker, born in Shawford, England, actress, Clash of the Titans 1954 Birthday - Tony Brock, born in England, rock drummer, Babys-Missing You 1954 Event - Test Cricket debut of Garry Sobers vs. England at Kingston 1954 Event - Weekes, Worrell and Walcott complete tons in innings vs. England 1954 Birthday - David Wilkie, England, 200m backstroke swimmer, 1996 Olympic gold 1954 Birthday - Chris Hughes, born in London, England, drummer, musician, record producer, played drums for Dalek I Love You, The Blitz Brothers, member, Adam and the Ants, produced Tears for Fears, The Hurting, Songs from the Big Chair, co-produced Peter Gabriel's 'Red Rain' 1954 Birthday - Constantine Phipps, born in England, Constantine Edmund Walter Phipps, 5th Marquess of Normanby, sold Warter Priory estate in 1998 for 48 million pounds, leases Mulgrave Castle to supermodel Elle MacPherson 1954 Birthday - Alan Butcher, cricketer, one Test England vs. India, scored 14 and 20 1953 Event - Hungary beats England in soccer match, 6-3 1953 Birthday - Wayne Larkins, cricketer, England opening batsman of 80's 1953 Birthday - Alan Moore, born in Northampton, England, author, wrote comic book series, 'Watchmen', 'From Hell' and 'V for Vendetta', wrote novel, 'Voice of Fire' 1953 Birthday - Jilly Johnson, England, vocalist, Blonde on Blonde 1953 Birthday - Lucinda Green, born in Andover, England, born Lucinda Jane Prior-Palmer, champion equestrian, journalist, won gold at 1982 World Championships 1953 Birthday - Peter Firth, Bradford England, actor, Equus, Lifeforce, Tess 1953 Birthday - Roland Butcher, cricketer, 1st black to play for England 1981 1953 Event - 10th Ryder Cup: U.S. wins 6 -5 at Wentworth, England 1953 Birthday - Diane Abbott, born in London, England, Labour Party Member of Parliament for Hackney North and Stoke Newington 1953 Birthday - Michael Stean, born in London, England, professional chess player, author, winner, International Master and International Grandmaster titles in 1975 and 1977 1953 Event - England regained cricket Ashes after winning series 1-0 1953 Birthday - Julian Brazier, born in Kent, England, British politician, Conservative Member of Parliament for Canterbury 1953 Birthday - Steve Grogan, NFL quarterback for the New England Patriots 1953 Birthday - Graham Gooch, cricketer, prolific England opener and captain 1953 Birthday - John Denham, born in Seaton, England, John Yorke Denham, politician, Labor Party, Member of Parliament for Southampton Itchen, Secretary of State for Communities and Local Government, served, then resigned as, Minister of State at the Home Office in 2003, over the Iraq War 1953 Birthday - Francis Maude, born in Abingdon, England, politician, Conservative party, Conservative Party Member of Parliament for Horsham 1953 Birthday - Johnny Clegg, born in Rochdale, Lancashire, England, Jonathan 'Johnny' Clegg, musician, recording artist, Grammy-Award nominee, mbaqanga, Afro-pop genres, formed and performed with Juluka band, formed Savuka band, popular figure in South African music history 1953 Birthday - Nicholas Bacon, premier baronet of England 1953 Birthday - Mike Oldfield, England, composer, Tubular Bells 1953 Birthday - Stephen Byers, born in Wolverhampton, England, British politician, Labour Member of Parliament for Tyneside North 1953 Birthday - David Moorcroft, born in Coventry, England, British athlete, long distance runner, 5,000 meters record holder, Chief Executive of UK Athletics from 1997 to 2007 1953 Birthday - Geoffrey Clifton-Brown, born in Cambridge, England, politician, landowner, Conservative party, Member of Parliament for Cotswold 1953 Birthday - Derek Conway, born in Newcastle upon Tyne, England, Derek Leslie Conway, politician, Conservative Party, awarded Territorial Decoration, Member of Parliament for Old Bexley and Sidcup 1952 Birthday - Jenny Agutter, born in Taunton, England, actress, Logan's Run, Equus, Amy 1952 Birthday - John Francome, born in Swindon, England, jockey, National Hunt Champion Jockey seven times, apprenticed with Fred Winter, presenter for horseracing broadcasts on Channel 4 1952 Birthday - Sarah Douglas, England, actress, Conan, Superman II, Falcon Crest 1952 Event - Killer fogs begin in London England, "Smog" becomes a word 1952 Birthday - Dusty Hare, born in Newark-on-Trent, England, professional rugby player, fullback, played for Nottingham R.F.C., Leicester Tigers 1952 Event - 2 trains collide with a derailed commuter train, kills 112 (England) 1952 Birthday - Cliff Adams, born in London, England, rocker, formed Cliff Adams Singers, known for ballads and novelty songs 1952 Birthday - Nina Carter, born in London, England, vocalist, Blonde on Blonde 1952 Birthday - George Meegen, England, walked 19,019 miles from Argentina to Alaska 1952 Birthday - John Otway, born in Buckinghamshire, England, unsuccessful singer, built large cult following based on underdog persona 1952 Birthday - Angela Cartwright, England, Make Room for Daddy, Lost in Space 1952 Birthday - Glenn Hughes, born in Cannock, England, bassist, vocalist, member of Black Sabbath, also played with Trapeze, Deep Purple 1952 Birthday - John Emburey, England cricket off-spinner, 1978-95, captain 1988 1952 Event - 9" of rain fall creates a 20' wave in Lynmouth, England killing 34 1952 Birthday - Ann Michelle, England, actress, Virigin Witch, Mistress Pamela 1952 Birthday - Alexei Sayle, born in Anfield, England, actor, comedian, author, films include, 'Gorky Park', 'Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade', wrote, 'Mister Roberts' 1952 Birthday - Dominic Muldowney, born in Southampton, England, composer, created television, film scores for Loose Connections, King Lear, radio work, theater music, created large-scale oboe concerto, versatile has created music for David Bowie, Royal Academy of Music teacher 1952 Birthday - Phillip Carrick, born in Yorkshire, England, cricketer, athlete 1952 Birthday - Chris Cross, born in Tottenham, England, musician, bass guitarist, new wave, glam rock, synthpop, rock genres, member of band Ultavox 1952 Birthday - Robert Ainsworth, born in Coventry, England, Robert William Ainsworth, politician, Labor Party, 2009, assumed roles of Secretary of State for Defense, since 1992, serves as a Member of Parliament for Coventry North East 1952 Birthday - Jimmy Lea, England, rock bassist, Slade 1952 Birthday - Martin Taylor, born in England, former CEO, Barclays Bank, Chairman, Syngenta AG 1952 Birthday - Allen Wells, England, 100m dash, Gold Medal 1980 Olympics 1952 Birthday - Dave Hill, born in England, rock guitarist, Slade-Coz I Love You 1952 Birthday - David Amess, born in London, England, British politician, Conservative, Member of Parliament for Southend West 1952 Birthday - Philip Green, born in Croyden, England, businessman, owns large retail stores including Arcadia Group, 9th richest person in Britain, worth over $4 billion 1952 Birthday - Douglas Adams, born in England, author, Hitchiker's Guide to the Galaxy 1952 Event - England replaces King George VI stamp series with Queen Elizabeth II 1952 Birthday - Andrew Smith, born in Wokingham, Berkshire, England, Andrew David Smith, politician, Labor Party, Member of Parliament for Oxford East 1952 Birthday - Dewey Bunell, born in Yorkshire, England, rock guitarist, America-Daisy Jane 1952 Birthday - Melvyn Gale, born in London, England, musician, classical musician, cellist, member, Electronic Light Orchestra, ELO, runs CD factory 1952 Death - Nawab of Pataudi, cricket (play polo 3 Tests for England 3 for Ind), dies 1951 Birthday - Richard Skinner, born in Portsmouth, England, British DJ, radio and television broadcaster, lead presenter on flagship programs 'Top of the Pops', 'Top 40 Show', 'Whistle Test' 1951 Birthday - Robert Lindsay, Ilketson England, actor, Strike it Rich, King Lear 1951 Birthday - David Rappaport, born in London, England, 3'11" actor, Wizard, Time Bandits 1951 Birthday - Nick Gilder, born in London, England, singer, Hot Child in the City 1951 Event - Vijay Merchant scores 154 vs. England in his last Test Cricket innings 1951 Birthday - John Ford Coley, rocker, England Dan and John Ford Coley 1951 Event - Florence Chadwick becomes 1st woman to swim English Channel from England to France. It takes 16 hours and 19 minutes 1951 Birthday - Alan Minter, England, light-middleweight boxer 1972 Olympics bronze 1951 Birthday - John Childs, cricketer, England left-arm spinner, two Tests vs. WI 1988 1951 Death - Neville Tufnell, cricket wicket keeper (Test for England 1910), dies 1951 Birthday - David Jasper, British principal, St. Chad's College Durham England 1951 Birthday - David Yip, born in Liverpool, England, of Chinese descent, English actor, played Johnny Ho in The Chinese Detective, played CIA liason agent Chuck Lee in 'A View to a Kill', a 1985 James Bond film 1951 Birthday - John Conteh, born in Liverpool, England, athlete, former British boxer, world light-heavyweight boxing champion 1951 Birthday - Simon Hughes, born in Cheshire, England, British politician, Liberal Member of Parliament of North Southwark and Bermondsey 1951 Birthday - Jonathan Richman, rocker, Modern Lovers-New England, Egyptian Reggae 1951 Birthday - John Battle, born in Bradford, England, politician, Labor Party, Member of Parliament for Leeds West, attended University of Leeds 1951 Birthday - Lynne Jones, born in Birmingham, England, British politician, Labour party, Member of Parliament for Birmingham Selly Oak 1951 Birthday - Paul Carrack, born in Sheffield, England, rock vocalist, Squeeze/Ace-How Long 1951 Birthday - John Gosden, born in Sussex, England, racehorse trainer, trained Nannina, winner, 2005 Filles' Mile and 2006 Coronation Stakes, and 2008 Breeders' Cup Classic 1951 Event - Test Cricket debut of Brian Statham, England vs. New Zealand Christchurch 1951 Birthday - Philippe Henri Edmonds, cricketer, in Zambia England slow left-arm 1951 Birthday - Derek Randall, cricketer, England batsman and animated cover fieldsman 1951 Birthday - Jane Seymour, Joyce Frankenberg, England, actress, Dr. Quinn 1951 Birthday - Bobby Stokes, born in Portsmouth, England, athlete, English footballer, scored the winning goal in 1976, Southampton F.C. vs. Manchester United, FA Cup Final, in the 83rd-minute, considered biggest upset in FA Cup Final history 1951 Birthday - Phil Collins, England, singer/drummer, Genesis-Against All Odds 1951 Birthday - Earl Howe, born in England, British politician, Conservative, front bench member, House of Lords, Health spokesman 1951 Birthday - Linda Hayden, Middlesex England, actress, Blood on Satan's Claw 1950 Birthday - Vicki Michelle, Essex England, actress, Virgin Witch, Allo Allo 1950 Birthday - Gary Green, born in Stroud Green, England, guitarist for Gentle Giant rock band, worked with Billy Sherwood on album, 'Back Against The Wall', 2005 1950 Birthday - Sheila White, born in London, England, actress, I Claudius 1950 Birthday - Victoria Tennant, born in London, England, All of Me, Chiefs, Winds of War 1950 Event - Because of forest fire in Br Columbia, blue moon appears in England 1950 Birthday - Paul Kossoff, born in London, England, rock guitarist, Free 1950 Birthday - Barry Sheene, born in London, England, motorcycle road racer, winner, Formula 750 World Championship and 1976 British Grand Prix 1950 Birthday - Don Powell, England, rock drummer, Slade 1950 Event - West Indies complete historic 3-1 series win against England 1950 Birthday - Susan George, born in London, England, actress, Straw Dogs, Mandingo 1950 Birthday - Mark Clarke, born in Liverpool, England, musician, bass guitarist, member of bands, Uriah Heep and Colosseum 1950 Event - Frank Worrell completes 261 vs. England at Trent Bridge 1950 Event - U.S. beats England 1-0 in a world cup soccer game (next win in 1994) 1950 Event - West Indies beat England by 326 runs thanks Ramadhin and Valentine 1950 Birthday - Sally Geeson, born in Sussex, England, actress, Bless This House 1950 Event - Test Cricket debut of Ramadhin and Valentine (8-104 1st inn) vs. England 1950 Birthday - Brian Rose, cricketer, England batsman in 9 Tests 1977-81 1950 Birthday - Keith Bradley, born in Birmingham, England, British politician, life peer, Labour Member of Parliament for Manchester Withington 1950 Birthday - Jeremy Paxman, born in Leeds, England, journalist, television presenter, broadcaster, worked for the BBC since 1977, known for abrasive interview style 1950 Birthday - Peter Frampton, born in Kent, England, guitarist and vocalist with 'Humble Pie' and 'The Herd' 1950 Birthday - Tony Banks, born in East Sussex, England, singer, musician, pianist, keyboard player, guitarist, founding member of Genesis 1950 Birthday - Graham Barlow, cricketer, England batsman in 3 Tests 1976-77 1950 Death - Douglas Carr, England cricket leg-spinner (Test 1909), dies 1950 Birthday - Julia Neuberger, Baroness Neuberger, born in England, British rabbi, member of the House of Lords, social reformer, Chancellor, University of Ulster 1950 Birthday - Anthony Lloyd, born in England, politician, Labor Party, Member of Parliament for Manchester Central, gay rights supporter, voted against the Iraq War and against renewal of the Trident Nuclear Missile System 1950 Birthday - Julie Walters, England, actress, Educating Rita, Prick Up Your Ears 1950 Birthday - Peter Gabriel, born in Surrey, England, rock vocalist, Genesis, In Your Eyes 1950 Birthday - England Dan, singer, England Dan and John Ford Coley 1950 Birthday - Glyn Ford, born in Gloucester, England, politician, author, Labor Party, member of Gibraltar Socialist Labor Party, Member of European Parliament for South West England, expert on Asia, wrote, 'North Korea on the Brink: Struggle for Survival' 1949 Birthday - Wally Edwards, cricketer, three Tests Australia vs. England 1974 1949 Birthday - Robin Gibb, born in Manchester, England, rocker, Bee Gees-Saturday Night Fever 1949 Birthday - Ray Shulman, born in Portsmouth, England, born Raymond Schulman, musician, record producer, member of Gentle Giant, British progressive rock band, produced records for The Sugarcubes 1949 Birthday - Peter Willey, cricketer, England batsman late 70's early 80's 1949 Birthday - Nickolas Grace, Cheshire England, actor, Diamond's Edge 1949 Death - Leslie Gay, cricket wicket-keeper/goalkeeper (England in 1890's), dies 1949 Birthday - David Coverdale, England, rock vocalist, Whitesnake, Deep Purple 1949 Birthday - Twiggy Lawson, Leslie Hornby, England, model/actress, Boyfriend, W 1949 Event - 8th Ryder Cup: U.S. beats Europe, 7-5 at Ganton GC, England 1949 Birthday - John Curry, England, figure skater 1976 Olympics gold 1949 Death - Arthur Fielder, England cricket fast bowler (6 Tests 1903-08), dies 1949 Birthday - Geoff Capes, born in Holbeach, England, shot putter, two-time winner, World's Strongest Man title, two-time Commonwealth Games shot put champion 1949 Birthday - Madeleine Smith, Sussex England, actress, Vampire Lovers 1949 Birthday - John Illsley, born in Leicester, England, rock bassist, Dire Straits 1949 Birthday - Bob Andrews, England, rock keyboardist/vocalist 1949 Birthday - Simon Callow, born in London, England, actor, Good Father 1949 Birthday - Bob Willis, cricketer, superb England fast bowler 1971-84 1949 Birthday - Marilyn Cole, Portsmouth, England, playmate of the year, Jan, 1972 1949 Birthday - Anita Dobson, born in England, actress, Annie Watts-EastEnders 1949 Birthday - Francis Rossi, born in England, guitarist and vocalist, Status Quo-Down Down 1949 Birthday - Helene Hayman, born in England, Baroness Helene Hayman, Helene Valerie Hayman, Member of Parliament, Life Peer, Lord Speaker of the House of Lords in the Parliament of the United Kingdom 1949 Birthday - Nick Lowe, born in England, rock vocalist, Rockpile-Cruel to be Kind 1949 Event - England beat South Africa by scoring 174 runs in 94 minutes 1949 Birthday - John Lever, cricketer, England lefty quick in 21 Tests 1976-81 1949 Birthday - Eddie Hemmings, cricket off-spinner, immense England 1949 Birthday - George Howard, born in England, George Beaumont William Howard, 13th Earl of Carlisle, member of the Third Creation, Earls of Carlisle, 1661 1949 Birthday - Mike Batt, born in Southampton, England, singer, composer, arranger, producer, helped created ecologically sensitive fictional creatures, The Wombles, wrote hit 'Bright Eyes' 1949 Event - England, Belgium, Lux, Netherlands, New Zealand and Switzerland recognize Israel 1949 Birthday - Robert Palmer, born in Batley, England, singer, Power Station 1949 Birthday - Lawrence Rowe, cricketer, prolific WI batsman, 302 vs. England 1974 1948 Birthday - Chris Old, cricketer, England medium-pacer of 70's 1948 Birthday - David Gwillim, Plymouth England, actor, Island at Top of the World 1948 Birthday - Lillian Board, England, 400m, Silver Medal 1968 Olympics 1948 Birthday - Ozzy Osbourne, England, rock vocalist, Black Sabbath-Bark at the Moon 1948 Birthday - Mike Hendrick, cricketer, England seam bowler in 30 Tests 1974-81 1948 Birthday - Rick Parfitt, Surrey England, pop guitarist/singer, Status Quo-Wanderer 1948 Birthday - Olivia Newton-John, born in Cambridge, England, singer, Lets Get Physical 1948 Birthday - Jeremy Irons, England, actor, French Lieutenant's Woman 1948 Event - Bradman scores 153 in his last 1st-class cricket innings in England 1948 Birthday - Judy Geeson, Arundei Sussex England, actress, To Sir With Love, Berserk 1948 Event - Bradman scores 143 Australia vs. South of England, 17 fours 1 six 1948 Event - England all out for 52 vs. Australia at Cricket Oval 1948 Birthday - Robert Spink, born in Haworth, Worth Valley, Yorkshire, England, Robert Michael Spink, politician, Independence Party, former Conservative Party member, became Member of Parliament for Castle Point in June, 2001 1948 Event - Australia set 404 to win vs. England at Headingley 1948 Birthday - Nigel Osborne, born in Manchester, England, composer, studied with Egon Wellesz, Kenneth Leighton, music professor, University of Edinburgh 1948 Birthday - Leo Sayer, Gerard, England, singer, When I Need Love 1948 Birthday - Brian Eno, born in Woodbridge, England, rock keyboardist/singer, On Land 1948 Birthday - Bob Woolmer, cricketer, England batsman mid-70's 1948 Birthday - Steve Winwood, England, rock bassist, A Higher Love 1948 Birthday - Bill Ward, born in Birmingham, England, musician, vocalist, drummer for Black Sabbath, a British heavy metal band, sang lead vocals on Technical Ecstacy, Never Say Die! 1948 Birthday - Mike Selvey, cricketer, England pace bowler of late 70's 1948 Birthday - Alexander Hood, born in England, Alexander Nelson Hood, 4th Viscount Bridport, 7th Duke of Bronte, investment banker, descendent of William Nelson, 1st Earl Nelson 1948 Birthday - Mary Gordon-Watson, born in England, equestrian 3 day event, 1972 Olympics gold 1948 Event - H H H Johnson bowls WI to win vs. England 10-96 match on debut 1948 Birthday - Nigel Jones, born in Chelenham, England, politician, Liberal Democrat, Member of Parliament for Cheltenham 1992 - 2005 1948 Birthday - Les Holroyd, born in Oldham, England, rocker, Barclay James Harvest 1948 Birthday - Dennis "Minder" Waterman, born in London, England, actor, Fair Exchange 1948 Birthday - Peter Mond, born in England, 4th Baron Melchett, Lord Melchett, heir to Sir Alfred Mond's fortune, Labor Party whip, researched cannabis addition, Greenpeace activist 1948 Event - Wright Flyer, 1st plane to fly, returns to U.S. from England 1948 Event - Billy Griffith scores cricket century on debut England vs. WI, out for 140 1948 Event - Test Cricket debut of Frank Worrell, vs. England Port-of-Spain 1948 Death - Ewart Astill, cricket all-rounder (9 Tests for England 1927-30), dies 1948 Birthday - William Hastings-Bass, born in England, William Edward Robin Hood Hastings-Bass, 17th Earl of Huntington, member of the Seventh Creation, Earls of Huntington 1948 Event - W Indies vs. England, Test debut Walcott, Weekes and Jim Laker 1948 Birthday - Anthony Andrews, born in London, England, actor, Under the Volcano 1948 Birthday - Mel Pritchard, born in Oldham, England, Melvyn Pritchard, Mel Pritchard, drummer, rocker, played progressive rock with Barclay James Harvest, worked with Les Holroyd 1947 Birthday - Cozy Powell, England, rock drummer, Jeff Beck Group, Whitesnake, ELP 1947 Birthday - Ben Cross, England, actor, Chariots of Fire, Far Pavillions 1947 Birthday - Jim Plunkett, born in San Jose, California, NFL quarterback, New England, Oakland 1947 Birthday - Rod Clements, born in North Shields, England, singer, songwriter, guitarist, worked with Wizz Jones, Peter Hamill, Michael Chapman 1947 Birthday - Greg Lake, born in Dorset, England, singer, songwriter, guitarist, performed "Karn Evil 9" with the Trans Siberian Orchestra, played "Lucky Man" with Jethro Tull 1947 Event - Series of forest fires $30 million of timber (New England States) 1947 Birthday - Edgar Broughton, born in Warwick, England, founder, progressive rock group, The Edgar Broughton Band, 1968 1947 Death - Sydney Webb, England, writer/husband of Beatrice Potter, dies 1947 Birthday - Rob Davis, born in Carshalton, England, musician, guitarist, songwriter, song 'Tiger Feet' for glam rock band Mud top record of the United Kingdom in 1974 1947 Birthday - Marc Bolan, born in London, England, rock vocalist, T-Rex-Bang a Gong 1947 Birthday - Rula Lenska, St. Neots England, actress, Friends from Europe are here 1947 Birthday - John Fiddler, born in England, rock vocalist and guitarist, British Lions 1947 Birthday - Tessa Jowell, born in Marylebone, England, politician, Member of Parliament for Dulwich and West Norwood, Cabinet Minister 1947 Birthday - Lol Creme, Lawrence Creme, England, rock vocalist and guitarist, 10cc 1947 Birthday - Alan Ward, England cricket pace bowler, 1969 - 1976 1947 Birthday - Camilla Parker-Bowles, born in London, England, Prince Charles' lover 1947 Birthday - Richard Beckinsale, born in Nottingham, England, actor, Porridge, Doing Time 1947 Birthday - Joey Molland, born in Edge Hill, England, guitarist, composer, singer, songwriter, member, Badinger, The Merseys, Natural Gas 1947 Birthday - Marion Coakes, born in England, equestrian show jumper, Silver Medal 1968 Olympics 1947 Birthday - John Bonham, Redditch England, drummer, Led Zeppelin-Stairway 1947 Birthday - Rosie Barnes, born in Nottingham, England, born Rosemary Susan Allen, politician, founding member of the Social Democratic Party, served the Council for Social Democracy, charity organizer 1947 Birthday - David Hughes, born in Newton-le-Willows, England, cricketer, right batsman, made 10,419 first-class runs in 20 years for Lancashire 1947 Birthday - Dave Mason, Worcester, England, singer and songwriter, We Just Disagree 1947 Birthday - Barry Guy, born in London, England, composer, musician, double bass player, Guildhall School of Music teacher, influenced by contemporary jazz, member Michael Nyman Band 1947 Birthday - David Leland, born in Cambridge, England, actor and director, Nothing But Trouble 1947 Birthday - Bob Massie, cricketer, Australia swing bowler, 16 wkts on debut vs. England 1972 1947 Death - Joseph Hardstaff, cricket (311 runs in 5 Tests for England 1907-08), dies 1947 Birthday - Elton John, born in Pinner, England, also known as Reginald Kenneth Dwight, singer 'Rocketman' and 'Candle in the Wind' 1947 Event - Test Cricket debut of Bert Sutcliffe, New Zealand vs. England at Christchurch 1947 Birthday - Barry Wilson, England, rock drummer, Procol Harum-Whiter Shade of Pale 1947 Birthday - David Lloyd, cricketer, England opener, 214 vs. India 1974 1947 Birthday - Kiki Dee, born in Yorkshire, England, singer, Don't Go Breaking My Heart 1947 Birthday - Stephanie Beacham, England, Devil's Widow, Schizo, Dallas, Colbys 1947 Birthday - Lewis Moonie, born in Dundee, England, Baron Moonie, politician, life peer, Labor Party, Member of Parliament for Kircaldy 1947 Birthday - Geoff Cope, cricketer, England off-spinner 1977-78 1947 Death - Fred Barratt, cricket (5 wkts at 47 in 5 Tests for England 1929-30), dies 1947 Birthday - John Lees, England, rock guitarist and vocalist, Medicine Man 1947 Birthday - Anna Calder-Marshall, Kensington England, actress, Zulu Dawn 1947 Birthday - David Bowie, born in London, England, singer and actor, Major Tom, Ziggy Stardust, also known as David Robert Hayward-Jones 1947 Event - Australia vs. England at MCG drawn in 6 days, 1st cricket draw in Australia since 1882 1947 Event - Ray Lindwall smashes 100 vs. England in MCG Test 1946 Birthday - Marianne Faithfull, born in Hampstead, England, vocalist, Money 1946 Birthday - Marianne Faithfull, born in Hampstead, England, singer, Money, As Tears Go By 1946 Birthday - Jane Birkin, born in London, England, actress, Mrs Don Juan, Dark Places, Dust 1946 Birthday - Frank Hayes, cricketer, 106* England vs. WI on debut 1973 1946 Event - Bradman scores 187 in 1st Test Cricket vs. England at the Gabba 1946 Birthday - Bev[erley] Bevan, Birmingham England, rock drummer, ELO 1946 Birthday - Diana Quick, born in London, England, actress, Brideshead, Big Sleep, Odd Job 1946 Birthday - Ramnath Parkar, cricket batsman, Indian in 2 Tests vs. England 1972-73 1946 Birthday - Vicki Hodge, born in London, England, actress, Confessions of a Sex Maniac 1946 Birthday - Justin Hayward, England, vocalist, Moody Blues-Nights in White Satin 1946 Birthday - Charles Dane, England, actor, Plenty, Jewel in the Crown 1946 Birthday - Fiona Lewis, Westcliff England, actress, Stunts, Lisztomania 1946 Birthday - Pat Pocock, cricketer, intermittent England off-spinner 1968-85 1946 Birthday - Barry Gibb, born in Manchester, England, guitarist/singer, Bee Gees 1946 Birthday - Alison Steadman, Liverpool England, actress, Life is Sweet 1946 Birthday - Graham Roope, cricketer, England batsman in 21 Tests 1972-78 1946 Birthday - Clive Francis, born in London, England, actor, Masada 1946 Birthday - Ian McDonald, born in London, England, rock guitarist, Foreigner, King Crimson 1946 Birthday - Matthew Fisher, born in England, keyboardist, Procol Harum-Conquistador 1946 Birthday - Dudley Fishburn, born in England, British politician, journalist, Conservative Party, Member of Parliament of the United Kingdom, holds directorship for Altria Group 1946 Birthday - Ian Hunter, England, rocker, Mott the Hoople-All the Young Dudes 1946 Birthday - Graham Gouldman, Manchester, England, bassist, 10cc-No Milk Today 1946 Death - Joe Humphries, cricket wicket keeper (3 Tests for England 1907-08), dies 1946 Birthday - Tim Curry, born in Cheshire, England, actor, Rocky Horror Show 1946 Birthday - Hayley Mills, born in London, England, actress, Parent Trap, Pollyanna 1946 Birthday - Murray Head, born in London, England, born Murray Seafield Saint-George Head, actor, singer, hit song, 'One Night in Bangkok' 1946 Event - British Government takes control of Bank of England, after 252 years 1946 Birthday - Tony Ashton, born in Blackburn, England, singer, composer, rock pianist, producer, artist 1946 Event - Bank of England nationalized 1946 Birthday - Clare Short, born in Birmingham, England, politician, left wing, Secretary of State for Internal Development, supports legislating cannabis, critical of Israel 1946 Event - Bank of England nationalized 1946 Birthday - Keith Mans, born in England, politician, born Keith Douglas Rowland Mans, Member of Parliament for Wyre, educated at the RAF College Cranwell and the Open University 1946 Birthday - Annette Penhaligon, born in England, politician, secretary for Member of Parliament for Truro, in Cornwall, England, knighted for services to politics and public service 1946 Birthday - Charlotte Rampling, born in England, actress, Zardoz, Night Porter, Verdict 1946 Birthday - Kim Gardner, England, rock bassist, Ashton, Gardner and Dyke 1946 Birthday - Julian Barnes, England, writer, Before She Met Me 1946 Birthday - Tony Kaye, born in Leicester, England, musician, keyboardist for 'Yes', progressive rock group 1945 Birthday - Davy Jones, born in Manchester, England, singer, Monkees-Last Train to Clarksville 1945 Birthday - Christopher Cazenove, England, actor, Ben-Dynasty 1945 Birthday - Valerie Leon, born in London, England, actress, Blood from Mummy's Tomb 1945 Birthday - Roy Wood, Birmingham England, rock vocalist/celloist, ELO 1945 Birthday - Wayne Fontana, Manchester England, rocker, Groovy Kind of Love 1945 Birthday - Kevin Godley, Manchester England, rock vocalist, 10cc 1945 Birthday - Brian Ferry, England, rocker, Roxy Music-Let's Stick Together 1945 Birthday - Kelly Groucutt, born in Coseley, England, bass player, Electronic Light Orchestra, ELO, musician, pop, rock, rock and roll genres 1945 Birthday - Chris Copping, Essex England, rock bassist, Procol Harum 1945 Event - England defeat Australia Services by 6 wkts in 5th Victory Test Cricket 1945 Birthday - Kevin Ayers, England, progressive rocker, Joy of a Toy 1945 Birthday - Robin Jackman, cricketer, England medium-pacer early eighties 1945 Event - England and Australia Services draw 4th Victory Test 1945 Event - U.S., U.S.S.R., England and France sign Treaty of London 1945 Birthday - John Bowis, born in Brighton, England, Conservative Party, Member of Parliament for Battersea, member of the ACP-EU Joint Parliamentary Assembly 1945 Birthday - Helen Mirren, born in England, actress, Cook Thief Wife 1945 Birthday - Leigh Lawson, born in Atherston, England, actress, Fire and Sword, Charlie Boy 1945 Birthday - John Lodge, born in Birmingham, England, musician, singer, songwriter, bass guitar player, member of The Moody Blues rock band, created songs 'Candle of Life', 'Eyes of a Child', 'Send Me No Wine' 1945 Birthday - Virginia Wade, England, tennis star, Wimbledon 1977 1945 Birthday - Iain MacDonald-Smith, born in England, yachtsman, Gold Medal 1968 Olympics 1945 Event - England win the second Victory test cricket at Bramall Lane by 41 runs 1945 Birthday - Colin Blunstone, born in England, rocker, Zombies-Never Even Thought 1945 Birthday - Chris Britton, England, rock guitarist, Troggs-Wild Thing 1945 Birthday - Rod Argent, born in England, keyboardist, Zombies-She's Not There 1945 Event - U.S., Russia, England and France agree to split occupied Germany 1945 Birthday - Dave Lee Travis, born in Derbyshire, England, radio presenter, stage name DLT, hosted shows on Garrison Radio, BBC Radio 1, Magic Network, DAB Digital Radio 1945 Birthday - Richard Ottaway, born in Bristol, England, Richard Geoffrey James Ottaway, politician, Conservative Party, attended Brittania Royal Naval College in Dartmouth, Member of Parliament for Croydon South 1945 Event - Start of the 1st Victory Test Cricket between England and Australia Services 1945 Birthday - Robert Henrit, England, rocker, Argent 1945 Birthday - Ritchie Blackmore, born in England, guitarist, Rainbow-Stone Cold, Deep Purple 1945 Birthday - Eric Clapton, born in Ripley, England, singer/guitarist, Tears in Heaven 1945 Birthday - Jeremy Clyde, born in England, rocker, Chad and Jeremy-Yesterday's Gone 1945 Birthday - Hugh Grundy, born in Winchester England, drummer, Zombies-She's Not There 1945 Birthday - Elkie Brooks, Manchester England, rocker, Pearl's a Singer 1945 Birthday - Vic Briggs, England, rocker, Animals 1945 Birthday - Jacqueline du Pree, Oxford England, cellist 1944 Birthday - Alvin Lee, Nottingham England, rock vocals/guitarist, 10 Years After 1944 Birthday - Jonathan King, born in London, England, Kenneth George King, singer, songwriter, pop music producer, wrote song 'Everyone's Gone to the Moon', successful writer, producer for other musical artists 1944 Birthday - Bev Bevan, born in Sparkhill, Birmingham, England, born Beverley Bevan, rocker musician, played drums, percussion, original member of ELO, founded Electric Light Orchestra Part II, toured as a drummer for band Black Sabbath 1944 Birthday - Ken Shuttleworth, cricketpaceman, England on 1970-71 Ashes tour 1944 Birthday - Phil May, born in Wortley, England, artist, caricaturist, drawings published in The Bulletin, St. Stephens Review, The Graphic, regular staff member of Punch 1944 Birthday - Keith Emerson, born in England, Emerson, Lake and Palmer-Brain Salad Surgery 1944 Birthday - Bob Cottam, cricketer, England fast-medium on 2 India/Pakistan tours 1944 Event - Hurricane hits New England: 389 die 1944 Birthday - Jacqueline Bisset, England, actress, Class, Deep, Secrets 1944 Birthday - Roger Waters, born in Cambridge, England, rock bassist, Pink Floyd-Wall 1944 Event - U.S. B-24 crashes into school in Freckelton England, 76 killed 1944 Birthday - Rick Davies, born in London, England, rock vocalist/keyboardist, Supertramp 1944 Event - General Bradley flies to England 1944 Birthday - Tony Jacklin, born in Scunthorpe, England, PGA golfer, 1970 U.S. Open 1944 Event - 2500+ killed in London and South East England by German flying bombs 1944 Birthday - Jeff Beck, born in Surrey, England, singer/guitarist, Jeff Beck Group 1944 Birthday - Chris Spedding, born in Staveley, Derbyshire, England, born Peter Robinson, rocker, jazz guitarist, rock and roll, considered the most versatile session guitarist in the U.K. 1944 Birthday - Linda Foster, Lancaster England, actress, Doris-Hank 1944 Birthday - Rick Price, born in Birmingham, England, bassist, rock music, bass player, played with Electronic Light Orchestra, ELO, The Move 1944 Birthday - Janric Craig, born in England, born Janric Fraser Craig, 3rd Viscount Craigavon, served in the House of Lords 1944 Birthday - Robert Powell, England, actor, Jigsaw Man, Shaka Zulu, Secrets 1944 Birthday - Mick Ralphs, born in Hereford, England, born Michael Geoffrey Ralphs, guitarist, songwriter, founding member of music bands Mott the Hopple and Bad Company 1944 Birthday - Quentin Davies, born in Oxford, England, Member of Parliament for Grantham and Stamford 1987 - 1997, Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Defense under Prime Minister, Gordon Brown 1944 Birthday - Frank Oz, Heresford England, puppeteer, Sesame St, Muppet Show 1944 Birthday - Olga Maitland, born in England, born Lady Helen Olga Hay, known as Lady Olga Maitland, politician, Conservative Party 1944 Birthday - Keith Fletcher, cricket captain, Essex and England 1944 Birthday - Albert Hammond, born in London, England, rocker, musician, songwriter, producer, collaborated with Mike Hazelwood on The Air That I Breathe for the Hollies, wrote hits for Tina Turner 1944 Birthday - Francesca Annis, born in London, England, actress, Madame Bovary, Dune 1944 Birthday - Clive Radley, cricketer, England batsman in 8 Tests 1978 1944 Birthday - Gary Glitter, Paul Gadd, England, rocker, Rock and Roll Part II 1944 Birthday - John Rhys-Davies, Salisbury England, actor, Sir Edward-Quest, Sliders 1944 Event - German Abwehr ends England spiel, after 132 killed 1944 Birthday - Carol White, born in England, actress, Daddy's Gone a Hunting 1944 Birthday - Ross Duncan, cricketer, one Test Australia vs. England 1971, 0-30 1944 Birthday - Patti Boyd, born in Somerset, England, Mrs. George Harrison and Mrs. Eric Clapton 1944 Birthday - Geoff Arnold, cricketer, England medium-pacer in 34 Tests 1967-75 1944 Birthday - David Gilmore, born in Cambridge, England, guitarist, Pink Floyd 1944 Birthday - Jerry Springer, born in London, England, talk show host, Jerry Springer Show 1944 Birthday - Andrew Davis, Ashbridge, England, conductor, New Philharmonic Orchestra London 1944 Birthday - William Westwood, born in England, born William Gavin Westwood, 3rd Baron Westwood of Gosforth in the County of Northumberland, Peerage of the United Kingdom 1944 Birthday - Kevin Coyne, born in Derby, England, musician, composer, singer, songwriter, poet, gained notoriety with mainstream rock with Virgin release Marjory Razorblade 1944 Event - General Eisenhower arrives in England 1944 Birthday - Mike McGear, born in Liverpool, England, singer, Paul McCartney's brother 1943 Birthday - Ben Kingsley, Scarborough England, actor, Gandhi, Betrayal, Maurice 1943 Birthday - Peter Quaife, Devon England, rock bassist, Kinks-Long Tall Sally 1943 Birthday - Keith Richards, born in England, rock guitarist, Rolling Stones-Brown Sugar 1943 Birthday - Dave Dee, born in Wiltshire, England, singer, songwriter, guitarist, member of the chart-topping British pop/rock band Dave Dee, Dozy, Beaky, Mick & Tich 1943 Birthday - Mike Smith, born in Edmonston, England, born Michael George Smith, singer, songwriter, keyboardist, music producer, played for The Dave Clark Five 1943 Birthday - David Munden, born in England, played for the Tremeloes, a 50 year old band, Europe's longest playing rock and roll band 1943 Birthday - Roy Lynes, England, rock organist, Status Quo 1943 Birthday - Carl Wayne, born in Birmingham, England, Colin David Tooley, actor, lead vocalist 'The Move', 1960's Birmingham rock group 1943 Birthday - Edward Cowie, born in Birmingham, England, composer, orchestral, chamber, choral works, conductor, painter, author 1943 Birthday - Keith Hampson, born in England, politician, Conservative Party, Member of Parliament for Ripon 1943 Birthday - Ronald Campbell, born in Tynemouth, England, politician, Labor Party, Member of Parliament for Blyth Valley 1943 Birthday - Roger Smalley, born in Manchester, England, composer, pianist, conductor, studied with Alexander Goehr, specialty, improvisation, live electronics 1943 Birthday - Roger Ruskin Spear, born in London, England, saxophonist, Bonzo Dog Doo Dah Band 1943 Birthday - Bobby Harrison, born in England, rock drummer, Procol Harum-Conquistador 1943 Birthday - Malcolm McDowell, born in Leeds, England, actor, Clockwork Orange, Caligula 1943 Birthday - Bill Hopkins, born in Prestbury, Cheshire, England, British composer, music critic, teacher, pianist, studied at Oxford University with Egon Wellesz and Edmund Rubbra, taught at Birmingham University and University of Newcastle upon Tyne 1943 Birthday - Ray Mitchell, governor, Albany Prison, England 1943 Birthday - Cilla Black, Liverpool England, rock vocalist, You're My World 1943 Event - Churchill pledges England's full support to U.S. against Japan 1943 Birthday - Michael Palin, England, comedian, Monty Python, Fish Called Wanda 1943 Death - Beatrice Webb, sociologist, reformer, economist, co-authored 'History of Trade Unionism', 1894, co-founder of 'New Statesman' magazine, dies at age 85, in Liphook, England 1943 Birthday - Hugh Davies, born in Exmouth, England, composer, musicologist, invented musical instruments from household items, 1970's member of the Artist Placement Group 1943 Birthday - John Montagu, born in England, 11th Earl of Sandwich, elected as a hereditary peer in the House of Lords, related to 4th Earl who popularized the sandwich 1943 Birthday - Jonathan Lynn, born in Bath, England, actor, Danny-Doctor in the House 1943 Birthday - Jonathan Lynn, born in Bath, England, writer and actor, Greedy, Bar Mitzvah Boy 1943 Birthday - Eric Idle, born in England, comedian and actor, Monty Python 1943 Birthday - Keith Reif, born in England, rocker, Yardbirds-For Your Love, Renaissance 1943 Birthday - Tom McNally, born in England, Thomas McNally, Baron McNally, politician, Liberal Party, Liberal Democrat leader in the House of Lords, life peer, Baron of Blackpool in the County of Lancashire 1943 Birthday - Lord Mountevans, born in England, born Edward Patrick Broke Evans, 3rd Baron Mountevans of Chelsea in the County of London 1943 Birthday - Julia Cumberlege, born in England, Julia Frances Cumberlege, Baroness Cumberlege, politician, businesswoman, British Conservative Party, member of Dames of the Order of St. Gregory the Great 1943 Birthday - Gavin Bryars, born in Goole, England, composer, bassist, performed in trio Joseph Holbrooke, founding member, Portsmouth Sinfonia 1942 Birthday - Andy Summers, born in Blackpool, England, rock guitarist, Police-Roxanne 1942 Birthday - Barry Wood, cricketer, England opener in early 70's 1942 Birthday - Dave Clark, born in London, England, rock drummer, Dave Clark 5-Glad All Over 1942 Birthday - Mike Pinder, Birmingham England, rocker, Moody Blues 1942 Birthday - Bob Hoskins, Suffolk England, actor, Brazil, Who Killed Roger Rabbit? 1942 Birthday - Greg Ridley, born in Cumberland, England, rock, bass guitarist, played for Humble Pie and Spooky Tooth, popular double album Performance Rockin' the Fillmore 1942 Birthday - Ian McShane, Blackburn England, actor, Roots, Bare Essence 1942 Birthday - Tessa Blackstone, born in England, Baroness Blackstone, politician, university administrator, Labor Party, life peer, House of Lords, Baroness Blackstone of Stoke Newington in Greater London 1942 Birthday - Michael Stephen, born in England, politician, Conservative Party, Member of Parliament for Shoreham from 1992 until 1997 1942 Birthday - Imogen Hassall, Surrey England, Countess of Cleavage, Carry on Lovng 1942 Birthday - Barbara Ferris, born in London, England, actress, Nice Girl Like Me 1942 Birthday - Paul McCartney, born in Liverpool, England, rocker, Beatles, writes love songs 1942 Birthday - Norman Kuhlice, England, rocker, Swinging Blue Jeans-You're No Good 1942 Birthday - John Rostill, born in Kings Norton, England, composer, bass guitarist, member, The Shadows, The Internst, rock and roll, pop genres 1942 Birthday - Ray Ennis, England, guitar, Swinging Blue Jeans-You're No Good 1942 Birthday - Anthony Wayne England, Indianapolis, PhD/astronaut, STS-51-F 1942 Birthday - Robin Hobbs, cricketer, England leg-spinner 1967-71 1942 Birthday - Lynn Farleigh, Bristol England, actress, Lovers of Their Time 1942 Birthday - Mike Brearley, cricketer, outstanding England captain 1977-81 1942 Birthday - Graeme Edge, born in England, rock drummer, Moody Blues-Your Wildest Dreams 1942 Birthday - Michael York, born in England, actor, Cabaret, Logan's Run, 3 Musketeers 1942 Birthday - Hughie Flint, born in London, England, rock drummer, Bonzo Dog Band 1942 Birthday - Ann Packer-Brightwell, England, 400m/800m runner, 1964 Olympic gold 1942 Birthday - Ralph Ellis, England, rhythm, Swinging Blue Jeans-You're No Good 1942 Birthday - Tony Meehan, born in New End, England, born Daniel Joseph Anthony Meehan, musician, drummer, founding member of the Shadows with Hank Marvin, Bruce Welch, Jet Harris 1942 Birthday - Paul Jones, England, rocker, Manfried Mann-Mighty Quinn 1942 Event - Hitler's Operation Seelowe (invasion of England) cancelled 1942 Birthday - James Couchman, born in England, Conservative Party, Member of Parliament for Gillingham 1942 Birthday - Dave Brown, cricketer, Warwicks pace bowler, played 26X for England 1942 Birthday - Michael Crawford, England, Broadway star, Phantom of the Opera 1941 Birthday - Sarah Miles, born in Essex, England, actress, Ryan's Hope, Big Sleep, Venom 1941 Birthday - Ray Thomas, England, rock vocalist, Moody Blues-Nights in White Satin 1941 Birthday - Jeff Jones, cricketer, England left-arm pace bowler in 60's 1941 Birthday - Juliet Mills, born in London, England, actress, Nanny and the Professor, QB VII 1941 Birthday - David Hemmings, Guilford England, actor, Blow-up, Barbarella 1941 Birthday - Brian Poole, Essex England, vocalist, Brian Poole and The Tremeloes 1941 Birthday - Hank Marvin, England, rocker 1941 Birthday - Colin Milburn, cricketer, England bat whose career was cut short 1941 Birthday - Charles Keating, born in London, England, actor, Carl Hutchins-Another World 1941 Birthday - Simon Ward, born in London, England, actor, 4 Musketeers, 4 Feathers 1941 Birthday - John Snow, cricketer, fiery England quickie Unpopular with Aussies 1941 Birthday - Martin Murray, born in London, England, rocker, Honeycombs 1941 Birthday - David Steele, cricketer, England batsman, courageous vs. Lillee 1975 1941 Birthday - Jim Fox, England, pentathlete, Olympics-1972 1941 Birthday - Les Braid, England, bass, Swinging Blue Jeans-You're No Good 1941 Birthday - Monica Mason, England, ballerina 1941 Birthday - Robin Leach, born in London, England, TV host, Life Styles of Rich and Famous 1941 Birthday - Bill Parcells, NFL coach, New York Giants, New York Jets, New England Patriots 1941 Birthday - Anita Lonsbrough, born in England, 200m backstroke swimmer, Gold Medal 1960 Olympics 1941 Birthday - Wayne Hussey, born in Bristol, England, guitarist, The Sisters of Mercy, lead singer, The Mission, rocker, plays Line 6 Variax 500, Gretsch White Falcon 1941 Birthday - Graeme Corling, Australian cricket fast bowler, 1964 England tour 1941 Birthday - Ian Whitcomb, born in England, rocker, You Turn Me On 1941 Birthday - John Jameson, cricketer, England batsman, 465 p/ship with Kanhai 1941 Birthday - Stephen Frears, born in England, dir, Prick Up Your Ears, Dangerous Liaisons 1941 Birthday - Soraya Khashoogi, born in Leicester, England, wife, Adrian Khashoogi 1941 Birthday - Jon Lord, born in England, keyboardist, Deep Purple-Hush, White Snake 1941 Event - 1st Messerschmidt 109F shot down above England 1941 Birthday - Eric Burdon, England, rock vocalist, Animals-House of the Rising Sun 1941 Event - England's House of Commons and Holborn Theater destroyed in a blitz 1941 Birthday - Dorothy Hyman, England, sprinter, Silver Medal 1960 Olympics 1941 Birthday - Grahame Bilby, cricketer, two Tests New Zealand vs. England 1966 1941 Event - 2 Fokker's employees flee nazi occupied Netherlands to England 1941 Birthday - Ed Stewart, born in Exmouth, Devon, England, 'Stewpot', radio broadcaster 1941 Event - Germany blitzes Conventry, England 1941 Birthday - Eric Burdon, born in England, rocker, Animals-House of the Rising Sun 1941 Birthday - Jeremy Clyde, born in Dorney, England, musician, television actor, appearing in action series, Crossbow, drama series, The Alan Clark Diaries 1941 Birthday - John Butterfill, born in Kingston upon Thames, England, politician, Conservative Party, Member of Parliament Bournemouth West 1941 Birthday - John Hampshire, cricketer, of Yorkshire Century on debut for England 1969 1941 Birthday - Henry Jaglom, born in London, England, actor, Eating, Lucky Ducks, Always 1941 Birthday - Michael Chapman, Leeds England, rocker, Looking for 11 1941 Birthday - Long John Baldry, England, blues vocalist, Don't try to Lay No Boogie 1941 Birthday - Graham Chapman, England, comedian, Monty Python's Flying Circus 1940 Birthday - Pete Brown, born in Ashtead, England, poet, lyricist, musical producer, worked with The Battered Ornaments, created Pete Brown & Piblokto! 1940 Birthday - Mike Denness, cricketer, England batsman and captain mid-70s 1940 Birthday - John Alderton, Gainsborough England, actor, Zardoz 1940 Birthday - Chris Balderstone, cricket batsman, England, belated faced WI in 1976 1940 Event - During WW II, German planes destroy most of Coventry, England 1940 Birthday - Jack Birkenshaw, cricketer, England off-spinner 1973-74 1940 Birthday - Geoffrey Boycott, cricketer, stoic England opener 1964-82 1940 Birthday - Chris Farlowe, born in North London, England, John Henry Deighton, rocker, singer, soul, rhythm and blues, jazz rock, signed with Columbia and Immediate, once used pseudonym 'Little Joe Cook' 1940 Event - Hitler begins operation-Seelowe (invasion of England) 1940 Birthday - Bob Cowper, cricketer, Australia LHB, 307 vs. England MCG 1966 Very rich 1940 Event - 12 German aircraft shot down above England 1940 Event - 17 German aircrafts shot down above England 1940 Event - 47 German aircrafts shot down above England 1940 Event - 55 German aircraft shot down above England 1940 Event - 19 German aircrafts shot down above England 1940 Event - Hitler begins invasion of England (operation Seelowe) 1940 Event - Hitler begins operation-Seelowe (invasion England) 1940 Event - 28 German aircraft shot down above England 1940 Event - Luftwaffe loses 41 bombers above England 1940 Birthday - Jackie Trent, born in Newcastle-under-Lyme, England, singer, actress, songwriter, wrote famous theme tune for TV soap, 'Neighbours' 1940 Event - Hitler orders invasion in England on Sept 21 (Operation-Seelowe) 1940 Birthday - Pauline Collins, born in London, England, actress, Shirley Valentine 1940 Event - 71 German aircrafts shot down above England 1940 Event - 45 German aircrafts shot down over England 1940 Event - Heavy dogfights above England: 75 German aircrafts damaged 1940 Event - Germany air attack on South England (Battle of Britain begins) 1940 Event - 38 German aircrafts shot down above England 1940 Event - 31 German aircraft shot down over England 1940 Birthday - Patrick Stewart, born in England, actor, Picard-Star Trek Next Generation 1940 Event - Hitler orders invasion of England 1940 Birthday - Clint Warwick, born in Birmingham England, bassist, Moody Blues, 1940 Birthday - Adam Faith, born in England, singer, Poor Me, What Do You Want? 1940 Birthday - John Mahoney, born in Manchester, England, actor, Fraiser, Frantic, 8 Men Out 1940 Event - Admiral Furstner departs to England 1940 Event - Dutch Queen Wilhelmina flees to England 1940 Birthday - Bruce Chatwin, England, writer, On the Black Hill 1940 Birthday - William Cash, born in London, England, born William Nigel Paul Cash, politician, Member of Parliament for Stafford, Member of Parliament for Stone 1940 Event - Norwegian King Haakon and government flees to England 1940 Birthday - David Larter, cricketer, two-metre tall England pace bowler 1940 Birthday - Jeffrey Archer, born in England, Tory-Commons, author, Matter of Honor 1940 Birthday - Anne Campbell, born in England, politician, Labor Member of Parliament for Cambridge, portrayed by Harriet Walter in 10 Days to War, a BBC drama on events leading up to the Iraq War 1940 Birthday - Norman Gifford, cricketer, respected England slow left-armer 1964-73 1940 Birthday - June Wilkinson, born in Eastbourne, England, actress, Absolutely Glamarous 1940 Birthday - Rita Tushingham, born in Liverpool, England, actress, Green Eyes, Dr. Zhivago 1940 Birthday - Peter McEnery, England, actor, Game is Over, Moonspinners 1940 Birthday - Mary Rand-Bignal-Toomey, England, long jumper 1964 Olympic gold 1940 Birthday - Ted Koppel, born in Lancashire, England, news anchor, ABC Nightline 1940 Birthday - Gary Bond, England, actor, Outback, Zulu, Anne of Thousand Days 1940 Birthday - John Hurt, England, actor, Elephant Man, Alien, Midnight Express 1939 Birthday - Michael J Moorcock, England, sci-fi author, Alien Heat, Bull and Spear 1939 Birthday - John Cleese, born in Weston-super-Mare, England, comedian, Monty Python 1939 Event - Last day of 1st-class cricket in England for 6 years 1939 Event - Chaim Weizmann informs England that Palestine Jews will fight in WW II 1939 Birthday - Clem Cattini, born in Stoke Newton, North London, England, musician, drummer, played with The Tornados in the 1960's, appeared for diverse array of artists, featured on 45 different UK number one singles, considered most beloved early British rock n' roll figure 1939 Birthday - John Badham, Luton England, director, Dracula, Short Circuit 1939 Birthday - Ginger [Peter] Baker, England, drummer, Cream-White Room 1939 Birthday - Kate O'Mara, born in Leicaster, England, actress, Caress Morell-Dynasty, AbFab 1939 Birthday - Roger Prideaux, cricketer, England batsman in 3 Tests 1968-69 1939 Birthday - Terence Stamp, born in England, actor, Collector, Alien Nations 1939 Birthday - Ronald Hadfield, chief constable, West Midlands England 1939 Birthday - Mary Peters, born in England, pentathlete, Gold Medal 1972 Olympics 1939 Birthday - Ron Headley, cricketer, son of George, 2 Tests WI vs. England 1973 1939 Event - Headley scores a cricket century in each innings vs. England at Lord's 1939 Event - Pan Am's 1st U.S. to England flight 1939 Event - Future Queen Elizabeth of England meets future husband Philip 1939 Birthday - Geoff Griffin, cricketer, South Africa quick, hat-trick and chuck vs. England 1960 1939 Event - King and Queen of England taste 1st "hot dogs" at FDR's party 1939 Birthday - David Hobbs, born in Royal Leamington Spa, England, auto racer, commentator for Speed, raced in the 24 Hours of Le Mans twenty times 1939 Event - 1st king and queen of England to visit U.S., George VI and Elizabeth 1939 Birthday - Phil Gallie, born in Portsmouth, England, born Philip Roy Gallie, politician, Conservative Party, Member of the Scottish Parliament, Member of Parliament for Ayr 1939 Birthday - Ian McKellen, England, actor, Keep, Plenty, Scarlet Pimpernel 1939 Birthday - Peter Phillips, born in Birmingham, England, artist, painter, sculpture, screenprint, lithography, pioneer, Pop Art Movement 1939 Birthday - James Fox, born in London, England, actor, Greystoke 1939 Birthday - Patrick Cormack, born in Grimsby, England, politician, journalist, author, historian, Conservative Party, Member of Parliament for South Staffordshire 1939 Birthday - Hugh Dykes, born in England, served as Conservative Member of Parliament for Harrow East, member of the European Parliament, Vice President of the British-German Association 1939 Birthday - Samantha Eggar, born in London, England, actress, Collector 1939 Birthday - Judy Carne, born in Northhampton, England, comedienne, Laugh-in, Fair Exchange 1939 Birthday - John McCabe, born in Huyton, England, composer, pianist, wrote thirteen symphonies by age 11, composed Notturni ed Alba in 1970, ballets, string quartets, piano music, known for his concerti 1939 Birthday - David Frost, born in Tenterdon, England, TV host, That Was the Week That Was 1939 Birthday - David Winters, born in London, England, choreographer, Steve Allen Comedy Hour 1939 Birthday - Malcolm Thornton, born in England, politician, Conservative party, Member of Parliament for Liverpool 1979 - 1983, Member of Parliament for Crosby 1983 - 1997 1939 Birthday - Charles Lyell, born in England, born Charles Lyell, 3rd Baron Lyell, politician, Conservative Party, whip, House of Lords, Peerage of the United Kingdom 1939 Birthday - Abbas Ali Baig, cricketer, Indian bat 112 on debut vs. England 1959 1939 Event - England draw with South Africa at Durban on the 10th day 1939 Birthday - Chris Pyne, born in Bridlington, England, Norman Christopher Chris Pyne, musician, trombonist, played with Humphrey Lyttelton, recorded with Ronnie Scott, toured with Frank Sinatra's backing bands, Gordon Beck, Charlie Watt's big band 1939 Birthday - Brian Luckhurst, cricketer, England opener of 60's and early 70's 1939 Birthday - Bridget Parker, England, equestrian 3 day event, Gold Medal 1972 Olympics 1938 Event - Tom Goddard takes a cricket hat-trick for England vs. South Africa 1938 Birthday - Alan Jones, cricketer, England vs. ROW 1970 his only International honour 1938 Event - Hurricane (183 MPH winds) in New England kills 700 1938 Event - England beat Australia by an innings and 579 runs at The Oval 1938 Event - England score 7-903 decl vs. Australia Hutton 364 1938 Birthday - Diana Rigg, born in Doncaster, England, actress, Emma Peel-Avengers, Hospital 1938 Birthday - Harry McGowan, born in England, born Harry Duncan Cory McGowan, Lord McGowan, 3rd Baron McGowan 1938 Birthday - Alan Coren, born in London, England, English writer, satirist, and humorist, worked with the BBC 1938 Birthday - James Botten, cricketer, all-rounder in 1965 South Africa series vs. England 1938 Event - Great Cricket innings of 232 by Stan McCabe vs. England at Trent Bridge 1938 Event - England declare at 8 for 658 vs. Australia at Trent Bridge 1938 Birthday - Glen Hall, cricket leg-spinner, South African in one Test vs. England 1964 1938 Birthday - Stuart Bell, born in County Durham, England, politician, Labor Party, Member of Parliament for Middlesbrough 1938 Birthday - Susan Hampshire, born in London, England, actress, Vanity Fair, Living Free 1938 Birthday - Michael Hirst, chief constable, Leicestershire England 1938 Birthday - John Weston, born in England, diplomat, UK Permanent Representative on the North Atlantic Council, 1992 - 1995, British Permanent Representative to the United Nations 1995 - 1998 1938 Birthday - Dick Higgins, born in Cambridge, England, composer, coined term 'intermedia', founder, Something Else Press 1938 Birthday - Barry Knight, cricketer, England all-rounder mid-60s 1938 Birthday - Oliver Reed, born in London, England, actor, Big Sleep 1937 Birthday - Brian Lumley, England, sci-fi author, Compleat Crow, Psychomech 1937 Birthday - Gordon Crosse, Bury Lancashire England, composer, Grace of Todd 1937 Birthday - Peter Edward Cook, Torquay England, actor/comedian, Bedazzled 1937 Birthday - Peter Lloyd, born in England, politician, Conservative Party, Member of Parliament for Fareham 1979 - 2001 1937 Death - Harry Smith, England cricket wicket-keeper (v WI 1928), dies 1937 Birthday - Edwin Roxburgh, born in England, composer, principal oboist, Sadler's Wells Opera, wrote, Manuhin Music Guide 1937 Birthday - Col Guest, cricketer, Test Australia vs. England 1963, scored 11 took 0-59 1937 Event - 6th Ryder Cup: U.S., 8-4 at Southport and Ainsdale, England 1937 Birthday - Alice Mahon, born in Halifax, England, trade unionist, politician, Labor Party, Member of Parliament for Halifax 1987 - 2005 1937 Birthday - Don Wilson, cricketer, England slow left-armer between 1963-71 1937 Death - Annie E F Horniman, England, theater owner (Abbey Theatre), dies at 76 1937 Event - Ranger (U.S.) beats Endeavour II (England) in 17th America's Cup 1937 Birthday - John Price, England cricket fast-medium bowler, 1964-72 1937 Birthday - David Hockney, born in Bradford, England, artist, Pop Art 1937 Birthday - Tony Lewis, cricketer, England batsman, captain 1972-73 1937 Birthday - Peter Pike, born in England, born Peter Leslie Pike, politician, Labor Party, Member of Parliament for Burnley 1937 Birthday - John Edrich, cricketer, England left-handed batsman, 310* vs. New Zealand 1965 1937 Event - Neville Chamberlain becomes Prime Minister of England 1937 Event - George VI crowned King of England 1937 Birthday - David Summerscale, head master, Westminster School England 1937 Birthday - Ken Palmer, cricketer, 1-190 in only Test for England, now Test ump 1937 Birthday - Edward Fox, born in London, England, actor, M-Never Say Never Again 1937 Birthday - William Gaunt, born in Leeds, England, actor, Champions 1937 Birthday - Philip Chetwode, born in England, born 2nd Baron Chetwode, Baron Chetwode, a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom, heir apparent is Hon. Roger Chetwode 1937 Birthday - Benjamin Luxon, born in Redruth, England, baritone, Owen Wingrave 1937 Event - Australia snatch series against England 3-2 after being 2-0 down 1937 Event - Bradman scores 169 in 5th Test Cricket vs. England in 223 minutes 1937 Birthday - Tom Courtenay, born in England, actor, Dresser, Dr. Zhivago, To Catch a Spy 1937 Birthday - Jerry Wiggin, born in Worcestershire, England, politician, Conservative Party, Member of Parliament for Weston-super-Mare 1937 Birthday - Christopher Tugendhat, born in England, born Christopher Samuel Tugendhat, Baron Tugendhat of Widdington in the County of Essex, politician, Conservative Party, journalist, author, businessman 1937 Birthday - Paul Bailey, born in England, novelist, George Orewell prize-winner, lecturer at North Dakota State University, writer in residence, Kingston University, wrote At The Jerusalem, radio and television plays, and non-fiction books 1937 Birthday - Christopher Rose, born in England, Lord Justice Rose, Sir Christopher Rose, judge, member, Privy Council of the United Kingdom, served Court of Appeal of England and Wales 1937 Event - Bradman scores 212 (in 441 minutes!) in 5th Test Cricket vs. England 1937 Birthday - John Ogdon, Manchester England, pianist/composer 1937 Birthday - Ken Higgs, cricketer, effective England pace-bowler in 15 Tests 1965-68 1937 Event - Bradman scores 270 Australia vs. England at the MCG, incl 110 singles 1936 Birthday - Phil Sharpe, cricketer, England middle order batsman during 60's 1936 Event - England replaces King Edward VIII stamp series with King George VI 1936 Birthday - Peter Parfitt, cricketer, fine England batsman of the 1960's 1936 Birthday - Bill Wyman, England, rocker, Rolling Stones-Under My Thumb 1936 Event - Pinewood Studios opens in Buckinghamshire, England 1936 Birthday - Keith Barron, born in Mexborough, England, actor, At Earth's Core, Baby Love 1936 Birthday - John Burton-Hall, Dorset England, captain, QE2 1936 Birthday - Harold "Dusty" Rhodes, England cricket pace bowler, 1959 1936 Birthday - Eric Russell, cricketer, England opening batsman early 60s 1936 Event - Amy Johnson arrives in Croydon England from South Africa in record 4d16h 1936 Birthday - Glenda Jackson, Cheshire, England, actress, Women in Love 1936 Birthday - John D'Arcy, cricketer, New Zealand Test batsman on 1958 England tour 1936 Birthday - Brian Fuller, commandant, Fire Service College, England 1936 Birthday - Richard Rodney Bennett, Broadstairs Kent England, composer 1936 Birthday - Tony Nash, born in England, bobsled, 1964 Olympics gold 1936 Birthday - Thelma Hopkins, born in England, high jumper, 1956 Olympics silver 1935 Birthday - Peter Allan, cricketer, 1 Test Australia vs. England 1965, 2-58 and 0-25 1935 Birthday - Tony Bramall, England, auto dealer/multi-millionaire, Harrogate 1935 Birthday - Barbara Leigh-Hunt, Bath England, actress, Search for the Nile 1935 Birthday - David White, cricketer, England opening attack Brown and White vs. Pak 1961 1935 Birthday - Fred Rumsey, England, cricket lefty pace bowler, 5 Tests 1964-65 1935 Birthday - Ken Eastwood, cricketer, opened for Australia vs. England SCG 1971 1935 Birthday - Elgar Howarth, born in Cannock, England, composer, conductor, educated at Manchester University, member of group, New Music Manchester 1935 Birthday - Jeremy Brett, born in Berkswell, England, actor, Adventures of Sherlock Holmes 1935 Death - H B "Jock" Cameron, South Africa cricket captain (v England 1935, age 30), dies 1935 Birthday - David Allen, cricketer, England off-spinner of 60's 1935 Birthday - Alan Brown, cricketer, England opening attack Brown and White vs Pak 1961 1935 Birthday - Jimmy Binks, cricket wicket-keeper, England twice vs. India 1964 1935 Birthday - Julie Andrews, England, actress and singer, Sound of Music, Mary Poppins 1935 Birthday - Heather Sears, born in London, England, actress, Room at the Top 1935 Birthday - Bob Barber, cricketer, dashing England lefty bat in 28 Tests 1960-68 1935 Birthday - Keith J Roberts, England, writer, Irish Encounter, Ladies from Hell 1935 Birthday - Michael Holroyd, born in London, England, author, biographer, wrote biographies of George Bernard Shaw, Augustus John 1935 Birthday - Ken Taylor, cricketer, England opening batsman three times 1959-64 1935 Birthday - Jim Dale, born in Rothwell, England, Broadway actor, Barnum, My One and Only 1935 Birthday - Rod Hull, born in Isle of Sheppey, England, Rodney Stephen Hull, entertainer, comedian, appeared on British television with puppet Emu in 1970's and 1980's 1935 Birthday - Geoff Pullar, cricketer, England opening batsman late 50's early 60's 1935 Birthday - George Varnals, South African cricket batsman, England 1964-65 1935 Birthday - Trevor Chinn, born in England, businessman, CEO, Lex Garages, entrepreneur, philanthropist, President, the Joint Israel Appeal 1935 Birthday - Tom Cartwright, England cricket medium pacer, 5 Tests 1964-65 1935 Birthday - Belinda Lee, born in Devon, England, actress, Who Done It, Runaway Bus 1935 Birthday - Tom Pendry, born in England, Baron Pendry, politician, Labor Party, Member of Parliament for Stalybridge and Hyde 1970 - 2001 1935 Birthday - Bruce Bolton, cricketer, two Tests New Zealand vs. England 1959 1935 Birthday - Ted Dexter, cricketer, in Milan Superb England batsman of 60's 1935 Birthday - David Evans, born in England, footballer, cricketer for Aston Villa, Conservative Member of Parliament for Welwyn Hatfield 1935 Birthday - Dudley Moore, born in London, England, actor, 10, Arthur, Bedazzled, 6 Weeks 1935 Birthday - John Murray, cricketer, England 1961 - 1967, 1st wk called Murray to play Tests 1935 Birthday - Julian Glover, born in London, England, actor, QED, Heat and Dust, Mandela 1935 Event - George Headley completes 270 in cricket vs. England at Kingston 1935 Event - England establishes 30 MPH speed limit for towns and villages 1935 Birthday - Brian Bedford, England, actor, Anthony-Coronet Blue 1934 Birthday - Maggie Smith, born in Ilford, England, actress, Death on Nile, Clash of Titans 1934 Birthday - Alan Ridout, born in West Wickham, England, composer, teacher, professor Royal College of Music, worked with Leicestershire Schools Symphony Orchestra, prolific instrumental and choral music composer 1934 Birthday - Judi Dench, York England, actress, Henry V, Wetherby 1934 Birthday - Derek Richardson, cricketer, played one innings for England 1957 1934 Birthday - Timothy West, born in Yorkshire, England, actor, Masada 1934 Birthday - David Smith, cricketer, England opening bowler vs. India 1961-62 1934 Birthday - Geoff Millman, cricketer, England wicket-keeper in 6 Tests 1961-62 1934 Event - Rainbow (U.S.) beats Endeavour (England) in 16th America's Cup 1934 Birthday - Peter Maxwell Davies, Manchester England, composer, Prolation, Taverner 1934 Event - Bradman scores 149* Australia vs. England XI, 104 minutes, 17 fours 4 sixes 1934 Birthday - John Stears, Middlesex England, special effects expert, Dr. No 1934 Event - Australia beat England by 562 runs to regain Cricket Ashes 1934 Birthday - John Standing, born in London, England, actor, Edward-Lime Street 1934 Birthday - Lionel Bart, born in Stepney, England, composer, songwriter, wrote pop music, musicals, created book, music and lyrics for Oliver! 1934 Birthday - Doug Padgett, cricketer, England batsman twice in 1960 1934 Birthday - Colin Welland, born in Liverpool, England, actor, Straw Dogs, Sweeney 1934 Birthday - Jean Marsh, born in London, England, actress, Dark Places, Eagle has Landed 1934 Birthday - Wendy Craig, born in England, actress, Joseph Andrews 1934 Birthday - Eileen Atkins, born in London, England, actress, Equus, Devil Within Her 1934 Birthday - Michael Mates, born in England, born Michael John Mates, politician, Conservative Party, Member of Parliament for East Hampshire 1934 Birthday - David J Burke, Liverpool England, writer 1934 Birthday - Alan Bennett, England, playwright/actor, Secret Policeman's Other Ball 1934 Birthday - Martin Horton, cricketer, England off-spin all rounder, 2 Tests 1959 1934 Birthday - Jane Goodall, born in London, England, ethologist, studied African chimps 1934 Birthday - Marion Conti, arch bishop, Aberdeen England 1934 Birthday - Keith Speed, born in Evesham, England, politician, Conservative Party, Member of Parliament for Meriden in Warwickshire 1968 - 1974 1934 Birthday - Bernard Rands, born in Sheffield, England, composer, Wildtrack 1934 Birthday - Roger Nicholas Edwards, born in England, born Roger Nicholas Edwards, Lord Crickhowell, Baron Crickhowell, politician, Conservative Party, Member of Parliament for Pembrokeshire, Secretary of State for Wales 1934 Birthday - David Hugh Jones, Poole Dorset England, director, Betrayal 1934 Birthday - Alan Bates, born in Allestree, England, actor, Zorba the Greek, Unmarried Woman 1934 Birthday - Mary Quant, Kent England, fashion designer, Chelsea Look, Mod Look 1934 Birthday - Jeremy Kemp, Chesterfield England, actor, Winds of War 1934 Birthday - Brian Bolus, cricketer, England opening batsman early 60's 1934 Birthday - Roy Kinnear, Lancashire England, actor, TW3, Help!, The 3 Musketeers 1933 Birthday - James Booth, born in London, England, actor and writer, Zulu, Robbery, Revenge 1933 Event - B H Valentine scores 133 on Test Cricket debut, England vs. India at Bombay 1933 Birthday - Bruce Morrison, cricketer, one Test New Zealand vs. England 1963 1933 Birthday - Jim Pothecary, cricketer, South African pace bowler on 1960 England tour 1933 Birthday - John Mayall, MacClesfield England, pop musician, Don't Washed Me Time 1933 Birthday - Roy Swetman, cricketer, England wicket-keeper late 50's 1933 Birthday - Janet Baker, York England, mezzo-soprano, Owen Wingrave 1933 Birthday - Roger Harris, cricketer, New Zealand opening batsman vs England 1959 1933 Birthday - Julian Bream, born in London, England, guitarist, plays baroque guitar, lute, considered the 20th century's most distinguished classical guitarists 1933 Birthday - Patsy Byrne, born in Ashford, England, actress, Stealing Heaven 1933 Birthday - Marty Feldman, born in London, England, comedian, Young Frankenstein 1933 Birthday - Mike J K Smith, cricketer, England captain mid-60s 1933 Event - 4th Ryder Cup: Great Britain, 6 -5 at Southport and Ainsdale, England 1933 Birthday - John Mortimore, cricketer, England off-spinner 1959-64 1933 Birthday - John Denison-Pender, born in England, John Willoughby Denison-Pender, Lord Pender, 3rd Baron Pender of Porthcurnow in the County of Cornwall 1933 Birthday - Harold "Dickie" Bird, cricketer, noted England Test umpire 1933 Birthday - Tim Rathbone, born in England, born John Rankin Rathbone, politician, Conservative Party, Member of Parliament for Lewes from 1974 to 1997 1933 Birthday - Bob Simmons, born in Fulham, England, stuntman, double for James Bond 1933 Birthday - Chris Duckworth, cricketer, South African batsman vs. England 1956-57 1933 Birthday - Katharine Lucy Mary Worsley, England, Duchess of Kent 1933 Birthday - Mary Ure, England, model/actress, Reflection of Fear, Windom's Way 1933 Event - England regains the Ashes, thanks to bodyline tactics 1933 Birthday - Charles Williams, born in Oxford, England, cricketer, batsman, Labor peer, Most Excellent Order of the British Empire, Baron Williams of Elvel 1933 Death - John Galsworthy, England, writer (Forsythe, Nobel 1932), dies at 65 1933 Birthday - Len Coldwell, cricket bowler, England medium-fast in 7 Tests 1962-64 1933 Birthday - Joe Orton, England, actor/dramatist, Prick Up Your Ears 1932 Event - Bradman out for a duck vs. England at cricket MCG 1932 Birthday - Colin Cowdrey, cricketer, in India England batsman, 1st to 100 Tests 1932 Birthday - Fred Titmus, cricketer, long-running England off-spinner 1932 Birthday - Richard Dawson, Hampshire England, actor, Hogan's Heroes, Family Feud 1932 Birthday - Petula Clark, Surrey England, rock vocalist, Downtown, My Love 1932 Birthday - Mickey Stewart, manager, England Cricket Team 1932 Birthday - Roy Castle, born in Scholes, England, singer, musician, jazz trumpet player, television celebrity, starred in BBC's 'The Roy Castle Show' 1932 Birthday - Angela Rumbold, born in England, politician, Member of Parliament, British Conservative Party, attended King's College, served as Deputy Chairman of the Conservative Party 1932 Birthday - Eric Varley, born in England, born Eric Varley, Baron Varley of Chesterfield in the County of Derbyshire, politician, Labor Party, Cabinet Minister, Member of Parliament for Chesterfield 1932 Birthday - Hugh Wood, born in Parbold, England, composer, studied with William Lloyd Webber, Anthony Milner, Iain Hamilton, works include Symphony and Violin Concerto 1932 Event - Commencement of India's 1st Test cricket, vs. England at Lord's 1932 Event - 67th British Golf Open: Gene Sarazen shoots a 283 at Prince's England 1932 Birthday - Ray Illingworth, cricketer, England off-spin all-rounder and captain 1932 Birthday - Raymond Illingworth, CEO, England committee, TCCB 1932 Birthday - Billie Whitelaw, born in Coventry, England, actress, Omen, Adding Machine 1932 Birthday - Timothy Renton, born in England, born Ronald Timothy Renton, Baron Renton of Mount Harry, politician, Conservative Party, Minister of State, Margaret Thatcher's Chief Whip, Member of Parliament for Mid-Sussex 1932 Birthday - Jeffrey Bernard, born in London, England, journalist, wrote column, 'Low Life', for The Spectator magazine 1932 Birthday - Graham Arnold, born in England, artist, founder of Brotherhood of Ruralists, other members include Jann Haworth, Sir Peter Blake, worked with oil and mixed media, realistic and surrealistic elements 1932 Birthday - James Anderton, Chief constable, Manchester England 1932 Birthday - James Lester, born in Nottingham, England, Conservative Party, Member of Parliament for Beeston, served as party whip, junior employment minister 1932 Birthday - John Lyons, Cambridge England, Master, Trinity Hall 1932 Birthday - John Glen, Thames England, actor, Spy Who Loves Me, Backfire 1932 Birthday - Ian Leslie, born in England, born Ian Lionel Malcolm Leslie, 21st Earl of Rothes, Scottish nobleman, served as Sub-Lieutenant, Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve 1932 Birthday - William Roache, born in England, actor, Ken Barlow-Coronation Street 1932 Birthday - Dominic Milroy, OSB/headmaster, Ampleforth College England 1932 Birthday - Valerie French, born in London, England, actress, Jubal 1932 Birthday - Dennis Skinner, born in Derbyshire, England, Labor Party, Member of Parliament for Bolsover, attended Ruskin College, left-wing supporter, homosexual and pro-choice advocate 1932 Birthday - J P "Pom-Pom" Felloes-Smith, cricketer, South Africa batsman vs. England 1960 1932 Birthday - James Clyde, born in England, Baron Clyde, son of James Latham Clyde, Lord Clyde, British judge, Chancellor to the Bishop of Argyll, Senator of the College of Justice in Scotland 1931 Birthday - Barbara Steele, England, actress, Castle of Blood, Dark Shadows 1931 Event - Ottawa Mint Act is proclaimed in England 1931 Birthday - Joan Lestor, born in England, Baroness Lestor of Eccles, politician, Labor Party, teacher, founding editor, Searchlight, anti-fascist magazine 1931 Birthday - Diana Dors, Fluck, Swindon England, actress, Berserk!, Steaming 1931 Birthday - Jim Parks, cricketer, England batsman-keeper in 46 Tests 1954-68 1931 Birthday - John LeCarre, Cornwell, England, spy novelist, Little Drummer Girl 1931 Birthday - Basil D'Oliveira, cricketer, England all-rounder of late 60's 1931 Birthday - Anthony Newley, England, actor, Dr. Doolitte, Garbage Pail Kids, composer 1931 Birthday - Ian Holm, born in Ilford Essex, England, actor, Himmler-Holocaust 1931 Birthday - John Shirley-Quirk, Liverpool England, baritone, Death in Venice 1931 Birthday - Monty Losowsky, professor of medicine, St. James University England 1931 Birthday - Robert Stephens, Bristol England, actor, Uncle Kurt-Holocaust 1931 Birthday - Donal Donnelly, Bradford Yorkshire England, actor, Dead 1931 Birthday - Peter Richardson, cricketer, England batsman mid-50's 1931 Event - Whipsnade Zoo opens in Whipsnade Beds England 1931 Birthday - Peter Levi, born in Ruislip, England, poet, writer, professor of poetry, University of Oxford, Catholic, spent time in the priesthood 1931 Birthday - Norman Tebbit, born in Southgate, England, politician, Member of Parliament 1931 Birthday - Bill Hoskyns, born in England, epee fencer, 1964 Olympics silver 1931 Birthday - Eunice Gayson, born in London, England, actress, Dr. No, From Russia With Love 1931 Birthday - Brian Close, cricketer, played for England between 1949 and 1976 1931 Birthday - Freddie Trueman, cricketer, "Fiery Fred", 307 wickets for England 1931 Birthday - John Hopkins, born in London, England, writer for film, television, edited screenplay 'Thunderball', television show 'Play for Today' 1931 Birthday - Nigel Vinson, born in England, Baron Vinson, businessman, served in Queen's Royal Regiment, Member of National Parks and Countryside Committee, Member of Foundation of Science and Technology 1930 Birthday - Wilfrid Sheed, England, writer, Boys of Winter, Hack 1930 Birthday - Donald Moffat, Plymouth England, actor, Kent-Logan's Run 1930 Birthday - Peter Hall, born in Suffolk, England, director, Royal Shakespeare Company 1930 Birthday - Ronnie Corbett, England, comedian, 2 Ronnies 1930 Death - J T Tyldesley, cricket (1661 runs in 31 Tests for England 1898-1909), dies 1930 Birthday - Ken Barrington, cricketer, tough England batsman 1930 Event - 1st U.S. football game broadcast to England (Harvard 13, Yale 0) 1930 Birthday - Alan Moss, cricket pace bowler, England during 50's 1930 Birthday - Edmund Happold, born in England, structural engineer, founded engineering constituency, Buro Happold, worked on Sydney Opera House 1930 Birthday - Kate Reid, born in London, England, actress, Heaven Help U.S. 1930 Birthday - John Arden, England, novelist/playwright, Left Handed Liberty 1930 Birthday - Harold Pinter, born in London, England, playwright, Homecoming, Servant 1930 Birthday - Colin Dexter, born in Stamford, Lincolnshire, England, author, crime writer of 13 detective novels and 33 episode television series featuring fictional character Detective Chief Inspector Endeavour Morse, portrayed by John Thaw 1930 Birthday - Dawn Addams, Felixstown England, actress, Alan Young Show, Star Maidens 1930 Birthday - Rosemary Harris, Ashby Suffolk England, actress, Holocaust 1930 Event - Enterprise (U.S.) beats Shamrock V (England) in 15th America's Cup 1930 Event - 1st International bridge match is held in London. U.S. team defeats England 1930 Birthday - Jeanette Altwegg, England, figure skater 1952 Olympics gold 1930 Birthday - Ted Hughes, England, poet laureate, 1984- 1930 Event - Airship R100, 1st passenger-carrying flight from England to Canada 1930 Birthday - Sally Ann Howes, born in London, England, actress, Dead of Night 1930 Birthday - Charles Kelly, chief constable, Staffordshire England 1930 Event - Bradman scores 309 in a day vs England at Leeds, goes on to 334 1930 Event - Bradman scores 254 at Lord's vs. England, 320 minutes, 25 fours 1930 Birthday - Brian Statham, born in Gorton, England, cricketer, 20th century's leading fast bowler, inducted into ICC Cricket Hall of Fame, 2009 1930 Birthday - Frank Tyson, cricketer, "Typhoon" England pace destroyer mid-50's 1930 Birthday - Edward Woodward, Croydon England, actor, Breaker Morant, Wickerman 1930 Birthday - Julian Slade, born in London, England, writer, best-known work 'Salad Days', UK's longest running musical 1930 Birthday - Simon Barrington-Ward, born in England, educated at Eton College, Cambridge, 7th Bishop of Coventry in the Church of England, 1985 - 1997, Bishop with pastoral care, University of Cambridge 1930 Event - 1st woman to fly from England to Australia solo, lands (Amy Johnson) 1930 Birthday - Kenny Ball, born in Essex, England, musician, lead trumpet player, Kenny Ball and his Jazzmen, appeared in film Live It Up!, featured with Joe Brown, Brenda Lee on Kapp Records 1930 Event - 1st woman to fly solo from England to Australia takes-off (Amy Johnson) 1930 Birthday - Alan Oakman, cricketer, England batsman against Australia 1956 1930 Event - 4th Test Cricket WI vs. England ends in a draw after nine days 1930 Birthday - Bryan Magee, born in Hoxton, England, broadcaster, author, politician, presented current affairs television show This Week, made philosophy accessible with his 'Men of Ideas' television series 1930 Event - George Headley scores 223 vs. England at Kingston 1930 Event - England out for 849 vs. WI Kingston, Sandham out for 325 1930 Birthday - Nicolas Christopher Henry Browne-Wilkinson, born in England, life peer as Baron Browne-Wilkinson, studied at Lancing College and Magdalen College, Oxford, former head of the Privy Council and Vice-Chancellor of the High Court 1930 Event - West Indies make 1st Test Cricket win, by 289 runs over England 1930 Event - George Headley completes twin tons in Test Cricket vs. England (114 and 112) 1930 Birthday - Gerry Davis, born in England, science-fiction writer, wrote British television soap operas Coronation Street and United!, script editor for Doctor Who 1930 Event - J E Mills scores 117 on Test Cricket debut, New Zealand vs. England, Wellington 1930 Event - George Headley scores century on debut vs. England (made 176) 1930 Event - Commencement of New Zealand's 1st Test, vs. England Christchurch 1930 Event - Maurice Allom takes Test hat-trick England vs. New Zealand Christchurch 1929 Birthday - Keith Andrew, cricketer, England wicket-keeper in 2 Tests 1954-63 1929 Birthday - John Osborne, England, playwright, Look Back in Anger, Luther-TONY 1964 1929 Death - Arthur H Mann, English composer (Church of England Hymnal), dies 1929 Birthday - Joan Plowright, Brigg England, actress, Brimstone and Treacle 1929 Birthday - Narotam Puna, cricketer, Bombay New Zealand off-spinner vs. England 1966 1929 Birthday - Peter Loader, cricketer, England quick in 13 Tests 1954-59, later WA 1929 Birthday - Thom Gunn, Kent England, poet, The Wound 1929 Birthday - Vivien Merchant, born in Manchester, England, actress, Under Milk Wood 1929 Birthday - Tony Lock, cricketer, highly successful England slow lefty bowler 1929 Birthday - Dave King, born in Twickenham, England, comedian, Kraft Music Hall 1929 Birthday - John Turner, born in Richmond, England, L, 17th Canadian PM, 1984 1929 Event - 2nd Ryder Cup: Britain - Ireland, 7 - 5 at Moortown, England 1929 Birthday - Paul Winslow, cricketer, big-hitter for South Africa, 108 vs. England 1955 1929 Birthday - Jack Flavell, cricketer, England pace bowler in 4 Tests 1961-64 1929 Birthday - Tristan Jones, born in Liverpool, England, sailor, author, Welsh story teller, wrote about sailing in books and articles 1929 Event - 1st non-stop England to India flight lands 1929 Event - 1st non-stop England to India flight takes-off 1929 Birthday - Michael Atiyah, educator, Trinity College - Cambridge England 1929 Birthday - Amedee Turner, born in England, Amedee Edward Turner, politician, barrister, Conservative Party, Member of the European Parliament, patent lawyer 1929 Birthday - Kenneth Haigh, born in Yorkshire, England, actor, Search for the Nile 1929 Birthday - Roger Bannister, born in England, 1st to run a 4 minute mile, May 6, 1954 1929 Event - Bradman scores 123 Australia vs. England at MCG, his 2nd Test Cricket ton 1929 Birthday - David Sheppard, bishop, Liverpool, cricketer, England batsman 1929 Birthday - Earl of Rosebery, born in Scotland, born Neil Primrose, 7th Earl of Rosebery, Scottish nobleman, grandmother Hannah, Countess of Rosebury, was richest woman in England 1929 Event - Archie Jackson scores 164 on Test Cricket debut vs. England at Adelaide 1929 Birthday - Richard Long, born in London, England, Richard Gerard Long, 4th Viscount Long, politician, Conservative Party 1929 Birthday - Ian Thomson, cricketer, England seam bowler vs. South Africa 1964-65 1929 Event - Bradman scores 112 vs. England at MCG - his 1st Test century 1928 Birthday - Bernard Cribbins, Oldham England, actor, Val Doonican Show 1928 Event - 2nd Test Cricket Australia vs. England starts with Bradman 12th man 1928 Event - England defeats Australia by record 675 runs at Brisbane 1928 Event - Test Cricket debut of Don Bradman, who scored 18 and 1 vs England 1928 Birthday - Pat Smythe, England, equestrian jumper 1956 Olympics bronze 1928 Birthday - Trevor Meale, cricketer, batted in 2 Tests New Zealand vs. England 1958 1928 Birthday - Ken Hough, cricketer, New Zealand pace bowler in two Tests vs. England 1959 1928 Birthday - Eric Lubbock, born in England, born Eric Lubbock, Lord Avebury, 4th Baron Avebury, politician, Liberal Party, Member of Parliament for Orpington 1928 Birthday - Roddy McDowall, London England, actor, Planet of Apes, Lord Love a Duck 1928 Birthday - Charles Gray, Bournemouth England, actor, Clay-Rawhide 1928 Birthday - Gillian Sheen, England, foils 1956 Olympics gold 1928 Birthday - Nicolas Roeg, born in London, England, cinematographer/director, Aria, Eureka 1928 Birthday - John Wills, lord-lt of Avon England 1928 Birthday - Barry Took, born in Muswell Hill, North London, England, comedian, writer, television presenter on BBC program Points of View and BBC Radio 4 program The News Quiz, wrote comedy with Mary Feldman 1928 Birthday - Tony Richardson, born in England, director, Delicate Balance 1928 Birthday - Bob Monkhouse, Kent England, comedian, Bonkers 1928 Birthday - Nigel Davenport, Cambridge England, actor, Without a Clue, Masada 1928 Birthday - Anthony C B Chapman, England, sports car builder/autoracer, Formula 1 1928 Event - England lowers age of women voters from 30 to 21 1928 Birthday - Eric Porter, born in London, England, actor, Antony and Cleopatra, 39 Steps 1928 Birthday - Michael Bryant, born in London, England, actor, Sakharov, Girly 1928 Birthday - Peter Roger Hunt, born in London, England, director, Dr. No 1928 Birthday - Arthur Milton, cricketer, England opening batsman late 50's 1928 Birthday - Alan Sillitoe, born in England, writer, Loneliness of the Long Distance Runner 1928 Birthday - Joss Ackland, born in London, England, actor, Queenie, To Kill a Priest 1928 Birthday - David Somerset, born in England, David Robert Somerset, 11th Duke of Beaufort, British peer, criticized for accepting public funds on riverbed land granted to his dukedom 400 years ago 1928 Event - 1st solo England to Australia flight lands (Bert Hinkler) 1928 Birthday - Bruce Forsyth, born in London, England, comedian/TV host, Generation Game 1928 Event - 1st solo England to Australia flight takes off (Bert Hinkler) 1927 Birthday - Denis Quilley, born in London, England, actor, Masada 1927 Birthday - Cleo Laine, Middlesex England, actress and singer, Flesh to a Tiger 1927 Birthday - Lee Montague, born in London, England, actor, Uncle Sasha-Holocaust 1927 Birthday - Roger Moore, born in London, England, actor, Alaskans, Maverick, Saint 1927 Birthday - Colin Rex Davis, Weybridge England, conductor, New York Met 1967-71 1927 Birthday - John Buller, born in England, composer, known for Proenca, written for electric guitar, mezzo-soprano and orchestra, one of his sons is Ed Buller, a record producer 1927 Birthday - Eddie Leadbeater, cricketer, England leg-spinner with an avg of 109 1927 Birthday - Kenneth Eastham, born in England, politician, Labor Party Member of Parliament for Manchester Blackley 1979 - 1997 1927 Birthday - Raymond Leppard, born in London, England, conductor, St. Louis Symphony Orchestra 1927 Birthday - Robert Shaw, born in England, actor, Deep, Jaws, Sting, Black Sunday 1927 Birthday - John Warr, England, cricket bowler, avg 281, president, MCC 1927 Birthday - Ken Russell, England, director, Tommy, Altered States, Gothic 1927 Birthday - Peter Bayliss, born in Thames, England, actor, From Russia With Love 1927 Birthday - Robert Matthews, master, Clare College Cambridge England 1927 Death - William Attewell, cricket bowler (England in 10 Tests 1884-1891), dies 1927 Birthday - David Hobman, director, Age Concern England 1927 Event - 1st Ryder Cup: U.S. beats England, 9 -2 at Worcester CC Mass 1927 Birthday - Kay Kendall, born in Yorkshire, England, actress, Genevieve, Les Girls 1927 Birthday - Richard Body, born in England, Sir Richard Bernard Frank Stewart Body, politician, Member of Parliament for Billericay from 1955 to 1959 1927 Event - Belgium beats England 9-1 in soccer 1927 Birthday - Michael Frederick, cricketer, one Test WI vs. England 1954, scored 0 and 30 1927 Birthday - Dorothy Manley, England, 100m sprint 1948 Olympics silver 1927 Birthday - John Gilbert, born in England, Labor Party, Member of Parliament for Dudley East, life peer as Baron Gilbert, of Dudley in the County of West Midlands 1927 Birthday - Jonathan Tod, Vice-Admiral, England 1926 Birthday - Donald Carr, cricketer, England player in 50's, later MCC honcho 1926 Birthday - Leonard Rossiter, Liverpool England, actor, Britannia Hospital 1926 Birthday - John Dewes, cricketer, England opener late 40's early 50's 1926 Birthday - Arthur Wills, born in England, composer, professor at Royal Academy of Music in London, Director of Music at Ely Cathedral in Cambridgeshire, England, composed music for the organ and secular music based on George Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four 1926 Birthday - Donald Acheson, England's chief medical officer 1926 Event - England regain Ashes with 5th Test Cricket win, to take series 1-0 1926 Birthday - Frank Finlay, Farnworth Lancashire England, actor, Robbery, Lifeforce 1926 Birthday - Jane Hylton, born in London, England, actress, Adv of Sir Lancelot, Daybreak 1926 Birthday - Patrick Wymark, born in Cleethorpes, England, actor, Skull, Tomb of Ligeia 1926 Birthday - Cranley Onslow, born in England, politician, Conservative Member of Parliament for Woking, called for lower middle class taxes, life peer as Baron Onslow of Working in Surrey County 1926 Birthday - Martin Peake, born in England, 2nd Viscount Ingleby, businessman, nobleman, son of Osbert Peake, paralyzed from polio, contributed to the 1970 Disabled Persons Act 1926 Birthday - David Ogilvy, born in London, England, David George Coke Patrick Ogilvy, 13th Earl of Airlie, The Most Ancient and Most Noble Order of the Thistle, judge, served as Lord Chamberlain 1926 Birthday - Alistair MacFarlane, principal, Heriot-Watt University England 1926 Birthday - Elizabeth, Alexandra Mary Windsor II, Queen of England, 1952- 1926 Birthday - Doug Insole, cricketer, England batsman of the 50's, nine Tests 1926 Birthday - John George Vanderbilt Henry Spencer-Churchill, Duke of Marlborough, born in England, 11th Duke of Marlborough, justice of the peace, cousin of Sir Winston Churchill 1926 Birthday - Graham Hills, principal, Strathclyde University, England 1926 Birthday - John Fowles, born in England, novelist, Collector, French Leiutenent's Woman 1926 Birthday - Rayner Goddard, born in England, Lord Goddard, Baron Goddard, judge, Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales, known for his strict conservative rulings 1926 Birthday - Patricia Tindaole, born in England, architect 1926 Birthday - John Schlesinger, born in London, England, director, Midnight Cowboy, Darling 1926 Birthday - Jean Simmons, born in London, England, actress, Thorn Birds, Guys and Dolls 1926 Birthday - Bob Berry, cricketer, England slow lefty 1950 1925 Birthday - Ernie Wise, England, comedian, Morecambe and Wise 1925 Birthday - Bernard Hepton, Bradford England, actor, 6 Wives of Henry VIII 1925 Birthday - Angela Lansbury, born in London, England, actress, Jessica-Murder She Wrote 1925 Birthday - Margaret Thatcher, born in Grantham, England, Tory, British Prime Minister, 1979 - 1990 1925 Birthday - Bill Parkhouse, cricketer, England batsman in 7 Tests 1950-59 1925 Birthday - Peter Sellers, born in England, actor, not now, Kato, Bobo, Pink Panther 1925 Birthday - Ronnie Stevens, born in London, England, actor, Rodney-Dick and Duchess 1925 Birthday - Brian Aldiss, born in East Dereham, England, science fiction author, 'The Helliconia Trilogy' and 'Hothouse' 1925 Event - Unemployment Insurance Act passed in England 1925 Birthday - Yvonne Mitchell, born in London, England, writer, Johnny Nobody, Genghis Khan 1925 Birthday - David Bache, born in Worcestershire, England, David Ernest Bache, son of footballer Joe Bache, car designer, worked with Rover, established design company David Bache Associates, created the Land Rover, Series II Land Rover 1925 Birthday - Alec McCowen, Tunbridge Wells England, actor, Never Say Never Again 1925 Birthday - Tony Hancock, Birmingham England, actor, Rebel, Wrong Box 1925 Birthday - Rhodes Boyson, born in Lancashire, England, Sir Rhodes Boyson, politician, Conservative Party, Member of Parliament for Brent North 1925 Birthday - George Cole, born in London, England, actor, Minder, Vampire Lovers 1925 Birthday - John Yates, bishop, Lambeth England 1925 Birthday - John Wells, born in England, politician, Conservative Party Member of Parliament for Maidstone, educated at Eton College and Corpus Christi College, Oxford 1925 Birthday - Charles Henry Plumb, born in England, Charles Henry Plumb, Lord Plumb, Baron Plumb of Coleshill, County of Warwickshire, Conservative Party, politician, leading figure, National Farmers Union 1925 Birthday - John Barrington Wain, born in England, novelist and poet, Hurry on Down 1925 Birthday - Richard Vernon, born in England, actor, Servant, Gandhi, Hard Days Night 1925 Event - Test Cricket debut of Clarrie Grimmett, who took 5-45 and 6-37 vs. England 1925 Birthday - Arthur Berry, born in Smallthorne, Stoke-on-Trent, England, playwright, artist, teacher, poet, studied, then taught at Burslem School of Art, absorbed by Stoke-on-Trent College of Art, which in 1971 became North Staffordshire Polytechnic, where he taught painting until 1985 1925 Birthday - Peter Lane, born in England, Baron Lane of Horsell, Lord Land of Horsell, politician, businessman, Conservative Party, served in Royal Navy, life peer, House of Lords 1925 Birthday - John Bury, born in England, theatre designer of sets, costumes, and lighting, made Amadeus with Peter Hall, nominated for multiple Tony awards 1924 Birthday - Edmund Purdom, England, actor, Asissi Underground, Pieces 1924 Event - England orders Egyptians out of Sudan 1924 Event - Stanley Baldwin becomes Prime Minister of England 1924 Birthday - Sheila MacRae, born in London, England, actress, Jackie Gleason Show 1924 Birthday - Derek Shackleton, England cricket pace bowler, 50's 1924 Event - 1st photo sent experimentally across Atlantic by radio, U.S. - England 1924 Event - England score 2-503 in day's play vs. South Africa at Lord's 1924 Birthday - Bob Appleyard, cricketer, superb England off-spinner, brief career 1924 Event - South Africa all out 30 vs. England in 48 minutes, Gilligan 6-7 1924 Birthday - Tony Britton, born in Birmingham, England, actor, Day of Jackal, Girl in my Soup 1924 Birthday - Ian Colquhoun, cricket wicket keeper, New Zealand vs England 1954-55 1924 Birthday - Sandy Wilson, born in Sale, England, composer, songwriter, musicals include 'The Boy Friend', 'Divorce Me', 'Darling!', 'Aladdin' 1924 Birthday - Don Kenyon, cricketer, England batsman in 8 Tests 1951-55 1924 Death - Jack Board, cricket wicket-keeper (England in 6 Tests 1898-1906), dies 1924 Birthday - Neville Marriner, born in Lincoln, England, conductor, Minnesota Orchestra 1978 1924 Birthday - Freddie Bartholomew, born in England, actor, Anna Karenina, David Copperfield 1924 Birthday - Dora Bryan, Broadhurst, Southport England, actress, Taste of Honey 1924 Birthday - Hattie Jacques, Kent England, actress, Carry on Doctor 1924 Birthday - Brian Rix, born in Cottingham, England, born Brian Norman Roger Rix, Baron Rix, actor, appeared in film, The Night We Got The Bird, charity worker for Mencap 1924 Event - Baldwin government resigns in England 1924 Birthday - Benny Hill, born in Southampton, England, comedian, Benny Hill Show 1924 Birthday - Ron Moody, born in London, England, actor, 12 Chairs, Wrong is Right 1923 Birthday - Trevor Bailey, England, cricket all-rounder, batted and ran 1923 Birthday - Peter Hammond, born in London, England, actor, Buccaneers 1923 Birthday - Clay Jones, born in England, horticulturalist, broadcaster, Chairman of the program Gardener's Question Time on BBC Radio 4, voted tenth alongside Carol Klein as the nation's all-time favorite gardener 1923 Birthday - Donald Sinden, England, actor, Doctor at Large, Mogambo, Simba 1923 Birthday - Alan Badel, Manchester England, actor, Shogun 1923 Birthday - Peter Lawford, born in London, England, actor, Mrs Miniver, Thin Man 1923 Birthday - Richard Attenborough, England, actor and director, Gandhi, Young Winston 1923 Birthday - Fred Ridgway, England cricket pace bowler, 1951-52 Indian tour 1923 Birthday - Jack Parnell, born in London, England, orchestra leader, Englebert Humperdick Show 1923 Event - England's House of Lords accepts new divorce law 1923 Birthday - Donald Smith, cricketer, uneventful England opening batsman 1957 1923 Birthday - Michael Jaffe, director, Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge England 1923 Birthday - Alan Wharton, cricketer, England batsman once vs. New Zealand 1949, scored 7 and 13 1923 Birthday - George Bean, cricketer, 92 runs in 3 Tests for England vs. Australia 1923 Birthday - Patrick Moore, born in England, astronomer and writer, A-Z of Astronomy 1923 Birthday - Pamela Sharples, born in England, Baroness Sharples, BConservative Party, made a Life Peer of Chawton in the County of Hampshire, after husband, Sir Richard Sharples, was assassinated 1923 Birthday - Johnny Wardle, cricketer, Yorkshire and England left-arm bowler of 50's 1922 Event - Conservative A Bonar forms new government in England 1922 Birthday - John Farr, born in Nottingham, England, Sir John Arnold Farr, politician, Conservative Party, Member of Parliament for Harborough 1959 - 1992, served with Royal Navy during World War II 1922 Event - 1st Walker Cup: U.S. beats England 8-4 1922 Birthday - Roy Tattersall, cricketer, brilliant England off-spinner early 50's 1922 Birthday - Philip Larkin, born in Coventry, England, writer, North Ship, Jill 1922 Birthday - Jim McConnon, cricketer, England off-spinner against Pakistan 1954 1922 Birthday - Christopher Lee, born in London, England, actor, Hound of Baskervilles 1922 Birthday - Allan Watkins, cricketer, England batsman late 40s early 50s 1922 Event - Sultan Fuad I crowned king of Egypt, England recognizes Egypt 1922 Birthday - Margaret Leighton, Birmingham England, actress, Astonished Heart 1922 Birthday - James C "Jim" Laker, Bradford England, cricket off spinner 1922 Birthday - Patrick MacNee, born in London, England, actor, Jonathan Steed-Avengers 1922 Birthday - Michael Bentine, England, author/comedian, Reluctant Jester 1922 Birthday - Paul Scofield, born in England, stage and screen actor, considered one of the best British actors of the 20th century 1922 Birthday - Ken Hughes, Liverpool England, director, Casino Royale 1922 Birthday - Kathleen Byron, born in London, England, actress, Abdication, Profile, 4 Days 1922 Birthday - Bill Travers, Newcastle-on-Tyne England, actor, Born Free, Gorgo 1921 Birthday - Joan Dickson, born in England, cellist, professor at Royal College of Music in London, studied with Enrico Mainardi in Paris, performed with Joyce Rathbone 1921 Birthday - Terence Morgan, born in London, England, actor, Adv of Sir Francis Drake 1921 Birthday - Malcolm Arnold, Northampton England, composer, Bridge over River Kwai 1921 Birthday - Robert Runcie, Kennedy, Liverpool England, Archbishop of Canterbury 1921 Birthday - Sam Cook, cricketer, England slow left-armer in only Test 1921 Birthday - Jean Kent, born in London, England, actress, Adv of Sir Francis Drake 1921 Birthday - Lord Perry of Walton, SDP/vice chancellor, Open University England 1921 Birthday - Lancelot Pierre, cricketer, 1 Test WI vs. England 1948, 0-28 1921 Birthday - George Terry, chief constable, Sussex England 1921 Birthday - Dennis Brain, born in London, England, french-hornist, Serenade 1921 Birthday - Ian Percival, born in England, politician, Conservative Party, Member of Parliament for Southport, served in World War II in North Africa and Burma, earned rank of Major 1921 Birthday - Glyn England, CEO, CEGB, Windcluster Ltd 1921 Birthday - Martin Buckmaster, born in England, born Martin Stanley Buckmaster, 3rd Viscount Buckmaster, diplomat, served in the House of Lords 1921 Birthday - Alfie Bass, born in London, England, actor, Moonraker, Are You Being Served 1921 Birthday - Les Jackson, cricket bowler, England twice, 1949 and 1961 1921 Birthday - Donald Malcome Campbell, born in Surrey, England, boat racer, 1955 speed records 1921 Birthday - Cyril Poole, cricketer, England batsman against India 1951-52 1921 Event - Australia Cricket team complete 5-0 drubbing of England 1921 Event - Rwanda ceded to England 1921 Event - Arthur Mailey completes 9-121 vs. England, Australian Test Cricket rec 1921 Birthday - John M Pritchard, born in London, England, conductor 1921 Death - Billy Gunn, cricket (score 392 runs for England including a century), dies 1921 Birthday - Bruce Woodcock, born in England, boxer, British and Empire heavyweight champion 1945 - 1950, European heavyweight champion 1946 - 1949, events attracted sellout crowds 1920 Event - Roy Park makes 1st-ball duck in only Test Cricket India, vs. England at MCG 1920 Birthday - Michael Allinson, born in London, England, George Washington 1920 Event - Bert Collins scores 104 on Test Cricket debut vs. England SCG 1920 Birthday - Cecilia Colledge, England, figure skater 1936 Olympics silver 1920 Birthday - Michael Aldridge, Glastonbury England, actor, Murder in Cathedral 1920 Event - Resolute beats Shamrock IV (England) in 14th running of America's Cup 1920 Event - Royal Air Force holds an air display at Hendon, England 1920 Birthday - Ian Carmichael, born in Hull, England, actor, Lucky Jim, I'm Alright Jack 1920 Birthday - Peter Jones, born in England, actor, From a Bird's Eye View 1920 Birthday - Anthony Storr, born in London, England, English author and psychiatrist, wrote 'Art of Psychotherapy' and 'Human Aggression' 1920 Birthday - John Henderson, Lord-Lieutenant, Berkshire England 1920 Birthday - Walter Clegg, born in England, politician, Conservative Party, served as Comptroller of the Household, Vice-Chamberlain of the Household, Member of Parliament for Wyre, Member of Parliament for North Fylde 1920 Birthday - Arthur Hailey, Luton England, novelist, Hotel, Airport 1920 Birthday - Dirk Bogarde, born in London, England, actor, Death in Venice, Servant 1920 Birthday - William Butterfield, born in England, born William John Hughes Butterfield, Lord Butterfield, life peer as Baron Butterfield of Stechford, Order of the British Empire, medical researcher, clinician, administrator 1920 Birthday - John Addison, born in Surrey, England, composer, Tom Jones-Academy Award 1920 Birthday - D. J. Enright, born in England, poet and novelist, Some Men are Brothers 1920 Birthday - Willie Watson, cricketer, England batsman and soccer international 1920 Birthday - Lewis Gilbert, born in London, England, director/actor, You Only Live Twice 1920 Birthday - Reg Simpson, cricketer, prolific England opener 1948-55 1920 Birthday - Antony Duff, born in England, served Royal Navy during World War II, Deputy Governor of Southern Rhodesia, diplomat, Director-General of Military Intelligence, section 5, 1985 - 1988, the United Kingdom's internal security service 1920 Birthday - George Rose, Bicester England, actor, Beacon Hill, Holocaust 1920 Birthday - Alex Comfort, born in England, physician, poet, novelist, anarchist, pacifist, wrote "The Joy of Sex", a scholarly approach to sexual behavior 1919 Birthday - Dick Spooner, England, cricket wicketkeeper, Godfrey Evans' shadow 1919 Birthday - Alan Young, England, actor, Time Machine, Wilbur Post-Mr Ed 1919 Birthday - Donald Pleasence, Worksop England, actor, Fantastic Voyage, Halloween 1919 Birthday - Robin Bailey, Hucknall England, actor, See No Evil, Screamtime 1919 Birthday - Patricia Medina, born in Liverpool, England, actress, High-Low 1919 Birthday - Bruce Gordon, born in London, England, actor, Frank Nitti-Untouchables 1919 Birthday - Margot Fonteyn, Surrey England, prima ballerina, Giselle 1919 Birthday - Richard Mason, born near Manchester, England, author, learned Japanese in World War II, interrogated prisoners of war, wrote 'The Wind Cannot Read', 'The Fever Tree', 'The World of Suzie Wong' 1919 Death - Henry Wood, England cricket wicket keeper (in 4 Tests 1888-92), dies 1919 Birthday - Antony Tudor, born in England, choreographer, Metropolitan Opera 1957 1919 Birthday - John Gregson, born in Liverpool England, actor, Gideon CID, Shirley's World 1918 Birthday - Ronnie Brody, England, actor, Superman 3, What's Up Nurse, Ritz 1918 Birthday - Malcolm Shepherd, born in England, born Malcolm Newton Shepherd, Lord Shepherd, 2nd Baron Shepherd of Spalding, politician, Labor Party, Leader of the House of Lords 1918 Birthday - Mervyn Pike, born in England, Irene Mervyn Parnicott Pike, Baroness Pike, Conservative, Life Peerk, knighted, Member of Parliament for Melton, in the county of Leicestershire 1918 Birthday - Richard Greene, Plymouth England, composer/actor, Adv of Robin Hood 1918 Birthday - Frederick Sanger, England, biochemist, Nobel 1958, 1980 1918 Birthday - Pamela Brown, born in England, actress, Alice in Wonderland, Dracula 1918 Birthday - Alec Bedser, cricketer, mighty post-war England medium-pacer 1918 Birthday - Eric Bedser, cricketer, bro of Alec, Surrey bowler but not England 1918 Birthday - Isabel Dean, England, actress, 5 Days one Summer, Virgin Island, Ransom 1918 Birthday - Denis Compton, cricketer, England batsman 1938-56 and Arsenal forward 1918 Birthday - Arthur McIntyre, cricket wicket-keeper, England 3 times early 50's 1918 Birthday - Sydney Chatton, England 1918 Birthday - Ronald Howard, born in Norwood, England, actor, Naked Edge, Africa-Texas Style 1918 Event - England's Royal Flying Corps replaced by Royal Air Force 1918 Birthday - Alfred Burke, born in London, England, actor, Backfire 1918 Birthday - Gordon Pirie, England, Group Captain 1918 Birthday - Norman Wisdom, born in London, England, comedian, Kraft Music Hall 1918 Birthday - Skitch Henderson, born in Birmingham, England, orchestra leader, Tonight Show 1918 Birthday - Colin Snedden, cricketer, Test New Zealand vs. England 1947, 0-46, did not bat 1917 Birthday - Andrew Fielding Huxley, born in London, England, physiologist, Nobel 1963 1917 Birthday - Arthur C. Clarke, born in Somerset, England, science fiction author, inventor, wrote '2001: A Space Odyssey' 1917 Birthday - Durward Knowles, England, yachtsman, Gold Medal 1968 Olympics 1917 Birthday - Ken Cranston, cricketer, England all-rounder captained once in 1948 1917 Birthday - Michael [George] Somes, England, dancer, Royal Ballet 1917 Birthday - Sydney J. Harris, born in London, England, journalist, wrote, syndicated column, 'Strictly Personal', wrote for Chicago Daily News, Chicago Sun-Times, political positions placed him on the list of Nixon political opponents, wrote, 'The Authentic Person: Dealing with Dilemma' 1917 Birthday - Richard Desborough Burnell, born in England, double sculls 1948 Olympics gold 1917 Birthday - John Stokes, born in England, politician, Conservative Party Member of Parliament, The Most Excellent Order of the British Empire, member of the Conservative Monday Club, Primrose League 1917 Birthday - Pamela Brown, born in London, England, actress, Cleopatra, Beckett 1917 Event - 1e German air attack on England, 100+ killed in East-London 1917 Birthday - Jean Graham Hall, circuit court judge, England 1917 Birthday - Tessie O'Shea, born in England, actress, Entertainers 1917 Birthday - Roy Scott, cricketer, one Test New Zealand vs. England 1947, 18, 1-74 1917 Birthday - Jack Robertson, cricketer, superb England batsman only played 11 Tests 1917 Birthday - Dick Emery, born in London, England, actor, Yellow Submarine, Loot, Baby Love 1916 Birthday - Maurice Wilkins, England, physicist, worked with DNA, Nobel 1962 1916 Birthday - Michael Gwynn, Bath England, actor, Village of Damned, Question 7 1916 Birthday - Len Wilkinson, cricketer, England leg-spinner just before WW II 1916 Birthday - Trevor Howard, born in England, actor, Mutiny on Bounty, Ryan's Daughter 1916 Birthday - Francis Cockfield, born in Horsham, England, born Francis Arthur Cockfield, Baron Cockfield of Dover in the County of Kent, politician, Conservative Party, Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster 1916 Birthday - Eric Bentley, England, critic/writer, In Search of Theater 1916 Birthday - John Slater, born in London, England, actor, Deadlock, Cartel, Devil's Pass 1916 Birthday - Moura Lympany, Saltash England, pianist, OBE-1979 1916 Death - Claude Newberry, South Africa cricket All-rounder (v England 1913-14), dies 1916 Birthday - Sydney Tafler, born in London, England, actor, Too Many Crooks 1916 Birthday - Len Hutton, cricketer, England opener, 364 vs. Australia The Oval 1938 1916 Birthday - Bill Edrich, cricketer, Middlesex and England bat, Compton's mate 1916 Birthday - Alec Coxon, cricketer, England pace bowler in one Test, 2-90 and 1-82 1915 Birthday - Michael Denison, York England, actor, Importance of Being Ernest 1915 Birthday - Dennis Brookes, cricketer, one Test England vs. WI 1948, scored 10 and 7 1915 Birthday - Arthur Lowe, born in Hayfield, England, actor, Captain Mainwaring-Dad's Army 1915 Birthday - Humphrey Searle, England, writer, 20th Century counterpoint 1915 Birthday - Miles Stapleton-Fitzalan-Howard, born in England, 17th Duke of Norfolk, The Most Notable Order of the Garter, Royal Victorian Order, awarded Military Cross 1915 Birthday - Dennis Price, born in Twyford, England, actor, Adventurers, Millionairess 1915 Birthday - Julian Ridsdale, born in England, politician, Conservative Party Member of Parliament for Harwich in Essex, The Most Excellent Order of the British Empire 1915 Event - 1st Zeppelin air raid over England 1915 Event - H H Asquith forms a coalition government in England 1915 Birthday - John Egerton, born in England, born John Egerton, 6th Duke of Sutherland, served with British Expeditionary Force, captured at St. Valery, spent four years in a prisoner of war camp 1915 Birthday - Peter Medawar, England, zoologist, immunologist, Nobel 1953 1915 Birthday - Godfrey Brown, England, 4 x 400m runner 1936 Olympics gold 1915 Birthday - Philip Friend, Horsham England, actor, Vulture, Fur Collar 1915 Event - Germany begins a blockade of England 1915 Birthday - John D. Profumo, born in England, politician 1915 Birthday - Alan Watts, born in Kent, England, writer, speaker, and philosopher, 'The Spirit of Zen' and 'The Art of Contemplation' 1914 Event - German plane drops bombs on Dover England 1914 Birthday - Winston Place, cricketer, England opener in West Indies 1948 1914 Birthday - Cyril Washbrook, cricketer, stalwart Lancs and England opener 1914 Event - Battleship HMS Bulwark explodes at Sheerness Harbor England, 788 die 1914 Birthday - Harold Gimblett, cricketer, legendary Somerset and England batsman 1914 Birthday - Michael Goodliffe, Cheshire England, actor, 5th Day of Peace 1914 Birthday - James Scarlett, born in England, born James Richard Scarlett, 8th Baron Abinger, Lord Abinger, politician, Royal Artillery Lieutenant-Colonel, Deputy Lieutenant for Essex 1914 Birthday - Kenneth More, born in England, actor, 39 Steps, Doctor in the House 1914 Birthday - Doug Wright, cricketer, England's leg-spinning genius of 30's and 40's 1914 Birthday - Stewart Cathie "Billy" Griffith, cricketer, 140 for England, 1948 1914 Death - Walter T Watts-Dunton, England, lawyer/poet/writer (Aylwin), dies 1914 Death - R E Foster, only dual England captain at cricket and soccer, dies 1914 Birthday - Dennis Dyer, cricketer, opened batting for South Africa vs. England 1947 1914 Birthday - Andrew Martin, Lord-Lt, Lechestershire England 1914 Birthday - John Cameron, cricketer, brother of Jimmy WI v-captain 1939 England tour 1914 Birthday - Katherine Stammers Menzies, born in England, doubles tennis player, Wimb 1935 1914 Birthday - Alec Guinness, born in London, England, British actor, Bridge on River Kwai 1914 Birthday - Bohumil Hrabal, born in Brno-Zidenice, Moravia, Czechoslovakian writer, storyteller, wrote hyper-realist texts, studied at Charles Univerisity in Prague, known for novels titled Closely Watched Trains and I Served the King of England 1914 Birthday - Donald Stokes, born in Plymouth, England, born Donald Gresham Stokes, Baron Stokes, Lord Stokes, industrialist, life peer in the House of Lords, managing director of British Leyland Motor Corporation 1914 Birthday - Ida Lupino, born in London, England, actress, Adventures of Sherlock Holmes 1914 Birthday - Derek Allhusen, England, equestrian, Gold Medal 1968 Olympics 1913 Birthday - Benjamin Britten, born in Suffolk, England, opera composer 1913 Birthday - Benjamin Britten, Lowestoft Suffolk England, composer, Beggar's Opera 1913 Birthday - Anthony Quayle, born in England, actor, Anne of 1000 Days, Lawrence of Arabia 1913 Birthday - Angus Wilson, born in England, writer, Mulberry Bush-1955 1913 Birthday - Michael Foot, born Plymouth, England, born Michael Mackintosh Foot, writer, politician, Labor Party, Leader of the Opposition 1913 Birthday - Mervyn Stockwood, bishop, Southwark England 1913 Birthday - Peter Cushing, England, actor, Dracula, Star Wars, Dr. Who 1913 Birthday - Audrey Brown, England, 4 x 100m runner 1936 Olympics silver 1913 Birthday - Nigel Patrick, London England, actor and director, Sapphire, Prize of Gold 1913 Birthday - Norman Parkinson, born in England, fashion photographer, Harper's Bazaar 1913 Event - Netherlands soccer team's 1st victory over England 1913 Birthday - William Chatterton, cricketer, 48 in only Test for England 1892 1913 Birthday - Harold Butler, cricketer, England pace bowler late 40's 1913 Birthday - Dicky Fuller, cricketer, one Test WI vs. England 1935, 1, 0-12 1913 Birthday - Francis De Wolff, England, actor, From Russia With Love 1912 Birthday - Jimmy Jewel, born in Sheffield, England, James Arthur Thomas J. Marsh, comedian, television, film actor, appeared in film 'The Krays', musical drama 'Casualty' 1912 Birthday - Jack Crapp, cricketer, England batsman 1948-49 1912 Birthday - Jack Young, cricketer, Middlesex and England slow left-armer post-WW2 1912 Birthday - Stephen Murray, born in Partney, England, actor, Alice in Wonderland 1912 Event - World's 1st cannery opens in England to supply food to the navy 1912 Event - England defeat Australia to win the Triangular Tournament 1912 Birthday - Wendy Hiller, England, actress, Major Barbara, David Copperfield 1912 Birthday - Michael Wilding, born in England, actor, Courtney Affair, World of Suzie Wong 1912 Birthday - Maurice Dallimore, born in England, actor, Collector, Lad: A Dog 1912 Birthday - Enoch Powell, England, MP, C, Greek professor 1912 Birthday - Eric Hollies, cricketer, England leggie, bowled Bradman 1912 Birthday - David Barran, CEO, Midland Bank, England 1912 Event - Royal Flying Corps forms in England 1912 Birthday - Kathleen Mary Ferrier, born in England, contralto, Orfeo Ed Evridice 1912 Birthday - David Townsend, cricketer, 3 Tests England vs. WI 1935 1912 Birthday - John Le Mesurier, born in Bedford, England, actor, Jabberwocky, Dad's Army 1912 Birthday - Cuthbert Alport, born in England, born Cuthbert James McCall Alport, Lord Alport, Baron Alport, politician, Conservative Party, Cabinet Minister, life peer, Deputy Lieutenant for Essex 1912 Event - Coal miners strike in England (settle on 03/01) 1912 Birthday - Richard Wattis, England, actor, Hobson's Choice, Prince and Showgirl 1912 Event - England regains cricket's Ashes 1912 Birthday - Ernest Clark, born in London, England, actor, Doctor in the House 1912 Birthday - Roy Fuller, England, poet and novelist, Lost Season 1912 Birthday - Ian Orr-Ewing, born in England, Charles Ian Orr-Ewing, politician, Conservative Party, Member of Parliament for Hendon North, Baronet of Hendon 1912 Birthday - Ken Weekes, cricketer, WI batsman vs. England 1939, 137 at The Oval 1912 Birthday - Anna Lee, Ightham England, actress, Scruples, Lila-General Hospital 1911 Birthday - Anna Russell, born in London, England, possibly born in London, Ontario, birth name Maida Vale, Anna Claudia Russell-Brown, composer, singer, comedian, recording artist 1911 Birthday - Harry Andrews, Kent England, actor, Equus, Man of La Mancha 1911 Birthday - Peter Graves, born in London, England, actor, Mission Impossible, Stalag 17 1911 Birthday - Michael Hordern, Hertfordshire England, actor, Friar Domingo-Shogun 1911 Birthday - William Golding, England, novelist, Lord of the Flies-Nobel 1983 1911 Event - 1st European airpost (Hendon to Windsor, England) 1911 Birthday - Ronald Udell, England, production designer, Pinewood Studios 1911 Birthday - Norman Gordon, South Africa cricket pace bowler, against England 1938-39 1911 Birthday - Terry-Thomas, born in England, actor, It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World 1911 Birthday - Ken Farnes, cricket bowler, fast England in pre-WW II years 1911 Birthday - Joe Hardstaff, Jr., cricketer, son of Joseph, 23 Tests for England 1911 Event - King George V of England crowned 1911 Birthday - William Berry, born in England, Lord Hartwell, 3rd Viscount Camrose and Baron Hartwell, journalist, newspaper owner, editor-in-chief of the Daily, Sunday Telegraph 1911 Birthday - Patrick Maitland, born in England, 17th Earl of Lauderdale, journalist, World War II Special Correspondent, Member of Parliament for Lanark 1911 Birthday - Geoff Chubb, cricketer, South Africa pace bowler vs. England 1951-52 aged 40 1911 Birthday - Goddard Lieberson, Hanley Staffordshire England, recording executive 1911 Birthday - Margot Grahame, born in Canterbury, England, born Margaret Clark, actress, compared to Jean Harlow, dubbed the 'Aluminum Blonde', performed with Bebe Daniels in The Fabulous Joe 1910 Birthday - Betty Ann Davies, born in London, England, actress, Tough Guy 1910 Birthday - Richard Ainley, Middlesex England, actor, I Dood It, Above Suspicion 1910 Event - Explosion in coal mine in Hulton England, 344 mine workers dies 1910 Birthday - Alfred J Ayer, England, Neopositivist philosopher/logician 1910 Event - Portugal becomes a republic, King Manuel II flees to England 1910 Event - England's 1st aircraft flight 1910 Death - Allen Hill, cricket bowler (England, 2 Tests), dies 1910 Birthday - Denis Moloney, New Zealand cricket all-rounder, 1937 England tour 1910 Birthday - Peter Pears, Farnham England, tenor, Death in Venice 1910 Birthday - David Rose, born in London, England, orchestra leader, Red Skelton Show, Stripper 1910 Event - 1st roundtrip flight over English Channel, C S Rolls, England 1910 Event - 1st aircraft air display held (Hendon, England) 1910 Death - Edward VII, King of England (1901-10), dies at 68 1910 Event - 1st night air flight (Claude Grahame-White, England) 1910 Birthday - Nicholas Monsarret, born in England, writer, Cruel Sea 1910 Birthday - Iftikhar Ali Khan, cricketer, Nawab of Pataudi, England and India 1910 Birthday - Arthur Hazlerigg, born in England, Lord Hazlerigg, 2nd Baron Hazlerigg, awarded Military Cross, judge, Deputy Lieutenant of Leicestershire, soldier, served during World War II, life peer 1910 Birthday - Nicholas Monsarrat, Liverpool England, novelist 1910 Birthday - Paul Whitelaw, cricketer, New Zealand opening batsman vs. England 1933 1910 Event - Simpson-Hayward (England) takes 6-43 on debut with underarm lobs 1909 Birthday - Maurice Denham, Beckenham England, actor, Mr Love, Damn the Defiant 1909 Birthday - Mona Barrie, Smith, born in London, England, actress, Dawn on Great Divide 1909 Birthday - Robert Douglas, Finlayson, Bletchley England, actor, Adv of Don Juan 1909 Birthday - Jean Batten, New Zealand air pioneer, 1st woman to fly solo England to Australia 1909 Birthday - Anne Seymour, born in England, actress, Gemini Affair, Empire, Tim Conway Show 1909 Birthday - Michael Rennie, England, actor, Robe, Klatuu-Day the Earth Stood Still 1909 Birthday - Ronnie Grieveson, South Africa cricket keeper/batsman, 2 Tests vs. England 1939 1909 Birthday - Andre Morell, born in London, England, actor, Hound of the Baskervilles 1909 Birthday - Bill Voce, cricketer, England left-arm bodyline bowler 1909 Birthday - Cyril Northcote Parkinson, England, historian, Pursuit of Progress 1909 Birthday - Hardy Amies, born in London, England, royal dressmaker, Queen Elizabeth II 1909 Birthday - M J Gopalan, cricketer, 1 Test India vs. England 1933-34 1909 Birthday - James Mason, England, actor, Lolita, Bloodline, Boys From Brazil 1909 Birthday - Gerald Bond, cricketer, one Test South Africa vs. England 1938, 0 and 0-16 1909 Birthday - Terence De Marney, born in England, actor, Case Thomas-Johnny Ringo 1909 Birthday - Stephen Harold Spender, England, poet and critic, Vienna, Edge of Darkness 1909 Birthday - Heather Angel, Oxford England, actress, Informer, Last of Mohicans 1909 Birthday - Richard Hearne, Norwich England, actor, Captain Horatio Hornblower 1909 Birthday - Ann Todd, Hartford England, actress, Paradine Case, 7th Veil 1908 Birthday - Celia Johnson, England, actress, Happy Breed, Brief encounter 1908 Birthday - Laurence Naismith, Surrey England, actor, Judge Fulton-Persuaders 1908 Birthday - Alistair Cooke, Manchester England, TV host, Masterpiece Theatre 1908 Birthday - Reginald Beckwith, York England, actor, Genevieve, Doctor in Love 1908 Birthday - Richard Caldicot, born in London, England, actor, Horse's Mouth 1908 Birthday - Ben Barnett, Australian cricket wicket-keeper, 1938 England tour 1908 Birthday - David Farrar, Forest Gate England, actor, Beat Girl, I Accuse 1908 Birthday - Ian Lancaster Fleming, born in London, England, author, James Bond 1908 Birthday - Robert Morley, England, actor, High Road to China, African Queen 1908 Birthday - Rex Harrison, Reginald Carey, England, actor, My Fair Lady, Cleopatra 1908 Event - Denmark, Germany, England, France, Netherlands and Sweden sign North Sea accord 1908 Birthday - David Lean, born in Croydon, England, director, Dr. Zhivago, Ryan's Daughter 1908 Birthday - Rex Harrison, born in England, actor, My Fair Lady, Dr. Doolittle 1908 Birthday - Alf Gover, cricketer, bowled in 4 Tests for England/famous coach 1908 Birthday - John Mills, England, actor, Big Sleep, King Rat, War and Peace 1908 Event - Australia regain the Ashes with a 308 run cricket victory vs England 1908 Birthday - W H V "Hopper" Levett, cricket keeper, England in 1 Test in Calcutta 1908 Birthday - Ian Peebles, cricketer, Scottish leg-spinner, England 1927-31 1908 Birthday - Bernard Lee, born in London, England, actor, M in James Bond movies 1908 Birthday - William Hartnell, born in London, England, actor, Agitator, Jackpot 1908 Event - England beat Australia by one wicket at the MCG 1907 Birthday - Peggy Ashcroft, Croydon England, actress, Dear Brutus, Happy Days 1907 Birthday - Christopher Fry, Bristol England, playwright, Ring Around the Moon 1907 Birthday - Guy Middleton, Hove England, actor, Gentlemen Marrie Brunettes 1907 Birthday - Roy Douglas, born in Tunbridge Wells, England, Richard Roy Douglas, composer, pianist, member London Symphony Orchestra, pianist, organist, celesta player, fourth percussionist, created orchestration for 'Les Sylphides' 1907 Birthday - Rumer Godden, England, author, Thursday's Children 1907 Birthday - Barbara Morrison, Weston-Super-Mare England, actress, Project Moonbase 1907 Birthday - Michael Shepley, Plymouth England, actor, Dick and the Duchess 1907 Birthday - Ralph Michael, born in London, England, actor, Quest, Doctor in the House 1907 Event - England, Russia and France form Triple Entente 1907 Event - Sir Robert Baden-Powell forms Boy Scouts in England 1907 Birthday - Frank A. Whittle, England inventor, jet engine 1907 Birthday - Laurence Olivier, England, actor, Rebecca, Hamlet, Jazz Singer 1907 Birthday - Clifford Curzon, born in London, England, pianist, MacFarren Gold Medal 1907 Birthday - Alan Wheatley, England, actor, Adventure of Robin Hood 1907 Birthday - Phyllis Konstam, born in London, England, actress, Murder, Skin Game 1907 Birthday - Jessie Matthews, born in London, England, actress, Gangway, First a Girl 1907 Birthday - Lillian Harvey, born in London, England, actress, Invitation to the Waltz 1906 Birthday - Hermione Baddeley, England, actress, Camp Runamuck, Maude, Good Life 1906 Birthday - Benita Hume, born in London, England, actress, Vicky-Halls of Ivy 1906 Birthday - Derrick De Marney, born in London, England, actor, Inheritance 1906 Birthday - Roye England, modeller/museum curator 1906 Birthday - John Betjeman, poet laureate of England, Mount Zion 1906 Birthday - Andre Van Gyseghem, England, actor, Search for the Nile 1906 Birthday - Richard Fanshawe, England, equestion 3 day event, Olympic-bronze-1936 1906 Birthday - Catherine Cookson, born in England, novelist, Bannaman Legacy 1906 Birthday - Norman Gallichan, cricketer, all-rounder in 1 Test New Zealand vs. England 1937 1906 Birthday - Walter Robins, cricketer, dynamic England leg-spin all-rounder 1906 Birthday - Terence Hanbury White, Bombay India, novelist, England Have My Bones 1906 Birthday - Esmond Knight, East Sheen, England, actor, Hamlet, Sleeping Murder 1906 Birthday - Kathleen Major, principal, St. Hilda's College, England 1906 Event - South Africa complete a 4-1 series drubbing of England 1906 Birthday - E Power Biggs, Westcliff-on-Sea England, organist/composer, CBS 1906 Event - "Census of the British Empire" shows England rules 1/5 of the world 1906 Birthday - Henny Youngman, born in London, England, comedian, Take my wife please 1906 Birthday - Donald Novis, Hastings England, actor, Monte Carlo 1906 Birthday - Madeleine Carroll, England, actress, 39 Steps, Secret Agent 1906 Birthday - Henny Youngman, England, comedian, Take my wife please... 1906 Event - South Africa beat England by one wicket, their 1st Test win 1905 Birthday - Jule Styne, England, songwriter/composer, 1954 Academy Award, 1968 Tony 1905 Birthday - Anthony Powell, England, novelist, Infants of Spring 1905 Event - Henry Campbell-Bannermam (Lib) becomes Prime Minister of England 1905 Birthday - Leslie Ames, cricketer, England wicket-keeper of 30's Outstanding bat 1905 Event - England Pilgrim Association beats All New York 11, 7-1 in soccer at Polo Grounds 1905 Birthday - Charles P Snow, England, novelist/scientist, Death Under Sail 1905 Birthday - Ralph Forbes, born in London, England, actor, Romeo and Juliet, Daniel Boone 1905 Birthday - Cyril Walters, cricketer, solid England batsman of 30's 1905 Birthday - Leonard Constant Lambert, born in London, England, composer, King Pest 1905 Birthday - Leo Genn, born in London, England, actor, Affair in Monte Carlo 1905 Birthday - Boyd Neel, born in London, England, conductor, Story of an Orchestra 1905 Birthday - Kumar Shri Duleepsinhji, cricketer, England 1929-31 1905 Birthday - Robert Newton, England, actor, Henry V, Around the World in 80 Days 1905 Birthday - Sebastian Shaw, Holt England, actor, Return of Jedi, Chimera 1905 Birthday - Hedley Verity, cricketer, terrific slow lefty for England pre-WW II 1905 Birthday - Alan Rawsthorne, Haslingden England, composer, Corteges 1905 Birthday - Robert Donat, born in England, actor, Goodbye Mr. Chips, Citadel 1904 Birthday - Harold Larwood, cricketer, England bodyline bowler 1904 Birthday - Anna Neagle, London England, actress, London Melody, Nurse Edith Cavell 1904 Birthday - Wilfred Pickles, Halifax England, actor, Billy Liar, Gay Dog 1904 Birthday - [Henry] Graham Greene, England, prolific novelist, Brighton Rock 1904 Birthday - Frank Lawton, born in London, England, actor, Devil Doll, Invisible Ray 1904 Birthday - Robert Whitney, Newcastle-on-Tyne England, conductor, Sospiro do Roma 1904 Birthday - Angela Baddeley, born in London, England, actress, Ghost Train, Tom Jones 1904 Birthday - Anthony Bushell, Kent England, actor, Journey's End 1904 Birthday - Catherine Lacey, born in London, England, actress, Sorcerors 1904 Birthday - Cecil Day-Lewis, England, poet laureate/detective, Nicholas Blake 1904 Birthday - John Gielgud, born in London, England, actor, Arthur, Ages of Man 1904 Birthday - Clive Morton, born in London, England, actor, Goodbye Mr. Chips, Moonraker 1904 Event - England regains cricket Ashes taking a 3-1 series lead vs. Australia 1904 Birthday - Bramwell Fletcher, born in Yorkshire, England, actor, White Cargo, Mummy 1904 Birthday - Cary Grant, born in England, actor, 'Arsenic and Old Lace', 'North by Northwest' 1904 Birthday - Cecil Beaton, England, royal family photographer 1904 Birthday - Richard Addinsell, born in London, England, composer, Taming of Shrew 1904 Event - England beat Australia at the MCG, Rhodes 7-56 and 8-68 1903 Birthday - Cyril Dean Darlington, England, biologist, hereditary mechanisms 1903 Event - Reg Foster completes 287 England vs. Australia on Test Cricket debut 1903 Birthday - Cecil Frank Powell, England, physicist, discovered pion, Nobel 1950 1903 Birthday - Mona Washbourne, England, actress, Stevie, Billie Liar, Driver's Seat 1903 Birthday - George Coulouris, Manchester England, actor, Runaway Bus 1903 Birthday - Bernard Lovell, England, radio astronomer, founded Jodrell Bank 1903 Birthday - Eric Portman, born in Yorkshire, England, actor, Naked Edge, Canterbury Tale 1903 Birthday - Beatrix Lehmann, born in England, actress, Candles at Nine, Staircase 1903 Birthday - Bob Hope, Kent, England, entertainer, famous profile 1903 Birthday - Wilfrid Hyde-White, England, actor, My Fair Lady, Peyton Place 1903 Birthday - John Williams, born in England, actor, Niles-Family Affair, Dial M for Murder 1903 Birthday - Reginald Gardiner, Wimbledon England, actor, Great Dictator 1903 Event - 1st regular transatlantic radio broadcast between U.S. and England 1903 Birthday - Alan Napier, Birmingham England, actor, Alfred-Batman 1903 Birthday - Francis L Sullivan, born in London, England, actor, Missing Rembrandt 1902 Birthday - Ralph Richardson, born in England, actor, Anna Karenina, Dr. Zhivago 1902 Birthday - Richard A. Butler, England, Dutch Minister of Finance/Foreign affairs 1902 Birthday - Lorna Johnstone, England, equestrian dressage, Olympic-13th-1968 1902 Birthday - Georgette Heyer, England, novelist, Friday's Child 1902 Event - England beat Australia by one wicket at The Oval Famous victory 1902 Event - Edward VII of England crowned after death of his mother Victoria 1902 Birthday - Paul A M Dirac, England, physicist, quantum mechanics, Nobel 1933 1902 Birthday - G O "Gubby" Allen, cricketer, in Sydney England non-bodyline quickie 1902 Event - Australia beat England by 3 runs at Old Trafford 1902 Event - Trumper a century before lunch 4th Test Cricket vs. England 1902 Birthday - Nora Swinburne, born in England, actress, Quo Vardis, Dinner at Ritz, River 1902 Event - Australia Cricket all out 36 vs. England, Edgbaston, their lowest ever 1902 Birthday - Billy Mayerl, born in London, England, composer, pianist, master of light music, composed works for piano and orchestra, developed syncopated novelty piano solos, 300 piano pieces, most named after flowers and trees 1902 Event - 27th Preakness: L Jackson aboard Old England wins in 1:45.8 1902 Birthday - Brian Aherne, Worcestershire England, actor, Juarez 1902 Birthday - Donald Wolfit, born in England, actor, Lawrence of Arabia, Becket, Accursed 1902 Birthday - Arthur Wellard, cricketer, big hitting Somerset and England batsman 1902 Event - Soccer match riot between Scotland and England kills 25 1902 Birthday - L P Jai, cricketer, one Test India vs. England 1934, scored 19 and 0 1902 Birthday - William Walton, born in England, composer, Troilus and Cressida, Wise Virgins 1902 Birthday - Flora Robson, born in South Shields, England, actress, Dominique is Dead 1902 Birthday - Nikolaus Pevsner, Engl, art historian, The Buildings of England 1902 Event - Hugh Trumble takes a hat-trick vs. England at the MCG 1902 Event - Reg Duff 104 on Test debut, vs. England at MCG 1901 Birthday - Irene Handl, born in London, England, actress, Riding High, Morgan 1901 Birthday - Robin Irvine, born in London, England, actor, Easy Virtue 1901 Event - Marconi receives 1st transatlantic radio signal, England to US 1901 Birthday - Joyce Wethered, Surrey England, golfer, 4 time British Amateur champ 1901 Birthday - Eddie Paynter, cricketer, England batting hero in Bodyline series 1901 Birthday - Edward Chapman, Harrogate England, actor, Promoter, Rembrandt 1901 Birthday - James Pitman, Bath England, educator/publisher/phonetic speller 1901 Birthday - Maurice Evans, Dorchester England, actor, Maurice-Bewitched 1901 Birthday - George Duckworth, cricket wicket-keeper, England late 20's early 30's 1901 Birthday - Bob Wyatt, cricketer, England batsman 1927-37 1901 Birthday - J Pat O'Malley, born in England, actor, Touch of Grace, Gunn, Star! 1901 Birthday - Reginald Sheffield, born in London, England, actor, Second Chance 1901 Birthday - Christmas Humphreys, England, lawyer/writer/Buddhist, Awakening of Zen 1901 Event - After 63 years England stops sale of Queen Victoria postage stamps series and begins King Edward VII series 1901 Birthday - Patrick Aherne, England, actor, Bwana Devil, Botany Bay, Q Planes 1901 Birthday - Rex O'Malley, born in London, England, actor, Camille, Zara, Midnight 1900 Birthday - W L "Tich" Cornford, cricketer, Sussex keeper played for England 1930 1900 Birthday - Lester Matthews, Nottingham England, Sir Dennis-Adv of Fu Manchu 1900 Death - Arthur S Sullivan, England, composer (Mikado, Ivanhoe), dies at 58 1900 Event - England annexes Transvaal 1900 Event - General Redvers Buller returns to England 1900 Birthday - Douglas Jardine, cricketer, England's Bodyline captain 1900 Birthday - "Janet" Taylor Caldwell, England, novelist, Melissa 1900 Birthday - Roland Culver, born in London, England, actor, Thunderball, Encore 1900 Birthday - Elizabeth, Queen Mother Of England, King George VI's wife 1900 Birthday - Ernie Pyle, born in England, correspondent during WW II 1900 Birthday - Maurice Leyland, prolific cricket left-handed batsman, England 1900 Birthday - Ralph Truman, born in London, England, actor, Web of Evidence 1900 Birthday - Edna Best, born in Hove, England, actress starred in Key, Calendar, Escape, Intermezzo 1900 Birthday - Fred Emney, born in London, England, actor, Let the People Sing, Lilac Domino 1900 Event - Labour Party forms in England 1900 Birthday - Sandy Powell, Rotherham England, costume designer, Rob Roy 1900 Event - Newcastle Badminton Club, world's oldest, forms in England 1899 Birthday - Noel Coward, England, playwright, In Which We Serve-1942 Academy Award 1899 Birthday - Frank Vosper, born in London, England, actor, Man Who Knew Too Much 1899 Event - Columbia (U.S.) beats Shamrock (England) in 11th America's Cup 1899 Event - South Africa Boer Republic declares war on England 1899 Birthday - Cecil Scott Forester, England, historical novelist, Horatio Hornblower 1899 Birthday - Ricci Riano, England 1899 Birthday - Gerald Moore, England, pianist, Am I Too Loud 1899 Birthday - Charles Laughton, born in England, actor, Mutiny on Bounty, Spartacus 1899 Event - Jack Hearne takes a hat-trick England vs. Australia at Headingley 1899 Event - Victor Trumper's 1st Test Cricket century 135* vs. England, Lord's 1899 Event - Victoria and Albert Museum foundation laid England 1899 Event - South Africa all out 35 vs England (Trott 4-19, Haigh 6-11) 1899 Birthday - William Brann, cricketer, South African batsman vs. England 1922-23 1899 Event - Pelham Warner scores 132 on Test Cricket debut (England vs. South Africa Johannesburg) 1898 Birthday - Lionel Charles Robbins, Middlesex England, economist 1898 Birthday - George Cuzon, Amersham England, actor, Hooded Terror 1898 Birthday - Malcolm Cowley, Belsano Penn, author, Flowering of New England 1898 Birthday - Henry Moore, England, sculptor, Vertebrae 1898 Birthday - Carleton Percy Hobbs, Farnborough England 1898 Event - Australia complete a 4-1 series annihilation of England 1898 Birthday - Wallace Ford, Samuel Jones Grundy, Batton England, actor, Deputy 1898 Birthday - Gracie Fields, England, music hall/vaudeville performer 1897 Birthday - Hermione Gingold, born in London, England, actress, Gigi, Music Man 1897 Event - 1st motorcycle race (Surrey England) 1897 Birthday - Halliwell Hobbes, Stratford-on-Avon England, actor, Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde 1897 Birthday - Dennis King, Coventry England, comedian, Devil's Brother 1897 Birthday - Cecil Parker, Hastings England, actor, Indiscreet, Tale of 2 Cities 1897 Event - Tate Gallery opens in England 1897 Birthday - Basil Radford, born in Chester, England, actor, Whiskey Galore, Night Train 1897 Birthday - Cyril "Froggy" Francois, cricketer, South Africa all-rounder vs. England 1922 - 1923 1897 Birthday - Jack Raine, born in London, England, actor, Quartet 1897 Birthday - Dalton Parry Conyngham, cricketer, one Test South Africa vs. England 1923 1897 Birthday - Kitty McKane, England, tennis, Olympic-gold/2 silver/2 bronze-1920, 24 1896 Birthday - Ronald Adam, Herefordshire England, actor, Phantom Shot 1896 Birthday - Jack Warner, born in London, England, actor, Christmas Carol 1896 Birthday - Melville Cooper, Birmingham England, TV panelist, I Got a Secret 1896 Event - England defeated Zanzibar in a 38-minute war (9:02 AM-9:40 AM) 1896 Birthday - Alan Mowbray, born in London, England, actor, Dante, Colonel Flack 1896 Event - George Samuelson completes rowing Atlantic (New York to England) 1896 Birthday - Archibald J Cronin, England, author, Citadel, Shining Victory 1896 Birthday - Irene Browne, born in England, actress, All at Sea, Peg O' My Heart 1896 Birthday - Michael Balcon, Birmingham England, producer/father of Jill Balcon 1896 Birthday - Walter Fitzgerald, Keyhan Devonport England 1896 Event - South Africa all out for 30 vs. England - their lowest ever 1896 Birthday - Eva Le Gallienne, born in London, England, actress/director, Resurrection 1896 Birthday - Arnold Ridley, Bath England, actor/dramatist, The Ghost Train 1895 Birthday - George VI, king of England, 1936-52 1895 Birthday - Fay Holden, Birmingham England, actress, Mother-Andy Hardy films 1895 Event - Defender (U.S.) beats Valkyrie III (England) in 10th America's Cup 1895 Birthday - Jerry Verno, born in London, England, actor, River of Unrest, Sweeney Todd 1895 Birthday - Marie Ney, born in London, England, actress, Brief Ecstasy, Simba, Witchcraft 1895 Birthday - Maurice Tate, cricketer, great England pace bowler of 20's 1895 Birthday - Charlie Hallows, cricket batsman, Lancs played for England 1921 - 1928 1895 Event - England beat Australia to win one of the best cricket series ever, 3-2 1895 Event - J. T. Brown hits the fastest 50 in Test Crickets (28 minutes) England vs. Australia 1895 Birthday - Richard Goolden, born in London, England, actor, School for Husbands 1894 Birthday - Arthur Gilligan, cricketer, England captain in 1920's 1894 Event - England beat Australia by 10 runs in the 1st six-day Test Cricket 1894 Birthday - Winifred Kingston, England, silent screen actress, David Garrick 1894 Birthday - Aldous Huxley, born in Surrey, England, author, Brave New World 1894 Birthday - Arthur Treacher, born in Brighton, England, announcer, Merv Griffin Show 1894 Birthday - Mary Clare, born in London, England, actress, Evil Mind, Young and Innocent 1894 Event - Treaty of Aoki-Kimberley signed between Japan and England 1894 Birthday - Basil Sydney, born in England, actor, Hamlet, Jassy, Simba, Farmer's Wife 1894 Event - J L Johnstone of England invents horse racing starting gate 1894 Birthday - Charles Morgan, England, writer, Fountain 1894 Event - Manchester Ship Canal in England opens to traffic 1893 Event - Vigilant (U.S.) beats Valkyrie II (England) in 9th America's Cup 1893 Event - Harry Graham scores 107 on cricket debut Australia vs. England, Lord's 1893 Birthday - Jack Durston, cricketer, England fast bowler against Australia 1921 1893 Birthday - George Geary, cricketer, sturdy pace bowler for England 1924-34 1893 Birthday - Eugene Goossens, born in London, England, conductor and composer, Perseus 1893 Birthday - Arthur Carr, cricket captain, England vs. Australia 1926 1893 Birthday - Wilfred Owen, born in England, anti-war poet, Anthem for Doomed Youth 1893 Birthday - Cedric Hardwicke, Stourbridge England, actor, Peter Pan, Richard III 1893 Birthday - Ivor Armstrong Richards, England, literary critic 1892 Birthday - Nora Nicholson, Leamington England, actress, Blue Lagoon, Crow Hollow 1892 Birthday - Leo G Carroll, Weedon England, actor, Topper, Man From Uncle 1892 Birthday - Percy Fender, cricketer, legendary Surrey and England all-rounder 1892 Birthday - Roy Park, cricketer, one Test Australia vs. England 1920, out 1st ball 1892 Birthday - Edward H Carr, born in England, historian, History of Soviet Russia 1892 Birthday - Lupino Lane, born in London, England, actress, Love Parade 1892 Birthday - Margaret Rutherford, England, actress, Murder Most Foul 1892 Birthday - Jack Hulbert, born in Ely, England, actor, Into the Blue, Bulldog Jack 1892 Birthday - Robert A. Watson-Watt, England, physicist, radar 1892 Event - 3 brothers Hearne play in same Test Cricket England vs. South Africa (Cape Town) 1892 Birthday - David Garnett, England, novelist and editor, Lady into Fox 1892 Birthday - Vita Sackville-West, born in England, novelist/poet, The Land 1892 Death - Monty Bowden, cricket captain (England vs. South Africa 1889), dies at 26 1892 Event - Johnny Briggs takes a hat-trick, England vs. Australia SCG 1892 Event - Bobby Abel carries his bat for 132* for England in SCG Test 1891 Birthday - Robertson Hare, born in London, England, actor, Our Girl Friday, Banana Ridge 1891 Birthday - Reginald Denny Richmond England, actor, Rebecca, Cat Ballou, Batman 1891 Birthday - Isabel Jeans, born in London, England, actress, Easy Virtue, Heavens Above 1891 Birthday - Henry Oscar, born in London, England, actor, Saint in London 1891 Birthday - J. W. Hearne, cricket leg-spinner, all-rounder for England in 24 Tests 1891 Birthday - Ronald Colman, England, 1947 Academy Award actor, Tale of 2 Cities 1891 Death - Joe Hunter, cricket wicket-keeper (England on 1884-85 Australia tour), dies 1891 Birthday - Frank Pettingell, Liverpool England, actor, Gaslight, Goose Steps Out 1890 Birthday - Frank Butler, Oxford England, actor/sreenwriter, Road to Bali, China 1890 Birthday - George Merritt, born in London, England, actor, I Monster, Q Planes 1890 Birthday - Frank Conroy, Derby England, actor, Call of the Wild 1890 Birthday - Stanley Holloway, born in London, England, actor, Higgins-Our Man Higgins 1890 Birthday - Alan Herbert, England, journalist and writer, Punch, Helen 1890 Event - Would be start of England/Australia Test Cricket at Old Trafford Washout 1890 Birthday - Barbara Everest, born in London, England, actress, Fatal Witness, Inquest 1890 Birthday - Stan Laurel, born in England, comedian, Laurel and Hardy 1890 Birthday - Myra Hess, born in London, England, concert pianist 1889 Birthday - Albert J Sylvester, England, ballroom dancer, Alex Moor Award-1977 1889 Birthday - Lord Tennyson III, cricketer, England batsman and captain 1889 Birthday - Irene Steer, England, 4 x 100m relay swimmers, Gold Medal 1912 Olympics 1889 Birthday - Arnold Toynbee, born in England, historian, Study of History 1889 Birthday - Adrian Boult, born in Chester, England, conductor and composer, BBC Symphony Orchestra 1889 Event - Bernard Tancred carries bat for 26* out of 47! South Africa vs. England 1889 Event - South Africa all out 47, then follow-on all out 43 vs. England 1889 Event - 1st Test Cricket match played at Newlands, Cape Town vs. England 1889 Event - Start of South Africa's 1st Test, vs. England, Port Elizabeth 1889 Birthday - Cyril Delevanti, England, actor, Lucius-Jefferson Davis, Black Eye 1889 Birthday - Elias Henry "Patsy" Hendren, cricketer, prolific England bat of 20's 1889 Birthday - F R Foster, cricketer, 330 runs and 45 wickets for England 1888 Birthday - Gladys Cooper, Lewisham England, actress, My Fair Lady 1888 Birthday - Paul Cavanagh, Chislehurst England, actor, Tarzan and his Mate 1888 Birthday - Hugh Wakefield, Wanstead England, actress, Blithe Spirit 1888 Birthday - Clifford Heatherley, Preston England, actress, For Love or Money 1888 Birthday - Claud Allister, born in London, England, actor, Bulldog Drummond 1888 Birthday - Herman McNeile, Cornwall England, soldier/novelist, Bull-Dog Drummond 1888 Birthday - Violet Farebrother, Grimsby England, actress, Downhill, Easy Virtue 1888 Birthday - A P "Tich" Freeman, cricket leg-spinner, legend for Kent and England 1888 Birthday - Miles Mander, Wolverhampton England, actor, Tower of London 1888 Birthday - Jameson Thomas, born in London, England, actor, Farmer's Wife 1888 Birthday - Gladys Cooper, England, actress, Margaret-Rogues 1887 Birthday - Eric Blore, born in London, England, actor, Great Gatsby, Bowery to Baghdad 1887 Birthday - Lynn Fontanne, born in Woodford, England, Bdwy actress, Dulcy, Arms and the Man 1887 Birthday - Boris Karloff, William H Pratt, Dulwich England, actor, Frankenstein 1887 Birthday - Roland Young, London, England 1887 Birthday - Muriel Aked, Bingley England actress, Happiest Days of Your Life 1887 Birthday - John Warburton, Huddersfield England, actor, Saratoga Trunk 1887 Birthday - A C "Jack" Russell, cricketer, prolific England batsman post-WW I 1887 Birthday - George Brown, cricketer, legendary England batsman/keeper of 20's 1887 Birthday - Esme Percy, born in London, England, actor, Old Spanish Custom 1887 Birthday - Malcolm Keen, Bristol England, actor, Uncle Chris-Mama 1887 Birthday - Reginald Owen, born in Wheathampstead, England, actor, Dr. Watson-Sherlock Holmes 1887 Birthday - Clive Brook, born in London, England, actor and director, List of Adrian Messenger 1887 Birthday - Frank Woolley, cricketer, long-running England left-arm all-rounder 1887 Birthday - Phil Mead, cricketer, strong batsman for England pre- and post-WWI 1887 Birthday - Leonard Carey, England, actor, Laughter 1887 Birthday - Hesketh Pearson, England, biographer/playwright, Writ for Libel 1887 Event - England all out for 45 vs. Australia SCG, their lowest total ever 1886 Birthday - Victor McLaglen, born in England, actor, Informer, Academy Award-1935 1886 Birthday - William Booth, cricketer, Yorks all-rounder, England before WW I 1886 Birthday - Jack Crawford, cricketer, England all-rounder in 12 Tests 1905-08 1886 Birthday - Percy Holmes, cricketer, England, 555 partners with Sutcliffe for Yorks 1886 Event - Mayflower (U.S.) beats Galatea (England) in 7th America's Cup 1886 Birthday - Eric Coates, Hucknall Nottinghamshire England, viola player/composer 1886 Event - 1st International polo meet, U.S. vs England 1886 Birthday - Joe Cox, cricketer, South African pace bowler in 1913-14 series vs. England 1886 Birthday - George Mallory, England, mountain climber, "because it is there" 1886 Birthday - Lillian Fontaine, Reading England, actress, Suddenly it's Spring 1886 Event - 1st cremation in England 1886 Birthday - Paul Radmilovic, born in England, swimmer, 3 1908 Olympic gold medals 1886 Birthday - Andrew Ducat, cricketer, Test for England 1921, 3 and 2, Soccer International 1886 Birthday - Sax Rohmer, England, author, Dr. Fu Manchu 1886 Birthday - Hugh Lofting, England, writer and illustrator, Dr. Dolittle 1886 Birthday - George Zucco, England, actor, Adv of Sherlock Holmes, Captain Fury 1885 Birthday - Arthur Dolphin, cricketer, Yorkshire and England keeper, later Test ump 1885 Birthday - F S Flint, born in London, England, translator/poet, imagist movement 1885 Event - Puritan (U.S.) beats Genesta (England) in 6th running of America's Cup 1885 Birthday - David Herbert "DH" Lawrence, England, writer, Lady Chatterly's Lover 1885 Birthday - Charles Carson, born in London, England, actor, Cry the Beloved Country 1885 Birthday - Gordon Harker, born in London, England, actor, Facts of Love, Champagne 1885 Event - Congress of Berlin, gives Congo to Belgium and Nigeria to England 1885 Birthday - Lili Green, Alice Sally Mary, Netherlands/England dancer 1885 Birthday - Edith Evans, born in London, England, actress, Tom Jones, David Copperfield 1884 Birthday - Frank Arthur Swinnerton, England, novelist, Summer Storm, Sanctuary 1884 Birthday - Otto Bohm, born in Prussia, scientist, helped create England Radar 1884 Event - Fred Spofforth takes 7-34 and 7-3 vs. England XI in 4 hours 1884 Birthday - Frank Cellier, Surbiton England, actor, Quiet Wedding, Big Blockade 1883 Birthday - Mary Forbes, Hornsey England, actress, Terror by Night 1883 Birthday - Arthur James Cook, England, union leader, coal miners 1883 Birthday - Percy Marmont, born in London, England, actor, Captain Apache 1883 Birthday - Harold Baumgartner, cricketer, one Test South Africa vs. England 1913 1883 Birthday - Arnold Edward Trevor Bax, born in London, England, composer, Farewell My Youth 1883 Birthday - Lord Berners, Gerald Tyrwhitt, England, composer, 1st Childhood 1883 Birthday - Lord Birkett, England, judge, Nuremburg Trials 1883 Birthday - John Maynard Keynes, Cambridge England, economist and journalist 1883 Birthday - Leonard Mudie, England, actor, Magnetic Monster, British Intelligence 1883 Birthday - Tom Walls, Kingsthorpe England, actor/producer, Undercover 1883 Event - England team presented with ashes of a bail after Sydney Test 1883 Birthday - Estelle Winwood, Goodwin, England, actress, Miracle on 34th Street 1883 Event - England complete 1st innings victory in Tests vs. Australia MCG 1883 Event - Billy Barnes takes a hat-trick, England vs. Australia MCG 1882 Birthday - Arthur Eddington, born in England, astrophysicist, cosmologist, and mathematician 1882 Birthday - John Berry Hobbs, England, 1st cricket played knighted, 1953 1882 Birthday - Sybil Thorndike, England, actress, Saint Joan 1882 Event - Australia beat England by 7 runs "Death of English cricket" 1882 Event - Fred Spofforth completes 14-90 for match vs. England (7-46 and 7-44) 1882 Birthday - Harry Makepeace, cricketer, 4 Tests for England vs. Australia 1920-21 1882 Birthday - Holmes Herbert, Mansfield England, actor, The Kiss 1882 Event - Epping Forest England dedicated by Queen Victoria 1882 Birthday - Douglas Mawson, born in Yorkshire, England, Antarctic explorer, geologist, member, Ernest Shackleton's Nimrod expedition, among first to reach South Magnetic Pole 1882 Birthday - Leopold Stokowski, born in London, England, conductor, Cincinnati Symphony 1882 Birthday - Wallis Clark, born in Essex, England, actress, Postal Inspector 1882 Birthday - Eric Gill, England, sculptor/engraver/typographer, Perpetua 1882 Event - SS Dunedin leaves New Zealand with 1st frozen meat to England 1881 Birthday - Milton Rosmer, Southport England, director, Murder in the Red Barn 1881 Birthday - Margaret Wycherly, born in London, England, actress, Keeper of the Flame 1881 Birthday - Walter Kingsford, Redhill England, actor, My Favorite Blonde 1881 Birthday - Daniel Jones, England phoneticist, English pronouncing dictionary 1881 Birthday - Alexander Fleming, born in England, bacteriologist, penicillin; Nobel 1954 1881 Event - Natural History Museum of South Kensington England opens 1881 Birthday - Daisy Ashford, born in Petersham, England, English witer, wrote 'The Young Sisters' 1880 Event - Commencement of 1st Test Cricket in England, vs. Australia at The Oval 1880 Event - Amateur Athletic Association, governing body for men's athletics in England and Wales, is founded in Oxford, England 1880 Birthday - House Peters, England, silent film actor, Kansas Territory 1880 Event - Salvation Army of England sets up U.S. welfare and religious activity 1880 Birthday - Herbert Strudwick, cricketer, England wicket-keeper before and after WW I 1880 Birthday - Edie Martin, born in London, England, actress, Titfield Thunderbolt 1879 Birthday - Sydney Greenstreet, born in Sandwich, England, actor, Maltese Falcon 1879 Birthday - Ralph Hawtrey, Buckinghamshire England, economist, multiplier 1879 Birthday - Henry Ainley, Leeds England, actor, As You Like It 1879 Birthday - Thomas Beecham, born in England, composer, found London Philharmonic 1879 Birthday - Owen Williams Richardson, born in England, physicist, Nobel 1928 1879 Birthday - Edward Rigby, England, actor, Star Look Down, Young and Innocent 1879 Birthday - Ernest Thesiger, born in London, England, actor, Bride of Frankenstein, Ghoul 1879 Birthday - Edward M Forster, England, novelist, Howards End, Passage to India 1878 Birthday - James Truslow Adams, historian, Pul-1921, Founding of New England 1878 Event - England's Princess Alice sinks; 645 die 1878 Birthday - John Masefield, England, 15th poet laureate, Salt-Water Ballads 1878 Birthday - Kitty Gordon, Folkestone England, entertainer 1878 Birthday - R E "Tip" Foster, cricketer, 287 on debut England vs. Australia SCG 1903 1878 Birthday - Constance Collier, Windsor England, actress/writer, Kitty, Whirlpool 1878 Birthday - Alfred Edgar Coppard, England, writer, Black Dogs and Other Stories 1877 Birthday - James Jeans, England, physicist/mathematician/astronomer 1877 Event - Test Cricket debut of Fred "Demon" Spofforth, Australia vs. England MCG 1877 Event - Australia beat England by 45 runs in very 1st Test match 1877 Event - Commencement of 1st Test Cricket, Australia vs. England at MCG 1877 Birthday - Godfrey H Hardy, England, number theorist 1877 Birthday - Gibson Gowland, England, actor, Blind Husbands, Phantom of the Opera 1877 Event - England's Queen Victoria proclaimed empress of India 1876 Birthday - Ted Arnold, cricketer, England all-rounder in 10 Tests 1903-05 1876 Birthday - Robert Dower, cricketer, 1 Test South Africa vs. England 1898, scored 0 and 9 1876 Birthday - George Macauley Trevelyan, England, historian, Giuseppi Garibaldi 1875 Birthday - Walter Lees, cricketer, Surrey pace bowler toured for England 1905-06 1875 Birthday - H[arry] B[yron] Warner, born in London, England, actor, King of Kings 1875 Birthday - Len Braund, cricketer, great England all-rounder in 23 Tests 1901-08 1875 Birthday - Albert William Ketelbey, Aston England, composer, Wonder Worker 1875 Birthday - Donald Francis Tovey, Eton England, musicologist/composer 1875 Birthday - Edgar Wallace, born in England, novelist, playwright and journalist, Terror 1875 Birthday - N F Druce, cricketer, 5 Tests for England vs. Australia 1897-98 1874 Birthday - Gustav Theodore Holst, Cheltenham, England, composer, Planets 1874 Birthday - Albert Relf, cricketer, England all-rounder in 13 Tests 1903-14 1874 Birthday - Gilbert Keith Chesterton, England, novelist, Man Who Made Gold 1874 Birthday - Gerald du Maurier, born in London, England, actor, Power, Escape, Masks and Faces 1874 Birthday - Henry Travers, born in England, actor, Bells of St. Mary, High Sierra 1874 Event - Baseball 1st played in England, at Lord's Cricket Grounds 1874 Birthday - Franklyn Dyall, Liverpool England, actor, Easy Virtue 1874 Birthday - Robert Service, England, Canadian poet, Cremation of Sam McGee 1873 Birthday - Ford Madox Ford, England, novelist/editor, Inheritors 1873 Event - 1st international football game in US: Yale 2, Eton (England) 1 1873 Birthday - Johnny Tyldesley, cricketer, brother of Ernest, 31 Tests for England 1873 Birthday - Pelham Warner, cricketer, England 1898-1912, later notable official 1873 Birthday - Henry Leveson-Gower, cricketer, England captain 1909-10 later official 1873 Birthday - Sydney Barnes, cricketer, probably England's greatest bowler 1873 Event - Britains SS Northfleet sinks at Dungeness England, 300 die 1872 Birthday - Ralph Vaughan Williams, born in Down Ampney, England, composer, Hugh the Drover 1872 Birthday - John Cowper Powys, born in Derbyshire, England, writer, 'Wood and Stone' 1872 Birthday - Lena Ashwell, England, actress/theatrical manager, Kingsway 1872 Birthday - Tom Terriss, born in London, England, director, His Buddy's Wife, Sumuru 1872 Birthday - Max Beerbohm, England, caricaturist/writer/wit, Saturday Review 1872 Birthday - Aubrey Beardsley, England, artist, Salome 1872 Birthday - William Heath Robinson, England, illustrator/cartoonist, Don Quixote 1872 Birthday - Bertrand Russell, England, mathematician/philosopher, Nobel 1950 1872 Birthday - Billy Quaife, cricketer, England batsman 1899-1902 1872 Birthday - John Jarvis, England, swimmer, won 108 titles 1871 Birthday - Ernest Lord Rutherford, England, physicist, atomic nucleus; Nobel 1908 1871 Birthday - Alexander, grandson of England's Queen Victoria 1871 Birthday - Tom Hayward, cricketer, great England batsman of the Golden Age 1871 Event - 1st international rugby game-Scotland 1, England 0 1870 Event - Compulsory education proclaimed in England 1870 Birthday - Harry Graham, cricketer, 107 on Test debut Australia vs. England 1893 1870 Birthday - Stanley Jackson, cricketer, captain of England, governor of Bengal 1870 Birthday - Marie Ault, Wigan England 1870 Birthday - Tom Richardson, legendary England cricket fast bowler, 1893-98 1870 Event - Magic (U.S.) defeats Cambria (England) in 2nd running of America's Cup 1870 Birthday - Lionel Palairet, cricketer, elegant England bat in the Golden Age 1869 Birthday - Lawrence Grant, Bournemouth England, actor, Bulldog Drummond 1869 Birthday - Joseph Duveen, England, art connoisseur, Elgin marbles 1869 Death - Peter M Roget, England, lexographer (Roget's Thesaurus), dies 1869 Birthday - Randle Ayrton, Chester England, actor, Manxman 1869 Event - Mike McCoole (U.S.) defeats Tom Allen (England) in bare-knuckle bout 1869 Birthday - Tyrone Power Sr, born in London, England, actor, Alexanders Ragtime Band 1868 Birthday - C V France, Bradford England, actor, Skin Game, Adventure in Blackmail 1868 Event - Australia Aboriginal Cricket tour of England begins vs. Surrey Gentlemen 1868 Birthday - George Arliss, born in London, England, actor, Devil, Green Goddess 1868 Birthday - Bill Lockwood, cricketer, England all-rounder in 12 Tests 1893-1902 1868 Event - Stapler patented in England by C. H. Gould 1867 Birthday - Arthur Rackham, England, artist/illustrator, Grimm's Fairy Tales 1867 Event - 2nd Reform Bill extends suffrage in England 1867 Birthday - John Galsworthy, England, author, Forsyte Saga-Nobel 1932 1867 Birthday - Herbert Prior, born in England, actor, Caught Short, Slave of Desire 1867 Birthday - Arnold Bennett, England, novelist/playwright/critic, Great Babylon 1867 Birthday - Sammy Woods, cricket bowler, Australia and England Rugby wing-forward 1867 Birthday - Lionel Pigot Johnson, born in England, poet and critic, Ireland and Other Poems 1867 Birthday - William Cadbury, England, chocolate manufacturer, Cadbury 1866 Birthday - Arthur Frederick Augustus "Dick" Lilley, cricket keeper, England 1866 Birthday - H. G. Wells, born in Bromley, England, author, Time Machine 1866 Birthday - Beatrix Potter, born in England, children's author, Tale of Peter Rabbit 1866 Event - Canoe Club opens in England 1866 Birthday - Lord George ESMH Carnarvon, England, egyptologist, Tutanchamon 1866 Birthday - Arthur Pearson, Wookey Somerset England, newspaper proprietor 1866 Event - Steamship London sinks in storm off Land's End England, kills 220 1865 Birthday - Edith Louisa Cavell, England, nurse, WW I 1865 Birthday - Monty Bowden, cricketer, England Test captain vs. South Africa at 23 1865 Birthday - Godfrey Cripps, cricketer, one Test South Africa vs. England 1892, 18 and 3 1865 Birthday - Laurence Housman, England, author/playwright, Victoria Regina 1865 Birthday - May Whitty, born in Liverpool, England, actress, Mrs Minerva, Suspicion 1865 Birthday - George Lohmann, cricketer, England's great bowler late 19th cent 1865 Birthday - William Heinemann, England, publisher, Chemical Instrumental 1865 Birthday - Wilfred Grenfell, England, medical missionary 1865 Birthday - Patrick Campbell, England, actress, Pygmalion 1864 Event - Off New England coast, CSS Tallahassee captures 6 yankee schooners 1864 Birthday - Ben Webster, born in London, England, actor, Old Curiosity Shop 1864 Birthday - Israel Zangwill, England, Jewish author/Zionist, Children of Ghetto 1863 Event - Football Association forms in England, standardizing soccer 1863 Birthday - C[harles] Aubrey Smith, born in London, England, actor, Prisoner of Zenda 1862 Birthday - Eden Phillpotts, England, novelist/poet/playwright, Red Madymaynes 1862 Birthday - John Briggs, cricketer, mighty England all-rounder late 19th century 1862 Birthday - Frederick Delius, Bradford England, composer, Hiawatha 1861 Birthday - Constance [Clara] Garnett, Brighton England, Russian-English translator 1861 Death - Albert, prince consort of England/husband of Queen Victoria, dies at 42 1861 Birthday - Almroth Wright, born in Yorkshire, England, bacteriologist 1861 Event - Queen Victoria announces England's position of neutrality 1860 Birthday - C T Studd, cricketer, brother of G B, five Tests for England 1860 Birthday - Annie EF Horniman, England, theater owner, Abbey Theatre, Dublin 1860 Birthday - Lord Hawke, cricketer, England batsman 1890's, many official posts 1859 Birthday - Cecil [James] Sharp, born in London, England, folk musician 1859 Birthday - G B Studd, cricketer, brother of C T, 4 Tests for England 1859 Event - V E Walker takes 10-74 in an innings for England vs. Surrey 1859 Birthday - Sydney Webb, England, writer/husband of Beatrice Potter 1859 Event - 1st dog show held, Newcastle-on-Tyne, England 1859 Birthday - Alfred Edward Housman, Bromsgrove England, poet, A Buried Life 1859 Birthday - A[lfred] E[dward] Housman, England, poet, Shropshire Lad 1859 Birthday - Ivo Bligh, cricketer, Lord Darnley England captain vs. Australia 1882-83 1858 Birthday - Billy Gunn, cricketer, Notts and England batsman in 11 Tests 1886-99 1858 Birthday - Frank Hearne, cricketer, bro of George and Alec, England and South Africa 1858 Birthday - Edith Nesbit, England, children books author, Railway Children 1858 Birthday - Emmeline Pankhurst, born in England, found, Women's Social and Political Union 1858 Birthday - William Ernst Johnson, born in Cambridge, England, mathematician 1858 Birthday - Beatrice Webb, born in Gloucester, England, sociologist, reformer, economist, co-authored 'History of Trade Unionism', 1894, co-founder of 'New Statesman' magazine 1857 Birthday - George Gissing, England, novelist 1857 Birthday - Robert Abel, cricketer, The Guv'nor Surrey and England batsman 1857 Event - World's 1st soccer club, Sheffield F C, founded in England 1857 Event - Cawnpore England massacre 1857 Event - England passes an act putting Canada on the decimal currency system 1857 Birthday - Edward William Elgar, born in Broadheath, England, composer, Pomp and Circumstance 1857 Birthday - Ronald Ross, England, pathologist, Nobel 1902 1857 Birthday - Karl Pearson, born in London, England, mathematician 1856 Birthday - George Hearne, cricketer, brother of Frank and Alec, Test for England 1856 Event - Peace between England and Russia 1856 Birthday - Arthur Shrewsbury, cricketer, dominant England bat late 19th cent 1856 Birthday - David Alfred Thomas, born in Glamorganshire, England, 1st Viscount Rhondda 1856 Birthday - Frank Harris, Galway England, writer 1856 Birthday - Frank Harris, England, journalist and writer, My Life and Loves 1855 Birthday - Alan Gray, born in York, England, composer, organist, known for descants, hymn tunes, works include, 'Common Praise' 1855 Birthday - Billy Bates, cricketer, England all-rounder 1882-87, hat-trick 1883 1854 Birthday - Adam Sedgwick, Norwich England, English zoologist, Peripatus 1853 Birthday - Herbert Beerbohm Tree, England, actor/theater manager, Trilby 1853 Birthday - Cecil Rhodes, born in Hertfordshire, England, British Statesman, Prime Minister of Cape Colony 1890 - 1896 1853 Birthday - Leland Hone, cricketer, England keeper 1879 without county experience 1852 Birthday - Billy Barnes, cricketer, England all-rounder 1880-90 1851 Birthday - Oliver Joseph Lodge, born in England, early radio pioneer 1851 Birthday - Dick Barlow, cricketer, immortal England all-rounder of 1880's 1851 Birthday - Lord Harris, cricketer, 4 Tests for England MCC big-wig 1850 Birthday - Fred Morley, cricketer, legendary Notts and England bowler 1880-83 1850 Event - Papal Bull issued, establishes Roman Catholic hierarchy in England 1850 Birthday - Horatio Herbert Kitchener, England, original Order of Merit member 1850 Event - Self deodorizing fertilizer patented in England 1850 Event - Investigator, 1st ship to effect northwest passage, leaves England 1849 Birthday - Lord Randolph Churchill, England, politician, Winston's father 1848 Event - Hyperion, moon of Saturn, discovered by Bond (U.S.) and Lassell (England) 1848 Birthday - William Gilbert Grace, Victorian England's greatest cricketer 1848 Event - Edmund Hickly gets 1st known 10 wicket innings (Kent vs. England) 1848 Birthday - Charles Hubert H Parry, England, musicologist/composer, Jerusalem 1847 Birthday - Annie Besant, Wood, England, philosopher, Esoteric christianity 1847 Birthday - A N Hornby, cricketer, pioneering England Test batsman 1846 Birthday - Randolph Caldecott, born in England, illustrator, Caldecott Medal namesake 1846 Birthday - Kate Greenaway, born in England, artist/book illustrator, Under the Window 1845 Birthday - Walter Crane, England, painter/illustrator, Beauty and Beast 1844 Birthday - Robert S Bridges, England, poet laureate, Eros and Psyche 1844 Birthday - Gerard Manley Hopkins, England, poet, Windhover 1844 Death - Thomas Campbell, poet (Ye Mariners of England), dies at 66 1844 Birthday - Richard D'Oyly Carte, England, opera impresario, Ivanhoe 1843 Event - Charles Dickens publishes "A Christmas Carol," in England 1842 Birthday - James Lillywhite, Jr., cricketer, 1st England Test captain 1842 Birthday - Alfred Shaw, cricketer, pioneering England Test bowler 1842 Birthday - Arthur Seymour Sullivan, born in London, England, composer, Gilbert and Sullivan 1842 Death - John England, bishop of Charleston Carolina, dies 1841 Birthday - John W. Rayleigh, England, physicist, Nobel 1904, Cambridge, 1908-14 1841 Death - Catherine McAuley, founder, the Sisters of Mercy, established 12 foundations in Ireland, 2 in England, inherited fortune from father, used money to care for, educate, homeless women and children, dies at her House of Mercy 1841 Birthday - Edward VII, king of England, 1901 - 1910 1841 Birthday - Henry Stanley, England, journalist/explorer, found Livingston in Africa 1840 Birthday - Wilfrid Scawen Blunt, England, writer, Irish Land League 1840 Event - England, Russia, Austria and Prussia signs Quadruple Alliance 1840 Birthday - Thomas Hardy, England, poet and novelist, Far from the Madding Crowd 1840 Event - 1st adhesive postage stamps ("Penny Blacks" from England) issued 1840 Birthday - George Smith, born in London, England, assyriologist, cuneiform, script 1840 Birthday - Austin Dobson, England, poet, critic and biographer 1840 Event - Records show 95,820 licensed public houses in England on this date 1839 Birthday - Walter Pater, born in London, England, writer, Plato and Platoism 1839 Event - Chartist riots break out in Birmingham England 1838 Event - Steamship "Great Western" maiden voyage (Bristol England to New York City) 1838 Birthday - Henry Irving, John H Brodribb, England, knighted 1895/actor, Hamlet 1837 Event - England issues its 1st stamp, 1P Queen Victoria 1837 Death - William IV, King of England, dies 1837 Birthday - Algernon Charles Swinburne, born in England, poet, Atalanta in Calydon 1836 Event - Darwin returns to England aboard HMS Beagle (after 5 years) 1836 Birthday - Elizabeth Garrett Anderson, 1st woman mayor in England, Aldeburgh 1835 Birthday - Samuel Butler, England, author, Erewhom, Way of All Flesh 1835 Event - George B Airy begins 46-year reign as England's Astronomer Royal 1835 Birthday - Alfred Austin, Leeds England, poet laureate of England, Garden 1834 Birthday - William Morris, England, designer, craftsman, poet and socialist 1833 Birthday - Edward Burne-Jones, England, Pre-Raphaelite painter/designer 1832 Birthday - Walter T Watts-Dunton, England, lawyer/poet/writer, Aylwin 1832 Event - New England Anti-Slavery Society organizes (Boston) 1831 Event - HMS Beagle and Charles Darwin depart England for South America 1831 Birthday - Amelia Barr, born in Ulverston, England, writer, novelist, wrote for religious periodicals, novels include 'The Lone House', 'Shela Vedder' 1830 Event - England, France, Prussia, Austria and Russia recognize Belgium 1830 Event - 1st to be run-over by a railroad train (William Huskisson, England) 1830 Event - Edwin Budding of England signs an agreement for manufacture of his invention, lawn mower. Saturdays are destroyed forever 1830 Birthday - Eadweard Muybridge, born in England, pioneered study of motion, photography 1829 Birthday - John Everett Millais, England, painter, Order of Release 1829 Birthday - Phoebe Ann Coffin, 1st female ordained minister in New England 1829 Event - New England Asylum for the Blind, 1st in U.S., incorporated, Boston 1829 Birthday - Thomas William Robertson, England, playwright, Caste 1828 Birthday - Gabriel Dante Rossetti, England, poet/painter, Pre-Raphaelite 1828 Birthday - George Meredith, England, poet and novelist, Shaving of Shagpat 1826 Event - John Walker invents friction match in England 1826 Event - Siam/England sign trade/peace treaty 1826 Birthday - Walter Bagehot, England, economist/sociologist 1825 Event - 1st public railroad using steam locomotive completed in England 1825 Death - Amos Bull, composer, wrote book of hymns 'The Responsary', used in New England churches, dies at 81 1825 Birthday - Richard D. Blackmore, England, author, Norie, Lorna Doone 1824 Event - Joseph Aspdin patents Portland cement (Yorkshire England) 1824 Event - England and Netherlands sign a trade agreement 1824 Birthday - Samuel Plimsoll, Bristol England, inventor, Plimsoll line for ships 1823 Birthday - Thomas Hughes, England, author, Tom Brown's School Days 1823 Birthday - Charlotte Mary Yonge, England, writer, Heir of Redclyffe 1822 Birthday - Matthew Arnold, England, poet and critic, Dover Beach 1822 Birthday - Frances Crabbe, England, feminist founded Anti-Vivisection Society 1822 Birthday - Francis Galton, Birmingham England, anthropologist and geneticist 1821 Birthday - George Williams, England, founder YMCA 1821 Birthday - Samuel White Baker, born in London, England, explorer, Ceylon/Egypt 1821 Birthday - Elizabeth Blackwell, Bristol England, 1st woman physician 1820 Birthday - George Grove, born in London, England, biblical scholar/misicographer 1820 Birthday - Joseph Whitaker, England, publisher, founded Whitaker's Almanack 1820 Birthday - Herbert Spencer, Derby England, Victorian philosopher, Social Statics 1820 Birthday - John Tenniel, England, cartoonist/illustrator, Alice in Wonderland 1820 Birthday - Anne Jemima Clough, England, promoted higher education for women 1820 Event - Royal Astronomical Society founded in England 1819 Birthday - George Eliot, England, Victorian novelist, Adam Bede 1819 Birthday - George Eliot, Mary A Evans, England, author, Silas Marner 1818 Death - Charlotte Sophia von Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Queen of England, dies 1818 Event - Congress of Aken: Russia, Austria, Prussia, France and England 1818 Birthday - Emily Jane Bronte, England, novelist, Wuthering Heights 1818 Event - Netherlands and England sign treaty against illegal slave handling 1817 Birthday - Robert Collier, born in England, Robert Porrett Collier, 1st Baron Monkswell, politician, judge, educated at Oxford, successfully defended Brazilian pirates 1816 Event - 10" snowfall in New England, "year without a summer", from the eruption of Mount Tambora in Indonesia 1816 Birthday - Charlotte Bronte, born in Tornton, England, novelist 'Jane Eyre' 1815 Event - Russia, Prussia, Austria and England signs Great Alliance 1815 Birthday - Anthony Trollope, born in England, novelist/poet, Barchester Towers 1814 Event - 1st plastic surgery is performed (England) 1814 Birthday - Frederick William Faber, born in Calverley, England, theologian, wrote 'Faith of Our Fathers', 'My God, how wonderful thou art', 'Oh, gift of gifts', founded religious community in Cotton Hall, Birmingham 1814 Birthday - Charles Reade, England, novelist, Cloister and Hearth 1814 Event - King Louis XVIII lands on Calais, from England 1812 Event - General Hull surrenders Detroit and Michigan territory to England 1812 Birthday - Edward Lear, England, landscape painter, Complete Nonsense Book 1812 Birthday - Robert Browning, born in London, England, poet, Pied Piper 1812 Birthday - Charles Dickens, born in England, novelist, Oliver Twist, Tale of 2 Cities 1811 Birthday - William Makepeace Thackeray, England, Victorian novelist, Vanity Fair 1811 Death - Nevil Maskelyne, 5th Astronomer Royal of England (1765-1811), dies 1810 Birthday - William Froude, England, engineer/naval architect 1809 Birthday - Frances Anne "Fanny" Kemble, England, Shakespearian actress, Juliet 1809 Birthday - Alfred Lord Tennyson, poet laureate of England 1809 Event - 1st run of 2,000 guineas horse race at Newmarket England 1809 Birthday - Edward FitzGerald, born in England, writer, Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam 1809 Birthday - Charles Darwin, England, discovered evolution, 'Origin of Species' 1808 Birthday - Thomas Cook, England, tour director, Thomas Cook and Son 1807 Death - John Opie, born at Trevellas, England, teacher, artist, portraitist, historical works include, the Assassination of James I, Murder of Rizzio, dies at 45 in Berners Street, London 1807 Event - 1st railway passenger service began in England 1807 Event - 17 die and 15 wounded in a crush to witness execution of Holloway, Heggerty and Elizabeth Godfrey in England 1806 Event - Decree of Berlin: Emperor Napoleon I bans all trade with England 1805 Event - American Bill Richmond knocks out Jack Holmes, Kilburn Wells, England 1804 Event - England mobilizes to protect against French invasion 1804 Event - Alice Meynell becomes 1st woman jockey (England) 1804 Event - Mungo Park leaves England seeking source of Niger River 1803 Death - Edward Despard, last person drawn and quartered in England 1802 Birthday - Letitia Elizabeth Landon, England, poet, Heath's Book of Beauty 1802 Event - France, Netherlands, Spain and England signs Peace of Amiens 1801 Event - England and France signs Preliminary of London 1801 Birthday - John Henry Newman, England, cardinal/author, Dream of Gerontius 1801 Birthday - John Rylands, England, merchant/philanthropist 1801 Event - Ireland and Great Britain, England and Scotland, form United Kingdom 1800 Birthday - John Goss, born in Fareham, England, composer, organist, wrote hymn 'Praise my Soul, the King of Heaven' 1800 Birthday - Thomas Babington Macaulay, England, poet and historian, Ivry, Naaseby 1800 Event - Dutch colony Curacao transfered to England 1800 Birthday - William Henry Fox Talbot, Wiltshire England, photographic pioneer 1799 Event - England and Russia decide to invade Bataafse Republic 1798 Event - Russia and England sign Second anti-French Coalition 1798 Event - England signs treaty with nizam of Hyderabad, India 1797 Birthday - Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley, born in London, England, author, Frankenstein 1796 Event - Spain declares war on England 1796 Event - Jay's Treaty proclaimed, settles some differences with England 1795 Birthday - John Keats, born in London, England, romantic poet, Ode to a Grecian Urn 1795 Event - Cape Colony surrenders to England 1795 Event - Joseph Haydn returns to Vienna from England 1795 Event - Joseph Haydn leaves England forever 1795 Birthday - Charles Sturt, England, explorer, Australia 1795 Event - William Hastings acquitted in England of high treason 1795 Event - Thomas Seddal harvests 8.3-kg potato from his garden Chester, England 1795 Event - Governor/viceroy Willem V flees Scheveningen to England 1794 Event - Hard frost in southern New England 1793 Birthday - John Claire, England, poet 1793 Event - Bank of England hands out 1st 5 pound note 1793 Event - France declares war on England and Netherlands 1792 Birthday - Edward John Trelawney, England, traveler/author, Adv of Younger Son 1792 Birthday - Percy Bysshe Shelley, born in England, romantic poet, Adonais 1792 Birthday - John Herschel, born in Slough, England, William Herschel's son, astronomer 1790 Birthday - William Parry, England, Arctic explorer 1790 Event - Chrysanthemums are introduced into England from China 1789 Event - 1st presidental tour - George Washington in New England 1789 Birthday - Richard Bright, England, physician, Bright's Disease/nephritis 1789 Birthday - Edmund Kean, born in London, England, tragic actor, Shylock 1788 Event - England, Netherlands and Prussia sign peace treaty 1788 Birthday - Lord [George Gordon Noel] Byron, England, romantic poet, Don Juan 1787 Birthday - Edmund Kean, England, actor, Edmund Kean's Masonic Career 1787 Birthday - James Weddell, Ostend England, Antarctic explorer, Weddell Sea 1786 Event - England and France sign trade agreement 1785 Event - Church of England organizes in New England 1784 Event - England and Netherlands signs peace treaty (Peace of Paris) 1784 Event - England and Tippu Sahib van Mysore sign peace treaty 1783 Birthday - John Claudius, born in London, England, horticulturist 1783 Event - Congress ratifies peace treaty between U.S. and England 1781 Birthday - George Stephenson, Newcastle England, inventor, RR locomotive 1780 Event - England declares war on Netherlands 1780 Event - Resolution, without Captain Cook, returns to England 1780 Birthday - William Hone, England, author/bookseller, Every-Day Book 1780 Event - About midday, near-total darkness descends on much of New England to this day it's cause is still unexplained 1779 Birthday - Joseph Grimaldi, England, pantomimist, "greatest clown in history" 1779 Event - In support of the U.S., Spain declares war on England 1778 Birthday - Catherine McAuley, born in Dublin, Ireland, founder, the Sisters of Mercy, established 12 foundations in Ireland, 2 in England, inherited fortune from father, used money to care for, educate, homeless women and children 1778 Birthday - George Bryan "Beau" Brummel, born in London, England, English dandy 1778 Event - England declares war on France 1777 Event - Battle of Bennington-New England's Green Mountain Boys rout Brits 1777 Event - People of New Connecticut, Vermont, declare independence from England 1776 Birthday - John Constable, England, landscape painter, Hay Wain 1776 Event - Rhode Island declares independence from England 1775 Birthday - Jane Austen, England, novelist, Pride and Prejudice 1775 Event - Captain Cook with Resolution returns to England 1775 Event - 1st regatta held on Thames, England 1775 Birthday - Joseph Mallord Turner, England, landscape painter, Shipwreck 1775 Birthday - Charles Lamb, born in London, England, critic/poet/essayist 1774 Event - England passed Quartering Act, mandating Colonists must board English troops in their homes 1773 Birthday - George Cayley, England, found science of aerodynamics 1772 Birthday - Samuel Taylor Coleridge, England, poet, Rime of Ancient Mariner 1772 Event - Slavery outlawed in England 1771 Birthday - Dorothy Wordsworth, born in Cumberland, England, author, diarist, poet, sister of William Wordsworth, romantic poet 1771 Event - James Cook sails Endeavour back to Downs England 1771 Birthday - Robert Owen, England, factory owner/socialist 1770 Birthday - William Wordsworth, England, poet laureate, Prelude 1770 Birthday - Daniel Lambert, born in England, giant, weighed 739 lbs, 334 kg, at death 1766 Event - John Byron back in England after trip around the world 1766 Birthday - Samuel Wesley, Bristol England, composer/organist, Exultate Deo 1766 Birthday - Thomas Malthus, England, population expert, Law of Malthus 1765 Event - People of Frederick County Md refuse to pay England's Stamp tax 1765 Birthday - William IV, king of England, 1830-37 1765 Birthday - Charles Dibdin, England, composer/author, Sea Songs 1764 Birthday - John Barrow, England, founded Royal Geographical Society 1763 Birthday - George Morland, England, artist of rural landscapes 1763 Event - Treaty of Paris ends French-Indian War, surrendering Canada to England 1762 Event - England and Spain signs Treaty of Paris 1762 Birthday - George IV, king of England, 1820-30 1762 Event - England declares war on Spain and Naples 1761 Birthday - John Opie, born at Trevellas, England, teacher, artist, portraitist, historical works include, the Assassination of James I, Murder of Rizzio 1759 Birthday - Wilbur Wilberforce, England, crusaded against slavery 1759 Event - 2nd sea battle of Lagos: England vs France 1759 Birthday - Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin, England, writer/feminist, Female Reader 1757 Event - England condemns ceasefire of Kloster-Seven 1757 Birthday - John P Kemble, England, actor and director, Drury Lane, Covent Garden 1756 Event - England and France meet in war 1756 Event - England declares war on France 1756 Event - England and Prussia sign Treaty of Westminster 1755 Event - England and Russia sign military agreement 1755 Birthday - Sarah Kemble Siddons, Brecon England, tragic actress, Fatal Marriage 1754 Birthday - George Crabbe, Aldeburgh England, poet, Everlasting Mercy 1753 Birthday - John Soane, English architect, Bank of England, Soane Museum 1753 Birthday - Thomas Bewick, England, artist, British Birds, Aesop's Fables 1753 Birthday - Charles, 3rd earl Stanhope, England, radical politician/scientist 1753 Birthday - Jean-Pierre-Francois Blanchard, 1st balloon flights in England, US 1753 Event - Austria, England and Modena sign secret military treaty 1752 Event - U.S. and England adopts Gregorian calender (no Sept 3-Sept 13th) 1752 Event - This day never happened nor next 10 as England adopts Gregorian Calendar. People riot thinking the government stole 11 days of their lives 1752 Event - Last Julian calender day in U.S. and England (no Sept 3-Sept 13th) 1752 Birthday - Fanny Burney, England, author, Camille, Evelina 1751 Event - England signs Austrian and Russian alliance 1751 Event - Thomas Colley executed in England for drowning supposed witch 1751 Event - 1st international world title prize fight-Jack Stack of England, beats challenger M Petit of France in 29 minutes in England 1749 Birthday - Edward Jenner, England, physician, discovered vaccination 1748 Birthday - Jeremy Bentham, London, England philosopher/originator, Utilitarian 1748 Event - England, Netherlands, Austria and Sardinia sign anti-French treaty 1747 Event - England and Netherlands sign military treaty 1747 Death - Simon Fraser, 12th baron Lovat Jacobite, last man beheaded in England 1746 Birthday - William Jones, born in London, England, British Orientalist/jurist 1745 Event - Bonnie Prince Charlies army enters England 1745 Event - England, Prussia and Hannover sign treaty 1745 Event - Bells for 1st American carillon shipped from England to Boston 1745 Event - England, Austria, Netherlands and Saxon sign anti-Prussian Quadruple Alliance 1744 Event - French King Louis XV declares war on England 1744 Birthday - Amos Bull, composer, wrote book of hymns 'The Responsary', used in New England churches 1743 Event - England, Austria and Savoye-Sardinia sign Treaty of Worms 1743 Event - England/Austria/Savoye-Sardinia sign Treaty of Worms 1743 Event - Earliest boxing code of rules formulated in England (Jack Broughton) 1743 Birthday - Edmund Cartwright, England, cleric, inventor, power loom 1742 Event - Prussia and England sign anti-French military covenant 1739 Event - England declares war on Spain: War of Jenkin's Ear 1739 Event - England declares war on Spain 1739 Event - Dick Turpin executed in England for horse stealing 1739 Event - England and Spain signs 2nd Convention of Pardo 1738 Event - England routes fleet in Mediterranean Sea and West-Indies 1737 Birthday - Edward Gibbon, England, historian, Decline and Fall of Roman Empire 1737 Birthday - Edward Gibson, England, historian, Decline and Fall of Roman Emp 1736 Birthday - Robert Raikes, England, Sunday school pioneer 1736 Birthday - Anna Lee, Manchester England, founder, Shaker movement in America 1734 Event - England and Russia sign trade agreement 1733 Event - England passes Molasses Act, putting high tariffs on rum and molasses imported to the colonies from a country other than British possessions 1733 Birthday - Joseph Priestley, born in England, clergyman and scientist, discovered oxygen 1732 Birthday - Warren Hastings, England, 1st governor-General of India, 1773-84 1732 Event - Foundation laid for Bank of England 1731 Birthday - William Cowper, England, pre-romantic poet, His Task, 1731 Birthday - Henry Cavendish, England, physicist/chemist, discovered hydrogen 1731 Event - Treaty of Vienna: Emperor Charles VI of England and Netherlands 1730 Event - Crown prince Frederik of Prussia escapes to England 1730 Birthday - Josiah Wedgwood, England, pottery designer/manufacturer, Wedgwood 1730 Event - Robert Walpole becomes England 1st prime minister (was: chief min) 1729 Event - Spain, France and England signs Treaty of Seville 1728 Event - Spain and England sign (1st) Convention of Pardo 1728 Birthday - Thomas Warton, poet laureate of England, Pleasures of Melancholy 1727 Event - Severe earthquake in New England 1727 Death - George Ludwig, German monarch of Hannover/king of England, dies at 67 1727 Event - France, England and Netherlands sign accord of Paris 1726 Event - Benjamin Franklin returns to Philadelphia from England 1725 Event - England, France, Hannover and Prussia sign Covenant of Hannover 1724 Birthday - George Stubbs, England, animal painter, House Frightened by Lion 1723 Birthday - Joshua Reynolds, England, portrait painter, Simplicity 1723 Birthday - William Blackstone, England, jurist, Blackstone's Commentaries 1723 Death - Christopher Wren, England, astronomer/architect, dies at 90 1722 Event - Game of Billiards is mentioned in New England Courant 1721 Birthday - William Collins, Chichester England, Mayor-Chichester, poet 1721 Death - Nathaniel Hawes, tortured and executed in England for robbery 1721 Event - England signs Treaty of Madrid 1721 Event - Robert Walpole becomes England's 1st Lord of the Treasury 1720 Event - Mrs. Clements of England markets 1st paste-style mustard 1720 Event - Edmund Halley appointed 2nd Astronomer Royal of England 1720 Birthday - Samuel Foote, England, actor/dramatist, Mirror 1719 Event - 1st recorded display of Aurora Borealis in U.S. (New England) 1719 Birthday - John Hawkins, born in England, wrote 1st history of music 1718 Event - England declares war on Spain 1718 Birthday - Thomas Chippendale, England, furniture maker, baptized 1717 Birthday - Horace Walpole, England, British horror writer, Cattle of Ontario 1717 Event - Netherlands, England and France sign Triple Alliance 1716 Event - England and France sign treaty 1716 Event - England and Emperor Karel VI signs military treaty 1716 Event - England and Netherlands renew alliance 1714 Event - Monarch Georg Ludwig becomes king George I of England 1714 Death - Anne Stuart, queen of England (1702-14), dies at about 49 1713 Event - Netherlands and England sign accord concerning anti-French Barrier 1713 Event - England and Netherlands sign 2nd anti-French boundary treaty 1709 Event - England/Netherlands sign anti-French "Barrieretraktaat" 1709 Event - Battle at Malplaquet: England/Austria/Dutch Great Alliance beat France 1709 Event - 1st edition of Tattler magazine in England 1707 Event - England, Wales and Scotland form U.K. of Great Britain 1707 Birthday - Henry Fielding, born in England, novelist, Joseph Andrews, Tom Jones 1705 Birthday - Henry Fox, 1st Baron Holland, England, corrupt politician, Chiswick 1705 Event - Queen Anne of England knights Isaac Newton at Trinity College 1704 Birthday - John Kay, England, machinist, invented flying shuttle 1703 Event - England and Portugal sign Methuen-Asiento-trade agreement 1703 Event - Heavy storm hits England 1000s killed 1703 Event - Bristol England damaged by hurricane, Royal Navy loses 15 warships 1703 Birthday - John B Wesley, England, religion co-founder, Methodists 1703 Event - Portugal signs treaty with England to become a Great Covenant 1702 Birthday - Philip Doddridge, England, Dr/nonconformist clergyman 1702 Event - War of Spanish Succession, 1st American conflict between England and France 1702 Event - England and Netherlands declares war on France and Spain 1702 Event - James II's daughter Anne Stuart becomes queen of England 1702 Death - Willem III Henry, Dutch William, king of England/Scot, dies at 51 1702 Event - England Queen Anne ascends throne upon death of King William III 1702 Death - William III, Dutch King of England (1689-1702), dies at 51 1701 Event - Germany, England and Netherlands sign anti-French covenant 1701 Death - James II [Stuart], king of England (1685-88), dies at 68 1700 Event - England, France and Netherlands ratify 2nd Extermination treaty 1700 Event - Protestant West-Europe (except England) begin using Gregorian calendar 1699 Event - England, France and Netherlands agree on 2nd Extermination treaty of Spain 1698 Event - France, England and Netherlands signs 1st Extermination treaty 1698 Event - Russian Czar Peter the Great departs Netherlands to England 1697 Birthday - William Hogarth, England, satiric painter/engraver, Rake's Progress 1696 Birthday - James Oglethorpe, England, General/author/colonizer, Georgia 1695 Event - King Willem III escapes South Netherlands, back to England 1695 Death - Mary II Stuart, queen of England, dies at 32 1694 Death - Mary II, Queen of England, dies after 5 years of rule at 32 1694 Event - Bank of England granted 12 year charter by Act of Parliament 1693 Event - 1st sea battle of Lagos: England and Holland vs France 1692 Event - French defeat William III of England at Steinkirk (Enghein) 1692 Birthday - Edward Cave, England, printer, Gentlemen's Magazine 1691 Event - Battle of Aughrim (Aghrim) England, William III beats James II 1690 Event - King Willem III escapes back to England 1690 Event - Army of England's Protestant King William III defeats Roman Catholic King James II in Battle of Boyne in Ireland 1690 Event - England passes Act of Grace, forgiving followers of James II 1689 Event - France declares war on England 1689 Event - England and Netherlands form League of Augsburg 1689 Event - William III and Mary Stuart proclaimed king and queen of England 1689 Event - Dutch prince William III proclaimed king of England 1688 Event - King James II's wife and son flee England for France 1688 Event - Prince Willem III's army lands at Torbay England 1688 Event - Prince Willem III's invasion fleet sails to England 1687 Death - Nell [Eleanor] Gwyn, mistress of Charles II of England, dies at 37 1687 Event - Isaac Newton's 'Principia' published by Royal Society in England 1685 Birthday - Brook Taylor, England, mathematician, discoverer of Taylor's Theorem 1685 Death - Charles II, king of England (1660-85)/Nell Gwynns lover, dies at 54? 1685 Death - Charles II, King of England/Scotland/Ireland (1660-85), dies at 54 1683 Birthday - George II, king of England, 1727 - 1760 1682 Event - William Penn left England to sail to New World 1679 Event - Meal Tub Plot against James II of England 1678 Event - England and Netherlands signs treaty: sending ultimatum to France 1676 Event - 1st war between American colonists and Indians ends in New England 1675 Event - New England colonies declare war on Wampanoag indians 1675 Event - Royal Greenwich Observatory established in England by Charles II 1675 Event - John Flamsteed appointed 1st Astronomer Royal of England 1674 Birthday - Isaac Watts, England, writer/preacher/hymnist, Horae Lyrican 1674 Birthday - Nicholas Rowe, England, poet laureate, Jane Shore, Tamerlane 1674 Event - Netherlands and England sign Peace of Westminster (New York City becomes English) 1672 Birthday - Joseph Addison, England, essayist, Spectator 1672 Event - England declares war on Netherlands 1671 Birthday - Colley Cibber, England, dramatist/poet laureate, Love's Last Shift 1670 Event - France and England sign Boyne-treaty 1670 Birthday - William Congreve, England, writer, Old Bachelor, Way of the World 1668 Event - England takes control of Bombay India 1668 Event - England, Netherlands and Sweden signs Triple Alliance against French 1667 Birthday - Jonathan Swift, England, satirist, Gulliver's Travels, A Modest Proposal 1667 Event - Dutch Admiral Michiel de Ruyter occupies Sheerness, England 1667 Event - France/England signs anti-Dutch military accord 1666 Birthday - Mary Astell, born in Newcastle, England, English writer and feminist, wrote 'Some Reflections upon Marriage' 1666 Event - Sea battle between Netherlands and England 1666 Event - France declares war on England and Munster 1665 Birthday - Anne Stuart, queen of England, 1702-14 1663 Event - King Charles II of England grants a charter to Rhode Island 1663 Event - Great earthquake in New England 1662 Event - England sells Duinkerken to France for 2.5 million livres 1662 Event - Charles II of England sold Dunkirk to France 1662 Event - Netherlands and England sign peace treaty 1662 Event - England's King Charles II charters Royal Society in London 1662 Event - Uniformity Act of England goes into effect 1661 Event - Corporation Act enforced in England 1661 Event - Yachting begins in England; King Charles II beats his brother James 1661 Event - 1st Yacht race, England's King Charles vs his brother James 1661 Event - Marriage contract for Charles II of England and Catharina of Portugal 1661 Death - Maria I Stuart, Queen of England/husband of Willem II, dies at 29 1660 Death - Mary I Henriette Stuart, queen of England, dies at 29 1660 Birthday - George I, King of England, 1714-27 1660 Event - King Charles II returns from exile sails from Scheveningen to England 1660 Birthday - Hans Sloane, England, physician/naturalist/founder, British Museum 1659 Event - Netherlands, England and France sign Treaty of The Hague 1659 Event - France, England and Netherlands sign "Hedges Concerto" treaty 1659 Birthday - William Wollaston, Coton England, philosopher 1658 Death - James I, king of England (1603-25), dies at 92 1658 Event - Pro-Charles II plot in England discovered 1657 Event - France and England form alliance against Spain; England gets Dunkirk 1656 Event - England and France sign peace treaty 1655 Event - England and France sign miltary and economic treaties 1655 Event - Lord Protector Cromwell divides England into 11 districts 1654 Event - England and Denmark sign trade agreement 1654 Event - England and Sweden sign trade agreement 1654 Event - England and Netherlands signs peace treaty 1654 Event - England, Ireland and Scotland united 1652 Event - England declares war on Netherlands 1652 Birthday - Thomas Otway, England, playwright and poet, Venice Preserved 1651 Event - Future King Charles II flees from England 1650 Birthday - Willem III Henry, Dutch William, king of England, 1689 - 1702 1650 Event - Henry Robinson opens 1st marriage bureau (England) 1650 Event - Battle at Dunbar: England vs Scotland 1649 Birthday - Elihu Yale, England, philanthropist founded Yale 1646 Birthday - John Flamsteed, 1st astronomer royal of England 1644 Event - 1st protestant ministry society in New England 1644 Event - England grants patent for Providence Plantations (now Rhode Island) 1643 Event - Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, Connecticut and New Harbor form United Colonies of New England 1642 Birthday - Isaac Newton, born in Grantham, England, physicist, mathematician, and astronomer 1642 Event - Civil War in England began between Royalists and Parliament 1639 Event - Viceroy Thomas Wentworth sails back to England 1638 Death - John Ward, composer, chorister, Canterbury Cathedral, composed madrigals, anthems, works for viola da gamba, dies at 67 in Essex, England 1633 Birthday - James II Stuart, king of England/Scotland, James VII, 1685-88 1633 Birthday - Samuel Pepys, born in London, England, Navy expert/composer, Diary, Memoirs 1632 Birthday - Christopher Wren, England, astronomer/great architect 1632 Birthday - John Locke, England, empiricist philosopher; disproved substance 1631 Birthday - John Dryden, 1st poet laureate of England, All for Love 1631 Birthday - Mary I Henriette Stuart, daughter of Charles I/queen of England 1631 Event - Rhode Island, founder, Roger Williams arrives in Boston from England 1630 Event - Spain and England sign peace treaty 1630 Event - Governor John Winthrop begins "History of New England" 1630 Birthday - Charles II, King of England, 1660-85 1629 Event - England and France sign Peace of Susa 1629 Event - England granted a royal charter to Massachusetts Bay Colony 1628 Birthday - John Bunyan, England, cleric/author, Pilgrim's Progress 1628 Birthday - George Villiers, 2nd duke of Buckingham England 1626 Birthday - Richard Cromwell, lord protector of England, 1658-59 1626 Birthday - John Aubrey, born in Percy, England, English writer, wrote 'Brief Lives' 1625 Event - Netherlands and England sign military treaty 1625 Birthday - Edward Montagu, England 1625 Event - Charles I, King Of England, Scotland and Ireland, ascends English throne 1625 Death - James I Stuart, king of Scotland (1567)/England (1603-25), dies at 58 1625 Death - James I (VI), king of England (1603-25)/poet/author, dies at 58 1624 Event - England declares war on Spain 1621 Event - King James of England gives Canada to Sir Alexander Sterling 1621 Event - Mayflower sails from Plymouth on a return trip to England 1621 Birthday - Andrew Marvell, born in England, poet, To His Coy Mistress 1620 Event - Mayflower departs from Plymouth England with 102 pilgrims 1620 Event - Pilgrim Fathers depart (through England) to America 1619 Event - England and Netherlands signs treaty about business in the Indies 1616 Event - Netherlands buys De Briel/Vlissingen/Fort Rammekens from England 1612 Birthday - Samuel Butler, England, poet/satirist, Hudibras, baptized 1611 Birthday - James Harrington, England, political author, Commonwealth of Oceans 1609 Event - Netherlands, England and France sign 12 year Covenant 1608 Event - Captain Newport arrives from England with supplies for colonists 1608 Birthday - Thomas Fuller, England, literary, History of the Holy War 1607 Birthday - John Harvard, England, clergyman/scholar, founded Harvard University 1606 Event - England adopts Union Jack as its flag 1606 Birthday - Edmund Waller, England, poet, Penshust 1603 Event - Scottish king James VI becomes King James I of England 1602 Birthday - William Lilly, England, astrologer, author, and almanac compiler 1600 Birthday - Charles I, king of England, 1625-49, ; executed by Parliament 1599 Birthday - Oliver Cromwell, Puritan lord protector of England, 1653-58 1599 Birthday - Anthony Van Dyck, Flemish painter, Charles I of England 1597 Event - England routes troops to Amiens 1596 Event - England, France and Netherlands signs Drievoudig Covenant against Spain 1593 Birthday - Izaak Walton, England, biographer/fisherman/writer, Compleat Angler 1591 Birthday - Robert Herrick, England, poet, Gather ye rosebuds, baptized 1588 Event - Duke Farneses troops ready for invasion of England 1588 Event - Spanish Armada sails to overthrow England's Queen Elizabeth I 1588 Event - Spanish Armada sails from Lisbon to England 1588 Event - Spanish Aramada under Medina-Sidonia departs Lisbon to invade England 1588 Event - Spanish Armada sets sail for Lisbon, bound to England 1588 Birthday - Thomas Hobbes, born in England, philosopher, Leviathan 1586 Event - Sir Thomas Herriot introduces potatoes to England, from Colombia 1586 Event - Sir Walter Raleigh brings 1st tobacco to England from Virginia 1580 Event - Francis Drake with Spanish treasure returns to England 1579 Event - England signs an offensive and defensive alliance with Netherland 1578 Event - England grants Sir Humphrey Gilbert a patent to explore and colonize US 1578 Event - William Harvey of England discovers blood circulation 1578 Birthday - William Harvey, born in England, physician, discovered blood circulation 1577 Event - Sir Francis Drake sets sail from England to go around world 1575 Birthday - Henry Hudson, England, navigator/explorer, Hudson River 1574 Birthday - William Oughtred, England, mathematician/inventor, slide rule 1572 Birthday - Ben Jonson, England, playwright and poet, Volpone, Alchemist 1572 Event - France and England sign anti-Spanish military covenant 1571 Birthday - John Ward, born in Canterbury, England, composer, chorister, Canterbury Cathedral, composed madrigals, anthems, works for viola da gamba 1569 Event - 1st recorded lottery in England is drawn in St. Paul's Cathedral 1568 Event - Mary Queen of Scotland flees to England 1567 Birthday - Thomas Campion, England, composer/poet/physician 1566 Birthday - James I Stuart, king of Scotland, James VI, England, 1567/1603-25 1564 Birthday - William Shakespeare, Stratford-on-Avon England, playwright, Hamlet 1564 Event - England and France sign Peace of Troyes 1561 Birthday - Francis Bacon, England, statesman/essayist, Novum Organum 1560 Event - England/Scotland signs Treaty of Edinburgh 1559 Event - England/France signs 1st Treaty of Le Cateau-Cambresis 1559 Event - Elizabeth I crowned queen of England in Westminster Abbey 1558 Death - Mary I Tudor, "Bloody Mary", queen of England (1553-58), dies at 42 1557 Death - Anne of Cleeves, queen of England/4th wife of Henry VIII, dies at 41 1557 Event - England declares war on France 1554 Event - England reconciles with Pope Julius III 1554 Birthday - Philip Sidney, England, poet/statesman/soldier, Arcadia 1554 Event - Queen Maria of England marries Philip, king of Naples/Jerusalem 1554 Death - Jane Grey, queen of England for 13 days, beheaded at 17 1554 Death - Lady Jane Grey, deposed Queen of England, beheaded after 9 day rule 1553 Event - City of Lichfield, England forms 1553 Event - 15-year-old Lady Jane Grey deposed as England's Queen after 9 days 1553 Event - Lady Jane Grey becomes queen of England 1553 Death - Edward VI Tudor, King of England (1547-53), dies at 15 1553 Event - Christ's Hospital in England granted a charter 1553 Event - Flemish woman introduces practice of starching linen into England 1552 Event - Privileges of Hanseatic League in England are abrogated 1552 Event - 2nd version of Book of Common Prayer becomes manditory in England 1550 Event - France and England sign Peace of Boulogne 1549 Event - French troops occupy Ambleteuse England 1549 Event - France declares war on England 1549 Event - Book of Common Prayer is adopted by the Church of England 1549 Event - England enforces Act of Supremacy 1548 Death - Catharine Parr, queen of England/wife of Henry VIII, dies at about 36 1547 Event - King Edward VI of England was enthroned following death of Henry VIII 1547 Event - 9-year-old Edward VI succeeds Henry VIII as king of England 1547 Death - Henry VIII, King of England (1509-47), dies at 55 1546 Event - England signs Peace of Andres with Scotland/Ireland 1545 Birthday - Thomas Bodley, England, diplomat and scholar 1544 Birthday - William Gilbert, Essex England, physicist, researcher into magnetism 1543 Event - England's King Henry VIII weds Catherine Parr (6th and last wife) 1543 Event - England and Scotland sign Peace treaty of Greenwich 1542 Death - Catharine Howard, queen of England/5th wife of Henry VIII, beheaded 1540 Event - England's King Henry VIII 6-mo marriage to Anne of Cleves annulled 1540 Event - The 1st recorded race meet in England (Roodee Fields, Chester) 1540 Event - King Henry VIII of England married his 4th wife, Anne of Cleves 1538 Event - Pope Paul III excommunicated England's King Henry VIII 1537 Birthday - Jane Grey, Queen of England for 9 days 1537 Birthday - Edward VI, Tudor, King of England, 1547-53 1537 Event - Pope Paul III routes Cardinal Pole to England 1536 Event - Pope's authority declared void in England 1536 Death - Anne Boleyn, Queen of England/wife of Henry VIII, beheaded 1536 Death - Catherine of Aragon, 1st wife of England's King Henry VIII, dies 1535 Event - Sir Thomas More goes on trial in England charged with treason 1533 Birthday - Queen Elizabeth I, England, 1558-1603, daughter of Henry VIII 1533 Event - Pope Clement VII excommunicated England's King Henry VIII 1533 Event - Anna Boleyn crowned queen of England 1533 Event - England's archbishop voids King Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn's marriage 1533 Event - England's King Henry VIII marries Anne Boleyn (approximate date) 1531 Event - Henry VIII recognized as supreme head of Church in England 1530 Death - Thomas Wolsey, Cardinal/adviser to England's King Henry VIII, dies 1530 Event - King Henry VIII's divorce request is denied by the Pope Henry then declares that he, not the Pope, is supreme head of England's church 1528 Event - England and France declare war on Emperor Charles V 1527 Event - England and France sign treaty of Westminster 1523 Event - Emperor Charles I and England sign anti-French covenant 1521 Event - Pope Leo X titles King Henry VIII of England "Defender of the Faith" 1520 Event - King Henry VIII of England orders bowling lanes at Whitehall 1520 Event - France and England sign treaty of Scotland 1516 Birthday - Mary I Tudor, Bloody Mary, Greenwich, queen of England, 1553-58 1515 Birthday - Anna van Kleef, queen of England/4th wife of Henry VIII 1511 Event - England and Spain sign anti-French covenant 1511 Event - England signs on to the Saint League 1509 Event - Henry VIII crowned King of England 1509 Event - Henry VIII ascended to throne of England 1509 Event - Henry the VIII becomes King of England 1509 Death - Henry VII, 1st Tudor king of England (1485-1509), dies at 52 1507 Event - England and Netherlands sign trade agreement 1506 Event - Philip of Bourgondy and England sign trade agreement 1503 Death - Queen Elizabeth, consort of Henry VII of England, dies 1502 Event - Emperor Maximilian I and England sign treaty of Antwerp 1497 Event - John Cabot claims eastern Canada for England (believes he found Asia in Nova Scotia) 1496 Event - England's Henry VII ends commercial dispute with Flanders 1495 Birthday - John Bale, England, bishop/anti-catholic playwright, Kynge Johan 1492 Event - King Henry VII of England invades France 1491 Birthday - Henry VIII, King of England, 1509-47 1489 Birthday - Thomas Cranmer, England, archbishop/reformer/martyr 1486 Event - King Henry VII of England marries Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV 1485 Death - Richard III, king of England (1483-85), killed in battle at 32 1485 Event - Henry (VII) Tudors army sails to England 1483 Death - Henry Stafford, earl of Buckingham/constable of England, beheaded at 49 1483 Event - England's King Richard III crowned 1483 Death - Edward V, king of England (Apr 9-Jun 25, 1483), murdered 1483 Event - Edward I (12) succeeds Edward IV as king of England 1483 Death - Edward IV, King of England (1461-70, 71-83) dies at 38 1478 Birthday - Thomas More, lawyer/lord chancellor of England/saint, Utopia 1471 Death - Henry VI, king of England (1422-61, 70-71)/France (1431-71), dies 1471 Event - King Edward IV of England conquers London from Henry VI 1470 Birthday - Edward V, King of England, Apr 9-Jun 25 1483 1461 Event - Edward IV crowned king of England 1461 Event - Battle at Towton: Duke Edward of York beats English queen Margaretha Edward IV recognized as king of England 1457 Birthday - Henry VII, Pembroke Castle, 1st Tudor king of England, 1485-1509 1455 Event - Open battle in England's 30-year War of the Roses (St. Albans) 1452 Birthday - King Richard III, of England, 1483-85 1442 Birthday - Edward IV, King of England, 1461-70, 71-83 1442 Birthday - Edward IV, King, England, 1461-83 1439 Event - Kissing is banned in England (to stop germs from spreading) 1431 Event - King Henry VI of England crowned king of France 1431 Event - England begins trial against Joan of Arc 1422 Death - Henry V, King of England (1413-22)/France (1416-19), dies 1421 Birthday - Henry VI, king of England, 1422-61, 1470-71 1415 Event - King Henry V of England army lands on mouth of Seine River 1415 Death - Henry IV Bolingbroke, King of England (1399-1413), dies at 45 1414 Death - Thomas Arundel, archbishop of Canterbury/chancellor of England, dies 1400 Death - Richard II, king of England (1377-99), murdered at 33 1399 Event - King Richard II of England abdicates throne 1399 Event - King Richard II of England surrenders to his cousin Henry 1387 Birthday - Henry V, king of England, 1413-22 1387 Birthday - Henry V, king of England, 1413 - 1422, France, 1416 - 1419 1377 Event - French invasion fleet lands at Rye England 1377 Event - Richard II succeeds Edward III as king of England 1377 Death - Edward III, king of England (1327-77), dies 1376 Death - "Black Prince" of Wales, son of King Edward of England, dies at 46 1367 Event - Battle at Najera Spain: Castilie and England beat Aragon and France 1367 Birthday - Henry IV, Bolingbroke Lincolnshire, King of England, 1399 - 1413 1367 Birthday - Richard II, Bordeaux, France, king of England, 1377-99 1365 Event - Isabella of England marries Enguerrand of Coucy at Windsor 1340 Event - England and France sign disarmament treaty 1328 Event - King Edward III of England marries Philippa of Henegouwen 1327 Death - Edward II, king of England (1307-1327), assassinated at 43 1322 Event - Robert the Bruce of Scotland defeats King Edward II of England at Byland, forcing Edward to accept Scotland's independence 1314 Event - Battle of Bannockburn; Scotland regains independence from England 1307 Death - Edward I, King of England (1272-1307), dies at 68 1290 Event - King Edward I of England orders expulsion of Jews 1290 Event - Jews are expelled from England by order of King Edward I 1284 Birthday - Edward II, King of England, 1307-27 1278 Event - 680 Jews arrested (293 hanged) in England for counterfeiting coins 1278 Event - Jews of England imprisoned on charges of coining 1275 Event - King Edward I of England orders cessation of persecution of French Jews 1272 Event - Edward I proclaimed King of England 1271 Death - Henry III, king of England (1216-71, Provisions of Oxford), dies 1264 Event - Baron's War fought in England 1239 Birthday - Edward I, King of England, 1272-1307, chased Jews out of England 1216 Death - John, king of England (1199-1216, Magna Charta), dies 1216 Event - French crown prince Louis enters England 1215 Event - King John signs Magna Carta at Runnymede, England 1210 Event - King John of England begins imprisoning Jews 1207 Birthday - Henry III, king of England, 1216-72 1199 Death - Richard I, the Lion-hearted, King of England (1189-99), dies at 41 1190 Event - Crusaders kill 57 Jews in Bury St. Edmonds England 1190 Event - Crusades complete massacre of Jews of York England 1190 Event - Crusades begin massacre of Jews of York England 1189 Event - England's King Richard I (the Lion-Hearted) crowned in Westminster 1189 Death - Jacob of Orleans, Rabbi, killed in anti Jewish riot in London England 1189 Death - Henry II, King of England (1154-89), dies at 56 1189 Event - Riots of Lynn in Norfolk spread to Norwich England 1167 Birthday - John "without a land", king of England, 1199-1216 1157 Birthday - Richard I, Richard the Lion Hearted, King of England, 1189-99 1154 Event - King Henry II of England crowned 1154 Death - Stefanus van Blois, king of England (1135-54), dies 1150 Event - Tichborne family of Hampshire England started tradition of giving a Gallon of flour to each resident to keep deathbed promise 1135 Death - Henry I Beauclerc, king of England (1st king that could read), dies 1133 Event - William the Conqueror orders 1st Domesday Survey of England 1133 Birthday - Henry II, King of England, 1154 - 1189 1100 Death - William II, Rufus, king of England, shot in New Forest at 44 1087 Death - William I, The Conqueror, King of England/Duke of Normandy, dies 1066 Event - William the Conqueror, crowned king of England 1066 Event - Battle of Hastings, in which William the Conqueror wins England 1066 Death - Harold II, King of England (1066), dies 1066 Event - William the Conqueror invade England 1066 Event - William the Conqueror troops sail to England 1066 Event - Battle of Stampford Bridge King Harold Godwinson II of England, beaten by his brother King Harold Hardrada of Norway 1066 Event - King Harald of England crowned 1066 Death - Edward de Belijder, the Confessor, king of England (1043-66), dies 1043 Event - Edward the Confessor crowned king of England 1042 Death - Hardicanute, King of England (1040-42), Lambeth 1040 Death - Harold I, King of England (1035-40), dies 1035 Death - Knut II, the Great, Viking king of England/Den/Nor (1014-35), dies at 39 1016 Death - Aethelbred II "the Unready", king of England (979-1016), dies 1014 Death - Sweyn Forkbeard, Viking king of England (1013-14), dies 1000 Event - Leif Ericson discovers "Vinland" (possibly New England) 979 Event - Challenge to throne of King Aethelred II of England 975 Death - Edgar, King of England (959-75), dies 946 Death - Edmund the Older, king of Wessex/England (939-46), dies 939 Death - Aethelstan III, king of England, dies 604 Death - 605? Augustinus van Canterbury, bishop/apostle of England, dies 597 Event - England adopts Julian calendar 303 Death - George, knight/saint/patron of England, beheaded 303 Death - George, knight of Cappadocie?/saint/patron of England, beheaded 197 Death - D Clodius Septimus Albinus, Roman bequest in England, dies in battle 40 Birthday - Gnaeus Julius Agricola, Roman general; conquered Wales, No England	i don't know
Which literary movement is associated with Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau?	Transcendentalism (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Transcendentalism First published Thu Feb 6, 2003; substantive revision Wed Aug 12, 2015 Transcendentalism is an American literary, political, and philosophical movement of the early nineteenth century, centered around Ralph Waldo Emerson. Other important transcendentalists were Henry David Thoreau, Margaret Fuller, Amos Bronson Alcott, Frederic Henry Hedge, and Theodore Parker. Stimulated by English and German Romanticism, the Biblical criticism of Herder and Schleiermacher, and the skepticism of Hume, the transcendentalists operated with the sense that a new era was at hand. They were critics of their contemporary society for its unthinking conformity, and urged that each person find, in Emerson's words, “an original relation to the universe” (O, 3). Emerson and Thoreau sought this relation in solitude amidst nature, and in their writing. By the 1840s they, along with other transcendentalists, were engaged in the social experiments of Brook Farm, Fruitlands, and Walden; and, by the 1850s in an increasingly urgent critique of American slavery. 1. Origins and Character What we now know as transcendentalism first arose among the liberal New England Congregationalists, who departed from orthodox Calvinism in two respects: they believed in the importance and efficacy of human striving, as opposed to the bleaker Puritan picture of complete and inescapable human depravity; and they emphasized the unity rather than the “Trinity” of God (hence the term “Unitarian,” originally a term of abuse that they came to adopt.) Most of the Unitarians held that Jesus was in some way inferior to God the Father but still greater than human beings; a few followed the English Unitarian Joseph Priestley (1733–1804) in holding that Jesus was thoroughly human, although endowed with special authority. The Unitarians' leading preacher, William Ellery Channing (1780–1842), portrayed orthodox Congregationalism as a religion of fear, and maintained that Jesus saved human beings from sin, not just from punishment. His sermon “Unitarian Christianity” (1819) denounced “the conspiracy of ages against the liberty of Christians” (P, 336) and helped give the Unitarian movement its name. In “Likeness to God” (1828) he proposed that human beings “partake” of Divinity and that they may achieve “a growing likeness to the Supreme Being” (T, 4). The Unitarians were “modern.” They attempted to reconcile Locke's empiricism with Christianity by maintaining that the accounts of miracles in the Bible provide overwhelming evidence for the truth of religion. It was precisely on this ground, however, that the transcendentalists found fault with Unitarianism. For although they admired Channing's idea that human beings can become more like God, they were persuaded by Hume that no empirical proof of religion could be satisfactory. In letters written in his freshman year at Harvard (1817), Emerson tried out Hume's skeptical arguments on his devout and respected Aunt Mary Moody Emerson, and in his journals of the early 1820's he discusses with approval Hume's Dialogues on Natural Religion and his underlying critique of necessary connection. “We have no experience of a Creator,” Emerson writes, and therefore we “know of none” (JMN 2, 161). Skepticism about religion was also engendered by the publication of an English translation of F. D. E. Schleiermacher's Critical Essay Upon the Gospel of St. Luke (1825), which introduced the idea that the Bible was a product of human history and culture. Equally important was the publication in 1833—some fifty years after its initial appearance in Germany—of James Marsh's translation of Johann Gottfried van Herder's Spirit of Hebrew Poetry (1782). Herder blurred the lines between religious texts and humanly-produced poetry, casting doubt on the authority of the Bible, but also suggesting that texts with equal authority could still be written. It was against this background that Emerson asked in 1836, in the first paragraph of Nature: “Why should we not have a poetry and philosophy of insight and not of tradition, and a religion by revelation to us, and not the history of theirs” (O, 5). The individual's “revelation”—or “intuition,” as Emerson was later to speak of it—was to be the counter both to Unitarian empiricism and Humean skepticism. An important source for the transcendentalists' knowledge of German philosophy was Frederic Henry Hedge (1805–90). Hedge's father Levi Hedge, a Harvard professor of logic, sent him to preparatory school in Germany at the age of thirteen, after which he attended the Harvard Divinity School. Ordained as a Unitarian minister, Hedge wrote a long review of the work of Samuel Taylor Coleridge for the Christian Examiner in 1833. Noting Coleridge's fondness for “German metaphysics” and his immense gifts of erudition and expression, he laments that Coleridge had not made Kant and the post-Kantians more accessible to an English-speaking audience. This is the task—to introduce the “transcendental philosophy” of Kant, (T, 87)—that Hedge takes up. In particular, he explains Kant's idea of a Copernican Revolution in philosophy: “[S]ince the supposition that our intuitions depend on the nature of the world without, will not answer, assume that the world without depends on the nature of our intuitions.” This “key to the whole critical philosophy,” Hedge continues, explains the possibility of “a priori knowledge” (T, 92). Hedge organized what eventually became known as the Transcendental Club, by suggesting to Emerson in 1836 that they form a discussion group for disaffected young Unitarian clergy. The group included George Ripley and Bronson Alcott, had some 30 meetings in four years, and was a sponsor of The Dial and Brook Farm. Hedge was a vocal opponent of slavery in the 1830's and a champion of women's rights in the 1850's, but he remained a Unitarian minister, and became a professor at the Harvard Divinity School. Another source for the transcendentalists' knowledge of German philosophy was Madame de Staël (Anne-Louise-Germaine Necker) (1766–1817), whose De l'Allemagne (On Germany) was a favorite of the young Emerson. In a sweeping survey of European metaphysics and political philosophy, de Staël praises Locke's devotion to liberty, but sees him as the originator of a sensationalist school of epistemology that leads to the skepticism of Hume. She finds an attractive contrast in the German tradition that begins with Leibniz and culminates in Kant, which asserts the power and authority of the mind. James Marsh (1794–1842), a graduate of Andover and the president of the University of Vermont, was equally important for the emerging philosophy of transcendentalism. Marsh was convinced that German philosophy held the key to a reformed theology. His American edition of Coleridge's Aids to Reflection (1829) introduced Coleridge's version—much indebted to Schelling—of Kantian terminology, terminology that runs throughout Emerson's early work. In Nature, for example, Emerson writes: “The Imagination may be defined to be, the use which the Reason makes of the material world” (O, 25). German philosophy and literature was also championed by Thomas Carlyle, whom Emerson met on his first trip to Europe in 1831. Carlyle's philosophy of action in such works as Sartor Resartus resonates with Emerson's idea in “The American Scholar” that action—along with nature and “the mind of the Past” (O, 39) is essential to human education. Along with his countrymen Coleridge and Wordsworth, Carlyle embraced a “natural supernaturalism,” the view that nature, including human beings, has the power and authority traditionally attributed to an independent deity. Piety towards nature was also a main theme of William Wordsworth, whose poetry was in vogue in America in the 1820s. Wordsworth's depiction of an active and powerful mind cohered with the shaping power of the mind that his collaborator in the Lyrical Ballads, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, traced to Kant. The idea of such power pervades Emerson's Nature, where he writes of nature as “obedient” to spirit and counsels each of us to “Build … your own world.” Wordsworth has his more receptive mode as well, in which he calls for “a heart that watches and receives” (in “The Tables Turned”), and we find Emerson's receptive mode from Nature onward, as when he recounts an ecstatic experience in the woods: “I become a transparent eyeball. I am nothing; I see all; The currents of the universal being circulate through me.” (O, 6). Emerson's sense that men and women are, as he put it in Nature, gods “in ruins,” led to one of transcendentalism's defining events, his delivery of an address at the Harvard Divinity School graduation in 1838. Emerson portrayed the contemporary church that the graduates were about to lead as an “eastern monarchy of a Christianity” that had become an “injuror of man” (O, 58). Jesus, in contrast, was a “friend of man.” Yet he was just one of the “true race of prophets,” whose message is not so much their own greatness, as the “greatness of man” (O, 57). Emerson rejects the Unitarian argument that miracles prove the truth of Christianity, not simply because the evidence is weak, but because proof of the sort they envision embodies a mistaken view of the nature of religion: “conversion by miracles is a profanation of the soul.” Emerson's religion is based not on testimony but on a “perception” that produces a “religious sentiment” (O, 55). The “Divinity School Address” drew a quick and angry response from Andrews Norton (1786–1853) of the Harvard Divinity School, often known as the “Unitarian Pope.” In “The New School in Literature and Religion” (1838), Norton complains of “a restless craving for notoriety and excitement,” which he traces to German “speculatists” and “barbarians” and “that hyper-Germanized Englishman, Carlyle.” Emerson's “Address,” he concludes, is at once “an insult to religion” (T, 248) and “an incoherent rhapsody” (T, 249). An earlier transcendentalist scandal surrounded the publication of Amos Bronson Alcott's Conversations with Children Upon the Gospels (1836). Alcott (1799–1888) was a self-taught educator from Connecticut who established a series of schools that aimed to “draw out” the intuitive knowledge of children. He found anticipations of his views about a priori knowledge in the writings of Plato and Kant, and support in Coleridge's Aids to Reflection for the idea that idealism and materiality could be reconciled. Alcott replaced the hard benches of the common schools with more comfortable furniture that he built himself, and left a central space in his classrooms for dancing. The Conversations with Children Upon the Gospels, based on a school Alcott (and his assistant Elizabeth Peabody) ran in Boston, argued that evidence for the truth of Christianity could be found in the unimpeded flow of children's thought. What people particularly noticed about Alcott's book, however, were its frank discussions of conception, circumcision, and childbirth. Rather than gaining support for his school, the publication of the book caused many parents to withdraw their children from it, and the school—like many of Alcott's projects, failed. Theodore Parker (1810–60) was the son of a farmer who attended Harvard and became a Unitarian minister and accomplished linguist. He published a long critical essay on David Friedrich Strauss's Das Leben Jesu, and translated Wilhelm Martin Leberecht de Wette's Introduction to the Old Testament, both of which cast doubt on the divine inspiration and single authorship of the Bible. After the publication of his “A Discourse Concerning the Transient and Permanent in Christianity” (1841) he was invited to resign from the Boston Association of Ministers (he did not), and was no longer welcome in many pulpits. He argued, much as Emerson had in the “Divinity School Address,” that Christianity had nothing essential to do with the person of Jesus: “If Jesus taught at Athens, and not at Jerusalem; if he had wrought no miracle, and none but the human nature had ever been ascribed to him; if the Old Testament had forever perished at his birth, Christianity would still have been the Word of God … just as true, just as lasting, just as beautiful, as now it is…” (T, 352). Parker exploited the similarities between science and religious doctrine to argue that although nature and religious truth are permanent, any merely human version of such truth is transient. In religious doctrines especially, there are stunning reversals, so that “men are burned for professing what men are burned for denying” (T, 347). Surveying the scene in his 1842 lecture, “The Transcendentalist,” Emerson begins with a philosophical account, according to which what are generally called “new views” are not really new, but rather part of a broad tradition of idealism. It is not a skeptical idealism, however, but an anti-skeptical idealism deriving from Kant: It is well known to most of my audience, that the Idealism of the present day acquired the name of Transcendental, from the use of that term by Immanuel Kant, of Konigsberg [sic], who replied to the skeptical philosophy of Locke, which insisted that there was nothing in the intellect which was not previously in the experience of the senses, by showing that there was a very important class of ideas, or imperative forms, which did not come by experience, but through which experience was acquired; that these were intuitions of the mind itself; and he denominated them Transcendental forms (O, 101–2). Emerson shows here a basic understanding of three Kantian claims, which can be traced throughout his philosophy: that the human mind “forms” experience; that the existence of such mental operations is a counter to skepticism; and that “transcendental” does not mean “transcendent” or beyond human experience altogether, but something through which experience is made possible. Emerson's idealism is not purely Kantian, however, for (like Coleridge's) it contains a strong admixture of Neoplatonism and post-Kantian idealism. Emerson thinks of Reason, for example, as a faculty of “vision,” as opposed to the mundane understanding, which “toils all the time, compares, contrives, adds, argues….” (Letters, vol. 1, 413). For many of the transcendentalists the term “transcendentalism” represented nothing so technical as an inquiry into the presuppositions of human experience, but a new confidence in and appreciation of the mind's powers, and a modern, non-doctrinal spirituality. The transcendentalist, Emerson states, believes in miracles, conceived as “the perpetual openness of the human mind to new influx of light and power…” (O, 100). Emerson keeps his distance from the transcendentalists in his essay by speaking always of what “they” say or do, despite the fact that he was regarded then and is regarded now as the leading transcendentalist. He notes with some disdain that the transcendentalists are “'not good members of society,” that they do not work for “the abolition of the slave-trade” (though both these charges have been leveled at him). He closes the essay nevertheless with a defense of the transcendentalist critique of a society pervaded by “a spirit of cowardly compromise and seeming, which intimates a frightful skepticism, a life without love, and an activity without an aim” (O, 106). This critique is Emerson's own in such writings as “Self-Reliance,” and “The American Scholar”; and it finds a powerful and original restatement in the “Economy” chapter of Thoreau's Walden. 2. High Tide: The Dial, Fuller, Thoreau The transcendentalists had several publishing outlets: at first The Christian Examiner, then, after the furor over the “Divinity School Address,” The Western Messenger (1835–41) in St Louis, then the Boston Quarterly Review (1838–44). The Dial (1840–4) was a special case, for it was planned and instituted by the members of the Transcendental Club, with Margaret Fuller (1810–50) as the first editor. Emerson succeeded her for the magazine's last two years. The writing in The Dial was uneven, but in its four years of existence it published Fuller's “The Great Lawsuit” (the core of her Woman in the Nineteenth Century) and her long review of Goethe's work; prose and poetry by Emerson; Alcott's “Orphic Sayings” (which gave the magazine a reputation for silliness); and the first publications of a young friend of Emerson's, Henry David Thoreau (1817–62). After Emerson became editor in 1842 The Dial published a series of “Ethnical Scriptures,” translations from Chinese and Indian philosophical works. Margaret Fuller was the daughter of a Massachusetts congressman who provided tutors for her in Latin, Greek, chemistry, philosophy and, later, German. Exercising what Barbara Packer calls “her peculiar powers of intrusion and caress” (P, 443), Fuller became friends with many of the transcendentalists, including Emerson. She organized a series of popular “conversations” for women in Boston in the winters of 1839–44, journeyed to the Midwest in the summer of 1843, and published her observations as Summer on the Lakes. After this publishing success, Horace Greeley, a friend of Emerson's and the editor of the New York Tribune, invited her to New York to write for the Tribune. Fuller abandoned her previously ornate and pretentious style, issuing pithy reviews and forthright criticisms: for example, of Longfellow's poetry and Carlyle's attraction to brutality. Fuller was in Europe from 1846–9, sending back hundreds of pages for the Tribune. On her return to America with her husband and son, she drowned in a hurricane off the coast of Fire Island, New York. Woman in the Nineteenth Century (1845), a revision of her “Great Lawsuit” manifesto in The Dial, is Fuller's major philosophical work. She holds that masculinity and femininity pass into one another, that there is “no wholly masculine man, no purely feminine woman” (T, 418). In classical mythology, for example, “Man partakes of the feminine in the Apollo; woman of the Masculine as Minerva.” But there are differences. The feminine genius is “electrical” and “intuitive,” the male more inclined to classification (T, 419). Women are treated as dependents, however, and their self-reliant impulses are often held against them. What they most want, Fuller maintains, is the freedom to unfold their powers, a freedom necessary not only for their self-development, but for the renovation of society. Like Thoreau and Emerson, Fuller calls for periods of withdrawal from a society whose members are in various states of “distraction” and “imbecility,” and a return only after “the renovating fountains” of individuality have risen up. Such individuality is necessary in particular for the proper constitution of that form of society known as marriage. “Union,” she holds, “is only possible to those who are units” (T, 419). In contrast, most marriages are forms of degradation, in which “the woman does belong to the man, instead of forming a whole with him” (T, 422). Henry Thoreau studied Latin, Greek, Italian, French, German, and Spanish at Harvard, where he heard Emerson's “The American Scholar” as the commencement address in 1837. He first published in The Dial when Emerson commissioned him to review a series of reports on wildlife by the state of Massachusetts, but he cast about for a literary outlet after The Dial’s failure in 1844. In 1845, his move to Walden Pond allowed him to complete his first book, A Week on the Concord and the Merrimac Rivers. He also wrote a first draft of Walden, which eventually appeared in 1854. Nature comes to even more prominence in Walden than in Emerson's Nature, which it followed by eighteen years. Nature now becomes particular: this tree, this bird, this state of the pond on a summer evening or winter morning become Thoreau's subjects. Thoreau is receptive. He finds himself “suddenly neighbor to” rather than a hunter of birds (W, 85); and he learns to dwell in a house that is no more and no less than a place where he can properly sit. From the right perspective, Thoreau finds, he can possess and use a farm with more satisfaction than the farmer, who is preoccupied with feeding his family and expanding his operations. In Walden's opening chapter, “Economy,” Thoreau considers the trade-offs we make in life, and he asks, as Plato did in The Republic, what are life's real necessities. Like the Roman philosophers Marcus Porcius Cato and Marcus Varro he seeks a “life of simplicity, independence, magnanimity, and trust” (W, 15). Considering his contemporaries, he finds that “the mass of men lead lives of quiet desperation” (W, 8). Thoreau's “experiment” at Walden shows that a life of simplicity and independence can be achieved today (W, 17). If Thoreau counsels simple frugality—a vegetarian diet for example, and a dirt floor—he also counsels a kind of extravagance, a spending of what you have in the day that shall never come again. True economy, he writes, is a matter of “improving the nick of time” (W, 17). Thoreau went to Walden Pond on the anniversary of America's declared independence from Britain—July 4, 1845, declaring his own independence from a society that is “commonly too cheap.” It is not that he is against all society, but that he finds we meet too often, before we have had the chance to acquire any “new value for each other” (W, 136). Thoreau welcomes those visitors who “speak reservedly and thoughtfully” (W, 141), and who preserve an appropriate sense of distance; he values the little leaves or acorns left by visitors he never meets. Thoreau lived at Walden for just under three years, a time during which he sometimes visited friends and conducted business in town. (It was on one such visit, to pick up a mended shoe, that he was arrested for tax avoidance, an episode that became the occasion for “Resistance to Civil Government.”) At the opening of Walden's chapter on “Higher Laws” Thoreau confesses to once having desired to slaughter a woodchuck and eat it raw, just to get at its wild essence. He values fishing and hunting for their taste of wildness, though he finds that in middle age he has given up eating meat. He finds wildness not only in the woods, but in such literary works as Hamlet and the Iliad; and even in certain forms of society: “The wildness of the savage is but a faint symbol of the awful ferity with which good men and lovers meet” (“Walking” (1862), p. 621). The wild is not always consoling or uplifting, however. In The Maine Woods, Thoreau records a climb on Mount Ktaadn in Maine when he confronted the alien materiality of the world; and in Cape Cod (1865), he records the foreignness, not the friendliness, of nature: the shore is “a wild, rank place, and there is no flattery in it” (P, 577). Although Walden initiates the American tradition of environmental philosophy, it is equally concerned with reading and writing. In the chapter on “Reading,” Thoreau speaks of books that demand and inspire “reading, in a high sense” (W, 104). He calls such books “heroic,” and finds them equally in literature and philosophy, in Europe and Asia: “Vedas and Zendavestas and Bibles, with Homers and Dantes and Shakespeares…” (W, 104). Thoreau suggests that Walden is or aspires to be such a book; and indeed the enduring construction from his time at Walden is not the cabin he built but the book he wrote. Thoreau maintains in Walden that writing is “the work of art closest to life itself” (W, 102). In his search for such closeness, he began to reconceive the nature of his journal. Both he and Emerson kept journals from which their published works were derived. But in the early 1850s, Thoreau began to conceive of the journal as a work in itself, “each page of which should be written in its own season & out of doors or in its own locality wherever it may be” (J, 67). A journal has a sequence set by the days, but it may have no order; or what order it has emerges in the writer's life as he meets the life of nature. With its chapters on “Reading,” “Solitude,” “Economy,” “Winter,” and “Spring,” Walden is more “worked up” than the journal; in this sense, Thoreau came to feel, it is less close to nature than the journal. 3. Social and Political Critiques The transcendentalists operated from the start with the sense that the society around them was seriously deficient: a “mass” of “bugs or spawn” as Emerson put it in “The American Scholar”; slavedrivers of themselves, as Thoreau says in Walden. Thus the attraction of alternative life-styles: Alcott's ill-fated Fruitlands; Brook Farm, planned and organized by the Transcendental Club; Thoreau's cabin at Walden. As the nineteenth century came to its mid-point, the transcendentalists' dissatisfaction with their society became focused on policies and actions of the United States government: the treatment of the Native Americans, the war with Mexico, and, above all, the continuing and expanding practice of slavery. Emerson's 1838 letter to President Martin Van Buren is an early expression of the depth of his despair at actions of his country, in this case the ethnic cleansing of American land east of the Mississippi. The 16,000 Cherokees lived in what is now Kentucky and Tennessee, and in parts of the Carolinas, Georgia, and Virginia. They were one of the more assimilated tribes, whose members owned property, drove carriages, used plows and spinning wheels, and even owned slaves. Wealthy Cherokees sent their children to elite academies or seminaries. The Cherokee chief refused to sign a “removal” agreement with the government of Andrew Jackson, but the government found a minority faction to agree to move to territories west of the Mississippi. Despite the ruling by the Supreme Court under Chief Justice John Marshall that the Cherokee Nation's sovereignty had been violated, Jackson's policies continued to take effect. In 1838, President Van Buren, Jackson's former Vice-President and approved successor, ordered the U. S. Army into the Cherokee Nation, where they rounded up as many remaining members of the tribe as they could and marched them west and across the Mississippi. Thousands died along the way. In his letter to President Van Buren, Emerson calls this “a crime that really deprives us as well as the Cherokees of a country; for how could we call the conspiracy that should crush these poor Indians our Government, or the land that was cursed by their parting and dying imprecations our country, any more?” (A, 3). Slavery had existed in the United States from the beginnings of the country, but when the Fugitive Slave Law was passed by the United States Congress in 1850, it had dramatic and visible effects not only in Georgia or Mississippi but in Massachusetts and New York. For the law required all citizens of the country to assist in returning fugitive slaves to their owners. This extension of the slave-system to the north, the subject of Thoreau's “Slavery in Massachusetts” (1854), was on public view when an escaped slave named Anthony Burns was captured in Boston, tried by a Massachusetts court, and escorted by the Massachusetts militia and U. S. marines to the harbor, where he was taken back to slavery in Virginia. His owner placed him in a notorious “slave pen” outside Richmond, where Burns was handcuffed, chained at the ankles and left to lie in his own filth for four months. Thoreau denounced the absurdity of a court in Boston “trying a MAN, to find out if he is not really a SLAVE,” when the question has already been “decided from eternity” (R, 92). In his “Lecture on Slavery” of 1855, Emerson calls the original 1787 Constitution's recognition of slavery a “crime” (A, 100), and he contrasts the written law of the constitution with the “Laws” and “Right” ascertained by Jesus, Menu, Moses, and Confucius. An immoral law, he holds, is void. The distinction between morality and law is also the basis for Thoreau's “Resistance to Civil Government” (1849). Thoreau was arrested in 1846 for nonpayment of his poll tax, and he took the opportunity presented by his night in jail to meditate on the authority of the state. The government, Thoreau argues, is but an expedient by which we succeed “in letting one another alone” (R, 64). The citizen has no duty to resign his conscience to the state, and may even have a duty to oppose immoral legislation such as that which supports slavery and the Mexican War. Thoreau concludes: “I cannot for an instant recognize that political organization as my government which is the slave's government also” (R, 67). Slavery could be abolished by a “peaceable revolution,” he continues, if people refused to pay their taxes and clogged the system by going to jail (R, 76). Although Thoreau advocates nonviolent action in “Resistance to Civil Government,” he later supported the violent actions of John Brown, who killed unarmed pro-slavery settlers in Kansas, and in 1859 attacked the federal arsenal at Harper's Ferry, Virginia. In “A Plea for Captain John Brown,” Thoreau portrays Brown as an “Angel of Light” (R, 137) and “a transcendentalist above all” (115) who believed “that a man has a perfect right to interfere by force with the slaveholder, in order to rescue the slave” (R,132). In early 1860, just months before the outbreak of the Civil War, he and Emerson participated in public commemorations of Brown's life and actions. Thoreau, Henry David, Walden, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1989. Other Primary Sources: Buell, Lawrence. The American Transcendentalists: Essential Writings, New York: Modern Library, 2006. [Anthology with commentary] Emerson, Ralph Waldo, The Collected Works of Ralph Waldo Emerson, Robert B. Spiller, et al. (eds.), Cambridge, MA and London: Harvard University Press, 1971– –––, The Letters of Ralph Waldo Emerson, New York and London: Columbia University Press, 1939. 6 vols. –––, Ralph Waldo Emerson: Selected Journals: 1820–1842, Lawrence Rosenwald (ed.), New York: Library of America, 2010. Fuller, Margaret, Margaret Fuller, Critic: Writings from the New-York Tribune, 1844-1846, Judith Mattson Bean and Joel Myerson (eds.), New York: Columbia University Press, 2000. –––, “These Sad But Glorious Days”: Dispatches from Europe, 1846–1850, Larry J. Reynolds and Susan Belasco Smith (eds.), New Haven: Yale University Press, 1991. Hochfield, George (ed.), Selected Writings of the American Transcendentalists, 2nd edition, New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004 (orig. 1966). [Anthology] Miller, Perry. The Transcendentalists: An Anthology, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971 (orig. 1950). [Anthology with commentary] Thoreau, Henry David, Cape Cod, Joseph J. Moldenhauer (ed.), Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988. –––, Journal, John C. Broderick, Elizabeth Hall Witherell, et al. (eds.), Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1984 –––, The Maine Woods, Joseph J.Moldenhauer (ed.), Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1972. –––, Political Writings/Thoreau, Nancy L. Rosenbaum (ed.) New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996. –––, A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers, Carl Hovde, et al. (eds.), Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1980. Secondary Sources	Transcendentalism
Which river flows through Sydney and into Port Jackson?	Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau http://www.planetpapers.com/Assets/4862.php Individualism in Emerson and Thoreau Written by: semihatopal Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau are considered two of the most influential and inspiring transcendentalist writers of their time. Ralph Waldo Emerson, who was a lecturer, essayist, and poet, was born on May 25, 1803, and is generally considered the father of American transcendentalism , "a philosophy that rejects the idea that knowledge can be fully derived from experience and observation; rather, truth resides in the spiritual world." Henry David Thoreau is his student, who was also a great essayist and critics.Both men extensively studied and embraced nature, and both men encouraged and practiced individualism and nonconformity. In Ralph Waldo Emerson�s essay "Self Reliance" and Henry David Thoreau�s essay "Resistance to Civil Government" ("Civil Disobedience"), both transcendentalist thinkers speak about being individual and what reforms and changes need to be made in society. Ralph Waldo Emerson and his disciple, Henry David Thoreau, who were individualists, attacked the dominant religious, political, and cultural values of American society in order to make people aware that they are more important than everything, including government and society. According to Emerson, society is a barrier against the individuality of its members; and he continued: "Society is a joint-stock company, in which the members agree, for the better securing of his bread to each shareholder, to surrender the liberty and culture of the eater. The virtue in most request is conformity." The solution, for Emerson, is self-reliance, meaning that man is only responsible for his own life and he shouldn�t be too enveloped in society, which is one of the main principles of Transcendentalism. The other principle is individualism, which was expressed in Thoreau�s "civil Disobedience": "I think that we should be men first, and subjects afterward. It is not desirable to cultivate a respect for the law, so much as for the right. The only obligation which I have a right to assume is to do at any time what I think right." And in "Self Reliance" by Emerson: "To believe your own thought, to believe that what is true for you in your private heart is true for all men, -- that is genius." Thoreau was Emerson�s student, he stayed with him for a while and was affected by his ideas, especially concerning with individual and society. Emerson�s idea that in society the heart and power of man is drawn out and ignored, which makes people afraid of expressing their own ideas as well as being afraid of truth, led Thoreau to think that: "Everyone has an obligation to himself and himself, alone. Too many people in society conform to what the government says is right and moral, when the true meaning of right or moral comes from what each individual holds to be what is right. To become a true individual is to make every decision based upon your own personal belief of its morality, no matter what society says, and to act upon your belief accordingly." The common idea in Emerson�s "Self reliance" and Thoreau�s "Civil Disobedience" is the fact that in order to be an individual one must be a non-conformist: "Whoso would be a man must be a nonconformist." says Emerson and adds: "He who would gather immortal palms must not be hindered by the name of goodness, but must explore if it be goodness. Nothing is at last sacred but the integrity of your own mind. Absolve you to yourself, and you shall have the suffrage of the world." Emerson�s insistence on being an individual and finding the truth within yourself is astonishing. He says: "Do not go where the path may lead, go instead where there is no path and leave a trail." Thoreau followed the same way, as well; but he chose the government as a target and pointed it as a hinder on the way of being a man, as it makes people machines which are programmed to serve for the government: "The mass of men serve the state thus, not as men mainly, but as machines, with their bodies." Thoreau tended to attack the government as an entity that promoted conformity and that people used to alleviate their own moral obligations. Emerson tended to promote individualism in thought and action, and promote the idea that individualism allowed one to survive in a changing society. Although Emerson and Thoreau were appreciated by many people -especially the transcendentalists such as Walt Whitman, Emily Dickinson, Edwin Arlington Robinson, Wallace Stevens, Hart Crane, and Robert Frost, and famous political leaders such as Mahatma Gandhi and Martin Luther King,Jr-, there were several criticisms on their doctrine of individualism and non-conformity. It is very surprising to find a passage which claims that Emerson and Thoreau were not individualists on the internet site of individualists: "On the surface, Emerson and Thoreau appear to have been model individualists. But underneath the surface, the their philosophy was rooted in anti-individualist religious doctrines." Also the statement goes on: "It is ironic that, in encouraging individuals to break away from social norms, Emerson and Thoreau also urged individuals to mindlessly obey the will of a supposed God. If Emerson had made the relationship between conformity and nonconformity in his philosophy explicit, he might have said, "Whoso would be a nonconformist must first conform to God." Another criticism is from Michelle Aaron , who believes that the problem with Thoreau�s theories is his arrogance in ascertaining that if everyone were to become a "true" individual, then they would have a common ground, and succumb to his way of thinking. She adds: "I believe that, in reality, the more individualistic we become, the farther apart our views become. People need some sort of common ground to compromise on, that's true, but society, and conforming to that society somewhat, helps us find that common ground." It is not surprising for Emerson and Thoreau to get criticisms as their individualism was uncommon even in their own time. However, they gave intellectual definition to a diffuse cultural tendency in need of a spokesman. Nineteenth-century Americans earned the world's respect with their business talent and inventiveness, but from the start world opinion berated them for their individualistic attitudes. What Emerson said to the world, in effect, was that individualism was the virtue that made Americans' achievement possible. It is easy to see that a greater self-reliance - a new respect for the divinity in man - must work a revolution in all the offices and relations of men; in their religion; in their education; in their pursuits; their modes of living; their association; in their property; in their speculative views. Here he implies how much greater Americans' achievements would be if they were to enshrine their individualism instead of minimizing it. Emerson thought that all great works were products of individualism and self reliance, claiming that: "In every work of genius we recognize our own rejected thoughts: they come back to us with a certain alienated majesty. Great works of art have no more affecting lesson for us than this. They teach us to abide by our spontaneous impression with good-humored inflexibility then most when the whole cry of voices is on the other side. Else, to-morrow a stranger will say with masterly good sense precisely what we have thought and felt all the time, and we shall be forced to take with shame our own opinion from another." In a similar way, Thoreau�s main theme theme in his well-known essay, "Resistance to Civil Government" was the necessity of keeping our own ideas and conscience against the unjust authority: "If the injustice is part of the necessary friction of the machine of government, let it go, let it go: perchance it will wear smooth--certainly the machine will wear out. If the injustice has a spring, or a pulley, or a rope, or a crank, exclusively for itself, then perhaps you may consider whether the remedy will not be worse than the evil; but if it is of such a nature that it requires you to be the agent of injustice to another, then I say, break the law. Let your life be a counter-friction to stop the machine. What I have to do is to see, at any rate, that I do not lend myself to the wrong, which I condemn." The factor, which led Thoreau to be in favour of non-conformity, is Emerson, of course. He considered individuality as doing whatever he wanted and ignoring what the people think, which we can find in his words: "What I must do is all that concerns me, not what the people think." He explains his words and tries to justify himself by adding that: "This rule, equally arduous in actual and in intellectual life, may serve for the whole distinction between greatness and meanness. It is the harder because you will always find those who think they know what is your duty better than you know it. It is easy in the world to live after the world's opinion; it is easy in solitude to live after our own; but the great man is he who in the midst of the crowd keeps with perfect sweetness the independence of solitude." According to Thoreau and Emerson, individuals are responsible for themselves and should not ask for protection from the state. In his "Self Reliance", Emerson advised men to trust themselves and accept the society of their contemporaries, the connection of events that God found for them. "Trust thyself: every heart vibrates to that iron string. Accept the place the divine providence has found for you, the society of your contemporaries, the connection of events. Great men have always done so, and confided themselves childlike to the genius of their age, betraying their perception that the absolutely trustworthy was seated at their heart, working through their hands, predominating in all their being." He regarded the reliance on Property, including the reliance on governments which protect it, as the want of self-reliance, and thought that men have looked away from themselves and at things so long, that they have come to esteem the religious, learned, and civil institutions as guards of property, and they deprecate assaults on these, because they feel them to be assaults on property. He claimed: "It is only as a man puts off all foreign support, and stands alone, that I see him to be strong and to prevail." In the same way, Thoreau expressed in his famous essay "Resistance to Civil Government" that when he conversed with the freest of his neighbors, he perceived that, whatever they might say about the magnitude and seriousness of the question, and their regard for the public tranquility, the long and the short of the matter was, that they could not spare the protection of the existing government, and they dreaded the consequences to their property and families of disobedience to it. He said that: "For my own part, I should not like to think that I ever rely on the protection of the State." And added that: "You must live within yourself, and depend upon yourself always tucked up and ready for a start, and not have many affairs , in order to avoid of the reliance on the protection of the State, which indicates the necessity of living simply." Emerson and Thoreau defined how an individual must be, which can be summed up as trusting your own ideas, finding the truth within yourself as Emerson says: "Nothing can bring you peace but yourself" and not to let society suppress your individuality. Furthermore, individuals are responsible for themselves and should not ask for protection from the state. The man of principle cannot be constrained into any wrongdoing and will not compromise his freedom and integrity. According to these American writers, the cause of peace is not for the cowardly preservation of the safety of the luxurious and the timid. Sanderson Beck states in his essay on "Emerson�s Transcendentalism" that: "Peace must be maintained by true heroes who are willing to stake their lives for their principle and who go beyond the traditional hero in that they will not threaten another man's life-"men who have, by their intellectual insight or else by their moral elevation, attained such a perception of their own intrinsic worth that they do not think property or their own body a sufficient good to be saved by such dereliction of principle as treating a man like a sheep." It is certain that Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau were quite influential in the development of the USA, taking into consideration the fact that they instilled self-confidence and freedom of thought in the minds of American people. However it is difficult to say the same thing today as the citizens of the United States are less self-reliant today than they used to be, as Bryan Caplan says in his essay "Self-Reliance and Creative Destruction": "Despite some impressive efforts to develop a distinctly American intellectual tradition, the cultural elite of the United States gradually accepted many of the world's complaints about Americans' 'excessive individualism'; these complaints then spread throughout the broader culture. What is especially dangerous is that the decline of individualism is self-perpetuating; diminished self-reliance makes it possible for the power of the government to expand, which teaches future generations to rely upon the protective comfort of the government rather than themselves." Consequently, Emerson and Thoreau were among the founders of transcendentalism in American literature. Both writers emphasized the importance of the soul and nature and they complemented their views and their views on individalism and self-reliance effected not only literature but also politics and society in the United States. Bibliogrpahy	i don't know
Which London building was the most famous work of architect Norman Shaw (1831-1912)?	Norman Shaw RA. Dream, Draw, Work - Wall Street International Norman Shaw RA. Dream, Draw, Work 30 May — 26 Oct 2014 at Royal Academy of Arts, London R. Norman Shaw RA (1831-1912), Working drawing of balustrade for a wooden screen (detail), drawn by W.R. Lethaby, 1879-80. Pencil, black ink and coloured washes on paper. c. Royal Academy of Arts, London. Photo: Prudence Cuming Associates Ltd. 16 APR 2014 The Royal Academy of Arts presents a display of drawings by the renowned British architect Norman Shaw RA (1831-1912). Considered the most brilliant and influential of their time, Norman Shaw’s architectural drawings are exemplars of Victorian draughtsmanship and practice. Shaw designed great Tudoresque country houses, he built powerful public buildings such as the turreted New Scotland Yard on London’s Embankment and he also led gracious renovations, including the intricate alterations and additions to Burlington House, the home of the Royal Academy of Arts. With a fascinating array of works surviving Shaw’s office and now in the Royal Academy Collections – from working drawings to dazzling perspectives – this display explores the materials, draughtsmanship and design practices of Shaw and his small but brilliant staff. Photographs of London buildings designed by Shaw will also be displayed in the Royal Academy of Arts’ Architecture Space. Norman Shaw ran a small but highly prestigious architectural office. Of the handful of apprentices and assistants he employed over the years, many were or became eminent architects in their own right. Early in his career Shaw became famous for his presentation ink drawings, setting a fashion for the reproduction of architectural drawings in the pages of the recently established building press and also for their display in exhibitions. Beautifully rendered office drawings also show how Shaw passed his ideas to his staff and craftsmen. Later Shaw would turn this labour intensive process over to his assistants, including his chief clerk William Lethaby, founder and first principal of the Central School of Arts and Crafts, today part of Central St Martin’s. Lethaby created a progressive series of drawings for architectural jobs such as the large neo-Jacobean chimneypiece at Cragside, Northumberland, with a loose drawing hand which greatly appealed to the Victorian taste for the ornate. Many of the working drawings on display are well-worn, after a hard life in the office and being roughly circulated amongst clients and builders; some have edges frayed or missing, with others creased up from constant folding and ground-in with Victorian soot. Rarely seen or investigated, these drawings are simple and directly made by hand, in contrast to the complexity of computer-generated images made today. They come from an era when architects such as Norman Shaw epitomised the best in the art of architecture, creating beautiful renderings for art gallery and workplace alike. Royal Academy of Arts Tennant Gallery and Architecture Space Burlington House, Piccadilly London W1J 0BD United Kingdom Ph. +44 (0)20 73008000 Tuesday - Friday from 10am to 4pm Saturday - Sunday from 10am to 6pm Related images R. Norman Shaw RA (1831-1912), Working drawing of balustrade for a wooden screen (detail), drawn by W.R. Lethaby, 1879-80. Pencil, black ink and coloured washes on paper. c. Royal Academy of Arts, London. Photo: Prudence Cuming Associates Ltd. R. Norman Shaw RA (1831-1912), Design for fireplaces, 39 Frognal, Hampstead, London, drawn by Robert Weir Schultz, 1884. Black ink, pencil and coloured washes on paper. c. Royal Academy of Arts, London. Photo: Prudence Cuming Associates Ltd. R. Norman Shaw RA (1831-1912), Front entrance for Greenham Lodge, Greenham, Berkshire (detail), drawn by W.R. Lethaby, 1879. Pencil, black ink and coloured washes on paper. c. Royal Academy of Arts, London. Photo: Prudence Cuming Associates Ltd.	Scotland Yard
In which constellation would you find the Crab Nebula?	Richard Norman Shaw facts, information, pictures \| Encyclopedia.com articles about Richard Norman Shaw A Dictionary of Architecture and Landscape Architecture © A Dictionary of Architecture and Landscape Architecture 2000, originally published by Oxford University Press 2000. Shaw, Richard Norman (1831–1912). Scots-born architect, the son of an Irish father and a Scots mother. A pupil of William Burn from 1849, he later travelled (1854–6) and published Architectural Sketches from the Continent (1858). He joined Salvin 's office in 1856 before accepting (1858) a position with Street in succession to Philip Webb . He was influenced by A. W. N. Pugin 's writings, but most of all by Street: he acknowledged the latter as his mentor. In 1862 he set up in practice on his own, and then in 1863 with Eden Nesfield , specializing in domestic and commercial work, each influencing, but working independently of, the other. Shaw's early work included the Church of Holy Trinity, Bingley, Yorks. (1866–8—wantonly destroyed 1974 despite Goodhart-Rendel 's opinion that ‘no modern church’ was ‘finer’), a tough essay in the Gothic Revival , much influenced by Street's designs, but the most important aspect of Shaw's output was his domestic work, in which the Gothic Revival , the Picturesque , vernacular architecture , and the Domestic Revival played their parts, influenced by designs of Butterfield , Devey , Nesfield, and Street. Shaw was most successful in refining and applying elements derived from traditional houses of the Sussex Weald (including tall brick chimneys, much tile-hanging, and mullioned windows with leaded lights) to large country-houses. His early work includes Glen Andred (1866–8) and Leys Wood (1868–9—mostly destroyed), both near Groombridge, Sussex, Grim's Dyke, Harrow Weald (1870–2—perhaps Shaw's finest interpretation of the Old-English version of the Domestic Revival), and the enormous and eclectic Cragside, Rothbury, Northum. (1870–84). These buildings, with their use of local materials and vernacular details had a profound effect on the evolution of domestic architecture and on the Arts-and-Crafts movement in general. Shaw's houses were published in The Building News, thus making his work widely known on both sides of the Atlantic, and influencing development of the Shingle style in the USA. Both Shaw and Nesfield drew on C17 domestic architecture of The Netherlands and the William and Mary period in England (1689–1702), so their work of the 1870s began to be called the Queen Anne style. Shaw's chief works in this style were New Zealand Chambers, Leadenhall Street, London (1871–3—demolished), Lowther Lodge, Kensington (1873), 6 Ellerdale Road, Hampstead (1875–6—Shaw's house), Cheyne and Swan Houses, Chelsea (1875–7), and the celebrated Artists' Houses, 8 Melbury Road (1875–6), 118 Campden Hill Road (1876–8), and 31 Melbury Road (1876–7), Northern Kensington. Shaw also worked at Bedford Park, Turnham Green, Chiswick, London, where he designed the church, a club, an inn, shops, and several small houses (1877–80). The Church of St Michael and All Angels, Bedford Park (1879–80), was eclectic, mixing late Gothic Revival with Arts-and-Crafts detail, and in the commercial architecture of the period (New Zealand Chambers and some of the buildings at Bedford Park), Shaw used the device of the Ipswich window that was to be widely copied and paraphrased. Around this time he published Sketches of Cottages and Other Buildings (1878). Between 1879 and 1889 Shaw was assisted by Lethaby , and the character of his work began to change, as in the huge Albert Hall Mansions, Kensington Gore, London (1879–86), the first block of flats in the new red-brick free style that was to be so influential for this type of development. Then there was the very refined 170 Queen's Gate, Kensington, London (1888–90), with early C18 features (such as the eaves-cornice and tall sash -windows) and a Wrenaissance door-case, the whole ensemble looking forward to a type of Colonial Georgian revival. At the Alliance Assurance Offices, St James's Street, London (1881–8), he introduced a hybrid style incorporating Renaissance scrolled gables, mullioned and transomed windows, and brick façades with bands of stone. Striped too were the elevations of New Scotland Yard, London (1887–90 and 1901–7), in which many eclectic elements were mixed, including the tourelles of smaller French châteaux, Scottish Baronial architecture, and, a new note, the Baroque doorcases and aedicules in the gables. Similar themes occur at the offices for the White Star Line, Liverpool (1895–8—with J. F. Doyle ). Later, the grand manner of Classicism became more pronounced, as with Bryanston House, Dorset (1889–94—with its great columns and Baroque details), Chesters, Northum. (1890s), the Alliance Assurance Office, St James's (1901–5—opposite the earlier block mentioned above), and the huge Piccadilly Hotel, Piccadilly, London (early 1900s). Two other churches by him deserve mention: All Saints', Compton, Leek, Staffs. (1885–7—a wide, broad, church incorporating much personal interpretation of Second Pointed and Perpendicular detail, nave-arcades similar to those of the Bedford Park church, and some furnishings by Lethaby), and All Saints', Batchcott, Richard's Castle, Salop. (1890–3—again interpreting Second Pointed and Perpendicular detail, some of which was derived from local examples (e.g. the ball-flowers ), the whole composed to give the impression of having been established and altered over a period). In both these works the influences of Bodley and of ‘Middle’ Scott were apparent. When he retired in 1896, Shaw was hailed as the leading British architect, and his work was internationally known through publications by Muthesius and others. In 1892 he co-edited (with T. J. Jackson ) Architecture: A Profession or an Art, in which the proposals to make the registration of architects compulsory were denounced. His last works were Portland House, London (1907–8—one of the first buildings with a reinforced-concrete frame in England), and studies for the new elevations for the Quadrant, Regent Street, London (1905–8—most unrealized, but finally built to designs by Blomfield and others). Bibliography Pick a style below, and copy the text for your bibliography. MLA COPYRIGHT 2004 The Gale Group Inc. Richard Norman Shaw The British architect Richard Norman Shaw (1831-1912) is noted for his domestic work, in which he was one of the most gifted designers in the Queen Anne, or "Shavian," style. Richard Norman Shaw was born in Edinburgh on May 7, 1831. His architectural training began at 15 in the London office of William Burn, a domestic architect of some distinction. In 1854 Shaw won the Gold Medal of the Royal Academy, and its traveling scholarship permitted a journey that resulted in the publication of his Architectural Sketches from the Continent (1858), a folio of 100 lithographed vignettes of medieval ecclesiastical and domestic architecture in France, Italy, Germany, and Belgium. In 1858 Shaw succeeded Philip Webb as chief assistant to George Edmund Street, the leading Victorian Gothic church architect. In 1862 Shaw set up his own practice in London in loose partnership (until 1868) with William Eden Nesfield, to whom his early work owes much. Shaw began as a builder of Gothic revival churches, such as that at Bingley in Yorkshire (1864), but he is now remembered for his Queen Anne country houses, for example, Leys Wood in Sussex (1868; demolished), which was early and influential, and Adcote in Shropshire (1879). These houses, vaguely based upon older vernacular architecture, exhibited richly textured and parti-colored materials such as brick, tiles, and half-timbering arranged into irregular, many-gabled piles; the rambling plans were composed of loosely grouped rooms, variously sized and shaped. The influence of these "Shavian" houses reached across the Atlantic via magazine illustrations to affect the domestic work of Henry Hobson Richardson and others. The style could be urbanized, as in Shaw's New Zealand Chambers in London (1872-1874; destroyed) and his own house in Hampstead (1875), or it could be adopted for a total environment. At Bedford Park in London, Shaw laid out (1876-1880) the first garden city, with small gabled houses, a gabled inn and stores, and a church. He thus initiated the planned suburban living that carried over into the 20th century in the work of Charles F. A. Voysey and the partnership of Richard Barry Parker and Sir Raymond Unwin. The Queen Anne style gave way in Shaw's work of the 1880s and 1890s to a more formal, if no less influential, Neo-Georgian manner, as at Bryanston in Dorset (1889-1890). His late work, such as the Picadilly Hotel in London (1905-1908), is of less interest today, and his alteration of John Nash's Regent Street in London has been lamented by later critics. The most distinguished scholar-architects of the next generation, including William R. Lethaby, Thomas G. Jackson, and Sir Reginald Blomfield, his biographer, were all trained in Shaw's office. Shaw died in London on Nov. 17, 1912. Further Reading The uncritical biography of R. T. Blomfield, Richard Norman Shaw (1940), should be supplemented by a chapter on Shaw in Nikolaus Pevsner, Victorian Architecture, edited by Peter Ferriday (1963). For Shaw and the architecture of his time see Henry-Russell Hitchcock, Architecture: Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries (1958). Additional Sources Saint, Andrew, Richard Norman Shaw, New Haven: Published for the Paul Mellon Centre for Studies in British Art (London) by Yale University Press, 1976. □ Cite this article The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright The Columbia University Press Richard Norman Shaw, 1831–1912, English architect. Breaking away from contemporary Victorian house designs and returning to the Queen Anne and Georgian styles and to traditional English craftsmanship and use of materials, Shaw became the leader of a revolution in domestic architecture. He is considered the father of the modern Queen Anne style. He designed numerous London and country houses. The economical small houses that he designed in the late 1870s for the Bedford Park housing development had beneficial influence throughout England. His most important work was the New Scotland Yard (1887–90). Shaw wrote Architectural Sketches from the Continent (1858). See study by Sir R. T. Blomfield (1940). 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In the body what is an Erythrocyte?	Erythrocyte \| definition of erythrocyte by Medical dictionary Erythrocyte \| definition of erythrocyte by Medical dictionary http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/erythrocyte erythrocyte [ĕ-rith´ro-sīt] one of the formed elements in the peripheral blood , constituting the great majority of the cells in the blood. (For immature forms see erythrocytic series .) In humans the normal mature erythrocyte is a biconcave disk without a nucleus, about 7.7 micrometers in diameter, consisting mainly of hemoglobin and a supporting framework called the stroma . Erythrocyte formation ( erythropoiesis ) takes place in the red bone marrow in the adult, and in the liver, spleen, and bone marrow of the fetus. It requires an ample supply of dietary elements such as iron, cobalt, copper, amino acids, and certain vitamins. Called also red cell or corpuscle and red blood cell or corpuscle . The functions of erythrocytes include transportation of oxygen and carbon dioxide. They owe their oxygen-carrying ability to hemoglobin , a combination of an iron-containing prosthetic group (heme) with a protein (globin). Hemoglobin attracts and forms a loose connection with free oxygen, and its presence enables blood to absorb some 60 times the amount of oxygen that the plasma by itself absorbs. Oxyhemoglobin is red, which gives oxygenated blood its red color. Erythrocytes are stored in the spleen, which acts as a reservoir for the blood system and discharges the cells into the blood as required. The spleen may discharge extra erythrocytes into the blood during emergencies such as hemorrhage or shock. Erythrocytes also are important in the maintenance of a normal acid-base balance , and, since they help determine the viscosity of the blood, they also influence its specific gravity. Their average life span is 120 days. They are subjected to much wear and tear in circulation and eventually are removed by cells of the reticuloendothelial system , particularly in the liver, bone marrow, and spleen. In spite of this constant destruction and production of erythrocytes, the body maintains a fairly constant number, between 4 and 5 million per mm3 of blood in women and 5 to 6 million per mm3 in men. A decreased number constitutes one form of anemia . Erythrocytes are destroyed whenever they are exposed to solutions that are not isotonic to blood plasma. If they are placed in a solution that is more dilute than plasma (distilled water for example) the cells will swell until osmotic pressure bursts the cell membrane. If they are placed in a solution more concentrated than plasma, the cells will lose water and shrivel or crenate. It is for this reason that solutions to be given intravenously must be isotonic to plasma. Aged red cells are ingested by macrophages in the spleen and liver. The iron is transported by the plasma protein transferrin to the bone marrow, where it is incorporated into new red cells. The heme group is converted to bilirubin, a bile pigment secreted by the liver. About 180 million red blood cells are destroyed every minute. Since the number of cells in the blood remains more or less constant, this means that about 180 million red blood cells are manufactured every minute. Determination of the red blood cell volume is usually done as a preliminary step in determination of the total blood volume . A radioactive substance, usually chromium, is used to “tag” cells of a sample of blood drawn from the patient. The sample is then reintroduced into the circulating blood and subsequent samples are taken to be evaluated for degree of radioactivity. The degree of dilution is used to calculate total blood volume. The events in the life of erythrocytes. Nucleated red blood cell (RBC) precursors stimulated by erythropoietin form erythrocytes in the bone marrow. Normal synthesis of hemoglobin occurs only in the presence of nutrients, iron, vitamin B12, and folic acid. Mature RBCs are released into circulation. The old or defective RBCs are degraded in the spleen. Iron and globin are reutilized immediately. Bilirubin is released in bile into the intestine. From Damjanov, 1996. erythrocyte protoporphyrin test EP test ; a screening test for lead toxicity; erythrocyte protoporphyrin levels are determined by direct fluorometry of whole blood or fluorescence analysis of whole blood extracts. Levels will be increased in either lead poisoning or iron deficiency. erythrocyte sedimentation rate the rate at which erythrocytes settle out of unclotted blood in one hour. The test is based on the fact that inflammatory processes cause an alteration in blood proteins, resulting in aggregation of the red cells, which makes them heavier and more likely to fall rapidly when placed in a special vertical test tube. Normal ranges vary according to the type of tube used, each type being of a different size. The most common methods and the normal range for each are: Wintrobe method, 0 to 6.5 mm per hour for men, 0 to 15 mm per hour for women; and Westergren method, 0 to 15 mm per hour for men, 0 to 20 mm per hour for women. The erythrocyte sedimentation rate is often inconclusive and is not considered specific for any particular disorder. It is most often used as a gauge for determining the progress of an inflammatory disease such as rheumatic fever, rheumatoid arthritis, or a respiratory infection. The information provided by this test must be used in conjunction with results from other tests and clinical evaluations. e·ryth·ro·cyte [erythro- + G. kytos, cell] erythrocyte /eryth·ro·cyte/ (ĕ-rith´ro-sīt) red blood cell; corpuscle; one of the formed elements in peripheral blood. Normally, in humans, the mature form is a non-nucleated, yellowish, biconcave disk, containing hemoglobin and transporting oxygen. For immature forms, see erythrocytic series , under series. basophilic erythrocyte an abnormal erythrocyte that takes basic stains, as seen in basophilia . hypochromic erythrocyte one that contains less than normal concentration of hemoglobin and as a result appears paler than normal; it is usually also microcytic. normochromic erythrocyte one of normal color with a normal concentration of hemoglobin. polychromatic erythrocyte , polychromatophilic erythrocyte one that, on staining, shows shades of blue combined with tinges of pink. target erythrocyte see under cell . erythrocyte [erith′rəsīt′] Etymology: Gk, erythros + kytos, cell mature red blood cell; a biconcave disk about 7 μm in diameter that contains hemoglobin confined within a lipoid membrane. It is the major cellular element of the circulating blood and transports oxygen as its principal function. The number of red blood cells per microliter of blood is 4.5 to 5.5 million in men and 4.2 to 4.8 million in women. The red blood cell count varies with age, activity, and environmental conditions. An erythrocyte normally survives for 110 to 120 days, when it is removed from the bloodstream and broken down by the reticuloendothelial system. New erythrocytes are produced at a rate of slightly more than 1% a day; thus a constant level is usually maintained. Acute blood loss, hemolytic anemia, or chronic oxygen deprivation may cause erythrocyte production to increase greatly. Erythrocytes originate in the marrow of the flat bones or at the end of long bones. Maturation proceeds from the pronormoblast to the basophilic polychromatophilic normoblast to the basophilic polychromatophilic normoblast, and orthochromic normoblast the final stage before the mature adult cell develops. Also called red blood cell (RBC) , red cell , red corpuscle. Compare normoblast , reticulocyte. See also erythropoiesis , hemoglobin , red cell indexes . erythrocyte A mature, non-nucleated cell averaging 7–8 µm in diameter, which is round or ovoid on peripheral smear, contains haemoglobin and has a zone of central pallor due to the cell’s biconcavity. Erythrocytes are normally confined to blood vessels (aorta, arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, veins, inferior vena cava and superior vena cava), the heart and pulmonary vasculature. Haemoglobin, the main erythrocyte protein, is tasked with transporting O2 to tissues and CO2 away from tissues. Erythrocytes have an average lifespan of 120 days. erythrocyte RBC, red blood cell, discocyte Hematology A mature, nonnucleated cell averaging 7–8 µm in diameter, which is round or ovoid on peripheral smear, contains Hb and has a zone of central pallor due to the cell's biconcavity. See Fetal erythrocyte. e·ryth·ro·cyte (e-rith'ro-sit?) [ erythro- + -cyte] ERYTHROCYTES: Note the different size and shape of the red blood cells A blood cell (i.e., a circulating cell that contains hemoglobin and carries oxygen to tissue). Each erythrocyte is a nonnucleated, biconcave disk averaging 7.7 µm in diameter. An erythrocyte has a typical cell membrane and an internal stroma made of lipids and proteins to which more than 200 million molecules of hemoglobin are attached. The total surface area of the erythrocytes of an average adult is 3820 sq m, or about 2000 times more than the external total body surface area. Synonym: red blood cell ; red blood corpuscle ; red cell ; red corpuscle See: illustration Number In a normal person, the number of erythrocytes averages about 5,000,000/µL (5,500,000 for men and 4,500,000 for women). The total number in an average-sized person is about 35 trillion. The number per µL varies with age (higher in infants), time of day (lower during sleep), activity and environmental temperature (increasing with both), and altitude. People living at altitudes of 10,000 ft (3048 m) or more may have an erythrocyte count of 8,000,000/µL or more. If a person has a normal blood volume of 5 L (70 mL/ kg of body weight) and 5,000,000 erythrocytes per µL of blood, and the erythrocytes live 120 days, the red bone marrow must produce 2,400,000 erythrocytes per second to maintain this erythrocyte count. Physiology The primary function of erythrocytes is to carry oxygen. The hemoglobin also contributes to the acid-base balance of the blood by acting as a buffer for the transport of carbon dioxide in the plasma as bicarbonate ions. Development Erythrocyte formation (erythropoiesis) in adults takes place in the bone marrow, principally in the vertebrae, ribs, sternum, hip bone, diploë of cranial bones, and proximal ends of the humerus and femur. erythrocytes arise from large nucleated stem cells (promegaloblasts), which give rise to pronormoblasts, in which hemoglobin appears. These become normoblasts, which extrude their nuclei. erythrocytes at this stage possess a fine reticular network and are known as reticulocytes. This reticular structure is usually lost before the cells enter circulation as mature erythrocytes. The proper formation of erythrocytes depends primarily on nutrition, with protein, iron, and copper essential for the formation of hemoglobin, and vitamin B12 and folic acid necessary for DNA synthesis in stem cells of the red bone marrow. As erythrocytes age and become fragile, they are removed from circulation by macrophages in the liver, spleen, and red bone marrow. The protein and iron of hemoglobin are reused; iron may be stored in the liver until needed for the production of new erythrocytes in the bone marrow. The heme portion of the hemoglobin is converted to bilirubin, which is excreted in bile as one of the bile pigments. Varieties On microscopic examination, erythrocytes may reveal variations in the following respects: size (anisocytosis), shape (poikilocytosis), staining reaction (achromia, hypochromia, hyperchromia, polychromatophilia), structure (possession of bodies such as Cabot's rings, Howell-Jolly bodies, Heinz bodies; parasites such as malaria; a reticular network; or nuclei), and number (anemia, polycythemia). achromatic erythrocyte An erythrocyte that does not stain uniformly. erythrocyte A red blood cell. ‘Erythro’ means ‘red’, and ‘cyte’ means ‘cell’. Erythrocytes are flattened discs, slightly hollowed on each side (biconcave) and about 7 thousandths of a millimetre in diameter. They contain HAEMOGLOBIN and their main function is to transport OXYGEN from the lungs to the tissues. Fig. 154 Erythrocyte . (a) Surface view. (b) Vertical section. erythrocyte or red blood cell (RBC) a vertebrate cell that contains HAEMOGLOBIN pigment for oxygen transport from lungs to tissues and carries small amounts of carbon dioxide as HCO3 - from tissues to lungs (see also CHLORIDE SHIFT ). Unlike other vertebrate cells, mammalian RBCs are non-nucleated and have definite biconcave shape. Compare LEUCOCYTE . Erythrocyte The name for red blood cells or red blood corpuscles. These components of the blood are responsible for carrying oxygen to tissues and removing carbon dioxide from tissues.	Red blood cell
Which rapper was born Calvin Broadus in 1971?	Erythrocyte \| Define Erythrocyte at Dictionary.com erythrocyte [ih-rith-ruh-sit-ik] /ɪˌrɪθ rəˈsɪt ɪk/ (Show IPA), adjective Dictionary.com Unabridged Examples from the Web for erythrocyte Expand Historical Examples The Elements of Bacteriological Technique John William Henry Eyre Allow the erythrocyte and hæmolysin to remain in contact for fifteen minutes at room temperature. The Elements of Bacteriological Technique John William Henry Eyre British Dictionary definitions for erythrocyte Expand noun 1. a blood cell of vertebrates that transports oxygen and carbon dioxide, combined with the red pigment haemoglobin, to and from the tissues Also called red blood cell Derived Forms	i don't know
In which Dickens' novel would you find Barkis, Edward Murdstone and Mr Creakle?	Character List Character List Bookmark this page Manage My Reading List David Copperfield He is the central character in the novel and tells the story of his life from birth to adulthood. David is a sensitive youth who first suffers under the cruel Murdstones and then is sent away to work in a wine warehouse. David first marries Dora Spenlow, an empty-headed young girl; afterward, he realizes how incompatible they really are. When Dora dies, he marries Agnes Wickfield and by the novel's end, he has matured into a successful writer and adult. Clara Copperfield David's mother. She is an attractive, tender person, but impractical and emotional and easily taken in by Mr. Murdstone, who marries her because he is interested in her annuity. Clara Peggotty The Copperfields' housekeeper, who also acts as David's nurse. She is a woman of intense loyalty and is David's only companion after his mother's death. Peggotty marries Barkis, the cart-driver, and continues throughout the novel to be David's friend. Edward Murdstone David's stepfather. A dark, handsome man who cruelly beats David and slowly drives David's mother to an early death. Jane Murdstone Mr. Murdstone's sister. She runs the Copperfield household and incessantly harasses David. Mr. Barkis The driver of the horse-cart that travels between Yarmouth and David's home, He is a shy, quiet man who uses David as a messenger in his courtship of Peggotty. Mr. Chillip The doctor who delivers David. He is an exceedingly mildmannered, frightened little man who is especially afraid of David's aunt, Betsey Trotwood. Daniel Peggotty Clara Peggotty's brother and a Yarmouth fisherman. He is a warm-hearted man whose house is a refuge for anyone who needs help. Ham Peggotty Mr. Peggotty's orphaned nephew. Ham, like his uncle, is a considerate, kindly person. He is in love with Em'ly and waits patiently for her after she runs away. He finally dies in an attempt to save Steerforth, Em'ly's seducer. Little Em'ly Mr. Peggotty's orphaned niece. She is David's childhood sweetheart, but becomes engaged to Ham and later runs away with Steerforth. She is a quiet, compassionate young girl who wants to become a "lady," a desire that leads to unhappiness. Mrs. Gummidge The widow of Mr. Peggotty's partner. She constantly complains about her hardships, but when Em'ly runs away, she changes into a helpful, inspiring confidante of Mr. Peggotty. Charles Mell A schoolmaster at the Salem House boarding school. A gentle friend and teacher of David. Mr. Creakle The sadistic headmaster of the Salem House School. He is a fiery-faced man who enjoys flogging the boys with a cane. He later becomes a prison magistrate. Mr. Tungay The assistant and cruel companion of Mr. Creakle. He has a wooden leg and repeats everything that Creakle says. James Steerforth A spoiled young man whom David admires. He has a surface polish and the good manners that deceive people who do not know him. His true selfishness is shown when he deserts Em'ly, leaving her with his servant, Littimer. He is killed in a storm off Yarmouth along with Ham, who tries to save him. Tommy Traddles David's friend. Of all the boys at the Salem House School, Traddies receives the most punishment. He is a good-natured, loyal friend to both David and Mr. Micawber. Traddles is persistent, and this quality helps him rise from his humble background to become a judge. Wilkins Micawber A constantly impoverished, but always optimistic, gentleman who boards David during his stay in London. He is a broad comic character with a passion for writing flowery letters and uttering grandiloquent speeches. He finally accompanies Mr. Peggotty to Australia, where he becomes a successful magistrate. Emma Micawber Mr. Micawber's long-suffering wife. She stands by her husband through all his hardships, even joining him in debtors' prison. Betsey Trotwood David's great-aunt. She is unhappy that David was born a boy instead of a girl, but later she acts as his guardian and provider during his early years of schooling. Her formal, often brisk, nature is deceiving; she is basically a sympathetic person. Richard Babley (Mr. Dick) A lovable simpleton cared for by Betsey Trotwood. He is engaged in writing a long manuscript that he uses to paper a huge kite. Mr. Dick is devoted to David's aunt and becomes a great friend of David's. Uriah Heep A repulsive, scheming young man who attempts to marry Agnes Wickfield and gain control of her father's law practice. He pretends to be humble and uses this as a means to gain vindictive revenge on people he believes have snubbed him. He is exposed by Mr. Micawber and ends up in prison. Mr. Wickfield A solicitor and the widowed father of Agnes Wickfield. He is a proud man, but his excessive drinking allows Uriah Heep to take advantage of him. Agnes Wickfield The daughter of Mr. Wickfield; David's second wife. She is a dutiful companion and housekeeper to her father and a sisterly friend to David while he stays at the Wickfield house. She proves to be a perfect wife and an inspiration to David in his writing. Dr. Strong The headmaster of the school which David attends in Canterbury. He is a scholarly, trusting gentleman who is married to a girl much younger than himself. Although his wife is accused of infidelity, he maintains his faith in her. Annie Strong Dr. Strong's youthful wife. She is a beautiful, affectionate girl whose family exploits her husband. Jack Maldon Annie Strong's cousin. He is a lazy, vain young man who tries to compromise Mrs. Strong, but is repulsed. Mrs. Markleham Annie Strong's mother. A forceful, selfish woman, she always takes Jack Maldon's part and unwittingly helps cause the misunderstanding between her daughter and Dr. Strong. Mrs. Steerforth James Steerforth's mother. A possessive woman who has spoiled her son by over-indulgence and a smothering affection; she lapses into a semi-invalid state when she hears of her son's death. Rosa Dartle Mrs. Steerforth's companion. She is a neurotic, quick-tempered young woman with a consuming love for Steerforth. Littimer Steerforth's personal manservant. He is a formal, haughty person who has an air of respectability, yet he aids Steerforth in his seduction of Em'ly. He is trapped by Miss Mowcher and is sent to Creakle's prison. Miss Mowcher A middle-aged dwarf who is a hairdresser for wealthy families. She is upset when she realizes that she was duped into helping Steerforth run off with Em'ly, and is instrumental in the capture of Littimer, who aided Steerforth. Martha Endell Em'ly's friend. She is a suffering woman who is forced to go to London to hide her shame. Martha redeems herself by saving Em'ly from a similar life and finds happiness in her own life after she arrives in Australia. Mr. Spenlow A proctor and partner in a law firm in Doctor's Commons. He is a pompous, aristocratic lawyer who objects to David's plans to marry his daughter. Dora Spenlow David's first wife. She is an impractical, empty-headed girl who cannot cook or manage a household. Although she is a poor selection as a wife, David is so taken by her childlike beauty that he overlooks her faults and marries her. Their marriage is a comedy of mismanagement until Dora dies, leaving David free to marry the domestically perfect Agnes. Mr. Omer The Yarmouth undertaker and dealer in funeral clothes. Minnie Omer Mr. Omer's daughter and Em'ly's working companion. Joram Minnie Omer's sweetheart and eventually her husband, and finally, Mr. Omer's business partner. Mr. Quinion A business associate of Mr. Murdstone. Janet Betsey Trotwood's housekeeper. She assists Miss Trotwood in chasing donkey riders off the lawn. Mr. Jorkins Mr. Spenlow's seldom-seen partner. He is reputed to be a strict businessman, but he is really a mild-mannered individual whose name is used to frighten new employees. Julia Mills Dora's girl friend. She is a romantic person who advises David in his courtship with Dora. Mrs. Crupp David's landlady. She is a lazy woman who drinks David's brandy and feuds with Aunt Betsey. Sophy Crewler Traddies' sweetheart. A patient girl from a large family, she marries Traddies and assists him in his work as a lawyer.	David Copperfield
Madeleine, Thompson's Seedless and Waltham Cross are all varieties of which fruit?	David Copperfield PDF epub \| Charles Dickens ebook \| eBookMall Free You save: $1.99 (100%) David Copperfield is the eighth novel by Charles Dickens, first published as a novel in 1850. Like most of his works, it originally appeared in serial form a year earlier. Many elements within the novel follow events in Dickens' own life, and it is probably the most autobiographical of all of his novels. The story traces the life of David Copperfield from childhood to maturity. David is born in Blunderston near Gt Yarmouth, Norfolk, England in 1820. David's father had died six months before he was born, and seven years later, his mother re-marries Mr. Edward Murdstone. Mr Murdstone thrashes David for falling behind with his studies. Following one of these thrashings, David bites him and soon afterward is sent away to a boarding school, Salem House, with a ruthless headmaster, Mr. Creakle. Here he befriends James Steerforth and Tommy Traddles, both of whom become significant later on in the novel. David returns home for the holidays to find out that his mother has had a baby boy. Soon after David goes back to Salem House, his mother and her baby die and David has to return home immediately. Mr Murdstone sends him to work in a factory in London, of which Murdstone is a joint owner. The grim reality of hand-to-mouth factory existence echoes Dickens' own travails in a blacking factory. Copperfield's landlord, Mr Wilkins Micawber, is sent to a debtor's prison (the King's Bench Prison) after going bankrupt and remains there for several months before being released and moving to Plymouth. No one remains to care for David in London, so he decides to run away. He walks all the way from London to Dover, where he finds his only relative, aunt Miss Betsey Trotwood. This eccentric aunt agrees to raise him, despite Mr Murdstone's attempt to regain David's custody. The story follows David as he grows to adulthood and is enlivened by the many well-known characters who enter, leave, and re-enter his life. The novel's two most familiar characters are David's sometime mentor, the debt-ridden Micawber, and the devious and fraudulent clerk, Uriah Heep, whose misdeeds are eventually revealed with Micawber's assistance. Micawber is painted sympathetically even as the narrator deplores his financial ineptitude. Micawber, like Dickens' own father, is briefly imprisoned for insolvency. In typical Dickens fashion, the major characters eventually get some measure of what they deserve, and few narrative threads are left hanging.	i don't know
Which is the smallest of the four inhabited Balearic Islands?	Balearic Islands - Holiday and Travel information, reviews and videos Balearic Islands Average overall ratings - Based on 860 reviews. City 500 m² living area 150 m² terrace 150 m² living area 80 m² terrace 90 m² living area 50 m² terrace £ 341 - 979/week £ 47 - 140/night Show details Highlights of Balearic Islands Highlights of Balearic Islands Balearic Islands The Balearic Islands are an archipelago of islands set like jewels in the azure Mediterranean Sea; from South to North there lie the islands of Formentera, Ibiza, Mallorca and Menorca. Mallorca is some 180 kilometres distant from the port of Barcelona to the North, and Ibiza is around 90 kilometres to the east of the port of Denia on the Costa Blanca. All four inhabited islands have at their disposal modern international airport links. The largest island, Mallorca (also known as the ‘Isle of Dreams’), has a varied landscape of mountains and valleys, rocky coves and sandy beaches. The main geographical feature is the Sierra del Norte, a mountain range running along the northern coast. The island is covered with pines, and with olive and almond trees, which blanket the countryside with blossoms in springtime. Menorca still has the marks of its ancient history and a strong connection with Britain; owing to Admiral Nelson’s stay on the island. Both the capital Mahón and the old town of Ciutadella, at the north end of the island, are set at the ends of deep inlets forming natural harbours. There are many bays and lovely beaches on the island. Ibiza, the third-largest island, has a rugged coastline with many fruit orchards and woods. The main town of the same name is situated above a busy harbour. A narrow channel separates Ibiza from Formentera, the smallest inhabited island in the group. Beaches Between them the Balearic Islands have around 375 recognised beaches, ranging from fine city and resort beaches with fabulous facilities for leisure and relaxation, to tiny coves reachable only by boat; where you can be alone and at peace with the world. There is no doubt that the fine sand on many of the beaches, coupled with glorious scenery and excellent installations make the Balearic Islands one of the worlds premier beach holiday destinations. Whichever island, whichever resort that you choose, there will be a fabulous selection of beaches to suit all tastes within a short distance of your accommodation. Of course the bigger the resort the more likely you are to find comprehensive leisure activities, options for food and refreshments and playgrounds for children, along with the security of lifeguards and first aiders. Most beaches have good quality restaurants and bars offering a wide choice of local and international refreshments. Leisure & Recreation The Balearic Islands are a Mecca for all sorts of sports activities; the range is quite staggering. There are riding schools, tennis clubs, golf courses, athletics clubs, go-kart centres, and much more. Check local information of your intended destination to see what is available. Likewise with water-sports, from diving to windsurfing, all options are covered. Fishing is also very popular and the waters around the islands are rich and fruitful. Surf-casting, rock fishing, along with boat hire – crewed or self hire, are available for fishing expeditions. Alongside fishing there are a number of companies who can offer hunting expeditions and equipment. Cycling is very popular on the islands and several international teams make this their base for pre-season training; as a consequence there are many easy to follow routes of varying difficulty. Even the casual cyclist can enjoy a day or two cycle hire and gently meander along the quiet roads, drinking in the scents and scenery, stopping at a roadside inn for delicious local refreshment. Walking and rambling in the hills and valleys of the islands is a year round pleasure. There are many rural locations, which make ideal bases to intimately enjoy the glorious countryside. Again, safe marked routes are to be found in most areas. In summary, whatever your sport, it is likely to be represented in the Balearics and the local associations welcome visitors with open arms. Culture and Excursions The Island’s local authorities have produced multilingual guides for those interested in discovering the history and culture of their chosen destination. Whichever island you travel to, you are unlikely to be far from a local fiesta or event during your stay. Check with your tourist office on arrival. They will often also be able to give your discounted entrance tickets to leisure parks and other attractions. Don't be shy about asking! Cuisine The traditional cuisine of the Balearic Islands stems from the cultivation of the rich farmland and centuries of hunting and fishing; from the popular fried Mallorcan fish to shellfish with vegetables and lobster stew; fresh island lamb (either roast or in dishes such as Panadera, Freixurat, and Trunyelles) to flavoursome pork sausages (Sobrassades, Botifarró blanc, Botifarró negre, Carn i xua, Cuixot) and fabulously delicious fresh goats cheese with herbs. Here and there are reminders of an English influence, perhaps best seen in the meat and fish pies. Many of the islands sweets and desserts make use of the lighter cheeses, herbs, honey and almonds. Climate The Balearics enjoy a mild Mediterranean climate, with often very warm temperatures even in the depths of winter; at the same time snow has been seen on the mountains during winter. The temperate nature of the climate and the fertile nature of the landscape mean that in the autumn, winter and spring you may encounter some rain, which is often heavy, but short lived. The summer months are long and lazy, with plenty of sunshine to enjoy. Things to do while you are here See all articles The Most Beautiful Beaches of Ibiza The island of Ibiza has 50 beaches, ranging from rocky coves to white sandy shores. Here, you're sure to discover a true Mediterranean paradise! Virgin beaches of Menorca Beaches where time stands still with clear water, pristine nature and no sign of man. Welcome to paradise in Menorca. Alternative Menorca: discovering the eastern zone The port of Mahón, prehistoric caves and lunar landscapes, lighthouses and fishing villages: do not miss the eastern part of the island of Menorca. Alternative Menorca: an itinerary throughout the centre Fishing villages, ancient castles, mysterious caves and archaeological remains. You'll find it all in central Menorca.	Formentera
What type of creature is a Devil's Coach Horse?	Beyond food and medicine, but necessary for life, too: other folk plant uses in several territories of Catalonia and the Balearic Islands \| Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine \| Full Text Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine Research Open Access Beyond food and medicine, but necessary for life, too: other folk plant uses in several territories of Catalonia and the Balearic Islands Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine201612:23 DOI: 10.1186/s13002-016-0097-8 Abstract Background Ethnobotanical academic research, particularly in European industrialised countries, has been, and is, mostly focused on folk uses of food and medicinal plants. Nevertheless, other uses, as may well be supposed, account for a significant portion of these folk uses. In the Catalan linguistic domain, a considerable amount of ethnobotanical work has been produced, but to date almost nothing has been published on these other plant uses. Methods We basically used the method of semistructured interviews to collect data on names, knowledge and use of plants in the above-mentioned fields from 759 informants in three Catalonian (Alt Empordà, Montseny and Ripollès) and two Balearic (Formentera and Mallorca) areas. We identified the plants quoted by the informants and prepared herbarium vouchers. We analysed and compared the results obtained. Results Information has been collected on 401 genera, 552 species, 81 subspecies and four varieties, belonging to 122 families, totalling 4137 use reports for popular non-food and non-medicinal uses (classified in 14 modalities), and designated with 1303 folk Catalan names. The informant consensus factor is 0.87, accounting for a consistent and robust dataset. Conclusion Contrarily to what could be thought a priori, and irrespective of the fact that some uses are declining or changing, non-medicinal and non-food folk plant uses strongly persist in the territories considered, are highly considered by their practitioners, and may even imply some economic revenues. Keywords Balearic Islands Catalonia Ethnobotany Non-food and non-medicinal plant uses Background When coining the term ethnobotany, Harshberger [ 1 ] considered as basic points for the newly named science “elucidating the cultural position of tribes who used plants” (where, nowadays, ‘tribes’ is replaced by ‘human groups’, [ 2 ]), “clarifying the past distribution of plants”, “determining trade routes” and “suggesting new current production lines” for useful plants. For Portères and Barrau [ 3 , 4 ], ethnobotany is a discipline located at the crossroad between natural and human sciences studying the behaviour of human societies with regard to plants. Other authors state that ethnobotanical research rescues and updates the history of plants in human societies through time and space [ 5 ]. Even if ethnobotany deals with all kinds of plant uses, at least in western European countries, ethnobotanical research focused on food and medicinal plants is by far the most dominant, what can be verified when surveying the articles that have appeared in relevant journals. Such a situation can be explained by two kinds of reasons. On the one hand, food and medicine are the two plant folk applications more directly linked to human health, so that they are maintained at a relatively high rate even in industrialised societies. Conversely, these countries have undergone a rather deep process of acculturation, in the sense of adopting so-called modern habits in detriment of traditional culture [ 6 ], which implied that rural communities abandoned a great deal of traditional practices linked to plants, because they are much less necessary (if necessary at all) nowadays than in the first half of 20th century. On the other hand, the above-quoted food and medicinal properties are those which most likely can lead to the development of new commercial sources of welfare products (see e.g., [ 7 ]). Some non-food and non-medicinal popular uses are slightly better preserved than most of them, such as basketry [ 8 ] and cosmetics [ 9 , 10 ], the latter being, in fact, very closely linked to medicinal ones. Some specific papers with ethnobotanical focus have been devoted to these other plant uses in European countries (e.g., those quoted for basketry and cosmetics, as well as [ 11 – 16 ]). Additionally, some compilation work, rather addressed to folk knowledge vulgarisation, contain information on these plant utilisations; as an example the first volume of the ongoing Spanish Inventory of Traditional Knowledge related to Biodiversity [ 17 ] provides information on all kinds of plant uses, including those dealt with in the present paper. In any case, even taking into account the above-quoted contributions, this approach still remains quite scarce. The research on ethnobotany in the Catalan linguistic domain has been intense in the last 25 years. This research mostly comprises data on food and medicinal (including veterinarian) plant uses, as well as studies linked to agroecosystems (mostly homegardens) and to ethnoecological questions (cf. [ 10 , 18 ], and references therein). Only very rarely other plant uses have been addressed [ 19 , 20 ], although, throughout our research, we have maintained the conviction that a robust pool of knowledge on these uses still exists. Taking this into account, the aims of the present paper are: 1) to provide an overview on non-food and non-medicinal popular plant uses in five Catalan language territories, three in Catalonia and two in the Balearic Islands; 2) to evaluate to what extent these uses are persisting and how are they currently considered by their practitioners. Methods Study areas We performed interviews in five territories located in two large areas of the Catalan linguistic domain, three in Catalonia (Alt Empordà, Montseny, Ripollès) and two in the Balearic Islands (Formentera, Mallorca), with the aim of comparing a continental place and an insular one (Fig. 1 ). The Catalonian areas comprise from plain to high mountains, and the Balearic ones involve two islands. Fig. 1 Studied areas in the contexts of Europe and the Catalan linguistic domain. AE: Alt Empordà; MO: Montseny; RI: Ripollès; MA: Mallorca; FO: Formentera Alt Empordà (AE) is a district (comarca in the Catalan language) of 1358 km2 and 140,214 inhabitants [ 21 ] living in 68 municipalities. The climate is mainly coastal Mediterranean. The vegetation is distributed in an asymmetrical form in two biogeographical regions, Mediterranean, largely dominant, and Eurosiberian, in certain mountainous areas, reaching 1443 m a.s.l. Ripollès (RI) is a district occupying an area of 956.6 km2 and having a population of 25,700 inhabitants [ 21 ] distributed in 19 municipalities, with a high percentage of the population inhabiting small villages and isolated houses. Located in the eastern Pyrenees, it has a high mountain climate with Mediterranean influence. The flora and vegetation are mostly Eurosiberian, with some Boreoalpine zones in mountain areas reaching 2909.8 m a.s.l. Montseny (MO) is a mountain massif with a maximum altitude of 1706 m a.s.l., with an area of 826 km2 and a population of 105,000 people [ 22 ]. The climate is basically Mediterranean (including mountain Mediterranean). The vegetation belongs to the Mediterranean and Eurosiberian regions. Formentera (FO) is the smallest of the four inhabited Balearic Islands, occupying 82 km2, and has 11,545 inhabitants [ 23 ] living in nine population centres, all belonging to one municipality. Its maximum altitude is 195 m. The climate is Mediterranean with an arid tendency. The vegetation landscape is basically coastal Mediterranean. Mallorca (MA) is the biggest island in the Balearic archipelago, and the seventh largest in the Mediterranean sea, with the highest altitude at 1445 m. It has an extension of 3622.54 km2 and population of 858,313 inhabitants [ 23 ]. Its climate is typically Mediterranean. The vegetation belongs mostly to the Mediterranean and, to a small part, to the Eurosiberian biogeographic regions. Informants Information was obtained from 769 informants, selected on a snowball basis [ 24 ] for general ethnobotanical prospections in each of the areas studied. Of them, 510 were from Catalonia and 259 from Balearic Islands, distributed as follows: 160 from RI, born between 1915 and 1988, with an average age of 71.6 years; 178 from AE, with a mean age of 69.44 years, ranging from 23 to 95; 172 from MO, with a mean age of 66, ranging from 31 to 96; 235 from MA, with an average of 76 years, born between 1906 and 1981; and 24 from FO, born between 1920 and 1943. Concerning gender, 445 interviewees were women (57.87 %) and 324 men (42.13 %). Field work methods Data were collected with the same method, but in different years in each territory: 1993–2000 (MO), 1995–2007 (AE), 2004–2012 (RI), 2009–2013 (MA) and 2011–2013 (FO). Ethnobotanical interviews were performed with a total of 769 informants (see Results and discussion section for details on distribution, gender and age). Taking into account the Code of Ethics of the International Society of Ethnobiology [ 25 ], we asked the interviewees’ informed consent to participate in the survey, to register the interviews, to take pictures and to use their images and information. The method used was basically the semistructured interview [ 26 ], with special care taken in not asking direct questions, which could coerce, condition or influence the informant’s answer. In several occasions group interviews were carried out, separating the answers of the different interviewees. Whenever possible, we collected the plants in question together with the informants or we observed with them those they had preserved at home or their preparations or the objects elaborated with them. The interviews, developed in Catalan, the common language of both interviewers and interviewees, were registered, also with the informants’ agreement (which was also solicited for taking pictures). Plants were identified at specific or infraspecific levels with the aid of the Flora manual dels Països Catalans [ 27 ], and for family assignation we followed the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group ([ 28 ]; http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb/ ), as currently reflected in The plant list ( http://www.theplantlist.org ), also devoted to gymnosperms and ferns. Vouchers of every taxon with associated information have been prepared, collected following the legislation and avoiding protected areas, and deposited in the herbaria BCN, of the Centre de Documentació de Biodiversitat Vegetal, Universitat de Barcelona, and BC, of the Institut Botànic de Barcelona. Databasing Once in the laboratory, the interviews were transcribed and introduced into our research team’s database ( www.etnobotanica.cat , not open to public access, but punctually consultable on request to the corresponding or to the last authors). This database contains all ethnobotanical data (on medicinal, food and other uses) from our group and allows us to manage the results, to perform some calculations and to establish comparisons. Taking Cook’s Economic Botany data standard as a departing point [ 29 ], a huge effort to establish and nuance use categories (as well as parts of plants and kinds of preparation and use, the latter not relevant here, but in medicinal and food uses) has been performed, and it is reflected in Table 1 . Table 1 Non-food and non-medicinal folk plant uses in the territories of Alt Empordà, Montseny and Ripollès (Catalonia), and Formentera and Mallorca (Balearic Islands) Taxon 11 Statistical methods All calculations were carried out using Excel (Microsoft Excel 2007) and the program XLSTAT (v. 2007.5, Addinsoft SARL) was used to carry out the Chi-square test in order to check the statistical differences in the use categories among the four studied territories. Results and discussion General data The 769 informants reported 401 genera (34 of the taxa reported have only been determined to the generic level), 552 species, 81 subspecies and four varieties, belonging to 122 families. The taxa collected, their folk names and uses, the territories where they are recorded, the parts of plants employed and their use frequency are presented in Table 1 , placed as an appendix. The number of taxa with such information is high. Just to compare with the same geographical areas, 334 species are reported in a paper on medicinal plants (AE, [ 30 ]), which is representative of other territories, a figure higher than in other areas and not simply additive, since a high number of taxa are repeated in different areas, and 97 species were recorded in a work on ethnoveterinary in four out of the five territories here considered [ 31 ]. This supports the argument to consider the non-food and non-medicinal folk plant uses as not secondary or residual at all. The number of use reports (hereinafter UR) confirms this, being also elevated (4137 in total, cf. Table 2 for their distribution in the geographical areas and Table 3 for its repartition for use categories). Table 2 2.28 Parts of plants The use categories object of the present paper being very diverse, almost all plant parts (and the whole plants as well) are used. Stem (1156 UR; 27.94 %), aerial part -constituted either by all the aboveground part of the plant or by leaves and flowers together, with the stem or branch portions sustaining them- (785 UR; 18.98 %), flower (including inflorescence and flower, 337 UR; 8.15 %) and leaf (295 UR; 7.13 %) have been the most reported plant parts. Frequently, the whole plant is also used (869 UR; 21.01 %). Sometimes, the aerial part and the whole plant have constituted indistinguishable categories. The high number of use reports attributed to the stem is due to large and diverse kinds of artisanal uses, wood products and fuel. Comparison between the territories studied As stated when addressing the most recorded taxa, the territories studied share a language and culture, but differ in ecogeographical characteristics. For these comparative purposes we have put together both Balearic territories, since Formentera’s dataset is not big enough to be taken into consideration. Chi-square test showed there was an association between use categories and territories (χ2 = 846.306, d.f. = 39, P < 0.0001). Particularly, the presence of continental and insular areas leads us to suppose some differences in ethnoflora applications, possibly due to differences both in flora and in traditions. Indeed, there is also a significant difference in the use categories between continental and insular territories (χ2 = 485.037, d.f. = 13, P < 0.0001), confirming this geographical effect. We present in Fig. 5 the degree of coincidence in plants used in the five regions considered. Whereas the number of coincident species among three territories ranges from 43 (Balearic Islands, Montseny and Ripollès) to 76 (Alt Empordà, Balearic Islands and Montseny), this decreases to 34 when we analyse the intersection of the four areas included in this study. In any case, we believe that the amount of plants used for non-medicinal and non-food aims in all areas is rather high. These plants with a larger geographical reach are usually cosmopolitan species used in daily life in the territories of Catalan culture, such as Fagus sylvatica L., Laurus nobilis, Malva sylvestris L., Olea europaea, Papaver rhoeas L., Ruscus aculeatus, and Spartium junceum L. (Table 1 ). Fig. 5 Venn’s diagram showing the number of uses in each territory considered and the coincidences among them. AE: Alt Empordà; BI: Balearic Isands; Mo: Montseny; RI: Ripollès Reliability of uses recorded As already stated, the uses here reported are divided in a large number of categories. Irrespective of this dispersion, which is logical, since we consider here all traditional plant uses apart from food and medicinal ones, we think it is necessary to evaluate the degree of reliability of the information provided by the interviewees on these uses. A first, simple approach to this is considering the frequency of uses (see Table 1 for plants and Table 3 for use categories). According to several authors [ 33 , 39 ], a use could be considered reliable if it is quoted by at least three independent informants. In most cases both the plants and the uses have been quoted by more (usually many more) than three informants. A finer approach is provided by the informant consensus factor (FIC; [ 40 ]), defined as the number of UR minus the number of taxa divided by the number on UR minus 1. This index reflects the reliability of ethnobotanical information considering the coincidence of the informants in the same uses to be attributed to the same plants. The closer FIC is to its maximum value, 1, the more consistent -thus, the more reliable- are the folk plant uses considered in the area studied. The general FIC value in this study is 0.87 and those for the two big geographical areas concerned (Catalonia and Balearic Islands) are coincidental, 0.82. To our knowledge, this is the first, or one of the very rare times, that FIC is calculated for uses other than medicinal and food ones. The absolute values can be considered rather high. Comparatively, they are higher than those calculated for medicinal uses in two Mexican and one Indian areas (ranging from 0.75 to 0.79; [ 41 – 43 ]). This means that other uses in the territories here studied are slightly more coincidental than medicinal uses in places where folk use of medicinal plants is highly practiced and considered, suggesting a high consistency and reliability of the information collected. The FIC values here presented are very close (although in a few cases slightly lower) to those obtained for food and medicinal plant uses in the areas object of study ([ 31 , 35 ], and references therein). This testifies for the robustness of the dataset collected, confirming the relevance of these other uses of plants for the human populations practicing them. Persistence and consideration of non-food and non-medicinal folk plant uses If indices such as FIC permit a quantitative assessment of the non-food and non-medicinal popular plant uses, the interviews performed with a big number of informants in the five studied areas allow us to qualitatively evaluate their current situation as well. Our aprioristic idea was that, in an industrialised society, these uses, most of them not directly linked to wellness and hardly related to rural life, would be residual and not much considered, at least in part due to the processes of acculturation and erosion of traditional knowledge. Nevertheless, once considered in detail the definitely high amount of information collected, we believe that these uses are (at least still) not so marginal. We contribute here some reflections on this subject with different possibilities for the uses considered, illustrated with a few examples, and more similar conclusions may be deduced by considering the information of Table 1 . Undoubtedly, some of these uses have declined, in some cases nearly or completely until extinction. We can note in this category some artisanal works and most traditions linked to religious and/or magic beliefs. For instance galoshes (Fig. 4 ), for which the wood of several trees was employed, are no longer in use in agropastoral tasks (so, they are no longer fabricated), but the informants who used to employ them and those who used to elaborate them (one of our informants was one of the last artisans who elaborated galoshes in Catalonia, until 1980) precisely remember the details of their use and had often brought into the house some pieces as decorative elements with an added value. In the Catalan society, the same degree as in the Netherlands -where galoshes have become an identitary element, with, additionally, a big implication in merchandising and trade- has not been reached, but nowadays the few people who know how to fabricate them are often required in popular feasts to show off their former trade. Indeed, courses or workshops on these and other subjects related with traditional plant uses (e.g., dyeing) are frequently organised. Similarly, carpets elaborated with vegetal elements are no longer used in religious processions (simply because these processions do not exist currently), but in some localities in two of the areas studied (Alt Empordà, Montseny) the carpets continue to be prepared every year in the context of a popular feast (Fig. 4 ). In other cases, such as the elaboration of matrasses with Zea mays L. inflorescence bracts or that of sheets with Cannabis sativa L. fibres, the uses have been completely abandoned. Even in some trades that are declining, a certain degree of vitality persists: the elaboration of musical instruments for the orchestra (named cobla) that plays typical Catalan dances (called sardana) and for other kind of traditional musical events, importantly involving Ziziphus jujuba Mill. (Fig. 4 ) continues to be alive, even if their artisans must have another profession to make a living. Apart from these declining uses, some other persist almost to the same extent as always. These are uses linked to everyday life mostly in rural areas, such as those related to agricultural practices (in homegardens or elsewhere), e.g., tutoring some cultivated plants (Fig. 3 ). Another kind of folk plant knowledge to persist is that related to ludic aspects, including oral literature. People continue to play with plants and to use sayings and proverbs involving the vegetal world (even to inventing new ones). Additionally, some plant uses directly linked to commercial issues have also a high degree of persistence, such as those related to basketry (Fig. 1 ) or Christmas/New Year decoration (Fig. 4 ). Finally, some popular traditions linked to plants are still in use, but have changed in some senses. As an example, some plants are hung in or near the doors of many rural houses (especially in mountain areas), as was commonly done since time immemorial, such as Carlina acanthifolia (Fig. 4 ). Nevertheless, no one believes nowadays (even if many people did a few decades ago) that these plants are protective for people and animals in the house. In this case, these plants now play a decorative role, with the associated interest that people know that this current use derives from a quite different ancient one. The basket elaboration mentioned in the last paragraph and similar activities, such as some related to textile, dyeing and handicraft issues, have also experienced, at least to some extent, this change. In past times, baskets, carpets, blankets, forks, spoons and other objects were elaborated with plant material simply for their use within the house, but now most such pieces produced are addressed to decorative and touristic purposes, comporting some commercial revenues. Conclusions The important number of species claimed to be used (552, with 4137 use reports) by the 769 informants interviewed in the territories studied for the purposes comprised in this paper show that popular knowledge on plants goes far beyond food and medicinal applications, which had been the most traditionally studied in ethnobotanical surveys, probably because they are the most apparent and the most preserved plant utilisations. This means that a large and diverse panoply of traditional uses, which are apparently secondary in our industrialised societies, such as examples as different as basket elaboration and oral literature, remains active and, when this is not so, appreciated and remembered by people. To summarize, we believe that the data in this study show that a robust set of knowledge and practices in the field of non-food and non-medicinal plant uses persists in the European industrialised area studied, indicating that these utilisations of plants, which to date have been the object of scarce attention in ethnobotanical research, are relevant -we would say fully necessary- for a complete life, even in a modern society and even if they are not directly related to health issues. Additionally, and not forcibly negatively, although this means a reorientation in the tradition, some changes in popular uses (mostly those related to handicrafts) currently imply a certain complementary income for some people and may represent a potential for future commercial activities with economic significance in rural communities. Further ethnobotanical studies in this currently still rather neglected field are encouraged in order to compile an important part of natural and cultural heritage not sufficiently considered up to now, and to assess what actions are needed to preserve this knowledge, particularly in cases of dangerously declining real current practice. Abbreviations AE, Alt Empordà district; BC, Herbarium of Botanical Institute of Barcelona; BCN, Herbarium of the Centre de Documentació de Biodiversitat Vegetal, Universitat de Barcelona; BI, Balearic Islands; CA, Catalonia; FIC, Informant consensus factor; FO, Formentera island; MA, Mallorca island; MO, Montseny massif; RI, Ripollès district; UR, Use reports Declarations Acknowledgements We thank all the informants for having shared with us their time and their in-depth knowledge on biodiversity use and management. We are grateful to Samuel Pyke (Jardí Botànic de Barcelona) for his improvement of the English language, to Rosa Trigell (Blommor Floristes) for plant material supply and to Josep Vicens (Universitat de Barcelona) for his help in herbarium material management. EC and AG benefited from predoctoral contracts of the Spanish ministries in charge of education. This research has been partially funded by the municipal council of Figueres (IX Beca de recerca “Ciutat de Figueres”), the Catalan government (projects 2009SGR439, 2009ACOM00012, 2009ACOM00013 and 2014SGR514) and the Spanish government (project CSO2014-59704-P). Funding The authors give their consent for publication of this manuscript. Ethics approval and consent to participate All the authors agree with the manuscript and consent to participate in it. Concerning the informants, they gave the informed consent (see Methods section). Open AccessThis article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ ), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. 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Lord Rayleigh and William Ramsay won the 1904 Nobel Prize for the discovery of which element?	Sir William Ramsay - Biographical Sir William Ramsay The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1904 Sir William Ramsay Share this: Sir William Ramsay - Biographical William Ramsay was born in Glasgow on October 2, 1852, the son of William Ramsay, C.E. and Catherine, née Robertson. He was a nephew of the geologist, Sir Andrew Ramsay. Until 1870 he studied in his native town, following this with a period in Fittig's laboratory at Tübingen until 1872. While there his thesis on orthotoluic acid and its derivatives earned him the degree of doctor of philosophy. On his return to Scotland in 1872 he became assistant in chemistry at the Anderson College in Glasgow and two years later secured a similar position at the University there. In 1880 he was appointed Principal and Professor of Chemistry at University College, Bristol, and moved on in 1887 to the Chair of Inorganic Chemistry at University College, London, a post which he held until his retirement in 1913. Ramsay's earliest works were in the field of organic chemistry. Besides his doctor's dissertation, about this period he published work on picoline and, in conjunction with Dobbie, on the decomposition products of the quinine alkaloids (1878-1879). From the commencement of the eighties he was chiefly active in physical chemistry, his many contributions to this branch of chemistry being mostly on stoichiometry and thermodynamics. To these must be added his investigations carried on with Sidney Young on evaporation and dissociation (1886-1889) and his work on solutions of metals (1889). It was however in inorganic chemistry that his most celebrated discoveries were made. As early as 1885-1890 he published several notable papers on the oxides of nitrogen and followed those up with the discovery of argon, helium, neon, krypton, and xenon. Led to the conclusion by different paths and, at first, without working together, both Lord Rayleigh and Sir William Ramsay succeeded in proving that there must exist a previously unknown gas in the atmosphere. They subsequently worked in their separate laboratories on this problem but communicated the results of their labours almost daily. At the meeting of the British Association in August 1894, they announced the discovery of argon. While seeking sources of argon in the mineral kingdom, Ramsay discovered helium in 1895. Guided by theoretical considerations founded on Mendeleev's periodic system, he then methodically sought the missing links in the new group of elements and found neon, krypton, and xenon (1898). Yet another discovery of Ramsay (in conjunction with Soddy ), the importance of which it was impossible to foresee, was the detection of helium in the emanations of radium (1903). With regard to the scientific honours which - besides the Nobel Prize have been awarded to Ramsay, mention can be made of a great number of honorary memberships, viz. of the Institut de France, the Royal Academies of Ireland, Berlin, Bohemia, The Netherlands, Rome, Petrograd, Turin, Roumania, Vienna, Norway and Sweden ; the Academies of Geneva, Frankfurt and Mexico; the German Chemical Society; the Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society of London; the Académie de Médecine de Paris; the Pharmaceutical Society, and the Philosophical Societies of Manchester, Philadelphia and Rotterdam. He also received the Davy and Longstaff Medals, honorary doctorate of Dublin University, the Barnardo Medal and a prize of $ 5,000 from the Smithsonian Institution, a prize of Fr. 25,000 from France (together with Moissan ), and the A.W. Hoffmann Medal in gold (Berlin, 1903). He was created K.C.B.(Knight Commander of the Order of Bath) in 1902, and was also a Knight of the Prussian order "Pour le mérite", Commander of the Crown of Italy, and Officer of the Legion d'Honneur of France. In 1881 Ramsay married Margaret, the daughter of George Stevenson Buchanan. They had one son and one daughter. His recreations were languages and travelling. Sir William Ramsay died at High Wycombe, Buckinghamshire, on July 23, 1916. From Nobel Lectures , Chemistry 1901-1921, Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1966 This autobiography/biography was written at the time of the award and first published in the book series Les Prix Nobel . It was later edited and republished in Nobel Lectures . To cite this document, always state the source as shown above.	Argon
"Which biologist was known as ""Darwin's Bulldog""?"	William Ramsay \| Chemical Heritage Foundation Search William Ramsay Winner of the 1904 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, Ramsay helped establish the noble gases as a new group in the periodic table. He first discovered argon and then helium, followed by the other noble gases. Home / Learn / Historical Biographies The Scottish chemist William Ramsay (1852–1916) is known for work that introduced a whole new group to the periodic table, variously called over time the inert, rare, or noble gases. In the last decade of the 19th century he and the famous physicist Lord Rayleigh (John William Strutt, 1842–1919)—already known for his work on sound, light, and other electromagnetic radiation—carried out separate investigations, for which they received Nobel Prizes in 1904, Ramsay in chemistry and Lord Rayleigh in physics. Inventive Researcher ramsay2.jpg William Ramsay as the personification of chemistry in Vanity Fair, 1908, chromolithograph, by Leslie Ward. Courtesy Edgar Fahs Smith Memorial Collection, Kislak Center for Special Collections, Rare Books and Manuscripts, University of Pennsylvania. Ramsay began his studies in his native city of Glasgow and completed a doctorate in chemistry at Tübingen, focusing on organic chemistry. On his return to Great Britain and his appointment to academic posts at the University of Bristol and then at University College London, he became known for the inventiveness and scrupulousness of his experimental techniques, especially for his methods for determining the molecular weights of substances in the liquid state. Discovery of Noble Gases In 1892 Ramsay’s curiosity was piqued by Lord Rayleigh’s observation that the density of nitrogen extracted from the air was always greater than nitrogen released from various chemical compounds. Ramsay then set about looking for an unknown gas in air of greater density, which—when he found it—he named argon. While investigating for the presence of argon in a uranium-bearing mineral, he instead discovered helium, which since 1868 had been known to exist, but only in the sun. This second discovery led him to suggest the existence of a new group of elements in the periodic table. He and his coworkers quickly isolated neon, krypton, and xenon from the earth’s atmosphere.	i don't know
Detective Inspector Edmund Reid, Bennet Drake and Captain Jackson are characters in which TV crime series?	Detective Inspector Edmund Reid (Character) - Quotes Detective Inspector Edmund Reid (Character) from "Ripper Street" (2012) The content of this page was created by users. It has not been screened or verified by IMDb staff. "Ripper Street: The King Came Calling (#1.3)" (2013) [last lines] Det. Insp. Edmund Reid : Word of advice, Ressler. This work we perform, it does not serve to look backward. This city, wickedness will ever leave its spores here. You and I, we are not magicians. We cannot see through walls or into men's minds. Dozens perished, but hundreds who were ill are now well once more. We fight. We fight with all the skills we may muster. Beyond that, we may do no more. Det. Insp. Edmund Reid : [Speaking with Ressler] Have you ever heard of ergotism? Cpt. Homer Jackson : I'm with you. [entering the City of London, Reid and Drake pass a woman with two dogs] Det. Sgt. Bennet Drake : [doffing his hat] Ma'am. [the woman ignores him and continues on her way] Det. Insp. Edmund Reid : [in the morgue] But these five, we may study. Mr. Ressler, surely you have given thought to the threads and commonalities that may bind them? Sidney Ressler : I have, yes, of course... but nothing. Cpt. Homer Jackson : Reid... iodine, cabinet. [Reid takes a jar from the cabinet and a paintbrush, while Jackson wipes the chalkboard clean and begins a list] Sidney Ressler : [confused] What are they doing now? Det. Sgt. Bennet Drake : If you don't know, and I don't, sir, it's often best not to ask. Det. Insp. Edmund Reid : Bennett! Bennett, will you... will you do me a service? Det. Sgt. Bennet Drake : It'll be my pleasure, sir. Cpt. Homer Jackson : [as Drake turns to leave] Drake... take a turn past Tenter Street as well, will ya? Det. Insp. Edmund Reid : [sees the almost empty street] You are alone here? Preacher : The world hides in fright when there's rumor of cholera. Det. Insp. Edmund Reid : Then you are welcome here. [in the Eastern Dispensary] Det. Insp. Edmund Reid : Is it what we fear? Cpt. Homer Jackson : That depends what you fear. The fat man, his insides have a story to tell... but that story ain't cholera. "Ripper Street: What Use Our Work? (#1.8)" (2013) Detective Inspector Edmund Reid : Do you think, Fred, that hanging my American will return your sleep to you? Obsessions are addictions, which may not be defeated by actions in the physical world, but by a change of temper in the mind. Captain Homer Jackson : If I could see a way of clearing myself of this, would you grant it to me? Detective Inspector Edmund Reid : Not if it'll involve you leaving this room, Captain. Captain Homer Jackson : It does not. Just tell me you ain't burned Frank Goodnight. Detective Inspector Edmund Reid : What use our work, Bennet, if we cannot care for those we love? [examining Rose's room in the shelter, seeing signs that she has been kidnapped] Detective Inspector Edmund Reid : Sergeant, we are going back to work. Does that suit you? Detective Sergeant Bennet Drake : Yes, Mr. Reid. It does. [Reid releases Jackson from his cell and hustles him into the Dead Room, where Victor Silver's dead body is lying] Detective Inspector Edmund Reid : I need to know where he's been in the last forty-eight hours. You can tell me. [Drake drapes an apron over Jackson's neck, un-cuffs his wrists from behind his back, then re-cuffs his wrists in front of him] Detective Sergeant Bennet Drake : [holds up a bottle] This was about him. Captain Homer Jackson : [indicating his handcuffs] You expect me to work like this? Detective Inspector Edmund Reid : Yes, I do! For now, yes! Captain Homer Jackson : Well, then get him stripped, god damn it! Emily Reid : [referring to her husband's sleeping at the police station] 'Tis the third night this week you've slept in that cot. Is it more comfortable than it looks? Detective Inspector Edmund Reid : No, no, I, uh... I am tired, Emily. I would fall asleep on pins. Detective Inspector Edmund Reid : [to Abberline about Jackson's arrest as the Ripper] Obsessions are addictions which may not be defeared by actions in the physical world but by a change of temper in the mind. "Ripper Street: Our Betrayal: Part 2 (#2.8)" (2013) Detective Inspector Edmund Reid : Say, imagine, we might, you and I, walk into a chophouse on the Commercial Road, and, in that chophouse, we lay our hands upon the shoulder of the man the world made, the Ripper, know him unequivocally for that killer. What would we do? Chief Inspector Fred Abberline : There is what I would like to do, and there is what I am permitted to do. Detective Inspector Edmund Reid : And so instead of pinioning his head to the wall through his eyeball, we, we would show him our irons, then go about the process of proof. Chief Inspector Fred Abberline : We would. I would! Detective Inspector Edmund Reid : Evil men do as they please. Men who would be good, they must do as they are allowed. Detective Inspector Edmund Reid : [referring to his involvement with the corrupt Shine] Your past has guided your present. Det. Constable Albert Flight : No, sir, the work I have done for you here... it was good work, and that work was meant, Mr. Reid, in my heart, and that work was proper work. I fought to outrun my shame, sir. Detective Inspector Edmund Reid : [asking a hypothetical question about catching the Ripper] What would we do? Chief Inspector Fred Abberline : There is what I would like to do, and there is what I am permitted to do. Detective Inspector Edmund Reid : There is no God stood in judgement. Detective Sergeant Bennet Drake : Who mentioned God, sr. No, I talk of life, and life, Mr. Reid, is offended by you and me. Det. Insp. Edmund Reid : [Speaking to PC Hobbs] Look at me, Constable. It is a fool who joins a fight he cannot win. I would far rather have you here alive, talking to me, than otherwise. George Lusk : I'll take that boy now, as recompense for my actions here. Det. Insp. Edmund Reid : And I will tell you what I told this man, that he is my prisoner and in my protection. You think yourself above the law, you'd best start acting as such. Det. Insp. Edmund Reid : [speculating ] This was no smash and grab. There was a wider purpose here. Det. Insp. Edmund Reid : [repeating Ms. Goren's quote from the Torah] Whoever saves one life saves the world entire. Deborah Goren : [referring to Lucy's baby, whom she is to care for] No father or uncle? Det. Insp. Edmund Reid : No, it's men who are the ruin of this family, Miss Goren. Deborah Goren : This family and many like them, Inspector... you disagree? Det. Insp. Edmund Reid : No, no. No, merely my wife would say the same. Deborah Goren : Mrs. Reid must be a woman of great sense and clarity. Det. Insp. Edmund Reid : She is that - yes. Deborah Goren : Then I would like to meet her. Fred Best : Fred Best says you must give him something in return. Det. Insp. Edmund Reid : You do as I say, and I shall give you a story that, though you connive and bribe your way to the Devil himself, it will not be bettered. "Ripper Street: A Stronger Loving World (#2.6)" (2013) Isaac Bloom : Oh, I am rational, inspector. And I hear every day men such as yourself, who would have us believe our journey to truth will set us free. But man has no more desire for truth than a dung beetle. Like any animal, he desires meat and sex. And like any animal who feels himself caged by what he is, he will yearn for anything that lies beyond the bars. Dee called it magic. You call it progress. Detective Inspector Edmund Reid : You are a cynic. Isaac Bloom : I am a scientist. The only thing as irrational as faith in God is faith in Man. Detective Inspector Edmund Reid : No. Isaac Bloom : Then perhaps you are a man of faith after all. Isaac Bloom : Galileo said mathematics was the language which God has written the universe. I seek the hidden words. You might term it a kind of detective work. Detective Inspector Edmund Reid : In my detective work I find little evidence of God. Isaac Bloom : But you seek order in all things, Inspector. The notion of meaningless chaos is abhorrent to you. Detective Inspector Edmund Reid : [to Monro] The strikers are hardly revolutionists, sir. A working man deserves fair pay. "Ripper Street: The Weight of One Man's Heart (#1.5)" (2013) Det. Insp. Edmund Reid : Jackson, when I send for you, you will come! Or else I'll... Cpt. Homer Jackson : Yes, I know, you're gonna do a thing, lock me in a place, drop me on my so forth and what have you, right? Det. Insp. Edmund Reid : [inquiring why Drake wants a raise] Bennet, may I ask, does this request come from Rose? Det. Insp. Edmund Reid : [after Drake is silent] Your interest in the girl hasn't escaped me. Det. Sgt. Bennet Drake : I, uh... I don't think I take your meanin'. Det. Sgt. Bennet Drake : No, she's not... You don't know her. Det. Insp. Edmund Reid : All my yeas of policing I have known her kind plenty as have you. I am - I am simply saying... beware the kitten's claws. Det. Insp. Edmund Reid : [about Jackson's cryude remark] I apologize, Councilor Cobden. He is American and therefore lacking in knowledge or propriety. Jane Cobden : Well then, we shall get along famously. Det. Insp. Edmund Reid : We are nearing the root and reason of this. "Ripper Street: The Beating of Her Wings (#3.2)" (2014) Det. Insp. Edmund Reid : I used to argue with a man who believed chaos was the natural state. All things doomed to fall apart. A fissure splitting wider, day by day set to swallow with a gossamer dream that we make of order. I argued with him, yet, but, ah... Now I feel the gossamer fray, Bennet. I feel the fissure yawn into abyss faster than we can weave afresh. Det. Sgt. Bennet Drake : Mr. Reid. You used to tell me our work... that order... was a fight without end, but a battle worth the blood. You believed that. Det. Insp. Edmund Reid : And I believe it still. And so we weave on... thread by thread. And we hold the promise we have made.	Ripper Street
On which Spanish Costa is Malaga?	‘Ripper Street,’ With Matthew Macfadyen, on BBC America - The New York Times The New York Times Television \|British Import With Sex and Sleuths Search British Import With Sex and Sleuths ‘Ripper Street,’ With Matthew Macfadyen, on BBC America Continue reading the main story Setting a cop show in the slums of East London in 1889 gives you several advantages. Violence, for one: Among the first things we see in “ Ripper Street,” a new British drama beginning on Saturday night on BBC America, is an undercover policeman pausing during a bare-knuckle fight to pull an opponent’s tooth out of his hand. Sex, for another: the two most prominent female characters in the show are prostitutes, or tarts (“taaarts”), in the language of the time. The first episode predictably joins these elements by making a tart the target of violence. Photo Ripper Street Jerome Flynn, left, and Adam Rothenberg as police officers in this series on BBC America, Saturday nights at 9, Eastern and Pacific times; 8, Central time. Credit Jonathan Hession/Tiger Aspect This is not to condemn “Ripper Street,” which has its satisfactions, but to indicate the mind-set at work. As a period police procedural, it’s more successful than “Copper,” set in 1860s New York and also shown on BBC America. But it’s not that much more imaginative; someone wanted a late-Victorian “Law & Order,” and that’s what was delivered. “Ripper Street” is, however, reasonably clever and sometimes even witty in its depictions of forward-thinking detectives pioneering the forensic methods and investigative procedures that will eventually become the grist for a thousand television shows. And in Jerome Flynn, Adam Rothenberg and particularly Matthew Macfadyen, it has a sharp and appealing group of actors to play its central cop triangle. A more apt comparison than “Law & Order” would actually be “Waking the Dead,” the long-running BBC cold-case drama, several episodes of which were written by this new show’s creator, Richard Warlow. Forensics work, carried out with medieval-looking tools and ceramic blood buckets (and, under the circumstances, astonishing success), is a crucial factor in both story lines and relationships. (“Ripper Street” is also a BBC show; episodes are appearing here about three weeks after their British premieres.) Photo Charlene McKenna, who plays one of the prostitutes of “Ripper Street,” on the job. Credit Jonathan Hession/Tiger Aspect The undisputed star of the show is Mr. Macfadyen as Edmund Reid, a detective inspector with crusading instincts who wants both to modernize and to humanize the police force. But he’s not the all-seeing, Holmesian genius so prevalent in current shows, who acts out for 45 minutes before single-handedly solving the mystery. Advertisement Continue reading the main story In a moderately interesting twist, “Ripper Street” splits the glory between Reid and Homer Jackson (Mr. Rothenberg), an American and former Pinkerton agent who has come to London, fleeing some dark secret in his past. Deputized by Reid, Jackson supplies most of the close analysis of fibers, skin and gaping wounds (typically on the bodies of young women, of course) while tweaking the more old-fashioned sensibilities of Reid’s stalwart sergeant, Drake (Mr. Flynn, known here for playing the warrior Bronn in “Game of Thrones”). The fun of the show comes partly from the interplay among these actors, and partly from the way it juxtaposes the muck and murderousness of the East End shortly after the days of Jack the Ripper (hence the title) with the onset of the modern world. Video embed Reid, fiercely secular and scientific, studies the work of Eadweard Muybridge and other moving-picture pioneers, and his knowledge proves crucial in the opening episode. A newly installed telegraph machine connects headquarters to police outposts in the newly settled suburbs. It’s easy to take that sort of thing too far, though, and the show’s first two episodes both show a certain coarseness of imagination. The opener, which plays with two incipient technologies — movies and mass-produced pornography — turns into a heavy-breathing thriller about the world’s first snuff film; the second episode goes in the opposite direction, featuring a gang of child thieves that’s a little too literally Dickensian. (This does allow for an amusing sequence in which the small boys overwhelm the shocked policemen, pouring through every small opening in the room.) Whether or not Mr. Macfadyen is enough reason to watch the show, he’s fine as Reid, delivering a broader, TV-scale version of the embattled rectitude he displayed as Darcy in Joe Wright’s 2005 film of “Pride and Prejudice.” And American viewers, not as familiar with this sort of show as British and Canadian audiences who have already seen “Garrow’s Law” and “Murdoch Mysteries,” may find “Ripper Street” sufficiently novel that they’ll hang around to see if the stories get better. Ripper Street BBC America, Saturday nights at 9, Eastern and Pacific times; 8, Central time. Produced for the BBC by Tiger Aspect Productions, Lookout Point and BBC America. Created by Richard Warlow; directed by Tom Shankland; Greg Brenman, Will Gould, Polly Hill and Simon Vaughan, executive producers. WITH: Matthew Macfadyen (Inspector Edmund Reid), Jerome Flynn (Sergeant Bennet Drake), Adam Rothenberg (Captain Homer Jackson), MyAnna Buring (Long Susan Hart), Amanda Hale (Emily Reid), Charlene McKenna (Rose Erskine), Lucy Cohu (Deborah Goren), Jonathan Barnwell (Constable Dick Hobbs), David Wilmot (Sgt. Donald Atherton), David Dawson (Fred Best) and Clive Russell (Chief Inspector Frederick Abberline). A version of this review appears in print on January 19, 2013, on Page C1 of the New York edition with the headline: British Import With Sex and Sleuths. Order Reprints \| Today's Paper \| Subscribe	i don't know
"""If music be the food of love, play on"", is a line from which Shakespeare play?"	If music be the food of love, play on - eNotes Shakespeare Quotes If music be the food of love, play on Duke Orsino: If music be the food of love, play on, Give me excess of it; that surfeiting, The appetite may sicken, and so die. Read on Owl Eyes This eText is now on Owl Eyes. Clicking this link will open a new window. Duke Orsino of Illyria, presiding over the merry, mixed-up world of Twelfth Night, opens the play with these festive sentiments, soured though they be by the affected airs of the melancholic lover. He has convinced himself that he's insanely in love with a wealthy and resistant lady, who is in mourning for her brother and only annoyed by Orsino's inappropriate attentions. The duke's idea of a cure for his disease is to stuff himself sick with his own passions. Orsino's brand of self-indulgent pouting comes in for much ribbing here and elsewhere in Shakespeare, most vividly in As You Like It and Much Ado about Nothing. For melancholic poseurs like Orsino, who are actually expected to make spectacles of themselves, affecting gestures are more important than sincere emotions.	Twelfth Night
Which film won the Oscar for best picture in 2015?	If music be the food of love, play on \| Define If music be the food of love, play on at Dictionary.com if music be the food of love, play on if music be the food of love, play on in Culture Expand If music be the food of love, play on definition The first line of the play Twelfth Night , by William Shakespeare . The speaker is asking for music because he is frustrated in courtship; he wants an overabundance of love so that he may lose his appetite for it. The American Heritage® New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, Third Edition Copyright © 2005 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Published by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.	i don't know
In WW2 Operation Yellow was the codename for the German invasion of which country?	The World at War - German Codenames Fall Rot (Case Red) In 1935 the Fall Rot was a study to defend against a surprise attack by France while defending the borders against Czechoslovakia and Poland. The 37 version of Fall Rot included offensive operations against Czechoslovakia with the aim of preventing a prolonged two-front war. In 1940 it was the second part of the western campaign - after the destruction of the BEF and the northern army of France it was, together with Fall Braun, the attack on the rest of the French army which was still entrenched in the Maginot line. Fall Blau (Case Blue) In 1938 a study from the Luftwaffe about aerial warfare against England. This would later become the "Planstudie 1939", a concept for the whole of aerial warfare. In 1942 "Fall Blau" was the codename for the operations of Army Group South with the operational targets: Woronesh, Stalingrad, and Baku. Fall Gelb (Case Yellow) The western campaign of 1940. Included the attack on Luxembourg, the Netherlands and Belgium. Originally planned as a frontal attack in coordination with Fall Braun, it was later modified into a armored attack through the Ardennes using a scheme developed by General von Manstein. Fall Braun (Case Brown) Plan to attack with Army Group C on the western front in June 1940 (see Fall Grün) to relieve Army Group A and B, if necessary. Heeresgruppe C (von Leeb) was the army to execute this plan. Actually, in 1940 the Heeresgruppe C was far too weak to do anything but hold their position (some 19 divisions, most of them second class, for the whole southern front, including the Swiss border, against 37 French divisions and the Maginot line - some of their best among them). When Army Group C finally attacked for real, they were unexpectedly successful since the French no longer expected offensive action from them. Zitadelle (Citadel) Attack on the Russian front at Kursk in 43. This attack would become the largest tank battle in history. The attack was postponed several times by Hitler himself to allow the inclusion of new armor designs. This gave the Soviets the chance to prepare a stout defense and a counterattack. After this battle Germany never again gained the initiative. Herbstnebel / Wacht am Rhein (Autumn Fog / Watch on the Rhine) Codename for parts of the offensive in the Ardennes, 1944. Part of the deception for this offensive was the secret operation "Heinrich", in which the foreign worker contingents of the Axis were infiltrated by German agents. They would disguise as members of the resistance movement and hire their fellows for anti-German activities. Fed with important (but wrong) information about the German military, the workers where given a chance to escape by their resistance-comrades. The information about the German troops acquired in this way was considered reliable by the Allied, enabling the Germans a last tactical surprise. Kriegsmarine and Luftwaffe Codenames Paukenschlag (Beat of the kettledrum) A collective name for the first coordinated operations of German submarines on the US east coast. Lack of a convoy system along the coasts of the United States made for a lot of fat targets for German submariners. Later operations had nice names like "Mordbrenner" or "Reißewolf". The diary of radio operator Wolfgang Hirschfeld gives a first hand account of the German side.	France
What was the pen name of the illustrator Hablot Knight-Brown?	BBC - History - World Wars: The German Threat to Britain in World War Two The German Threat to Britain in World War Two By Dan Cruickshank Last updated 2011-06-21 After the surrender of France to Germany in 1940, Britain was the Third Reich's next target. But was invasion imminent or was this part of a strategy? Dan Cruickshank describes the British effort to defend her shores during World War Two. On this page Print this page No surrender When France fell with such rapid speed in June 1940 ten months after the outbreak of World War Two and six weeks after German invasion, Germany believed it had achieved an unprecedented triumph in the most extraordinary conditions. To a large degree, of course, it had. Traditional enemies and apparently strong opponents had fallen with ease and dramatic speed - not only France, but Poland, Holland, Belgium, Denmark, Norway and Luxembourg had been over run and Britain's army had been outflanked and ejected in late May from Europe with the loss of most of its heavy weapons and equipment. But to Germany's surprise, Britain, although apparently defeated and certainly painfully exposed and isolated, did not surrender. It did not even seek to come to terms with Germany. I have decided to begin to prepare for, and if necessary to carry out, an invasion of England... This was a puzzling state of affairs for the Germans who now had two options: to lay siege to Britain and to wear it down physically and psychologically through limited military action and through political and propaganda warfare, which would include the threat or bluff of invasion; or to actually invade. Both these options demanded that preparations for invasion be launched, whether a real or bluff invasion only time would tell. So, on 16 July 1940 Adolf Hitler issued Directive Number 16. It read, 'As England, in spite of the hopelessness of her military position, has so far shown herself unwilling to come to any compromise, I have decided to begin to prepare for, and if necessary to carry out, an invasion of England... and if necessary the island will be occupied.' The Germans, surprised by the speed of their military success in Europe, had no detailed plans for an invasion of Britain with the man made responsible for the venture, General Franz Halder, now having to start from scratch. But this absence of a plan did not prevent Hitler from announcing on 16 July that an invasion force would be ready to sail by 15 August. The operation was given the codeword Sealion. Top Operation Sealion The political rather than the military nature of the invasion plan at this time is suggested by the extraordinary timing that Hitler imposed. Planning an invasion and assembling a fleet and appropriate forces in a month was clearly a practical impossibility but timing was an essential part of the game of bluff that Hitler was playing. When the British realised what was coming their way their will to resist would crumble. From mid July the Luftwaffe stepped up the military pressure by attacking the channel ports and shipping to establish command of the Straits of Dover, while German heavy guns were installed around Calais to bombard the Dover area where the first shells started to fall during the second week of August. By the end of July the Royal Navy had to pull all its larger warships out of the channel because of the threat from German aircraft. All seemed to be going to plan; perhaps this mounting military pressure and the prospect of invasion would break British spirits and make Operation Sealion unnecessary? ...the Royal Navy had to pull all its larger warships out of the channel because of the threat from German aircraft. But by the end of July neither the threat of imminent invasion nor offers by Germany of 'honourable' peace had done the trick. It appeared that Germany would actually have to execute one of the most difficult military operations imaginable: an invasion, launched across at least 20 miles of water, culminating in a landing on a fortified and desperately defended coast line. It was immediately clear that this could not even be attempted until the Royal Navy - still one of the most formidable fighting forces in the world - had been either destroyed or diverted and after the Royal Air Force had been eliminated. The first reaction of Hitler and the German high command, when it appeared that a real rather than a bluff invasion would have to be organised, was to change the schedule. On the last day of July Hitler held a meeting at the Berghof. He was told of the difficulty in obtaining barges suitable to carry invasion troops and about the problems of massing troops and equipment while the German navy argued for the invasion front to be reduced from the proposed 200 miles (from Lyme Regis in the west to Ramsgate in the east) and for a postponement of the invasion until May 1941. Hitler rejected these requests that, if granted, would have undermined the invasion as a political threat, but the start date was postponed to September the 16th. There is evidence that, during this meeting, Hitler decided that the invasion of England was effectively a bluff operation and that resources should be diverted to the east in preparation for the invasion of the Soviet Union. But, for the bluff to work, the build-up for invasion had to continue and Britain had to be kept under military pressure. So, after the 31 July meeting it was decided that the Luftwaffe should tighten the screw by attempting to clear the channel of British warships and the skies over southeast England of British aircraft. Hermann Goering saw no problems. The attack was due to start immediately, but bad weather delayed the German air offensive against Britain until 12 August. Top Ironside Two members of the Home Guard © Meanwhile in Britain anti-invasion defences of all types had been planned and executed with incredible speed since late May. At the same time a new force had been organised to help defend the country. The Local Defence Volunteers (LDV) had been raised on 14 May 1940 and comprised men too old or too infirm to join the regular army or in protected trades and thus exempt from conscription. On 23 July, the force became known as the Home Guard, after Churchill coined the phrase during a BBC broadcast. By the end of July one and a half million men had volunteered, a huge figure which reveals the seriousness with which ordinary people took the threat of invasion in the summer of 1940. Ironside's only option was to set up a static system of defence which, he hoped, could delay German invasion forces after landing... On 27 May Churchill had put General Sir Edmund Ironside, Commander-in-Chief Home Forces, in charge of organising Britain's defence. Ironside acted quickly. He had a large force at his disposal, but one that was poorly armed and equipped and generally poorly trained. In the circumstances, Ironside's only option was to set up a static system of defence which, he hoped, could delay German invasion forces after landing and so give Britain time to bring its small mobile reserves into play. If the Germans could be delayed on the beaches and then delayed as they pushed inland their timetable could be thrown off balance, they could lose impetus, direction and initiative and the British army might be able to counter attack effectively. The key to Ironside's pragmatic plan was defence in depth. Southeast England was to offer a series of barriers or stop-lines formed by concrete pillboxes, gun emplacements, anti-tank obstacles, trench systems, minefields and barbed wire entanglements and utilising natural and man-made features such as rivers, canals and railway embankments. They were to ensnare and delay the German forces. The Germans, of course, had their own script for the battle and their detailed air reconnaissance of Britain in early 1940 meant that the stop-lines would have held few surprises for the attackers. But, whatever happened, Ironside was determined that this would be a battle of attrition. At the very least the Germans would be made to bleed before they achieved their objectives. By 25 June, Ironside's anti-invasion plan was complete and presented to the War Cabinet as Home Forces Operations Instruction Number 3. This Instruction gave detail to Ironside's defence theory. There was to be a coastal 'crust' that was to consist of a thin screen of infantry deployed along the beaches. This crust was to disrupt enemy landings long enough to allow the arrival of local reinforcements. Behind the coastal crust a network of stop-lines of various strengths and significance were constructed to slow down and contain or channel any German advance. The final and main position of resistance was the General Headquarters Anti-tank Line (the GHQ stop-line). This was the backbone of Ironside's coordinated defence plan. The line was planned to stretch from around Bristol in the west then east to Maidstone and running south around London passing just south of Guildford and Aldershot, then northeast to the Thames Estuary. Then beyond that, through Cambridge and the fens and up the length of England, running inland parallel with the east coast but able to defend the major industrial centres of the midlands and the north, and up to central Scotland. An auxiliary GHQ line was also to be established around Plymouth. Top A revised invasion plan The production of component parts for Spitfire aircraft. © During August, as the stop-lines were nearing completion, the Luftwaffe's battle for the control of the air over England and the channel continued. But the assault on the RAF started to go awry as Goering changed the emphasis of attack from radar stations and airfield to aircraft factories and more peripheral targets - thus giving RAF front line squadrons a much needed breathing space. While what became known as the Battle of Britain started to reach its crescendo, the debate about Operation Sealion also continued to rage during August between the German navy and the army. A meeting on 7 August revealed irreconcilable differences: 'I utterly reject the Navy's proposals [for landing on a narrow front],' exclaimed General Halder. 'I might just as well put the troops through a sausage machine.' Eventually a compromise was reached. On 13 August, Hitler agreed that the invasion front should to be narrowed, with the most westerly landing area being around Worthing. This meant that the only one German Army Group - Army Group A - would carry out the invasion. The revised invasion plan was issued by the German High Command on 30 August. ...Hitler agreed that the invasion front should to be narrowed, with the most westerly landing area being around Worthing. The attack group of the 9th Army (Part of Army Group A) was to leave from Le Havre and land in the Brighton-Worthing area of Sussex. The first assault wave was to secure the beachhead. The second wave packed the real punch for it was made up of two Panzer Divisions - each composed of tanks, artillery, mobile troops and Panzer grenadier assault infantry - and one motorised division. The role of the panzers was to break out of the beachhead and then sweep west towards Portsmouth. The attack group of the 16th Army (also part of Army Group A) was to leave from the Calais-Ostend-Antwerp area and land in the Folkstone-Dungeness area around Rye and at Bexhill-Eastbourne. The first wave here was to consist of two infantry divisions, while the second wave was to include two Panzer Divisions that were to break out of the beachhead and advance north - to destroy the main reserves of the British army and establish crossings over the River Medway. These landings were to be supported by parachute troops, who were to drop on the Downs above Brighton, to assist in the securing of the beach head for the Brighton-Worthing assault group, and north west of Folkestone in Kent to seize the Royal Military Canal of Napoleonic war vintage. The Germans saw this canal, which had been built to stop French invaders storming across Romney Marsh on their way to London, as a significant anti-tank obstacle that could, if not bridged, stall the advance of their panzers. Top The ultimate target The initial objective for both assault groups was to establish a front from the Thames Estuary to Portsmouth. Then the build-up would begin with additional supplies and troops being brought in. When the build-up was complete the panzers of the Brighton-Worthing assault group would attack towards Basingstoke, Newbury and Oxford to secure crossing points over the Thames and to encircle and isolate London and the southeast in a great pincer movement. The remaining German forces, located around the Medway and on the Thames estuary, would then thrust towards London - the ultimate target of the invasion force. The remaining German forces, located around the Medway and on the Thames estuary, would then thrust towards London... General von Runstedt was in command of Army Group A, which was to be the main tool of invasion. As it happened, Von Runstedt had little faith in Halder's Sealion plan. He observed that Napoleon had failed to invade and the difficulties that confounded him did not appear to have been solved by the Sealion planners. Probably von Runstedt observed that one of the plan's main weaknesses was the small scale of the initial assault and the slow build-up. The first wave assault was to be carried out not by nine complete divisions but only their leading echelons numbering in each case around 6,700 men. So only the equivalent of three divisions - around 60,000 men - would have been involved in the first wave assault. About 250 tanks and very little artillery would have supported them. An added factor worrying von Runstedt would no doubt have been the amateur and ad-hoc nature of the sea transport. The consequence would be troops landed at the wrong place or at the right place at the wrong time - or not landed at all if British sea and air power had not been completely destroyed. And these same problems of transport would apply to and slow down the build-up of reinforcements unless a number of major ports were captured quickly and intact - which was highly unlikely. Top German defeat RAF pilots © Hitler appeared to agree with von Runstedt when, on 14 August - the day after he had agreed a narrower invasion front - Hitler told his generals that he would not attempt to invade Britain if the task seemed too dangerous. There were, said Hitler, other ways of defeating Britain. As Hitler started to back away from invasion the battle for dominance of the skies over England and the English Channel - a battle that now, perhaps, had little strategic value - reached a new peak of fury. On 3 September, with the RAF still far from destroyed, Field Marshal Keitel, head of the Armed Forces High Command, delayed Sealion until 21 September, and then again until 27 September, the last time the tides would be right before the end of the year. The day after this last postponement was announced, Goering launched his final major offensive to destroy RAF Fighter Command in daylight action. It was a dismal failure, with the Luftwaffe losing twice as many aircraft as its potential victim. On 17 September - two days after Goering's defeat - Operation Sealion was postponed indefinitely. The plan was never to be revived. Hitler's attention was drawn increasingly to the east, and in June 1941 he invaded the Soviet Union. In 1944 Britain's defences against sea-borne attack were scaled down. In 1944 Britain's defences against sea-borne attack were scaled down. By that date it was finally certain that the German army - fatally mauled in Russia - was in no position to invade Britain. But Britain's coastal defences were not dismantled. As the war ended, there were those who believed that the Soviet Union would be the next enemy and in anticipation of this NATO was formed in 1947 for the defence of western Europe and north America. But even if the Soviets were the new enemy it gradually became clear during the early 1950s that a Soviet invasion - if it came - would not be launched against the coast of Britain, and from 1956 coastal defences around the British Isles were gradually decommissioned. Find out more Books Twentieth Century Defences in Britain: An Introductory Guide by I Brown et al (Council for British Archaeology, 1995) The Defenders: A History of the British Volunteers by G Cousins (Muller, 1968) Invasion: From the Armada to Hitler, 1588-1945 by F McLynn (Routledge and Keegan Paul, 1987) The Air War, 1939-1945 by RJ Overy (Europa Publications, 1980) Channel Defences by A Saunders (Batsford/English Heritage, 1997) Resisting the Nazi Invader by A Ward (Constable, 1997) Pillboxes: A Study of UK Defences, 1940 by H Wills (Leo Cooper, with Secker and Warburg, 1985) Links The Fortress Study Group . This is the only international society concerned with the study of all aspects of military architecture and fortifications and their armaments, especially works constructed to mount and resist artillery. Places to visit Duxford Aviation Museum . Telephone: 01223 835 000. Duxford is home to 180 historic aircraft, including biplanes, Spitfires, Concorde and fighter jets. RAF Air Defence Radar Museum . Royal Air Force, Neatishead, Norwich, Norfolk, NR12 8YB. Tel: 01692 633309. The museum holds original Unit and Station badges, a model aircraft collection and a large quantity of photographs, documents and videos relating to Air Defence equipment. Top About the author Dan Cruickshank is one of the country's leading architectural and historic building experts and a regular presenter on the BBC. He is an active member of the Georgian Group and the Architectural Panel of the National Trust and director of the Spitalfields Historic Buildings Trust. Dan is a frequent contributor to The Architects' Journal and The Architectural Review and is author of Life in The Georgian City and The Guide to the Georgian Buildings of Britain and Ireland.	i don't know
Variola is the medical name for which disease?	Smallpox: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia URL of this page: //medlineplus.gov/ency/article/001356.htm Smallpox Smallpox is a serious disease that is easily passed from person to person (contagious). It is caused by a virus. Causes Smallpox spreads from one person to another from saliva droplets. It may also be spread from bed sheets and clothing. It is most contagious during the first week of the infection. It may continue to be contagious until the scabs from the rash fall off. The virus can stay alive between 6 and 24 hours. People were once vaccinated against this disease. However, the disease has been mostly wiped out. The United States stopped giving the smallpox vaccine in 1972. In 1980, the World Health Organization (WHO) recommended that all countries stop vaccinating for smallpox. There are two forms of smallpox: Variola major is a serious illness that can be life threatening in people who have not been vaccinated. It was responsible for a large number of deaths. Variola minor is a milder infection that rarely causes death. A massive program by the WHO wiped out all known smallpox viruses from the world in the 1970s, except for a few samples saved for government research. Researchers continue to debate whether or not to kill the last remaining samples of the virus, or to preserve it in case there may be some future reason to study it. You are more likely to develop smallpox if you: Are a laboratory worker who handles the virus (rare) Are in a location where the virus was released as a biological weapon It is unknown how long past vaccinations stay effective. People who received the vaccine many years ago may no longer be fully protected against the virus. THE RISK OF TERRORISM There is a concern that the smallpox virus could be spread as part of a terrorism attack. The virus could be spread in spray (aerosol) form. Symptoms Symptoms usually occur about 12 to 14 days after you have been infected with the virus. They may include: Backache Raised pink rash, turns into sores that become crusty on day 8 or 9 Severe headache	Smallpox
Robert Jordan, Maria and Pilar are characters from which 1940 novel?	Smallpox Glossary of Terms with Medical Definitions See the entire definition of Acquired Aerosolization: The production of an aerosol -- a fine mist or spray containing minute par... See the entire definition of Aerosolization Allergy: A misguided reaction to foreign substances by the immune system, the body system ... See the entire definition of Allergy Anthrax: A serious bacterial infection caused by Bacillus anthracis that occurs primarily ... See the entire definition of Anthrax Antiviral: An agent that kills a virus or that suppresses its ability to replicate and, he... See the entire definition of Antiviral Arms: An appendage in anatomy and in clinical trials. See: Arm. Arthritis: Inflammation of a joint. When joints are inflamed they can develop stiffness, w... See the entire definition of Arthritis Assay: An assay is an analysis done to determine: The presence of a substance an... See the entire definition of Assay Asymptomatic: Without symptoms. For example, an asymptomatic infection is an infection wit... See the entire definition of Asymptomatic Atopic: A predisposition toward developing certain allergic hypersensitivity reactions. At... See the entire definition of Atopic Atopic dermatitis: A skin disease characterized by areas of severe itching, redness, scali... See the entire definition of Biotechnology Bioterrorism: Terrorism using biologic agents that are harmful to humans. Biological disea... See the entire definition of Bioterrorism Blindness: Loss of useful sight. Blindness can be temporary or permanent. Damage to any p... See the entire definition of Blindness Blister: A collection of fluid underneath the top layer of skin (epidermis). There are man... See the entire definition of Blister Brain: The portion of the central nervous system that is located within the skull. It func... See the entire definition of Brain Breathing: The process of respiration, during which air is inhaled into the lungs through ... See the entire definition of Breathing Calf: The belly or fleshy hind part of the back of the leg below the knee. The calf is mad... See the entire definition of Calf Cancer: An abnormal growth of cells which tend to proliferate in an uncontrolled way and, ... See the entire definition of Cancer CDC: The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the US agency charged with tracking a... See the entire definition of CDC Cell: The basic structural and functional unit of any living thing. Each cell is a small c... See the entire definition of Cell Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: The US agency charged with tracking and invest... See the entire definition of Contagious Contrast: Short for "contrast media." Contrast media are X-ray dyes used to provide contra... See the entire definition of Contrast Cough: A rapid expulsion of air from the lungs, typically in order to clear the lung airwa... See the entire definition of Cough Cowpox: A mild skin disease of milk cows, principally confined to the udder and teats, tha... See the entire definition of Cowpox Depression: An illness that involves the body, mood, and thoughts and that affects the way... See the entire definition of Depression Dermatitis: Inflammation of the skin, either due to an inherent skin defect, direct contac... See the entire definition of Dermatitis Diagnosis: 1 The nature of a disease; the identification of an illness. 2 A ... See the entire definition of Diagnosis DNA: Deoxyribonucleic acid. One of two types of molecules that encode genetic information... See the entire definition of DNA Drain: A device for removing fluid from a cavity or wound. A drain is typically a tube or ... See the entire definition of Drain Eczema (dermatitis): A particular type of inflammatory reaction of the skin in which there... See the entire definition of Eczema Elbow: The juncture of the long bones in the middle portion of the upper extremity. The bo... See the entire definition of Elbow ELISA: Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, a rapid immunochemical test that involves an enz... See the entire definition of ELISA Emergency department: The department of a hospital responsible for the provision of medica... See the entire definition of Epidemic FDA: Food and Drug Administration. Fetus: An unborn offspring, from the embryo stage (the end of the eighth week after concep... See the entire definition of Fetus Fever: Although a fever technically is any body temperature above the normal of 98.6 F (37... See the entire definition of Fever Genetic: Having to do with genes and genetic information. Headache: A pain in the head with the pain being above the eyes or the ears, behind the he... See the entire definition of Headache Hemorrhagic: Pertaining to bleeding or the abnormal flow of blood. HIV: Acronym for the Human Immunodeficiency Virus, the cause of AIDS (acquired immunodefi... See the entire definition of HIV Immune: Protected against infection, usually by the presence of antibodies.definition of Immune Immune response: Any reaction by the immune system. For example, poison ivy can cause an i... See the entire definition of Indicate Infant: A young baby, from birth to 12 months of age. Infection: The invasion and multiplication of microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, an... See the entire definition of Infection Internist: A physician who specializes in the diagnosis and medical treatment of adults. T... See the entire definition of Internist Isolate: To separate from others as during an infectious disease. Laboratory: A place for doing tests and research procedures, and for preparing chemicals a... See the entire definition of Laboratory Lumbar: Referring to the five lumbar vertebrae, the disks below them, and the correspondin... See the entire definition of Lumbar Lumbar puncture: A procedure in which cerebrospinal fluid is removed from the spinal canal... See the entire definition of Lungs Lymph: The almost colorless fluid that travels through the lymphatic system, carrying cell... See the entire definition of Lymph Macules: Small circumscribed changes in the color of skin that are neither raised (eleva... See the entire definition of Macules Malaise: A vague feeling of discomfort, one that cannot be pinned down but is often sensed... See the entire definition of Malaise Malignant: 1. Tending to be severe and become progressively worse, as in malignant ... See the entire definition of Malignant Microscope: An optical instrument that augments the power of the eye to see small objects.... See the entire definition of Microscope Molluscum contagiosum: A contagious disease of the skin marked by the occurrence of rounde... See the entire definition of Mouth Mucous: Pertaining to mucus, a thick fluid produced by the lining of some tissues of the b... See the entire definition of Mucous Muscle: Muscle is the tissue of the body which primarily functions as a source of power. T... See the entire definition of Muscle Nucleus: 1) In cell biology, the structure that houses the chromosomes. 2) In neuroanato... See the entire definition of Nucleus Nursing: 1) Profession concerned with the provision of services essential to the maintena... See the entire definition of Nursing Onset: In medicine, the first appearance of the signs or symptoms of an illness as, for ex... See the entire definition of Onset Osteomyelitis: Inflammation of the bone due to infection, for example, by the bacteria sal... See the entire definition of Osteomyelitis PCP: Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. See the entire definition of Pustule Quarantine: A period of isolation decreed to control the spread of infectious disease. Bef... See the entire definition of Quarantine Rash: Breaking out (eruption) of the skin. A rash can be caused by an underlying medical c... See the entire definition of Rash Recombination: The trading of fragments of genetic material between chromosomes before the... See the entire definition of Recombination Residual: Something left behind. With residual disease, the disease has not been eradicate... See the entire definition of Residual Resistance: Opposition to something, or the ability to withstand something. For example, s... See the entire definition of Resistance Risk factor: Something that increases a person's chances of developing a disease. For exam... See the entire definition of Stage Throat: The throat is the anterior (front) portion of the neck beginning at the back of th... See the entire definition of Throat Vaccination: Injection of a killed microbe in order to stimulate the immune system against... See the entire definition of Vaccination Vaccines: Microbial preparations of killed or modified microorganisms that can stimulate a... See the entire definition of Vaccines Vaccinia: 1. The cowpox virus which is used to vaccinate against smallpox. 2.... See the entire definition of Vaccinia Variola: Smallpox, a highly contagious and frequently fatal viral disease characterized... See the entire definition of Variola Vesicles: In dermatology, vesicles are small blisters, most often on the skin. Vesicles al... See the entire definition of Vesicles Viable: Capable of life. For example, a viable premature baby is one who is able to surviv... See the entire definition of Viable Viral: Of or pertaining to a virus. For example, if a person has a viral rash, the rash wa... See the entire definition of Viral Virology: The study of viruses. Virus: A microorganism that is smaller than a bacterium that cannot grow or reproduce apar... See the entire definition of Virus Viruses: Small living particles that can infect cells and change how the cells function. I... See the entire definition of Viruses World Health Organization: The subagency of the United Nations (UN) that is concerned with...	i don't know
Born Ferinand Joseph Lamenth in 1890 in New Orleans, by what name was the Jazz musician better known?	Jelly Roll Morton’s Biography — Free listening, videos, concerts, stats and photos at Last.fm Jelly-Roll Morton's Red Hot Peppers Ferdinand Joseph LaMothe (October 20, 1890 – July 10, 1941), known professionally as Jelly Roll Morton, was an American ragtime and early jazz pianist, bandleader and composer who started his career in New Orleans, Louisiana. Widely recognized as a pivotal figure in early jazz, Morton is perhaps most notable as jazz's first arranger, proving that a genre rooted in improvisation could retain its essential spirit and characteristics when notated. His composition "Jelly Roll Blues" was the first published jazz composition, in 1915. Morton is also notable for naming and popularizing the "Spanish tinge" (habanera rhythm and tresillo), and for writing such standards as "Wolverine Blues", "Black Bottom Stomp", and "I Thought I Heard Buddy Bolden Say", the latter a tribute to New Orleans personalities from the turn of the 19th century to 20th century. Reputed for his arrogance and self-promotion as often as recognized in his day for his musical talents, Morton claimed to have invented jazz outright in 1902 — much to the derision of later musicians and critics. The jazz historian, musician, and composer Gunther Schuller says of Morton's "hyperbolic assertions" that there is "no proof to the contrary" and that Morton's "considerable accomplishments in themselves provide reasonable substantiation". However, the scholar Katy Martin has argued that Morton's bragging was exaggerated by Alan Lomax in the book Mister Jelly Roll, and this portrayal has influenced public opinion and scholarship on Morton since. Morton was born into a Creole of Color community in the Faubourg Marigny neighborhood of downtown New Orleans, Louisiana. A baptismal certificate issued in 1894 lists his date of birth as October 20, 1890; however Morton himself and his half-sisters claimed the September 20, 1885, date is correct. His World War I draft registration card showed September 13, 1884 but his California death certificate listed his birth as September 20, 1889. He was born to F. P. Lamothe and Louise Monette (written as Lemott and Monett on his baptismal certificate). Eulaley Haco (Eulalie Hécaud) was the godparent. Eulalie helped him to be christened with the name Ferdinand. Ferdinand’s parents were in a common-law marriage and not legally married. No birth certificate has been found to date. He took the name "Morton" by anglicizing the name of his stepfather, Mouton. New Orleans Morton was, along with Tony Jackson, one of the best regarded pianists in the Storyville District early in the 20th century. At the age of fourteen, he began working as a piano player in a brothel (or as it was referred to then, a sporting house.) While working there, he was living with his religious church-going great-grandmother and had her convinced that he worked as a night watchman in a barrel factory. In that atmosphere, he often sang smutty lyrics and it was at this time that he took the nickname "Jelly Roll", which was black slang for both male and female genitalia. Morton's grandmother eventually found out that he was playing jazz in a local brothel, and subsequently kicked him out of her house. "When my grandmother found out that I was playing jazz in one of the sporting houses in the District, she told me that I had disgraced the family and forbade me to live at the house… She told me that devil music would surely bring about my downfall, but I just couldn't put it behind me." Tony Jackson, also a pianist at brothels and an accomplished guitar player, was a major influence on his music; according to Morton, Jackson was the only pianist better than himself. Around 1904, Morton started wandering the American South, working with minstrel shows, gambling and composing. His works "Jelly Roll Blues", "New Orleans Blues", "Frog-I-More Rag", "Animule Dance", and "King Porter Stomp" were composed during this period. He got to Chicago in 1910 and New York City in 1911, where future stride greats James P. Johnson and Willie "The Lion" Smith caught his act, years before the blues were widely played in the North. In 1912–1914, he toured with girlfriend Rosa Brown as a vaudeville act before settling in Chicago for three years. By 1914, he had started writing down his compositions, and in 1915 his "Jelly Roll Blues" was arguably the first jazz composition ever published, recording as sheet music the New Orleans traditions that had been jealously guarded by the musicians. In 1917, he followed bandleader William Manuel Johnson and Johnson's sister Anita Gonzalez to California, where Morton's tango "The Crave" made a sensation in Hollywood. Vancouver Morton was invited to play a new Vancouver nightclub called The Patricia, on East Hastings Street. Jazz historian Mark Miller described his arrival as "an extended period of itinerancy as a pianist, vaudeville performer, gambler, hustler, and, as legend would have it, pimp". Chicago Morton moved back to Chicago in 1923 to claim authorship of his recently-published rag "The Wolverines", which had become a hit as "Wolverine Blues" in the Windy City. There he released the first of his commercial recordings, first as piano rolls, then on record, both as a piano soloist and with various jazz bands. In 1926, Morton succeeded in getting a contract to make recordings for the largest and most prestigious company in the United States, Victor. This gave him a chance to bring a well-rehearsed band to play his arrangements in Victor's Chicago recording studios. These recordings by Jelly Roll Morton & His Red Hot Peppers are regarded as classics of 1920s jazz. The Red Hot Peppers featured such other New Orleans jazz luminaries as Kid Ory, Omer Simeon, George Mitchell, Johnny St. Cyr, Barney Bigard, Johnny Dodds, Baby Dodds, and Andrew Hilaire. Jelly Roll Morton & His Red Hot Peppers were one of the first acts booked on tours by MCA. New York City In November 1928, Morton married showgirl Mabel Bertrand in Gary, Indiana, and moved to New York City, where he continued to record for Victor. His piano solos and trio recordings are well regarded, but his band recordings suffer in comparison with the Chicago sides where Morton could draw on many great New Orleans musicians for sidemen. Although he did record with such great musicians as clarinetists Omer Simeon, George Baquet, Albert Nicholas, Wilton Crawley, Barney Bigard, Lorenzo Tio and Artie Shaw, trumpeters Bubber Miley, Johnny Dunn and Henry "Red" Allen, saxophonists Sidney Bechet, Paul Barnes and Bud Freeman, bassist Pops Foster, and drummers Paul Barbarin, Cozy Cole and Zutty Singleton, Morton generally had trouble finding musicians who wanted to play his style of jazz, and his New York sessions failed to produce a hit. With the Great Depression and the near collapse of the phonograph record industry, Morton's recording contract was not renewed by Victor for 1931. Morton continued playing less prosperously in New York, briefly had a radio show in 1934, then was reduced to touring in the band of a traveling burlesque act while his compositions were recorded by Fletcher Henderson, Benny Goodman and others, though he received no royalties from these recordings. Washington, D.C. In 1935, Morton moved to Washington, D.C., to become the manager/piano player of a bar called, at various times, the "Music Box", "Blue Moon Inn", and "Jungle Inn" in the African American neighborhood of Shaw. (The building that hosted the nightclub still stands, at 1211 U Street NW.) Morton was also the master of ceremonies, bouncer, and bartender of the club. He was only in Washington for a few years; the club owner allowed all her friends free admission and drinks, which prevented Morton from making the business a success. Morton was stabbed by one of the owner's friends in 1938, suffering wounds to the head and chest. After this incident his wife Mabel demanded that they leave Washington. During Morton's brief residency at the Music Box, folklorist Alan Lomax heard Morton playing piano in the bar. In May 1938, Lomax invited Morton to record music and interviews for the Library of Congress. The sessions, originally intended as a short interview with musical examples for use by music researchers in the Library of Congress, soon expanded to record more than eight hours of Morton talking and playing piano, in addition to longer interviews during which Lomax took notes but did not record. Despite the low fidelity of these non-commercial recordings, their musical and historical importance attracted jazz fans, and they have helped to ensure Morton's place in jazz history. Lomax was very interested in Morton's Storyville days and some of the off-color songs played in Storyville. Morton was reluctant to recount and record these, but eventually obliged Lomax. Morton's "Jelly Roll" nickname is a sexual reference as many of his lyrics from his Storyville days were vulgar. Some of the Library of Congress recordings were unreleased until near the end of the 20th century due to their nature. Morton was aware that if he had been born in 1890, he would have been slightly too young to make a good case for himself as the actual inventor of jazz, and so may have presented himself as being five years older than he actually was, and his statement that Buddy Bolden played ragtime but not jazz is not accepted by consensus of Bolden's other New Orleans contemporaries. It is possible, however, that the contradictions stem from different definitions for the terms ragtime and jazz. These interviews, released in different forms over the years, were released on an eight-CD boxed set in 2005, The Complete Library of Congress Recordings. This collection won two Grammy Awards. The same year, Morton was honored with the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award. Later years During the period when he was recording his interviews, Morton was seriously injured by knife wounds when a fight broke out at the Washington, D.C. establishment where he was playing. A nearby whites-only hospital refused to treat him, and he had to be transported to a lower-quality hospital further away. When he was in the hospital the doctors left ice on his wounds for several hours before attending to his eventually fatal injury. His recovery from his wounds was incomplete, and thereafter he was often ill and easily became short of breath. Morton made a new series of commercial recordings in New York, several recounting tunes from his early years that he had been talking about in his Library of Congress interviews. A worsening asthma affliction sent him to a New York hospital for three months at one point and when visiting Los Angeles with a series of manuscripts of new tunes and arrangements, planning to form a new band and restart his career, the ailment took its toll. Morton died on July 10, 1941 after an eleven-day stay in Los Angeles County General Hospital. According to jazz historian David Gelly, Morton's arrogance and "bumptious" persona alienated so many musicians over the years that no colleagues or admirers attended his funeral. However, a contemporary news account of the funeral in the August 1, 1941 issue of Downbeat states unequivocally that fellow musicians Kid Ory, Mutt Carey, Fred Washington and Ed Garland were among his pall bearers, although the story notes the conspicuous absence of Duke Ellington and Jimmie Lunceford, both of whom were appearing in Los Angeles at the time. (The article is photographically reproduced in John Lomax's biography of Morton, "Mister Jelly Roll" University of California Press, 1950.) Morton is buried in Calvary Cemetery, 4201 Whittier Blvd, Los Angeles, California, Section N, Lot 347, grave #4,in the north west quadrant of the cemetery. Piano style Morton's piano style was formed from early secondary ragtime and "shout", which also evolved separately into the New York school of stride piano. Morton's playing, however, was also close to barrelhouse, which produced boogie woogie. Morton often played the melody of a tune with his right thumb, while sounding a harmony above these notes with other fingers of the right hand. This added a rustic or "out-of-tune" sound (due to the playing of a diminished 5th above the melody). This may still be recognized as belonging to New Orleans. Morton also walked in major and minor sixths in the bass, instead of tenths or octaves. He played basic swing rhythms in both the left and right hand. Compositions: Some of Morton's songs (listed alphabetically): "Big Foot Ham" (a.k.a. "Ham & Eggs") "Black Bottom Stomp" "Why?" "Wolverine Blues" Several of Morton's compositions were musical tributes to himself, including "Winin' Boy", "The Jelly Roll Blues", subtitled "The Original Jelly-Roll", and "Mr. Jelly Lord". In the Big Band era, his "King Porter Stomp", which Morton had written decades earlier, was a big hit for Fletcher Henderson and Benny Goodman, and became a standard covered by most other swing bands of that time. Morton also claimed to have written some tunes that were copyrighted by others, including "Alabama Bound" and "Tiger Rag". "Sweet Peter," which Morton recorded in 1926, is the obvious source for the melody of the hit song "All Of Me" ostensibly written by Gerald Marks and Seymour Simons in 1931. Legacy and fictional portrayals Two Broadway shows have featured his music, Jelly Roll and Jelly's Last Jam. The first draws heavily on Morton's own words and stories from the Library of Congress interviews. Jelly Roll Morton appears as the piano "professor" in Louis Malle's Pretty Baby, where he is portrayed by actor Antonio Fargas, with piano and vocals played by James Booker. Jelly Roll Morton's Last Night at the Jungle Inn: An Imaginary Memoir was written by ethnomusicologist and folklorist Samuel Charters in 1984, embellishing Morton's early stories about his life. Jelly Roll Morton is featured in Alessandro Baricco's book, Novecento. He is the "inventor of jazz" and the protagonist's rival throughout the book. This book was later turned into a movie: Giuseppe Tornatore's The Legend of 1900. His character is played by actor Clarence Williams III. In this movie, he is depicted as an arrogant master in a piano competition against the film's main protagonist. He performed "Big Foot Ham", "The Crave", and "Fingerbreaker", in that order, against the protagonist. Jelly Roll Morton is in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and is a charter member of the Gennett Records Walk of Fame. In 2008, Jelly Roll Morton was inducted into The Louisiana Music Hall of Fame. The play, Don't You Leave Me Here, by Clare Brown, which premiered at West Yorkshire Playhouse on 27 September 2008, deals with Morton's relationship with Tony Jackson. Morton and his godmother, Eulalie, appear as characters in David Fulmer's mystery novel, Chasing the Devil's Tail. His influence continues to this day in the work of Dick Hyman and Reginald Robinson. Selected discography: 1923/24 1923-1924 (Milestone Records) Red Hot Peppers Session: Birth of the Hot, The Classic Red Hot Peppers Sessions (originally RCA Bluebird recordings) 1926-1927 (Sbme Special Markets) The Pearls 1926-1939 (Bluebird Records) Jazz King of New Orleans 1926-1930 (Bluebird Records) Kansas City Stomp, The Library of Congress Recordings, Vol. 1 1938 (Rounder Records)	Jelly Roll Morton
Who gave Hampton Court Palace to Henry VIII as a gift in 1528?	Ferdinand Joseph Lamothe "Jelly Roll" Morton [Q.R.S. Music 3674] 08/??/1926 [Q.R.S. Music 3675] 08/??/1926 There are some musicians who come along and make waves either through their antics, their bravado, or their performance skills. Ferdinand "Jelly Roll" Morton was one of those individuals who managed to captivate fans and raise the eyebrows (and the ire) of other musicians through all three. In this instance, also, it is hard to peg him into a single genre, other than "Jelly Roll Style," given how different and distinctive both his performance and writing of rags and blues was. He left behind one of the more important looks at the origins of ragtime, at least in New Orleans and the South, through a series of remarkable conversations recorded in 1938 and 1939. However, it was his own music and unique style that propelled him to fame, pushed him into obscurity, then resurrected while ostensibly killing him at the same time. Although the most traditional source for his story was long held to be the widely regarded 1950 book by Alan Lomax, Mister Jelly Roll, research of the 21st century by the author and a number of his distinguished peers has turned up a much more accurate look at Morton's variegated story, of which a condensed version is presented here. Early Life in New Orleans The self-proclaimed inventor of Jazz and Stomp music, "Jelly Roll" Morton grew up in the right environment to absorb a variety of musical influences: New Orleans, Louisiana. He was born in New Orleans, Louisiana, out of legal wedlock (in a common law marriage) to Edward Joseph Lamothe (or Lemott) and Louise Hermance Monette (or Monett). The often-cited date of September 20 does not align with the official baptismal registry in New Orleans, which insists on an October 20 birth, so the latter will be accepted for this essay as the potentially most accurate accounting, even though Morton himself continued to write September 20 throughout his life. When he was around three or so, Louise left her situation with Lamothe and was soon married to William Mouton on February 5, 1894. Ferd would eventually adopt a variation of his stepfather's last name as his own, morphed into Morton. Growing up on Frenchmen Street a bit outside of the French Quarter, Ferd was just a streetcar ride away from many New Orleans musical venues located in the Quarter and the Tremé, as well as downtown. Considered a true Creole, he was a mulatto, which created its own set of difficulties, as the darker communities did not always accept light skinned blacks, yet they were still too black for the white communities. Storyville as pictured in a postcard from around 1910. Ferdinand got past this by communicating through music. He learned guitar at age 7, and piano at 10. As of the 1900 census the family was located in New Orleans with Ferd's half-sister Eugénie Amède added to the home in late 1897. Another sister, Frances a.k.a. Mimi, arrived in mid-1900. Ferd moved out of the Mouton home the following year, residing with his godmother Laura Hunter (a.k.a. Eulalie Hécaud) for some time. Ferd took piano lessons from local black schoolteacher Rachel D. Moment for an indeterminate period of time. Morton described her as "the biggest ham of a teacher that I've ever heard or seen..." However, with his innate talent he also likely absorbed a lot of the influence of other musicians playing in or near downtown New Orleans. Among those he later cited was Mamie Desdunes (a.k.a. Mary Celina Desdunes Dugue), who played a simple blues style due to a crippled right hand. He also mentioned Tony Jackson and Albert Carroll, and by some accounts claimed to have heard or possibly known the storied but somewhat notorious trumpeter Buddy Bolden. In his teens, Ferd became, be his own account, one of the most renowned pianists in Storyville, the red light district of New Orleans set up by alderman Alfred Story in 1897. There is some evidence, or lack thereof, to counter this bodacious claim, but there is little doubt that he spent some time either playing or listening to others play in the houses there. His later description of Tony Jackson playing a Naked Dance for the girls to show off their wares to the customers provides some credence to this probability. Another place he frequented was the Frenchman's Café where many New Orleans musicians played during and after hours. In early 1904, Morton traveled to Saint Louis, Missouri, allegedly to attempt to play at the Lewis and Clark Centennial Exposition, likely on the mile-long amusement Pike, and to absorb local musical influences. There was a contest there in late February at Tom Turpin's Rosebud Saloon that Morton claims he demurred from due to the presence of some of the high-caliber pianists playing there. They included the champion of the event, Louis Chauvin, his friend Sam Patterson, Charles Warfield and Joe Jordan among others. Perhaps the point should be made that he was not yet 14 years of age played, which likely a bigger factor in the overall situation. Still, he soaked in the influences of this environment, learning more than just the music, but also the lifestyle of these pianists. In 1906, Ferd's mother Lizzie died from a form of heart disease, leaving him more or less on his own at age 16, save for his godmother Laura. During this period Morton also learned more about performance with ensembles while traveling with Billy Kersand's Minstrels throughout the South and Midwest. He also met many musicians that influenced his style and his attitude, which might eventually be described as appropriately confident if mildly cocky. Among them were the aforementioned Tony Jackson, future composer Spencer Williams, John and Benjamin Spikes, Sammy Davis [a pianist and entertainer who was not same as the father of entertainer Sammy Davis, Jr., Samuel Davis, who was born in 1900, so too young], Arthur F. "Baby" Seals, and two gentleman that likely influenced the names of two of his important works, Porter King and Benson "Froggie" Moore. He also learned much of the reality of being a man of color away from his home town who which had been more tolerant of race, which was a hard lesson. During this time Ferd witnessed at least two disturbing lynchings of black men. Building a Reputation - What's In a Name? Still tethered somewhat to his godmother's home in New Orleans, it was there in 1910 that Ferd met Billy and Mary McBride, who had their own unique theatrical troupe called Mack's Merry Makers. Morton in 1913 in blackface and baggy pants, incorporating comedy with playing, and his partner, Rosa Brown. He played in their shows for a while, and during the tour frequented some of the brothels along the gulf coast of Louisiana and Alabama, possibly into Florida. Another actor and writer Ferd worked with was Sandy Burns, who for some time had traveled with Sammy Davis. It was allegedly Burns who either gave, or perhaps influenced the origin of, his unique nickname, "Jelly Roll." In the colloquial of the time, the connotation of that name was clearly sexual, and commonly referred to by both heterosexual and homosexual performers, including Jackson who was openly gay. Specifically, it was a reference to the male member, and not so much to a pastry. Just the same, Morton quickly adopted the name, and before the mid-1910s, while he still used Ferd from time to time, he started to enjoy billings as "Jelly Roll" Morton. From this point on, Morton lived the ultimate itinerant pianist's life, traveling from town to town, carousing with local women, hustling in pool halls, and taking in the culture wherever he went. Lessons, or perhaps they should be called skills, that he learned in his early travels were how to be a successful pimp, a pool sharp and card sharp, and how to charm certain people while ticking off others, skills that served him well at various times. He was also a young man of contradictions with his own sense of questionable morality, being both a Catholic and a believer in the bayou culture of voodoo. Morton quickly learned how to turn any insecurity he had into a situation into bravado and vanity, often deflecting anything he thought might be a threat to him or his ego. [Note that these are collective observations noted by many of Morton's peers as well as his original biographer, Alan Lomax, but that they ring true overall through many of his actions, even if they cannot be completely construed as "fact."] As a result of his constant travel, Morton was difficult to locate in the 1910 enumeration. Some of his movements of this period are suggested by combining his later recollections of who he played with and where with newspaper accounts of those people and events. In 1911 he was associated for a while with William Benbow's as they traveled the south, likely as both a pianist and a singer. The following year he was, at times, working with the Spikes brothers in the Midwest, with who would later pen one of his more iconic pieces. Later in the year and into 1913, he worked with the Jenkins and Jenkins troupe, which included Baby F. Seals, who had recently had his historic early blues piece Baby Seals Blues, arranged by Artie Matthews, published and distributed. Much of 1913 was spent in Texas, and Morton was listed in the Houston, Texas, directory for that year. Ferd had also taken on a vaudeville partner and singer, Rosa Brown, who was usually booked as Rosa Morton, although there was no official record found of them having married. They worked the vaudeville circuit from 1912 into 1914. Early in 1914, Morton had been working with McCabe's minstrels when they were disbanded during a stay in Saint Louis, Missouri. From there, he and Rosa tried to find another troupe, and ended up in Kentucky by the spring, then back to the Dayton, Ohio area. Ferd, now consistently billed as "Jelly Roll" or "New Orleans Jelly Roll," was receiving excellent reviews for his vivacious style, even when accompanying Rosa. He played a wide range of pieces from piano rags to classical pieces, and by this time, perhaps some of his own compositions. The couple, playing with other notable acts, also played Detroit, Michigan, and ventured down into Indianapolis, Indiana, then back east to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. By late summer they were playing in Chicago, Illinois, where Ferd would later spend a considerable period of time. For 1915 he remained there through the remainder of 1914 and into 1915. There is a probability that he also did a short stint with the Memphis, Tennessee band of W.C. Handy, a composer whom he highly regarded at times, and derided in later years. Working in Chicago with occasional travel to surrounding areas, Morton was no longer featured with Rosa, who had gone her own way, but worked with, among others, comedian and dancer William "Bojangles" Robinson. It was in Chicago that Morton's first big hit emerged in published form. His self-titled Original Jelly Roll Blues, issued in late 1915 by the well-established publisher Will Rossiter, created some issues before it was in print, in terms of arranging it in a way that was playable by the average pianist while retaining Morton's unique performance style. It would soon be made into piano rolls, recorded to disc, and even mentioned in a later song by Chicago composer Shelton Brooks, most famously as a line in his Darktown Strutter's Ball from 1917. "I'm gonna dance off both my shoes, when they play those Jelly Roll Blues, tomorrow night at the Darktown Strutter's Ball." By that time, Ferd's reputation for his playing and his vivacious personality, both good and suspect, was well established among his peers, and was gaining traction with the public. According to some newspaper reports, as well as narrative from Barbary Coast pianist Paul Lingle, Morton made some of his first West Coast appearances during the latter part of 1915 at the Pan-American Exhibition (World's Fair) in San Francisco, California. As there was a similar event held in San Diego, California, near the Mexican border, at that time, it is possible that Morton also appeared in Southern California, but that was sketchy to confirm at best. Morton circulated around the Midwest in 1916, sticking largely to Indianapolis, Saint Louis and Chicago. However, he apparently enjoyed California, or at least found that the dearth of professional pianists of his caliber in the state provided him some golden opportunities, and eventually migrated out to Los Angeles in late 1916 or early 1917, possibly following the lead of bandleader William Manuel Johnson and his sister Anita who moved there at the same time. Rise To Fame and Legend - The West Coast One of the first locations where Morton set up was the Cadillac Café in Los Angeles in the spring of 1917, where he would play through most of the year. Before Morton came out, Los Angeles, California, was a rather unremarkable location during the bulk of the ragtime era. Very little published ragtime emerged from that city in the 1900s and 1910s, and most of the contemporary piano music of that period was presented on the vaudeville stage, in addition to popular songs and old favorites. The bulk of ragtime pianists and showmen were up north working the Barbary Coast section of San Francisco and the Bay Area, and even up into Seattle, Washington. Morton (highlighted) in front of the Cadillac Cafe in October, 1917, with (l-r) "Common Sense" Ross, Albertine Pickens, Ada "Bricktop" Smith, Eddie Rucker and Mabel Watts. However, at the beginning of the jazz age, just before and around the time of Morton's arrival, there was surge of contemporary popular instrumental music in Southern California, which coincided to some degree with the growth of the film industry there, which was at a highly-accelerated pace from 1913 to 1920. After several months at the Cadillac, either as a soloist or with local ensembles or singers, Morton decided to bring a taste of home to the city. In early 1918 he formed his Creole Jazz Band comprised of several fellow New Orleans musicians, including Mack Lewis on the Clarinet, Buddie Petit on trumpet, Willie Moorehead on trombone, and a pianist/clarinetist, Dink Johnson, on drums. Dink was Anita and William Johnson's brother. He had actually played the clarinet with trombonist Edward "Kid" Ory's band prior to his west coast migration. He would later play a somewhat important role in Morton's life near the end. Johnson's piano playing in particular would be audibly influenced by Morton, as later recordings and compositions would attest. In the winter of 1918 the group played near the Mexican border in San Diego, and also may have made excursions at times into Tijuana, albeit more for recreation and to soak in the culture than anything else. At this juncture it should be noted that quite a few of Morton's pieces written throughout his career had what many called a "Spanish tinge" applied to them. This could be analyzed as mildly syncopated melody over constant habanera bass line (not "tango" as some have mislabeled it). Even though Morton clearly spent time in Tijuana and parts of Northern Mexico, that influence most likely came from his home town. From the 1880s into the early 20th century, traveling mariachi bands would work their way from Mexico through Texas and over to the Gulf Coast, so they were often heard playing their Latin-tinged pieces in New Orleans. Some have claimed that they helped influence jazz in that town simply by selling of their instruments, including trumpets and guitars, so they could afford passage back home. While this may be possible, that they influenced several Southern musicians is clear, and that "Spanish tinge" feeling was clearly embedded in Morton throughout his composition career. By spring of 1918, the Creole Jazz Band (sometimes Orchestra) was back in Los Angeles. Among Morton's friends there was the notorious singer and nightclub entrepreneur Ada "Bricktop" Smith, who had already made waves in Chicago, and in the 1920s would forge her way to more fame in Paris, France, with her famous clubs being the talk of the continent. In May, Morton had one of his first renditions of the somewhat malleable Frog-I-More rag copyrighted. It would be one of his better-known standards for the next two decades. He also allegedly composed and became known for his thoroughly Spanish-tinged piece The Crave during this era, but whether this is factual is unclear, since Morton did not leave any clear evidence of this piece until at least 1938. Still in Los Angeles near the end of the ongoing war in Europe, Morton, as most men born in the early-to-mid 1880s, was called on to register for the final draft call on September 12th. The information on the card raises some questions and confusion. Ferd gave his permanent address as still in Chicago, his career as Actor rather than musician, and his employer as the Levi Circuit (actually an independent vaudeville organization run by Bert Levey) in San Francisco. The birth date shown was September 13, 1884, which is also a bit perturbing. He also listed a wife living in Los Angeles, but as "Mrs. F. Morton." The lady in question was the Johnson brothers' sister, Anita, who went by Juanita Gonzalez, but not Morton. She was a very fair-skinned mulatto creole who at times was able to pass for white. At some point Ferd claimed that he and Anita had been married as early as 1909. Jelly Roll with Jimmy Thompson in Los Angeles, 1917. It is possible that he had known Anita that far back while in New Orleans, but no official record of either a marriage or divorce has been located, so they were probably referring to a common-law marriage situation, much as Morton's birth parents were in. In spite of another questionably legal marriage in later years, Morton ultimately devoted much of his love to Anita, and depended on her when times were tough. She was clearly his anchor, even if at times he may have considered her his bane as well. During their early years in Los Angeles, Anita ran a hotel with some occasional help from Morton. Although she was a singer, she claimed that Ferd never let her perform with his band. But, as per what she told jazz historian Floyd Levin in 1950, he clearly cared for her, as Anita later noted that Morton did not want her to do the work required to run the hotel, instead hiring others to clean the rooms and run the front desk. In 1919 Morton was on the move again, literally, as there were reports he had sunk some of his earnings into a large twelve-cylinder touring car, making most likely either a National or a Packard. After a stint in San Francisco for the winter and spring, he traveled up to Vancouver, Canada, playing for some of the summer and fall in a jazz band led by pianist and clarinetist Oscar Holden. They were likely playing in the Patricia Café in the hotel it was named after. Bricktop also joined them for a while. He allegedly also worked as a pimp during this period, but that is possibly more legend than fact. The band continued into 1920 and 1921, but Morton was restless and moved on near the end of 1919, back to the United States, into what would be a much different environment than he had enjoyed over the last decade and more. The culprit was the vile (to many) Volstead Act, which was the enforcement vehicle for National prohibition of alcohol. New Orleans had already been dealt a blow in 1917 when the United States Navy, in an effort to keep their sailors safe and less distracted when in port, shut down Alfred Story's famed district, thereby partially ridding the city of a fairly good tax base supported by the lucrative business of prostitution. Now, the government, or more rightfully, a majority of the citizenry, decided to do away with the manufacture and sale of alcohol (albeit not the consumption, a major loophole), which was one of the drawing points of music establishment, in addition to the music itself. While all may have seemed lost at that point, the Volstead Act made alcohol more popular than ever, and the excitement of doing something not quite legal with a group of like-minded people to the wild sounds of a driving band or a blues group was just too irresistible to resist. So it was that Morton started playing in the Pacific Northwest in 1920 in Seattle and Portland in cabarets that more often than not added some coffee or tea in with their scotch. It could have been a moral disaster (depending on one's view of morality), but the alcohol and music business was soon booming again, and performers like Morton provided some of the "jazz age" soundtrack that went along with the grand experiment. Ferd appears to have stayed up in the Northwest through at least the summer of 1920, one of his stops being the Entertainer's Café in Seattle, and perhaps back to the Patricia now and then. Down in Los Angeles, from which a somewhat weekly report emerged in the Chicago Defender by way of "letters" from musician "Ragtime" Billy Tucker, the Spikes Brothers were running their So Different Music House on Central Avenue, where the core of black life was located in that city. The sold sheet music, instruments and phonographs, and even did a bit of publishing of their own works. Among those released in early 1920 was Some Day Sweetheart, which would become associated with Morton within the next few years. Morton with his oft-beloved favorite, Anita Johnson Gonzalez. The status of Cadillac is unclear, but it appears to have closed its doors shortly after the onset of prohibition. The big venues now in Los Angeles were the Dreamland, a popular name for band venues around the country in the 1920s, and the similarly-named Paradise Gardens dance hall, another growing hot spot. Morton would make his way down there soon enough. But he was also being lured by another intriguing spot south of the border. After bouncing around the west coast for most of 1920 and early 1921, Morton resituated himself with Anita back in Los Angeles in the late spring of 1921, and engaged his orchestra into the Paradise Gardens. They spent the summer there drawing big crowds, which according to one advertisement included some of the increasingly popular crop of "movie stars" from the Hollywood studios. For part of the summer, Jelly Roll's "Famous Creole Band" shared the venue with the Black and Tan Orchestra. The Spikes Brothers had expanded their empire as well, opening up a leisure park with amusements for "members of the Race" at Leake's Lake near the Watts neighborhood just south of downtown, calling it Wayside Amusement Park. It had become a true melting pot of African-Americans, Japanese, Asians, Mexicans, Irish, and many others, so a popular spot for boating, recreation and ja. Then in the fall came the alluring call from down south. Tijuana (a.k.a. Tia Juana), across the U.S./Mexico border from San Diego, was enjoying new-found popularity, in part because they didn't suffer from the restrictions of the Volstead act, and actually from a number of other allegedly repressive morality laws. There was a cry for entertainers to work down there for good money in cheap living situations. Musician Eddie Rucker made his case, and in the fall a few musicians followed. Morton applied for and received one-year visas from both California and the Mexican consulate allowing him to work in Tijuana as a musician. Whether Anita went with him or remained in Los Angeles running her establishment is unclear, but she likely made a few trips at the very least. It was also a popular spot with Hollywood royalty, and many went down to see bullfights, gamble in the casinos, or simply drown their sorrows while escaping the rigors of fandom. There is one story that soon after he started his tenure in Mexico that Morton and his orchestra were engaged to play at the prestigious U.S. Grant Hotel, named after the Civil War general and U.S. President, situated in San Diego. The gig in November, 1921, was purportedly arranged by Dink Johnson, but did not last long, albeit for unclear reasons. Johnson stated that the group was fired by management because Morton crossed his legs at the piano. The more likely story, as told by Morton, was that there was a white band playing elsewhere in the hotel and he discovered they were getting twice what his group was, so he pulled his group out and headed back across the border. Throughout the next several months Morton and his group would divide their time between Tijuana and Los Angeles, sharing the stages with a growing number of Negro jazz bands rivaling the level talent currently heard in Chicago and New York City. By the early spring of 1922 it was announced that Morton and his band were signed for a tour on the Pantages Theater circuit, although it may have been a relatively short trip with just a few nights in each location. Within a month Tucker wrote that Morton was now managing the Wayside Amusement Park performance venue, and his six-piece band was playing there four nights a week. Near the end of April Morton's venue received a visit from no less than Chicago's current jazz champion, Joseph "King" Oliver. He reportedly set the town on fire with his brand of trumpet playing. Ferd and his band held their own reign over Wayside through the summer months, although give that it was considered a respectable establishment and a largely outdoor venue, it is unclear if alcoholic beverages were offered on a regular basis. In July, Morton's friend "Kid" Ory brought his band to Los Angeles where they made some recordings at the Spike Brother's studio, and played on the radio, reportedly the first black jazz band to do so in Southern California. They stayed there into the fall. In September, Morton took his band on a short Southern California tour outside of Los Angeles, some of it in San Diego and back to Tijuana. Then the tenure in Tijuana became tenuous. Morton, according his interviews with Lomax, had already experienced an unfortunate incident with the law when he was briefly suspected in the slaying of a grocery store clerk in early January of 1923. In the end, arrests were made of two other black men, but it may have shaken him just enough to where he retreated back to Tijuana for a while. Then, in an unfortunate incident in early February, an American black man named Chester Carleton who was staying in Tijuana lent his car to a friend to take it to San Diego for the day. The car was in a collision with some $250 damage assessed. Carleton argued with the man, George Monteverde, and gunplay was initially diffused by a San Diego sheriff. However, they finally had a showdown just across the border on a bridge over the Tijuana River when Carleton fatally shot Monteverde, inciting a good-sized riot in the streets, and false reports of his lynching. Even though Carleton was assured he would have a fair trial, there was clear dissension against the black population, and many of them, including Morton, high-tailed it back to the North, either to San Diego or Los Angeles, not to return all that very soon. Many of the musicians, including Ferd, sought to stage a benefit concert and dance in mid-March to raise money to buy Carleton's freedom. In spite of their best efforts to get the necessary $15,000 bond, they managed only $283.50 for that evening. This was Morton's last hurrah in Los Angeles for nearly two decades, as he would soon leave Southern California, Mexico, and his long-time love and common-law wife Anita behind, heading to where the current nexus of jazz was having a decidedly national impact - Chicago, Illinois. Chicago, The Red Hot Peppers, and "Jelly Roll" Style In April of 1923 Ferd found himself back in Chicago with a well-rounded résumé. It is unclear how many members of his prior orchestras and bands joined him there, but even if it was none, Morton's reputation both as a performer and composer (and a number of other disciplines) was enough to attract new talent to his side. Although only a couple of his compositions were actually in print, they had been heard by many, and would soon find their way into circulation. One of Morton's concerns was allegedly that if his style was too closely emulated in print that others might catch on to it and give him unwanted competition. But there was also the demand, and the promise of income that sheet music sales could bring. So it was that some of the early Chicago issues of Morton pieces were either simplified or simply made a bit more generic, providing a framework for his chord and melodic structure without revealing too many of his tricks. In addition to publication, Ferd thought it was about time that he had his style heard in more than just local venues, and sought out a record company that would take him on. A recreation of the original Gennett Records studio at the county museum in Richmond, Indiana. According to a later memoir by blues composer and musician Perry Bradford, Morton asked him by way of a letter sent from Fort Wayne, Indiana, if Bradford might be able to get him some recording dates in New York. Perry had a better idea, which was to go to Richmond, Indiana, to see Harry Gennett, who would probably accommodate him. Gennett records was founded in 1917 by three brothers, Harry, Fred and Clarence Gennett, managers of the Starr Piano Company of Richmond, Indiana. Their initial studio was set up in New York City, but in 1921 they installed a rudimentary acoustic recording studio on the grounds of their Richmond factory. Even if the aural quality of their product was less than sufficient, the talent they attracted, being one of the first Midwest studios to record and distribute the work of black artists, was often stellar. This included the bands of King Oliver and Louis Armstrong, the New Orleans Rhythm Kings, and, in 1923, Morton. Although he had cut two sides for Paramount Records in a Chicago studio a month prior, his first recordings of note were laid down in Richmond in July, including several with the New Orleans Rhythm Kings. Some of them included his own compositions and arrangements. The sound quality was perhaps less than Morton would have wanted, but at least now his music was available to the average consumer, both black and white, and it laid the groundwork for a more lucrative future in records, especially after the advent of electrically-recorded sound. This session was followed later in the year by one at OKeh Records in Chicago. In order to obtain legal copyright protection and provide add-on sales through sheet music, Ferd went to the Melrose Brothers publishing company in Chicago, joining their writing and arranging staff. The company was started around 1920 by Walter and Lester Melrose, both of them important white supporters of black music in Chicago. The brothers would also take on works by Joe Oliver and Louis Armstrong, calling them "staff writers" as they did with Morton. They also tended to add lyrics to tunes in an effort to collect their own royalties on the songs, but can be forgiven this for the exposure and support they gave to many black composers of jazz. The material that the Melrose Brothers issued in 1923 and 1924 alone was comprised of some of Morton's most memorable, and over time, most played works. Morton's style was unique and emulated by many pianists, although rarely duplicated. Even in printed form it had a bounce to it, and he used many chord inversions instead of expected chord placements. His music was also more instrumental in nature, as even though he had played and recorded with many groups, he was able to imitate various instruments in his solo playing. Walter Melrose was also instrumental in making sure Morton's Gennett sessions went well, both helping to set them up as well as supporting proper rehearsal time. They routinely used the records to promote their sheet music, and vice-versa. Grandpa's Spells, a piano rag, was one of Ferd's early favorites. He was proud of the fact that with little effort (on his part, of course) it could be played as a rag in a café, but then turned around as a lively one-step or two-step at a society party with his orchestra. Kansas City Stomps was a great demonstration of not only his bounce, but his propensity to start a trio with a slight but dramatic pause in the action. Mr. Jelly Lord made for a great salacious blues performance, while Stratford Hunch had a sense of humor embedded in its composition. The Pearls was a piece that Morton claimed was one of the most difficult jazz numbers ever written (a bodacious and suspect claim, given what has emerged since the 1940s), but with one of the more memorable trios. There were two of these early numbers which found wide acceptance and acclaim, as well as performances on piano rolls and by bands around the United States. First was the King Porter Stomp, which was likely an homage to Porter King, whom Morton claimed was a Gulf Coast musician that he considered a dear friend and early influence. While King's identity has been challenging to historians, the piece has continued to enjoy a measure of fame in every decade since it was first published and recorded. Then there was The Wolverines, also known as the Wolverine Blues in song form. Vocalstyle label for a piano roll of The Pearls. Given the popularity of this creature as the official mascot of Michigan (embraced more so since the piece saw a measure of fame), it remains one of the most frequently played Morton pieces of that era in the guise of piano solos, duets, jazz bands, and even orchestras. Other notable works, such as Perfect Rag and the best of the Spanish-tinged pieces, The Crave, were likely composed and performed even before 1923, but did not find their way onto records or in print until the 1930s and 1940s. Of course, being that Morton was in the jazz-crazy booze-flowing flapper-happy town that "Billy Sunday could not shut down," he and his band had little trouble finding steady engagements in and around Chicago, including regional locales such from Milwaukee, Wisconsin to South Bend, Indiana. One of the hot spots in the latter town was the Tokio Gardens dance hall, about which several advertisements concerning Morton's groups appeared in late 1923 and early 1924. Other gigs followed as far off as Ohio, including one that would have some lasting impact. Much as they had arranged for Morton's audio recordings, the Walter Melrose also hooked Morton up with the Vocalstyle piano roll company in Cincinnati, Ohio, in mid-1924. They had been supposedly the first company that put lyrics on their piano rolls, and during the peak of the player piano craze in the early 1920s (eventually killed by the phonograph, and then radio), Vocalstyle was one of the more important roll manufacturers. They were able to capture thirteen Morton performances on mark-up rolls. According to the late historian Mike Montgomery, Vocalstyle cut the rolls more or less as Morton performed them with virtually no editing, except for perhaps some missed notes. They created alternate takes in a sense to Ferd's Gennett and OKeh records, since he tended to make each performance different. However, after the sale of Vocalstyle to Q.R.S. in 1926, followed by the decline of the piano roll business in the 1930s, many of Morton's rolls disappeared, and only recently have collectors have been able to find nine of the thirteen performances. Over the next two years Morton would cut a handful of rolls for both Capitol and Q.R.S., expanding his legacy even further with engaging performances, but would stick to recordings from 1926 forward. Throughout the period of 1924 into mid-1926, although based in Chicago, Morton and his band went on several tours of parts of the country, even appearing on radio from time to time in a variety of studios. They cut more sides for Gennett, and also for two other recording studios, the resulting discs which were distributed by several labels. The Walter Melrose was more or less faithful in his support of Morton's music, but as per some historians dropped the ball in one regard. Morton could have and should have become a member of ASCAP. However, it was less of a race issue and more of an administrative one that he missed that opportunity, as Melrose was not a member at that time, and he required two ASCAP sponsors and five pieces published by an ASCAP house in order to qualify. This lack of protection would haunt him near the end of his life, but for the time being he was spending his gains on fancy clothes, cars, and diamonds, the latter which he famously had embedded into one of his front teeth. Among his biggest numbers released during this period was Milenberg Joys, composed with two associates of Morton. In the spring of 1926 Morton some solo sides for Vocalion Records, many that rivaled his 1924 solos for Gennett, but recorded with much better quality. In spite of his continuing success, one other big break that had evaded Morton was a major record label to better record and distribute his works. That was finally resolved in part by Walter Melrose, when with his assistance in mid-1926, Morton was signed to the Victor Talking Machine Company for a four-year contract. Arguably the best of the Morton records of the 1920s were those cut with his own band, the famous Red Hot Peppers. The first set of sides from the fall of 1926 were recorded using the Western Electric Orthophonic system, one of the best of that period. They were cut in the ballroom of the Webster Hotel in Chicago, a popular spot both for recording and radio broadcasts. The Morton tracks on Victor have since become legendary, and even as they were originally released quickly became best sellers for the important Victor catalog. Many of the tracks were re-recordings of tunes he had done with Gennett, Okeh, Vocalion and other labels. However, given his propensity for playing something a bit differently every time, and that Victor was recording his work with microphones instead of acoustic horns, it was worth reprising all of these works. Extant multiple takes of some of the tracks reveal differences not only in Morton's performances but also those of his band. Among the most memorable of the Victor recordings done by Morton in Chicago was Black Bottom Stomp, equally as engaging as a band number as it was for solo piano. Sidewalk Blues was also unique for some off the beat percussion, and an opening and closing that included some sidewalk chatter and street sound effects to boot. One of Joe Oliver's numbers was included in the mix with a substantially hot take, that being Doctor Jazz. He also covered the Spikes Brother's song Someday Sweetheart, a recording for which he would be known for some time. Even though he was sharing the spotlight with Oliver, Armstrong, and other black performers of the period, Ferd and his group held their own during the peak of the jazz age. They also found a lot of traction in England on Victor's sister label, H.M.V. (His Master's Voice), garnering good reviews in the United Kingdom and Europe. The next set of records made in June of 1927 fared equally well, with some of the standouts being Wild Man Blues and the increasingly popular Wolverine Blues. It is curious that given his contract with Melrose to write and arrange, as they copyrighted his pieces and published many of them during his five year contract from 1923-1928, that he rarely got arrangement credits on anything, particularly on his own pieces. There has been discussion about whether some of the charts were made before or after they were recorded, as some of them appear to closely emulate what made it to disc. The general consensus seems to be that Morton was a competent arranger overall, and that many times the recordings were done directly from his charts with little variance in the instrument performance other than the piano. A disc from 1925 featuring clarinetist Voltaire de Faut backed by Morton. However, it may have been a business decision by Walter Melrose in terms of distribution of funds that kept Morton's name from having more prominence outside of composer credits. Morton did play with a few other musicians on Chicago recording dates from 1926 to 1928, including a few for Columbia with Johnny Dunn. However, he was usually better as a leader rather than a side man, and his best work was with his own groups. They included subsets of his band as well as the full group with the occasional shift in personnel. As the group rose in their popularity, which was publicly with black audiences and to some extent privately with white audiences who would buy the records but not always frequent the events, The Red Hot Peppers continued to tour the eastern half of the country from Buffalo, New York and Ontario, Canada, back to Milwaukee, Wisconsin. In the latter location they famously took over the Alhambra Theater during the late summer of 1927 before extending their reach into the state of Iowa. While Melrose had been responsible for Morton's music rights to that time, Morton had engaged representation in New York City, possibly through Victor, and for a while was managed by the Music Corporation of America (M.C.A.). His five-year contract with Melrose ran out in the spring of 1928, and future pieces were rarely copyrighted through the rest of his life, and even fewer would find their way into print until the 1940s. Many of Morton's peers were enjoying an equal measure of success in 1927 and 1928, including Joe Oliver, Louis Armstrong, Fletcher Henderson, and Duke Ellington, the latter who would soon reign over the music scene of Harlem in New York City. In the late 1920s, in fact, there was a geographic shift as the center of gravity of hot jazz moved from Chicago to New York. The latter was building better clubs and theaters, had a wider reach with radio in the early days of networks, and some of the better recording studios and engineers. In the spring of 1928 Morton took his group to New York City for performances at Danceland and other venues, and in June recorded six sides at the Victor studios, likely his first sides done in New York with his band. However, his stop there was only temporary, as the band continued on a scheduled tour throughout the rest of the year, focusing more on the East and Mid-Atlantic states rather than the Northeast and Midwest. The part of Morton's life that had been missing, or at least largely neglected since he left Los Angeles, was Anita, although there was no indication they were ever legally married. She had more or less been abandoned when he left for Chicago. There was likely a string of other women in his life for the next several years. The Red Hot Peppers recording in Camden, New Jersey, July of 1929. However, in 1927, Ferd met showgirl Mary Mabel Bertrand. A New Orleans native who was just a couple of years older than Ferd, Mabel was already married when Ferd met her, probably for the second time, and had been playing and singing in a number of stage plays, musicals and nightclubs in Chicago, New York, and the east during the mid-to-late 1920s. According to collected information, which is sketchy in some cases, Mabel and Ferd became involved in either Chicago or Kansas City, Missouri, when they started to cohabitate. Mabel claimed that she and Morton were married by a justice of the peace in Gary, Indiana, in November of 1928, although documentation of such a union has been evasive, and therefore questionable. Just the same, Mabel used the name Morton for many years, including on her Social Security Card application in 1943. From 1928 for at least part of the next decade, Mabel was Morton's companion as they traveled the country. Much of the winter and spring of 1929 was spent in New York State and Pennsylvania playing for dancing throngs. After a Fourth of July appearance in Pittsburgh, Morton and his band traversed eastward across the state to Philadelphia. On July 8th, 1929, he crossed the Delaware into Camden, New Jersey, where Morton made a series of solo records for what was now R.C.A. Victor, the record company having recently been bought by the Radio Corporation of America. Two more sessions would follow with his group, which on the label was cited as Jelly Roll Morton and His Orchestra rather than their better known name of Red Hot Peppers. Then it was back on the road for more concertizing through much of the East, primarily Pennsylvania where the group had become extremely popular. However, changes were coming, not just for Morton and jazz, but for the entire country. The bubble of Wall Street and American prosperity on leveraged dollars was about to burst, and the timing was not so good for many musicians who had been riding high for most of the 1920s. New York City - Depressing Times Moving on, as always, to bigger and better horizons, and following the lead of many Chicago musicians who had found more fame either in Europe or on the East Coast, Morton and some of his band relocated their base to New York City, just ahead of the coming Great Depression. In November and December, just after the stock market crash, Morton and various personnel recorded another set of tracks in the R.C.A. Victor studios in New York City. One of the most famous Morton poses from around 1928, which included a management address in New York City. Although they ostensibly continued to fulfill contract dates into 1930, Morton appeared to have been possibly looking for something that would keep him more in New York on a steady basis. According to an article in March of 1930 in the Baltimore Afro-American, Morton had set up a dance school and publishing house in mid-town Manhattan in the Roseland Building a few blocks north of Times Square. For the 1930 enumeration, Ferd and Mabel were lodging in Manhattan, New York, just a few blocks from Harlem. Ferd was listed as a theater musician and Mabel as a theater actor, although having trimmed some fourteen years off her actual age. More recordings for R.C.A were made throughout 1930, with sessions in March, April, June and July. Ferd also worked as an accompanist for a couple of singers, and cut a few sides with his associate Wilton Crawley. One of those tracks, Fussy Mabel, was likely written for his self-declared wife. But records weren't selling so well at a time when more people were buying radios and the parts to keep them running. The growing broadcast medium had different content played on it every day, rather than the same old material, and was usually live. During a time of economic hardship radio seemed like the better investment for music fans with dwindling funds. So many piano roll and record companies went out of business, and the larger ones trimmed their belts by going more mainstream in their choices and dropping fringe or niche acts, even if they had their fans. Even sheet music took a substantial hit in the early 1930s. Such was Morton's fate after his October 9th, 1930 session after which his contract with R.C.A. Victor would not be renewed. It would be nearly a decade before he recorded for R.C.A. Victor once more. As money dried up, so did gigs, in spite of the continuing fame of Morton's band. However, there was a flip side to this from a musically progressive point of view. Band's like those of Fletcher Henderson, Edward "Duke" Ellington and Cab Calloway, all doing well in Harlem and around the East, were moving forward into the 1930s and either adopting or setting new musical trends. Ferd had been experimental to some degree, especially with pieces like Pep and Freakish, but he was, in many regards, still embedded in his world of ragtime, blues and stomps. The recordings of his own works made this clear, even though the band did tackle some newer material by other composers. His playing style was highly unique, but did not adapt well into the age of early swing and radio crooners. Hot music also, to some, was not as appropriate a soundtrack during the Great Depression as was slower blues (which Morton did well), love ballads, and songs pulled from Broadway shows by George and Ira Gershwin, Jerome Kern, Irving Berlin and Cole Porter. To add to this, as was more readily discovered in later years, Morton was either recycling tunes under different names, or simply playing variations on his numbers, figuring to call them something different. [These are noted in the Compositions list with bracketed titles.] This musical paradigm shift made Morton's remaining band, and even himself as a soloist, less viable for radio. Even the live venues were having their own troubles, some not being able to pay well, if at all time. Such was the case when he presented his revue Speeding Along at the Jamaica [New York] Theater in late May and early June of 1931. The management of the theater was extracting funds from the nightly take to cover necessary costs for operation, but his spending got out of control to the point where, according to the New York Age of June 6, he was unable to pay the musicians the $00 he owed them. While the band was still able to find some work in dance venues throughout the East and New England, the payments were less. The advertising often cited Morton as appearing with his "Victor Recording Orchestra" even though they were no longer under contract to the record company. As they continued into 1932, appearing at times with other groups, Morton's name started to show up further and further down the list. Even though they had reigned during the 1910s and 1920s, the Great Depression was hard on musicians of color in the 1930s, and even their union in New York City was hard-pressed to address the problem with any great effectiveness. By 1933 Morton was more of a fading celebrity than a working musician. His presence at occasional musical events, some honoring other musicians, was noted in the papers. However, his band was no longer extant, some of the members having sought work elsewhere, or even retreating to Chicago or their home towns. When he played out of town it was more often than not with local musicians following his charts. Claims of him playing with the Red Hot Peppers or his Victor Recording Orchestra were only partially true at times, as some of personnel were not involved with the stellar sessions of the 1920s. Performances in 1934 and 1935 were very infrequent, or at least rarely found in newspapers that have survived into the 21st century. Morton eventually distanced himself from many of his peers to the point where he was actually ostracized and outcast by the musician's union that held jurisdiction in New York. He blamed some of the musicians for not wanting to follow his charts, and imbibing at performances. However, Morton was also viewed as singularly difficult to work with, as per an article in the Philadelphia Afro-American of April 11, 1936: THE MAN WHO REALLY INVENTED JAZZ IS NOT PERMITTED TO PLAY IT Morton in Times Square, New York City, around 1935. It is ironical, but true that the man who really invented jazz is now not permitted to play it. Jellyroll Morton, who because of his strange piano style, created this modern rhythm, because of his disagreement with the musicians' union is kept out of organized music circles and is prevented from forming an orchestra. Morton, who now makes his home in Harlem, claims that he was playing jazz long before James Reese Europe and his famous band made that type of music an international novelty during the war. New Orleans is the home of jazz, according to Morton. While Jim Europe was busying himself with the musicians' headquarters in making plans to organize a band for the 15th Regiment of the N.Y.N.G a band stole into New York from New Orleans called the Creole Band and played at the Palace Theatre for two weeks and broke all records for attendance. Sans [sic] piano and drums, they even improved on Jim Europe's ragtime. The owner of the band was William Johnson, brother-in-law of Jellyroll Morton. Europe went abroad with the 15th Regiment band where he introduced jazz in Europe, with the same results. Meanwhile Jellyroll Morton set about in earnest to develop this type of music which he called jazz and discovered that it had a much better effect if played in a slower tempo. He gave the following definition of jazz music: Jazz music is a cross between American ragtime with an inaccurate tempo and Spanish music with an accurate tempo... With that, Mr. Morton assumes full responsibility as the creator of jazz music: Jazz music is a [sic] still in its infancy... To further his claim that jazz is not yet perfected, Mr. Morton states that in all instruments there may be obtained, notes so odd and freakish that very few musicians are capable of producing them. Those who have, had no way of recording them because there were no such notes in the musical scale... The article continued on with information on other famous bands playing in Harlem and New York at that time, but did not provide further details on Morton's exile from organized music, as it were. Just the same, this and continuing financial woes may have been the final straw for Morton in New York City. He had lost most of his assets, including some enterprises he had invested in, and was in disputes with Melrose Music (which was no longer owned the Melrose Brothers) over royalties and his non-admission to ASCAP. Broke and dejected, either out of pride or embarrassment, or very likely just frustration, he extracted himself from New York in May or June of 1936 and moved down to Washington, DC, where he would find himself all but forgotten in the wake of the swing era, which would officially start later that year out in California. Washington, DC - Obscurity, Then Rediscovery Mabel, who had remained in New York, later noted that she thought Ferd had moved to the Nation's Capital with the intention of promoting professional fights, and not so much to continue in music. However, without seemingly trying to make a splash, but merely a statement, Ferd walked in to the offices of Washington, DC, broadcast station WOL in mid-June of 1936 and asked for an audition, reportedly without even giving his name, as noted in the Washington Daily News of June 23. Needless to say he passed their audition, and once he announced who he was the lights clearly turned on for most in the place. So for a few days in late June and early July, Jelly Roll Morton gave his own accounting of the history of jazz over the airwaves in Washington. Then he all but disappeared. Over the next several months, Ferd managed to find work and part-ownership in a downtown Washington D.C. bar at 1211 U Street in the black area of town. Under a variety of names, including The Music Box and The Blue Moon Inn, it was best remember as The Jungle Inn when it was finally "discovered" as it were. Morton went into the partnership with a woman named Cordelia Rice Lyle. The relationship likely went a bit beyond professional as well. Ferd Morton playing in Washington, DC, around 1937. It has been thought that Morton's 1938 tune Sweet Substitute was written for Cordelia or with her in mind. In any case, Ferd was under the radar for some time, known only to local crowds, who came down to hear him play, present little shows, and act as a master of ceremonies for certain events, keeping The Jungle in business to a degree. He was also a bartender, barrel opener and bouncer, taking on many roles that would have seemed unlikely just a decade before. A small note appeared in Down Beat magazine in a May, 1937 issue, noting that "The Originator of Jazz and Swing" (in 1906 no less) was playing at The Jungle Inn. This was seen by a few fans, including another Down Beat writer, James Higgins, who followed the trail to U Street, "smack in the center of the town's jig district." Somebody else who found him at this time, likely through word of mouth, was Mabel. After some awkward apologies on Ferd's part concerning his seeming abandonment and lack of communication, she joined him for a time in Washington, which could have been a tenuous situation, but was handled in a civil matter by all parties. She made it clear that she was accepted as Morton's wife, and treated as such. Down Beat continued to find interest in the historical aspect of the somewhat forgotten Jelly Roll Morton, and From December, 1938 to March, 1938, published a three-part article written by Professor Marshall Winslow Stearns, which outlined Morton's version of the history of jazz and swing. Having started out from the very opening with a falsehood - he gave his birth year as 1885, possibly to prove him as old enough to have invented jazz - it gave an accounting of a number of events of his earlier years; some true, some enhanced, and some later found to have never happened. To be fair, Stearns, perhaps a bit in awe of his subject, was partially complicit in the soft lies and blatant inaccuracies, having not expanded his research in many cases where it could have told another story. The attention from Down Beat was followed by other stories, including one published in Washington, which credited him with the roar heard in Tiger Rag, taking his name from the composition which got him started (albeit in 1910), and having recorded for Victor as far back as 1905 (only 21 years off the mark). There were other fantastical tales within that March, 1938, article, including Morton ending up in jail at six months with a drunk baby-sitter, and referring to the area between New Orleans and Mobile, Alabama, as the "Cradle of Swing," which is a suspect claim at best. However, Morton nonetheless represented jazz and American music history in a colorful manner, and his popularity was clearly gaining traction again, if among those interested in nostalgia or a window to the past. Even though he liked to talk about the past, he was also trying to promote his newer compositions and playing style, perhaps in an effort to become relevant to a new generation. Morton so believed many of the tales he had been spinning that he actually took umbrage at a radio broadcast he heard one evening that seemed to diminish his credit in jazz history. The March 25, 1938 broadcast of the popular syndicated radio show, Ripley's Believe It or Not, did a profile on W.C. Handy and a short history of jazz and blues. In that profile Handy was referred to as the originator of jazz and blues [a claim that has sense been disproven, as both came about by committee more so than any one individual]. Morton immediately fired off a letter that was closer to a manifesto than a simple challenge to the claim. Sent not only to Ripley's, but to the Baltimore Afro-American and Down Beat magazine, the latter who he felt had treated him favorably, the letter asked for Ripley's to furnish proof of their information, as he knew better. In fact, he had invented jazz in New Orleans in 1902, several years before Saint Louis Blues had been played in 1911 [it was actually 1915]. Having allegedly met Handy in 1908, Morton noted that he did not have nearly the ability required to play such music, and actually [a somewhat correct assertion] had taken many of his themes from other musicians, forming his own works. After going on about the supposedly true history of how Saint Louis Blues really became famous, which was through his own arrangement as played by white bandleader and self-proclaimed "King of Jazz" Paul Whiteman (also a spurious claim), he went on to explain how the standard arrangement of instruments for jazz bands evolved, and closed with a lament about the need for stricter copyright laws, no doubt a reference to his ongoing battle with Melrose Music. A similar letter found its way into an edited version in the Washington Post in early May. Before long they were a point of discussion in the music business, and in spite of Morton's wishing Handy success in the music business, it could not help but chill their relationship, as well as negatively taint the opinion of some readers who knew better against Morton and his attitude. Either because of the Down Beat articles or the Ripley's melee, Ferdinand "Jelly Roll" Morton was fortuitously "rediscovered" by historian Alan Lomax in May of 1938. Lomax was a Texas native who, like his father, John Avery Lomax, became a folk-music archivist. The Lomax ventures starting in 1933 were largely funded by the Library of Congress, and they essentially went out into the field around various parts of the country with recording equipment capturing what they felt was the most genuine or indigenous folk music from each locale. Some artists who later became well known were actually made so through the efforts of the Lomaxes, including folk singer Woody Guthrie and blues guitarist Huddie "Lead Belly" Ledbetter. In 1937 at age 22, he became a Washington resident when the Library appointed him as an assistant archive director, essentially a custodian and historian for the work he and his father had already accomplished. It was Jelly Roll enthusiast and record collector Sidney Martin who actually introduced Morton to Lomax. This presented a unique opportunity for Lomax, because unlike many of his subjects, Ferd had already been well-recorded, even if his efforts were becoming distant memories. In this instance, it allowed Alan to focus more on the history of the music, including blues, ragtime and stomps, from the slightly inflated but still informed point of view of Morton. Having obtained permission and some funding, Alan took a Presto disk recorder (it seems likely that there were two in order to overlap the end of one disc with the start of another) to the Elizabeth Sprague Coolidge auditorium, and between May 23 and December 14, 1938, recorded around nine hours of conversations with and music played by Morton. Some was biographical and some was historical in context, but in spite of some inaccuracies or selective memory moments on the part of Morton, it remains one of the first and best oral histories of the ragtime era and the days of early jazz. The resulting recordings eventually begat three separate threads, two of which, when they first appeared, were groundbreaking, even if time has managed to add a number of annotations or corrections to each. The first was Lomax's book Mister Jelly Roll: The Fortunes of Jelly Roll Morton , which appeared in 1950 some nine years after Morton's death, and incidentally around the same time as another pioneering book that touched on Morton here and there, They All Played Ragtime by Rudi Blesh and Harriet Janis. Alan, who was still in his mid-thirties when his tome was published, did the best he could with the information he had gotten a decade prior. There was some research outside of the sessions with Morton applied to the text, but much of it was riddled with inaccuracies, misalignments, or plain old misinformation, some of it coming from Morton, and some of it through the difficult process of listening to the discs which sometimes had noises or other errors. The latter problem was particularly prevalent when it came to how he interpreted the pronunciation and spelling of many of the names Morton ran off during his narrative. There have been some improved texts since that time, but one of the best sources to consider outside of Lomax's book is the research compiled at the site of the late Mike Meddings of England (see credits below for more), which although it is not as much a narrative like a book, could be considered a detailed annotation of Morton's life with a number of interesting sidebars. Without Lomax's accumulative efforts, the information we have now on Morton would be lacking to quite a degree. The second thread involved the recorded material itself. There were many faults in the recordings, the most prevalent one being a lack of consistent speed. The Presto machine(s) had been adapted to work on batteries, but it would seem likely that AC power would have been used for the sessions, unless the reconfiguration of the device removed that capability. They also reportedly ran anywhere from 80 to 87 RPM, 85 being the best average speed to reproduce the content at the proper pitch. Still, the speed was not consistent between discs, and not even from the start to finish of a single disc. Even though they resided at Library of Congress, (and possibly a copy that ended up with Morton, and then his estate), permission was needed to release any of the material for the public. After several attempts by collectors and enthusiasts to gain access to them through his estate lawyer, a representative was sent by Circle Records, which was run by Rudi Blesh, to secure the permission to run off a limited edition. The plea worked, and Blesh spent time at the Library of Congress trying to get an acceptable transfer from their staff. The job was apparently rushed, and little or no effort was made to fix sound issues, and particularly speed issues, perhaps in order to move Blesh on his way. Editing had to have been an issue, even when dealing with hard-core enthusiasts, because some of Morton's material was, itself, hard-core in its profanity and graphic content. With some effort, however, perhaps just over 300 sets of the dubs were released to the public through mail order in the late summer of 1947, which was in the form of 45 Vinylite 12" discs. It is notable that the following year would see the introduction of both the long-playing record and commercial audio tape recording, both of which would have been of great benefit to this particular project. Blesh did attempt to rectify some of the issues by presenting a release in 1950 consisting of 12 LPs, but all of the noise and speed faults remained, making it even a poorer seller than the first edition. Over the years, technology has been re-applied to the originals to fix noise and speed faults, resulting in a limited-scope 4 CD set release partially funded by Congress in 1994. Eventually the entire set of recordings, cleaned up, speed corrected, and with all of the original profanity and pornography intact, was released in 2005. The third thread was the part that reignited the subject himself, Jelly Roll was so encouraged by this growing interest in his history and his music, particularly from Down Beat fans, that even before the initial sessions with Lomax he assembled a small ensemble and drove up to a studio in East Baltimore, Maryland, to record a series of tracks. Most of them were pieces by his contemporaries, including the iconic Honeysuckle Rose by Thomas "Fats" Waller. One other session would follow in August, resulting in three of his own compositions committed to disc. They were not commercially released until decades after his death, so the intent of these sessions is unclear, but evidently one that represented the hope of the comeback for Ferd. Another set of articles appeared in Down Beat during the late summer and fall of 1938, both culled from and in response to the Ripley letter. One of those was a letter from W.C. Handy, who made it clear that he was a blues player, not a jazz player and that "I would not play jazz, even if I could." He redressed both Morton and Down Beat, the former being accused of attacking him like a "crazy man," and the latter for their choice of running the original letter with the headline "W.C. Handy is a Liar." It was backed up with a great deal of credible information to support Handy's original claim, and, at least for the time being, appears to have put everybody in their proper place historically at the very least, even though Handy was adamant about his [questionably] having created the Blues music form. Just the same, the reaction of some papers was to fan the flames a bit, and the debate on who was right, perhaps neither of them, continued in Down Beat well into the following year. Throughout 1938, Ferd had continued to work at the Jungle Inn, which was the Blue Moon by this time, with Mabel joining him behind the bar and as a waitress. According her account as found in Lomax's book, it was one evening in August that Morton had to exercise his role as a bouncer when a patron became a bit too rowdy and used some foul language. Ferd allegedly slapped the man to put him in line, and then went back to the piano to fulfill his role as entertainer. The culprit then sneaked up behind Ferd at the piano and stabbed him somewhere in the head or neck. When Morton turned around to deflect the man, the knife entered his chest just above heart. Mabel ended the conflict with a well-placed ashtray on the man's head, preventing any further injury. The customers also had to pull Ferd off the man as he was ready to lay into him with a pipe. Just the same, the chest wound that he suffered was potentially mortal in nature. Rushed to a local Washington hospital by the police, Morton was quickly put under an electric fan to combat the August heat, but also given an ice water pack on his wounds. The end result was that it stopped the flow of blood through the wound, but not inside the body. The resulting pool of blood that may have remained above his heart for some time, coupled with what may have been three-decade bout of syphilis, ultimately contributed to a decrease in pulmonary function for Morton. Had the wound been properly tended to on the spot, or the venereal disease treated with penicillin (not yet available during his lifetime), Jelly Roll might have had a fight chance. However, his descent into a death that would come within three years likely began that August night. Due to a sketchy recovery, Mabel was reticent for Ferd to return to any type of work schedule, which included the physically exerting activity of playing the piano. She would have none of it, but Ferd would have none of the alternative, and was soon playing again, albeit with more effort expended. His time in Washington was coming to a close, and he felt like the opportunity for a comeback was a reality due to the continuing Down Beat mentions, fan letters, and even the controversy. The final recording session between Morton and Lomax in December was followed by one in the WINX studio in Washington where he recorded a few sides that were soon released on Jazz Man records, based in Hollywood, California. This further encouraged him, and the decision was made. No more bartending. No more brawls. He needed to get back to a life of publicly acknowledged performance, and there was one place for that. So (according to Mabel) on Christmas Eve of 1938, Jelly Roll and the Mrs. pointed their car northward, and drove through a blinding snowstorm back to New York City, allegedly never looking back. New York and Los Angeles - The Final Years - A Hard Road Traveled Ferd's intent was clear, and by late December, even before leaving DC, he had sent a letter off to Down Beat listing members of his new All-Star Band. In fact, most announced in a letter published in Down Beat in February of 1939 were indeed well-known, even if it was more of a wish list, since not all of them stayed with Morton for very long. As for his New York status, letters published in Down Beat in February and March were shown as originating from Washington, DC, which either was a latency issue with publication, or perhaps Morton's December break was not all that definitive. In any case, he was playing gigs in Harlem by the late spring, and one at the Golden Gate Ballroom nearly did him in, even before he made the stage. Lomax, who visited him in New York, and some others, made it clear that Morton was far from healthy. The accumulative blood pool had lowered pulmonary and lung function to a point where Morton was experiencing asthma and overall breathing difficulty. Recording at R.C.A. Studio #3 in New York City on September 14, 1939. So his opening night at the Golden Gate turned into a trip to the hospital, where he remained for several weeks, according to Lomax. When he was released, it was reportedly with the advice that he should discontinue his work as a professional musician. This sage warning apparently just bounced off of Morton, who went right back into the fray. After a nine year hiatus, he went into the R.C.A. Victor studios with his band to cut some discs for their side label, Bluebird Records. Although Morton had new material to offer, he and the band, now called the New Orleans Jazzmen, recorded some old New Orleans favorites, some of which he had recently relayed to Lomax at the Library of Congress. These two September dates were his final sessions Victor records. The inclusion of musical veterans such as soprano saxophonist Sidney Bechet and trumpeter Sidney de Paris, as well as drummer Zutty Singleton, were all noteworthy, although a report in Down Beat indicated that Morton was not entirely pleased with the results or his choice of personnel. There were follow-up sessions in December held at Reeves Sound Studios in Manhattan, comprised largely of older works played as solos by Morton. These sessions continued into January, 1940, and were capped by two dates with other musicians near the end of the month. Even though it was not his intention, these were has last official appearances in a recording studio. During that period, Ferd had also done a couple of radio appearances, but regular playing dates in public appeared to have been avoided by necessity, with only occasional appearances at special events where he shared the stage with some of his notable peers. When the Bluebird album was released in late February of 1940, the event was picked up by Time Magazine, which did a short article in their March 11 issue, mostly a short biography. The Bluebird set was closely followed by the release of his Reeves tracks on the General Records label, the latter not well marketed, and therefore met with limited public interest and tepid sales. As he had been doing for the past couple of years for interviews, Ferd insisted that his year of birth was 1885, making it easier for historians and the public to believe he was actually present at the birth of jazz, perhaps delivering it as well. Morton with some of his All-Star Band at RCA Studio #3, September 14, 1939. The 1940 enumeration, taken on April 17, showed Ferd and Mabel residing in a Harlem boarding house, and he was listed as a "music composer," rather than as a musician, working from home. For this record he softened up on age just a little, indicating a probable 1886 birth year. During his time in New York, Morton was fighting two other battles, one which he eventually won, and another that turned into a frustrating mission of futility. Due to the Walter Melrose's non-affiliation with ASCAP during his tenure with Morton, Ferd was not qualified to be inducted into that organization, which was proving to be a relatively good service for protecting the legal rights of musicians and collecting royalties for them. The latter had also been an issue, and Morton felt he was owed considerably more for both the recordings and publications of his works from the 1920s than he had received. This put him into a fight with Melrose Music (which had not been run by either Melrose brother for many years) and MCA, who had hosted his tours of the late 1920s. While Ferd was pursuing some form of recompense for his work, he was admitted into ASCAP, although whether it was through a softening of the rules, other affiliations (two member sponsors were necessary as well), or simply in recognition of his contributions to music is unclear. Either way, he was an ASCAP member before 1939 was out. The royalty fight continued in the press nearly to his death. He told Down Beat in their October 1, 1940, issue, that he estimated he had been "robbed of three million dollars" in royalty payments because, "Everyone today is playing my stuff and I don't even get credit." Given the time that had elapsed since the original alleged inactions, and the changeover of ownership of Melrose Music, the end result was not favorable to Morton. Having filed an action as early as 1939, which was escalated in the spring of 1940, he ended up having to drop it by August, likely due to diminishing resources and health concerns. With his breathing issues limiting his appearances, Morton did whatever he could to stay relevant, either with the occasional radio appearance or contributions to jazz history through interviews. However, he did have big plans in his continuing efforts at a comeback. In November of 1940 he headed west, without Mabel, and back to the place where he first rose to fame, hoping he might do so again. Ferd Morton relocated back to Los Angeles, California. The trip was an arduous one, and ill-advised, given his diminishing health. Morton drove through the northern tier of the Midwest in his Lincoln while towing his 1938 Cadillac sedan on a chain. The Lincoln was not in good shape, and he had to abandon it in Idaho in a snowstorm, continuing on to California in the Cadillac. Along the way he wanted to make an old connection, stopping in Canyonville, Oregon, to visit with Anita. She had been married to a white service station and restaurant owner named Jack Ford in the mid-1920s (providing more evidence that she and Morton had never made their union official), but still cared for the aging and now increasingly challenged Ferd. This was not the last they would see of each other. Finally arriving in Los Angeles in mid-November, Ferd he teamed up once again with Benjamin Spikes, forming a new publishing company in Hollywood to issue his works and establish copyrights. In spite of his hard-fought affiliation with ASCAP, Morton and Spikes chose to align their company with the recently formed rival protective agency, BMI. In doing so, Ferd also made assurances to that entity that he could secure them a cadre of talented Negro composers, increasing BMI's overall worth in a time when many of those composers were making major contributions to white swing bands, most notably the various groups of clarinetist Benny Goodman. However, armed with charts of fresh arrangements, he hoped to perform and record new material as well, some with his old friends who had stayed in Los Angeles, including Edward "Kid" Ory, Ed Garland, Bud Scott, Ram Hall and Mutt Carey. Some of Morton's movements of this time period are partially known through a series of mildly passionate letters addressed to Mabel in New York. A number of them were full of promises never kept, and even more lamented his failing health and financial woes. That Anita had come down from Oregon in early 1941 to tend to Ferd's health seems to have never been a topic discussed in this correspondence. His friends and colleagues in Los Angeles were aware not only of Anita's presence, but Morton's failing health, which made the news in Down Beat in early April. It mentioned that he was "Seriously ill in a little cottage just off Central Avenue," which was likely the house of Anita's brother Dink Johnson. The article also noted that he had been suspended from the American Federation of Musicians for a $45 claim made against him by two other members some time back. After further indicating that his enterprise with Spikes had similarly failed, it made it clear that "He's angry at the AFM, angry at ASCAP, angry at BMI, angry at the old pump [heart] for letting him down when he had so much to do. He's just angry enough to fight back like all hell — and maybe win. Less than three weeks later it was announced in the Los Angeles Times that Morton had been secured as a technical adviser for R.K.O. pictures, specifically concerning scenes with old minstrel show dances for the film The Band Played On. This was an optimistic endeavor at best, but a role he never fulfilled. It was also around the time that his letters to Mabel ceased, leaving her somewhat in the dark about his dire situation. Those who read the news stories in Down Beat and had some concern about his plight offered to help, but Morton politely turned them down, as noted in their May 1 edition, promising that he was in better condition. "I've had plenty of trouble, all right, but I'm not licked." Unfortunately that was not the case. As his heart was working harder just to keep him mobile, Morton's strength quickly waned. In early June he was sent to a sanitarium to deal with the asthma and pulmonary issues. Down Beat reported this, albeit a few days too late, and noted that Ferd was in need of financial assistance as well. By late June, Ferd was admitted to Los Angeles County General Hospital. Anita was by his side throughout the ordeal, and had been helping defray the finances with help from her husband. While he was still questionably "of sound mind," Morton made out a will or something like it that bequeathed his assets and the copyrights he owned to her. It would later become a controversial point of contention in a number of legal battles. Ferdinand Joseph Lamothe "Jelly Roll" Morton died on July 10th, 1941, at age 50, reportedly with Anita at his bedside. She was the official informant on his death certificate, claiming to be Mrs. Morton, although there is some possibility this was a clerical decision. The official cause was "cardiac decompensation" due to "hypertensive heart disease," meaning that he literally and figuratively died of a broken heart. There were many tributes to Morton in the days and months that followed, but perhaps the least of them was his poorly attended funeral at Calvary Cemetery in East Los Angeles, noted in part in a Chicago Defender article of July 26, 1941, for who did not show up. The names that were called out for this purported lack of respect were bandleaders Edward "Duke" Ellington and Jimmy Lunceford, as well as singer Ella Fitzgerald, all of who were in Los Angeles at the time. His pall bearers included Ory, Carey, Garland, and Fred Washington, but over the years, Morton's bodacious claims and arrogant attitudes had lost him a lot of friends in the music business, even if they thought better of him years after his demise. The Legacy of "Jelly Roll" Morton In the years that immediately followed Ferd's death, Anita faced legal challenges as to her inheritance, such as it was, particularly by Mabel Morton who challenged both Anita and the estate. Morton's grave marker at Calvary Cemetery, placed by Anita Ford in 1950. Even before that, Anita had filed her own action against his official estate for monies owed to her. By mid-decade, Anita and Jack Ford had relocated to the Los Angeles area, eventually running a restaurant there. When an effort was made by a jazz club to erect a better monument in 1950, the organizers, led by Floyd Levin, thought to ask her permission to do so. They had a benefit concert planned in order to raise the funds. Anita, just as proud as Morton in a sense, denied them that privilege, insisting that she would put up an improved marker in short order. She came through at the same time as the concert, as she promised. However, the incident was beneficial in that her interview with Levin provided a bit more insight to Morton's final weeks in Los Angeles. Anita would die in 1952, and was buried in the same cemetery as Ferd, not too far off from him. A lot of the material Morton left us was not released or even notated until after the Library of Congress recordings were released in the late 1940s. So in some cases it is hard to pinpoint original composition dates of certain works, even though he claimed they were from this or that year, based on the validity of his other questionable claims. There are probably many more tunes that we may never know about, but what was left behind certainly whets the appetite for traditional jazz fans to hear more. In fact, that happened not long after he died, as bandleader Lu Watters, along pianist Wally Rose, did a series of recordings in San Francisco in 1941 and 1942 as the Yerba Buena Jazz Band. While these tracks, which included ragtime favorites and pieces made famous by Morton, Armstrong and Oliver, were limited in their reach, they are considered by historians to be the first effort of what would become a massive revival of both ragtime and traditional jazz in the early 1950s. World War II interrupted this effort, but by 1947, Rose, Watters, and selected others across the country, were finding more favor with the listening public when they played the old jazz once again. Three pianists from the San Francisco Bay area are notable in their dedication to Morton's legacy. Wally Rose was given the latitude to include ragtime solos as part of the YBJB recordings that would soon be released by Lester Koenig on his pioneering Good Time Jazz label. He would also record a full album of sixteen of Morton's works for Columbia Records with Turk Murphy's band in the mid-1950s. Another fine pianist was Burt Bales, an under-recorded and at times under-appreciated proponent of ragtime and traditional jazz. But perhaps the most legendary of the three, and the most evasive in spite of his popularity, was Paul Lingle. His vast repertoire included a lot of Morton works, as he had been influenced by hearing the master play live in the late 1910s. On his only studio album comprised of eight tracks, half of them were skillfully arranged Morton numbers full of choice subtleties that even Jelly Roll rarely included in his own recordings. The ragtime and traditional jazz revival of the 1950s helped to raise the level of awareness of Morton, as did the two previously mentioned books, Mister Jelly Roll and no less than four editions of They All Played Ragtime issued between 1950 and 1974. A more complete look at the life of Scott Joplin in 1970 through two folios produced by Vera Brodsky Lawrence and the New York Public Library further heightened interest in ragtime as well as Morton's music, and ignited the interest of a whole new generation of young pianists, including this author. Among the experts that played his works during that decade was the incomparable Richard Hyman, who cut a couple of fine albums of Morton classics. His character also made the occasional incursion into Hollywood films, either through a portrayal or at least a mention of his name, along with snippets of his famous tunes. Morton's arrangements had always been a challenge to some pianists who wanted to emulate it, or at least study how he got his sound, rather than just paraphrasing his playing. To that end, researcher and performer Professor James Dapogny spent an arduous period of years transcribing Ferd's solo works from piano rolls and a plethora of recordings, all done in a pre-digital age, often by slowing the recording down to half-speed. Checked and double-checked (it took a couple of editions to get everything right), including annotations about corrected or unintentional or possibly misheard notes, this impressive massive volume was published with help from the Smithsonian Institution by G. Shirmer in 1982. While some of the simpler arrangements of Morton's pieces still stand as a good template from which to learn, Dapogny's book does provide a dissection of some of the more challenging passages that make comprise that "Jelly Roll style" for which Morton became famous. Encouraged by the success of two Broadway revues, namely Ain't Misbehavin' with the music of Fats Waller and Wild About Eubie featuring the music of Eubie Blake, George C. Wolfe and Susan Birkenhead compiled their own revue in 1991, calling it Jelly's Last Jam. A highly fictionalized and fanciful look at Morton's life as he sees it just at that point of his death, it featured music by both Morton and Wolfe, along with dancing and choreographed fights. Some fans derided it for veering so far away from the actual facts of Morton's life, but it was well-received by the theater-going public. Debuting in Los Angeles in 1991, it opened on Broadway in April of 1992, playing nearly 570 performances before closing in September of 1993. A number of nominations and wins for both Tony Awards and Drama Desk Awards vindicated the approach to the material, and made Morton a viable commodity once again. Since the 1980s, perhaps the most well-known of the Morton interpreters and champions has been Minnesota pianist Butch Thompson. He started playing Jelly Roll's music well before his extended gig on the Minnesota Public Radio show A Prairie Home Companion, hosted and produced by Garrison Keillor. Through that show, and a series of subsequent albums, Thompson covered most of Morton's material using an approach that can be called organic, clean, and when necessary, very sparse. Very few could do what Butch can with so few notes played so elegantly, while capturing Morton's spirit in a way that captivates the listener. Another fine interpreter of his work, as well as an important researcher of aspects of Morton's life as well as his peers, is Dr. Robert Pinsker, who is also a fine interpreter of the works of Morton's contemporary, James P. Johnson. Another notable appearance of Morton's character was in the 1998 feature film The Legend of 1900 about a boy who was born on an ocean liner in the year 1900, spending his entire life on that ship as their pianist. The story is based on the book Novecento by Alessandro Baricco, who actually includes a great deal of Morton's presence in the original story. In the film over time 1900, as he is called, grows a reputation as perhaps the finest on the water, if not the land. In a pivotal scene, Morton (as ironically played by Clarence Williams III, grandson of composer Clarence Williams who was not particularly a fan of Morton's) comes aboard the ship and challenges the pianist to a duel. Both Morton's arrogance and his vivacious playing come across in a very engaging manner at the very least in the scene, as does his dejection [spoiler alert] at being bested by a supposed nobody. Still, it was an homage to the past master. In the 21st century, the music of Jelly Roll Morton is routinely played at ragtime festivals and traditional jazz festivals, and is heard from pianists as diverse as Jeff Barnhart, Brian Holland, Bill Edwards, and even the group that has been referred to as the "Young Turks," which includes Adam Swanson, Andrew Barrett, Vincent Johnson, and especially Canadian force of Nature, Max Keenlyside, as well as countless others. It is clear the influence that Morton had on his peers, even when tempered with a more factual look at his real life verses his self-improved legend, remains with us, and is likely to for decades and even centuries to come. And in the end, that's pretty much what he had hoped for, albeit during his lifetime. So continues the saga of Ferdinand "Jelly Roll" Morton of New Orleans. Even though this is a somewhat detailed encapsulation of Morton's life, which was peripheral to ragtime in many respects, there are many fine sources that drill down much deeper into his chronology, activities, relations and acquaintances. This story was assembled with original research by the author, often checking against or refuting certain information found in Alan Lomax's book Mister Jelly Roll, and the LoC recordings. However, it was also helped along greatly with the extraordinarily detailed website of (the late) Mike Meddings, www.doctorjazz.co.uk . Several people in addition to Mike made this the go-to source for information on Morton and his peers, including (and not all of them are here, but will be found on the site) Professor Lawrence Gushee, Dr. Robert Pinsker, Professor James Dapogny, my friend the late Mike Montgomery, Peter Hanley (who contributed very detailed research on a wide range of Morton topics), the late Laurie Wright, Dr. Edward Berlin, the late Floyd Levin, Roger Richard, Butch Thompson, Ate van Delden, Dr. Philip Pastras, and many others. For their efforts we should be thankful that an accurate accounting of Morton's life, like the one assembled here, is even possible. They have managed to cut through the hyperbole and occasional nonsense to set the record straight on the life of this enigmatic piano genius. Article Copyright© by the author, Bill Edwards. Research notes and sources available on request at ragpiano.com - click on Bill's head.	i don't know
The Bear Inn in Oxford with a collection of over 4500 is a haven for cravatologists. What do they collect?	Eating Out in Oxford: Daily Info’s Guide - Daily Info Daily Info Eating Out in Oxford: Daily Info’s Guide Oxford Restaurants and Cafés New Road OX1 1AY Krispy Kremes Donuts has been swankified into this wine bar in the Oxford Castle complex. Serves light bites, coffee and (obviously) wine. 25% off during happy hour Mon - Thurs 5pm - 6.55pm. Although I still mourn the loss of Krispy Kreme, 1855 wine bar is a worthy replacement. Slightly hidden in the Castle complex... read more 6 Restaurant within the Cotswold Lodge Hotel, open to both guests and the public. A Beckley OX3 9UU Approved by the No Muzak in pubs campaign and the good pub guide. Looks like a nice place for a drink and some warmth after a bracing walk on Otmoor. Under new management as of August 2015.... read more Oxford High Street, outside Scrivens Opticians A new kebab van on the High Street offering food and drink, including some organic choices. I was missing the original taste of the Doner kebab so much since my movement from Germany to UK. Finally there is a GREAT... read more High Street (opposite Catte St) Oxford Traditional kebab van. Rumoured to have fed a Univ College student kebabs through his window, which looked out onto the van. The student spent a year unable to resist the smell of tasty fried food and Ahmed was most obliging, saving the student a round trip of approximately 200 yards (360 metres). Wow! What a van, if indeed it should be called a van - more apt would be a mobile restaurant! Sooo much choice! Where else... read more Oxford OX1 4RA Portuguese & Brazilian cafe & food shop, newly opened Jan 2013, serving tasty fresh pastries, paninis, hot drinks etc. Visited here in the last week, and left feeling very satisfied after our lovely lunch. Will be visiting again. ... read more Oxford OX1 1HH Belly-dancing, shisha, and a very wide variety of mezze-style dishes (like Lebanese tapas) make this restaurant very popular. Special offers at different times of year include Christmas and Valentine's. Delivery available through Deliveroo . Al-Salam is one of my favourite restaurants in Oxford - the food is always really tasty (their tabbouleh is the best I've had... read more OX1 2JG Jericho's long-standing Lebanese restaurant, with a hotel upstairs should you over-indulge. Went to Al Shami on Saturday evening for a friend's birthday with high hopes for a delicious meal. As predicted, the food was... read more OX1 2HP Spanish tapas and - very occasionally - live music/dancing. Al-Andalus, situated on Little Clarendon Street, is set to be my go-to tapas restaurant for the foreseeable future. The food... read more Oxford OX2 6AU New bookstore with a lively calendar of readings, music and more, including bookbinding sessions. Now opens late on weekends. Love the venue, love the music, hate the beer. ... read more On the Woodstock Road (opposite St Anne's) Very handily-placed by the bus-stop, this van lures in late night drinkers after a night in the Royal Oak. So many of their clientele are students that the van is not always there outside term-time, especially on weekdays. Good chips, and they do a nice chilli sauce. I've come all the way from sunny Doncaster to sample the superb kebabs and I can honestly admit that they are the tastiest I have... read more Oxford OX1 4DF Stylish in a clean, chain bar kind of way. Large enough to mean there is nearly always somewhere to sit down. Former premises of Russell Acott - instruments and sheet music sales, 1894-1999 - as the tiled mosaic on the doorway floor testifies. Having only ever glanced into All Bar One through their huge glass windows, I didn't realise quite how large the place is! It... read more Avenue 3 Oxford Take-away sandwich and salad bar serving natural and organic foods. Very busy at lunchtime, especially in the summer. This salad and hot food bar at the back of the covered market is in my experience pretty reliable. I went to get a takeaway staff... read more OX1 3SB Nearest sandwicherie to New College, Wadham, Harris Manchester, Mansfield, Linacre... I love ATS. The best sandwiches in Oxford by a country mile, and fantastic service. I go once or twice a week and have done for... read more OX2 6TT Recently refurbished by the folks who run The Duke of Cambridge and The House. Good house burgers, and nice lager. Ale apparently also well kept (my co-consumer informs me). Nice location and a lovely place... read more Oxford OX4 1AB Characterful Youngs pub with street-front beer garden, coal fires, various games and decent grub. Toilets upstairs, hence not wheelchair-friendly. Has Wi-Fi. The Angel & Greyhound is one of two Young's Brewery pubs in Oxfordshire; the other is The King's Arms. This... read more Oxford OX1 2BT I've been a frequent visitor to this restaurant (usually at least once a week for about 5 years), but over the last few months... read more Bicester OX26 6RD Under new management! Current deal: 3 course meal for £10.00 (Excluding Prawn, King Prawn, Duck and Venison) Sunday - Thursday, 5-11pm. Offer open to Daily Info customers! Found my ideal tasty dish with the "handy curry" with naan bread. Can't fault the service either. If I had to mention the worst... read more Oxford OX1 1EU Sandwich shop and cafe with an emphasis on home made, organic, local produce - with regular art exhibitions. External catering too. Seating upstairs for 50 (room hireable for private parties); free Wi-Fi access. I just want to say a huge "thank you" to the lovely staff here who helped my husband when he was taken ill in town a... read more Oxford OX1 2PH Good, reasonably-priced, upmarket hot and cold food in the museum's attractively vaulted basement. The Ashmolean Dining Room is open on Saturday and Friday evenings. After a morning visiting the excellent Titian to Canelletto exhibition today, I went to the busy and very noisy basement caf�... read more Oxford OX1 2PH 'Rustic, regional European dishes made from fresh local ingredients...80 handpicked wines'. On the top floor of the museum, this rather classy venue has an outdoor rooftop terrace (highly enjoyable on a hot day but rather exposed in inclement weather). It's always busy, and it's definitely worth booking in advance (although if it's full you can always go down to the comfortably proletarian café in the basement). Dress is usually smart-casual and there's rarely a toddler in sight. The Dining Room can be hired outside museum opening hours, and will take up to 100 people for a drinks reception, 70 for a seated dinner and 80 for an informal buffet. We went on a Saturday to taken advantage of a Groupon offer. The restaurant was less than half full and the staff were friendly... read more OX3 9ED Refurbed Chinese takeaway, formerly Hang Chow. I have been going to and getting deliveries from this restaurant for the last 6 years as I love their salt and pepper prawns and... read more OX1 2AT Glossy and popular chain pizza provider. We had another great meal at ASK last night - the service is excellent, whether you are having three courses or a single meal... read more OX1 4DH Thai food upstairs on Oxford's High Street. Not the worst place in the world, However service was pretty bad. We had to ask three times where the rest of our drinks order... read more East Oxford culinary comic book chain, associated with Atomic Pizza and Big Ron's Burrito Shack . Burgers!The eagerly awaited (at least in this office...) new menu from Atomic Burger is now live, so we were forced to test a... read more Oxford, OX4 1XG Sister of Atomic Burger and now Big Ron's Burrito Shack , child of former Italian pizzeria Fratelli's: Oxford's own celebration of Americana, the 80's, and how much pop culture you can cram on to one pizza. Also thick shakes, burgers, ribs, wings, & sticky puds. Great evening, lovely pizza, very child friendly. ... read more Headington Quarry OX3 8JN We paid a visit last Saturday on my birthday and I have to say the food was really good, as was the service. Really recommend... read more B Oxford OX1 1HR Oxford's only Korean restaurant, located in Royal Oxford Hotel. Seats 100, private room available. Korean food is not just Chinese by another name - so this is one for the adventurous of spirit. But we hear it's authentic and very rare - there are only a couple in London and one in Birmingham. I've never been particularly keen on the idea of hotel restaurants. Perhaps too much television is to blame, since they always... read more OX1 2BQ Serves Thai, Vietnamese, Malaysian and Singaporean dishes. Sandwiched between Zizzis and the Opium Den, across the street from the Old Fire Station, Banana Tree is the latest culinary chain... read more OX1 2EP Thai restaurant close to the station. Set lunch £9.50, one plate lunches £4.50 - £5.50 Bangkok House is my favourite restaurant of any description in Oxford, and has been for years. The prices haven't risen much over... read more Oxford OX44 9HJ Lovely village pub with a cricketing theme, 7 rooms and a cracking restaurant. Oxford less than 10 miles. Excellent Sunday roasts (this weekend it was pork or beef), and many meaty mains. The lamb shank looked like about a quarter of... read more Oxford OX2 9QH 16th century pub / restaurant with oak beams and log fires. Oliver Cromwell once resided here and there's supposed to be a ghost. Specialises in welcoming all ages. The Bear and Ragged Staff has all the comfort of a classic olde worlde English pub while providing an above average menu... read more Oxfordshire OX20 1SZ 13th century coaching inn once used as a romantic hideaway by Liz Taylor & Richard Burton. One room has wheelchair access. Oxford 7 miles. OX1 2AT Zeitgeist-seizing craft beer and pizza bar, formerly The Grapes Victorian boozer. Let's face it, The Grapes was probably due a few quid spent on it. It was a bit grubby, with a fairly stubborn odour, and... read more OX5 2QD Gastropub and 9-bedroom hotel, handy for the Cotswolds, Blenheim Palace and Oxford Airport. Visited mid-week for a meal for two and received a warm welcome. The food was high quality and the portion sizes were just... read more Oxfordshire OX7 3PP 18th century Cotswold stone hotel 12 mins train journey from Oxford. 13 rooms. Restaurant serves fine food, locally sourced. OX1 2AF Central branch of the Italian chain restaurant. Bella Italia doesn't have the celebrity appeal or faux-rustic props of a newcomer like Jamie's, or the modernist sheen... read more OX2 6UJ 70 rooms in quiet suburb 1 mile from Oxford centre. Excellent hotel with very high quality cuisine. Staff very friendly and helpful, the newly refurbished rooms are very comfortable... read more Oxford OX4 1JB Serving up mild to mouth-meltingly hot burritos and American beverages to eat in or take away. I had visited when this was just a burrito restaurant and always loved their food but now they have really upped their game with... read more Oxford OX1 2DU Bill started out as a greengrocer, then opened a café and now has a chain of restaurants. So the emphasis is on good produce. It's gastropub style food, and they sell jars of Bill's pickle and suchlike. Now doing breakfasts. Menus are helpfully labelled gluten-free, dairy-free, veggie and vegan, and nutty. But the labelling doesn't necessarily translate into a lot of choice, for instance none of the breakfasts are gluten-free. However they do offer the option of gf toast, so hopefully they can make something to suit. Dining out is a special treat for most, so if you want something that looks fancy but serves standard food for reasonable prices... read more Oxford OX3 9HT Large, popular pub with gorgeous rear garden. Opened in gastropub incarnation in 2008 (by Chris and Abi, Raymond Blanc-trained and formerly of The High Table on the High Street). Live music and events (see website). Click here for a complete history of the pub. And check out their Christmas Day menu! Visited for Sunday Lunch on a beautiful sunny day. There were 4 adults and one baby - I called ahead to book and check if they... read more Thame OX9 2BL Family-run pub with accommodation in central Thame, specialising in gluten-free food (extensive and exciting menu which lists ingredients, knowledgable staff, guests are even welcome to see the kitchen to admire the lack of cross-contamination!). Also offer accommodation, and have live music on Saturdays. Plus Sunday roasts, specials board, senior citizens' meal deals and kids eat free (t&c's apply). They even stock gluten-free beer! And if you stay there you might meet the resident ghost. OX28 6BH Former Georgian coaching inn with 23 en suite rooms, bar and restaurant. Oxford 13 miles. The room seemed ok at first but it was on the second floor with no lift - oldies beware. The bathroom was out of the ark with... read more Oxford OX4 1UH Authentic Turkish food including Turkish pizzas, kebabs, burgers, baked potatoes, casseroles & more. Telephone orders welcome, but no delivery. Undoubtedly the best kebab I've ever tasted! Mixed kebab with chips, came with a well dressed salad. The lamb and shish kebab... read more 5 miles n/w Oxford on A40 OX29 6XE I think things have changed - the food is excellent and the choices are wide ranging and from our party of eight all of whom had... read more (opposite Liaison Chinese Restaurant) Oxford Boss is the best Kebab Van and Man on the planet!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! and he gives me free fruity pops!!! lol. We want him to... read more Banbury Road (nr South Parade) Summertown Oxford OX2 7HN Only kebab van we are eating from, it is realy delicious. [I assume this review is short because the author was eating... read more Oxford OX4 3XH Shopping centre cafe serving hot drinks, pastries and other snacks, plus more substantial lunch menu (jackets, paninis, etc.). OX2 6AJ Next door is the Branca Deli, formerly Gluttons. Delivery available through Deliveroo . We had an excellent dinner here of hake and pizza, good side salad, good service, lively place, good location, but we left after... read more 108 Gloucester Green, St George's Pl, Oxford OX1 2BU OX2 9LS Chic Indian brasserie on the former site of Bilash. Having had takeaways a couple of times from Brasserie B, last night was my turn for the inhouse experience, and very pleasant... read more The concept of Oxfordshire-based French culinary wizard Raymond Blanc. Lunch/dinner deals £10/£15; a la carte £25-£30. Well, just read a very mixed bag of comments! We arranged to meet friends for lunch, and took up the offer of £25 off... read more Oxford OX2 6LX Trendy coffee shop on North Parade since October 2013. Also serves mouthwatering cakes and everything you need to make coffee at home. A lovely coffee shop close to St Anne's, Hugh's and Ant's Colleges on North Parade. The coffee is really amazing... read more OX3 7AH Traditional pub. Mon - Fri set menu: two courses for £6.50 lunch and £8.50 dinner The quiz is quite busy, and the scores are usually quite high. Usually in the 50's out of 60. The lowest score I've seen is 36... read more Oxford OX3 0BP Recently placed 3rd in the Oxfordshire Restaurant 2011 awards. Incorporates local and seasonal produce into its dishes, using local meat, vegetables and fruits and sustainable fish. Had a great lunch at Brookes restaurant this week. Spur of the moment booking on the day, good value at two courses for around... read more Avenue 3, Covered Market Oxford Popular café with seating indoors or in the avenue itself. Tasty sandwiches, cakes and hot drinks to take away or eat in. Great Café but pretty unfriendly service. ... read more OX1 3DZ Classic greasy spoon, and none the worse for that. Brown's is an Oxford institution, no question. When I arrived here from the North East thirteen years ago I was dismayed... read more Oxford OX2 6HA Something of an Oxford institution (we remember the chocolate milkshakes the size of our heads when we were five). Browns serves predominantly English cuisine, with the odd Mediterranean ingredient. I visited Browns with a friend on Saturday afternoon, hoping to have a cup of tea and a piece of cake. But once seated, I was... read more 102 Gloucester Green, Oxford. OX1 2DF Describing itself as a FoodPoint, this authentic Italian serves every meal of the day with traditional fare, as well as selling ingredients in an onsite mini-market. Amazing place, truly Italian. Fresh ingredients and lovely staff members. Highly recommended.... read more Oxford OX1 2AY Upscale burger-and-salad-joint. George Osborne got a lot of flack for tweeting a picture of himself with a Byron burger. The tabloids considered it too posh. On our way home and hungry after work we decided to try the new hamburger joint Byron in George Street; great tiled decor,... read more C Oxford OX1 2DW Internet cafe offering high speed internet access (£1 per 50 minutes); colour (25p per page) and mono (15p per page) laser printing; faxing (local: £1 first page, 50p per additional page. Overseas: £2/£1; receiving: 50p per page); photocopying/scanning (50p per page/item); computer repairs; web design; network & Wi-Fi installation; mobile phone unlocking; computer & mobile accessories; toner & cartridge refilling; e-top-ups; Western Union money transfer... OX1 1AY Sandwiches, paninis, jacket potatoes, soups and homemade cakes. Free wifi. Named after the year in which Robert D'Oilly built Oxford's original motte-and-bailey castle, this lovely café attached to... read more OX2 9LH Open for breakfast and lunch. Bar and eatery in the evening. Free wifi. I just held a cupcake party for my 8 year old daughter at Café Aloha and I was very impressed. 12 girls had great fun decorating... read more Oxford OX4 1HP Crazy décor includes man in bath. They offer drinks of all kinds and snack foods including pizza. Delivery available through Deliveroo . I'd forgotten how tasty the food was! Such a lovely setting, especially when the doors are opened out and a miniature courtyard... read more Nice little independent café. Some pavement tables. Excellent, one of the treats of Oxford.... read more OX4 1UH Asian fusion deli and restaurant. Takeaway available. This is a great little cafe. Although it only looks like they have a few tables in the front, there is a large seating area... read more Oxford OX1 1RA Views over Christ Church meadow in this European café - baguettes, salads, cream teas, cakes and proper beer. This is definitely my favourite cafe in Oxford! I love their fruit tarts, which are beautifully and artistically made. Each is... read more OX4 1UE A seamless replacement of Wok To Go, Café Orient is popular, cheap and cheerful. We were so impressed we ate there three days in a row :) Chefs from one of Oxford's posh central restaurants in this cafe setting... read more OX1 2HP Chain 'French' restaurant and cafe. It had been a while since I last visited that Cafe Rouge, and the meal then had been fine. As others have noted, things have changed... read more Oxford OX4 4HX Newly refurbished restaurant 2007; outdoor catering service available. Free delivery if your order is over £8; 5 mile radius. 10% discount if you collect your order. I have ordered take-away from Cafe Spice over the past 2 years and have eaten inside on about 4 occassions. Except for perhaps... read more Oxford OX4 1EQ Café inside the Oxford University Sports Complex serving breakfasts, coffee, flapjacks etc. & daily meals. 2 computers with internet free to use. Follow signs from Iffley Road entrance, it's near main reception. Oxford OX1 4DB Chain café with nice big sofas and two levels. Can make lattes and such with soya milk if you ask. Oxford OX1 3BQ Comfy sofas. Not very good for wheelchair access, but there is a lift from the floor below. Do a gluten-free very sticky chocolate brownie. My favourite coffee shop in Oxford, its setting gives it a clear edge over similar chains. The setting in Blackwell's is completely... read more OX3 9HZ Lovely wooden bar. Be warned! It seems that the Cafe Toscana is under new management, and has now changed it's menu to 'Pizza'. Although... read more OX4 1EA Upmarket but relaxed pub with decent food and a hire-able upstairs (with staffed bar). I have to confess I was a little suspicious of the new management of the Cape- solely because they call us “Dialy Info” on... read more 135 High Street (via enclosed alleyway) Oxford OX1 4DN Fish and chips, scarily large sausages and other battered & non-battered items. Oxford's last (and longstanding) fixed abode and central chippy. Recommended! Happened to fancy fish & chips tonight, after a film. Haven't visited for at least 5 years, so wasn&#39... read more Oxford OX1 2HP Oxford has been without the Italian chain restaurant since 2010, when the branch in the castle closed its doors. Now there is a new one, replacing Strada on Little Clarendon Street. Delivery available through Deliveroo . I just wanted to recommend Carluccio’s on Little Clarendon Street as a great place to eat gluten free in Oxford - the pasta... read more OX14 5AX Thai restaurant new in 2013. Cosy little upstairs restaurant with a modern yet Thai decor. Fantastic food and service. In fact, some of the best Thai food... read more Oxford OX4 2NA Caribbean takeaway with all meals priced at £6.50 and served with salad and coleslaw. Cooked for you by 'original chef known as bloodys'! Champion House is our favourite takeaway in Oxford with amazing variety of Jamaican food. We have bought from there countless... read more Oxford OX1 2BN The first Oxford branch of a London-based Taiwanese bubble tea chain. Their tea constructions are unrecognisably elaborate. Oxford Kebab van, conveniently located nearby the pubs and clubs around Queen Street and St Ebbe's I'm not sure I'd agree with the last review (which does, admittedly, date from eighteen months ago) that this place represents... read more OX3 8JN Pleasant Headington Quarry pub with a large back garden. Serves Indian and Bangladeshi food. Have recently visited The Chequers Inn as heard it was now under new management. As a local I used to enjoy visiting but over... read more Oxford OX2 6ST Punt Station: 01865 515978. Earlyish closing in the restaurant: once you're there, the kitchen will stay open for you, but you do need to get there by about 8.45pm. It's as well to book. Went there on Saturday evening for a 'special meal' to celebrate our 45th wedding anniversary. The waiter had no time to make... read more Banbury OX16 9QA Training restaurant, staffed by Hospitality and Catering Students, with food from the trainee Chefs. They need customers to practice on. This means sometimes surprising, sometimes cordon-bleu cookery at ridiculously cheap prices. Expect to pay less than £10 for three courses. Individual and party bookings are welcome and special dietary requirements can be catered for with prior notice. Oxford OX2 6LX Pancake restaurant. This is a nice cosy little cafe-restaurant which specialises in crepes and galettes with a few other options. They do all-buckwheat galettes, though you need to check the fillings are gluten-free. Wheelchairs accommodated by arrangement Phenomenal food! A hearty seafood pasta and an exquisite crepe Suzette made for a delicious meal. This served by... read more Oxford OX1 4DH Beautiful juxtaposition of exquisite Thai food complete with edible orchid-style presentation, in endearingly-wonky Elizabethan half-timbered house. We have been eating at Chiang Mai Kitchen for years, as we consider it the best Thai restaurant in Oxford. The atmosphere is... read more Oxford OX4 1HU Like KFC, only different, and (we're assured) better! Whatever strange images the name conjures up, this is a palace for all things chickeny. There are discounts for students and local businesses, free home delivery if you're feeling lazy, and free wifi if you make it in to the shop. The chicken wings here are usually very fresh and delicious (tasting as good as the KFC wings as described below in some reviews... read more OX4 7EX Takeaway establishment recommended by our readers. The food from here is always excellent. Tastes really traditional and is always fresh and hot. The vegetable curry is amazing... read more Oxford OX4 2ES China Kitchen offer over 100 Chinese dishes to take away. Delivery service available to Temple Cowley, Slade, Town Furze, Wood Farm, Littlemore, Rose Hill, Donnington, Blackbird Leys, Greater Leys, Kings Copse, Garsington, Horspath. They've been serving chinese food for 40 years. Sadly a recent revamp means you can no longer read the fabulous FAQ about Chinese food nor an explanation of 'Wok Hey' and general good humour. But the new one retains the helpfulness at least. I am very fed up with China Kitchen. When I had my order delivered, I realised that the size of the chicken fried rice was small... read more Oxford OX1 2EB Centrally located curry house. Bill Clinton was a fan, and their wall is adorned with a picture of him. Have just eaten at Chutney's, best Indian meal I have had in a long while, attentive service plus a good pint of Kingfisher. A... read more Oxford OX2 7JL Spacious, modern Italian in the South Parade dining strip. Decked street-front dining area for summer/smokers. Delivery available through Deliveroo . We have always loved Cibo but they need to sort out their children's menus and pricing. I have to put a disclaimer in here... read more Oxford OX1 2BY Cafe by day, shisha and cocktail bar by night. Covered pavement seating area. 10% student discount Mon-Thu. 2-4-1 cocktails during daily happy hour, 5-7pm. Free wifi. OX44 9NX Thai/asian gourmet restaurant. Ample parking, all major credit and debit cards accepted. If stylishly presented (expect a crispy adornment to some of your dishes) pan-Asian food within a smart, yet amenable, setting... read more Oxford OX3 9AA Luxury chocolatier (everything handmade in Brussels). Also hot drinks (traditional Belgian hot chocolates, coffee & tea) and desserts. A great independent shop in Headington. The coffee is excellent - good and strong macchiato, as it should be. The ice-cream is... read more Oxford OX4 1HP Chain cafe, handy for meeting up before going to the cinema. Free Wifi with purchase, and internet-able computers which you can pay for. Not actually located in the centre of a golf course (as google would have you believe). This lovely little cafe is a rare find - great coffee and food (check out the waffle and ice cream offer!), welcoming staff... read more Oxford OX1 2BU Family run café with wifi access, extensive breakfast menu, customer loyalty voucher schemes and 10% student discount, serving drinks sourced from fair trade, ethical and family-owned businesses. Completely agree with the previous reviewer: it's a fantastic coffee shop, lively, friendly, great food and drink&hellip... read more Oxford OX1 3JD Pasties, hot drinks and other fayre from a hatch on Queen Street, temptingly adjacent to Clarendon Shopping Centre entrance. OX4 1HU Spacious branch in former bank. Exterior decking forming smoking patio. Visited Costa whilst on vacation. Nice ambience but the coffee was only average. The cakes we bought tasted as though they were... read more New in Feb 2012, a strangely retro branch of the coffeeshop chain. I really like to spend my free time in Odeon Costa Oxford. ... read more Oxford OX1 2BE Oxford's branch of a national franchise, offering simple, freshly prepared French food at value for money prices. I have to be honest & say that this is an establishment/location I never would have considered before - but how wrong I... read more OX4 1AB Authentic Moroccan café and sandwich bar One of my all-time Oxford favourites. Delicious food (particularly the aubergine-based dishes and bastilla), stunning decor... read more Oxfordshire OX44 7UR Fabulous restaurant(s - one Thai brasserie, one British bar) in insanely luxurious boutique hotel (branches also in London & Beaconsfield). Also has farm shop attached. The Crazy Bear at Stadhampton is part of a small chain of hotels, bars and a farm shop – the latter of which is located... read more 40 George Street / Gloucester Green Oxford OX1 2AQ An inspirational social enterprise providing accredited on the job training and routes to employment for homeless people. The Café is open to the public and there is space inside to showcase artwork from the Skylight Centre. Delicious food photos by Helen Ward. Lovely place. Delicious food in light, airy decor and fanatastic value. The best range of jacket potato fillings in town... read more Oxford OX1 3HB Properly historic pub, popular site for plotting and intrigues since Shakespeare's wife dallied with the landlord. Now a gastropub (Jan 2011). OX4 1AB 'Italian kitchen'-style trattoria & pizzeria. Delivery available through Deliveroo . La Cucina has only shut once before for a private function, but yesterday, as a special favour, they closed for the evening... read more Oxford OX2 0BN Indian restaurant and takeaway. Bombay tiffin service available. Free home delivery within a five mile radius, minimum order £10. 15% discount on collection. We've been ordering takeaways from this place for over 6 years now. It was our local when we lived on the Botley Rd, and... read more D OX2 8PQ Telephone orders welcome. Our experience of Dak Bo is that, bizarrely, they do extremely average Chinese food but excellent fish and chips!... read more Oxford OX2 7JF Cheap and cheerful eat-as-much-as-you-like Chinese buffet restaurant. All major debit & credit cards accepted (min. £10); no cheques. 10% service charge applies to all meals. Entertainment & karaoke on request. Also takeaway & outside catering. Children under 120cm pay half price. Been here about 4 times. Its a bit café tacky inside but friendly staff. Food is cheap and of good quality, only gripe is that... read more Kirtlington OX5 3JH Grade II listed building with 12 rooms furnished with a sleek contemporary chic. Restaurant serves high quality contemporary British food made from local ingredients. 20 mins from Oxford. Excellent service, fabulous food and lovely surroundings. Can one really ask for much more ? We were pleasantly surprised by the... read more Oxford OX3 0LY Soup, cakes, seasonal specials (like pancakes for Shrove Tuesday) and groceries including oddities like Caramelised Biscuit Spread and Blue Popcorn on the cob! Plus more regular foods to fill your cupboards. We're told this is a regular oasis for gourmets in the area. Seating inside and out. There are not many places in Marston worthy of a food-based journey. However, Deli-Licious, at the unprepossessing junction... read more 42A Abingdon Road OX1 4PE Sit-in (or out) and takeaway coffee, croissants, home made cake, sandwiches etc. Local art on the walls for sale Oxford OX1 2HP Delicious and unusual fruit liqueurs and the occasional whisky, plus high-end oils and vinegars. Taste your preferences, choose your bottle and take away your liquid jewels. Review - Demi John tasting. 26/11/15Oxford English Dictionary: Demijohn: 'A large bottle with bulging body and narrow neck, holding... read more Bicester OX26 6LP Superb quality food in well decorated, relaxed atmosphere. Excellent flavours with great quality of service. Party arrangements available, fully licensed. Have eaten at Denis a few times, and have enjoyed every meal! A wonderful atmosphere, pleasant service and flavours that remind... read more Botley Road, behind train station For all your late-night, en-route-home-to-west-Oxford-from-town snacking needs. I bought two medium chicken kebabs today. They normally cost £4 each, but today I handed over £10 and received no change. I... read more Oxfordshire OX13 6QJ Situated in the beautiful Oxfordshire countryside, 15 minutes from the centre of Oxford. Excellent access to both Redbridge and Seacourt Park & Ride. Available for weddings, birthdays and anniversaries, meetings and corporate functions. Part of Greene King's 'Old English Inns' group. Have visited The Dog House Frilford Heath twice recently for lunch with a group of friends and both times enjoyed really good... read more Now with online ordering. Your pizza should be with you in 20 - 25 minutes. I love dominos. I dont understand how people can complain. Lush pizzas. ... read more OX3 9HZ Order your pizza online and have it delivered in about half an hour. I always try to give this branch of Dominoes another chance, but it never fails to disappoint. Pizzas very dry and I have had... read more Oxford OX1 1HU I ordered a home delivery for a party of 10. The food arrived on time, it was hot, it was tasty, and was 50% off (because of promotional... read more Oxford OX3 7BL Dong Dong has been my favourite, for its cheap prices and generous portions. However, on my last visit 2 days ago, I was disappointed... read more Oxford OX1 1HU Refurbished autumn 2013. Formerly Ruchi. South Indian food including dosa, idly and thali - alongside the usual fast food offerings of chicken, burgers & kebabs. Free home delivery within 5 miles. This place is still the best curry house in Oxford by a country mile. The food is authentic south Indian and the quality is superb... read more OX4 2NA Add £1 and allow 30 mins for delivery. I am a great fan. The spicy French beans are addictive, last night we tried a hot sticky mushroom dish as a starter, which... read more OX1 2HP Half-price cocktails: 5-8.30pm Sun-Thu, 5-7.30pm Fri & Sat. Tables can be booked by phone. Feels rather behind the times in the overall scheme of things in the drinks world, but far and away the best of the Jericho cocktail... read more OX1 4TA Saturday live music, garden at front with benches. Sky Sports and ESPN. Would thouroughly recommend a visit. Extremely good value food and drink. The staff are efficient and incredibly friendly. We... read more E Oxford OX1 3LU This long, narrow pub is where Tolkien, C.S Lewis and other Inklings used to drink for 30 years or so. You will occasionally hear it referred to as the Bird and Baby. There has been a pub on this site since 1650. Small conservatory at rear is available for private functions (though avoid the undersides of the tables, or you will discover what 360 years of sticky beer residue does to your trousers). Ate here in December. Best service we've encountered. Young staff, knowledgeable, personable and efficient. Beer was good... read more Oxford OX2 6HJ Posh groceries (staples including dry goods, fresh bread, fruit & veg) and unusual deli items (including fresh ground coffee to takeaway) in tardis-like store established in the 1930s. Off license; several delivery services. This shop stocks the stuff you can't get in supermarkets - for example, some really nicely backed farmhouse biscuits, cakes, chocolate... read more Oxford OX1 3SA Wonderful, tiny restaurant offering Japanese home-cooking, and sushi (Thursday evenings). Unusual opening hours - check website before you travel. No reservations. Delicious lunch at Edamame today. I have never had a lunch there that wasn't, but today's was a nice sushi surprise. Unusually... read more Oxford OX2 0BS Fresh sandwiches, fruit, veg, basic domestic stuff and, of course, eggs. Also off licence, deli counter, and bakery. A good stock of local produce including milk, eggs, cheese, and veg. Thanks to the staff of Eggs Eggcetera who helped me when my baby was accidentally locked in the car outside their shop. It really... read more OX4 3AZ The first of a growing number of Nepalese restaurants in Oxford. And it's very good. We ordered a home delivery from Everest last night (Thursday). The delivery was reasonably quick, and the driver very friendly... read more Oxfordshire OX29 6PN Hotel located inside a beautiful 18th-century Georgian manor house, set in 3,000 acres of park land. Also available for conferences, weddings and other functions. Twelve miles from Oxford, Eynsham Hall Hotel has an instant impact.No visitor can fail to be impressed by its magnificent symmetrical... read more F Oxon OX13 5BH Restaurant: High quality British nosh, with many ingredients sourced from the hotel's own kitchen garden (and the rest sourced sustainably and non-GM). The farm and garden are stocked with veg and herbs, and Dexter calves, Tamworth pigs, ducks, chickens and quails. Food miles (and food yards!) are printed on the menu. Now with a dedicated vegetarian menu. Oxford 9 miles. Fallowfields Country House Hotel is a hotel and restaurant in rural Oxfordshire; set in acres of green land with frolicking... read more Oxford OX1 3DZ Amazing pasta (fresh and dried) plus delicious deli items - all squeezed into an implausibly small and beautiful cupboard. OX28 6BS Cosy gig and comedy venue, often hosting bands from Oxford. Fat Lil's had already livened up our little market town for years with its vibrant music scene but since last autumn... read more OX3 9QS Traditional stone-baked pizza. Two 12" pizzas for £12! Free delivery. Owner/manager really friendly and helpful, amazing 2 for 1 deals, good prices and fantastic pizza! Worth travelling across town... read more Oxfordshire OX20 1SX 20-room luxury 17th-century town hotel by the gates of Blenheim Palace. Beauty spa; horse-riding; fishing; award-winning gastropub. Oxford 8 miles. 1 Queen Street (at Carfax tower) Oxford OX1 1EP Hot drinks and all sorts of food to takeaway or sit and eat at their covered outdoor tables. Personally I really like Fernando´s. It´s a very nice restaurant located in the centre of Oxford, next to the Carfax tower.... read more Oxford OX4 1UE Coffee lounge which transforms into a pan-Asian buffet (self-service, eat-as-much-as-you-like for a set fee) for lunch and dinner. Free wifi. On Friday 19th it was my daughter's birthday so we went out for lunch with her. As soon as we got in the door, we had a lovely... read more Oxford OX2 0ES Concept Kitchen based upstairs at Haymans Fisheries and open for breakfast and lunch. This was started as a delicious way to promote fish cookery, which needn't be expensive and time-consuming. The menu changes every two weeks to ensure that the fish being showcased are the most recently available, and recipes are published so you can try the same thing at home. Fish and chips every Friday! See the latest menus on the facebook page. Dishes are labelled for dairy and gluten - good marks for the labelling but there is not always a dairy and gluten-free option available: check menu on facebook before you go. Prices are amazingly cheap for what looks like some fancy cookery. Oxford OX4 1AB From their website: "Fishers Restaurant Oxford has now closed – a new fish restaurant is due to open on the site in the New... read more Oxford OX2 0NA Large, busy gastropubstaurant in semi-rural location. Outdoor seating on terrace and amongst pine trees; picnic hampers available in summer. Salsa evenings and other events (see website). We came to The Fishes to celebrate my birthday last Monday. It was a hot day, and the terrace was full, but otherwise the restaurant... read more Oxfordshire OX28 4AZ 10 rooms in award-winning gastropub with excellent ethical food sourcing policy. Good facilities for disabled guests. Oxford 13 miles. Ssshhhh... The Fleece is a hidden gem! Fantastic food, superb selection of wines, excellent coffee and, even better, the service... read more Oxford OX1 4LB Riverside cafe & brasserie restaurant 5 minutes' walk from Oxford city centre & new in 2011. Food & drinks served indoors or outdoors on the floating pontoon. Also embarkation point for Oxford River Cruises (sightseeing & picnic trips). Had a fantastic meal here. The food is on the better side of fine dining, seasonal and fresh. Great service with even better views... read more Oxford OX1 4DF New (2012) Taiwanese tea bar offering bubble tea, pearl tea, oolong, jasmine & more on the former site of Gill's ironmongers. Delivery available through Deliveroo . The staff are very friendly, the venue is relaxed, pretty and delightful and the tea is fab! Love the hot Jasmine green tea... read more Oxford OX1 1JD Smart Indian restaurant close to the train station. Lunchtime buffet from £7.95. Delivery available through Deliveroo . Went in for Sunday lunch buffet - and were not impressed. The choice was very limited, the food was cold, the service average... read more Oxon OX18 4TB Charming riverside pub serving, among other things, draught Perry - a locally-brewed pear cider. Also draught apple cider. Presents Foxstock folk festival over the August Bank Holiday. Without quite reaching the heights (or depths) of the gastro prefix, this comfortable pub puts some serious dedication into its... read more Oxford OX1 5DR Lovely country pub 4 miles south west of the city. Sunday roasts, good disabled access, unusual terraced garden. The service was mixed - a couple of members being really polite, but also a couple being uncommunicative or acting as if we were... read more Ozone Leisure Park (Vue Cinema Complex) Grenoble Rd Oxford OX4 4XP Impersonal New York Italian good for hot chocolate after a cold car boot sale. Often full of children having birthday parties. I've been here a few times in 2011, as it is 5 minutes away from our house. We normally go for a late breakfast. There is a deal... read more G Oxford OX1 1BT Cow-themed café serving bagels and freshly-made ice-cream in many interesting flavours (customers can suggest new ones). The raspberry yoghurt ice-cream is to be recommended. Has siblings in Jericho and the Cowley Road . I first came upon G and D in 1992 when I was walking to the St Margarets Centre in Jericho. Never before had I been... read more Oxford OX1 2HS Cow-themed café serving bagels and freshly-made ice-cream in many interesting flavours (customers can suggest new ones). Possibly the best coffee ice cream in Oxford. A bit noisy and crowded, especially after the pubs close, but there's a tiny garden out the back, and you can read Daily Info there too. Has siblings in St Aldates and the Cowley Road . I went there alone on a Wednesday around 2pm and practically had the whole place to myself. I'm devoted to ice cream so my visit... read more Oxford OX4 1JE Cowley Road outlet of Oxford's cow-themed ice cream café empire. Bagels, cakes and drinks too. Ongoing customer flavour suggestion competition. Sibling outlets on St Aldates and Little Clarendon St . The eastern outpost of a modern Oxford institution, Cowley Road’s George and Delila always seems half full. Offering WiFi... read more Oxford OX2 6JE One of Daily Info's favourite pubs (used to be our local before we moved). Cosy and friendly, with lovely vegetarian food and nice barpeople. The pub is so nice, and the food so good, that even non-vegetarians are moved to seek it out. The pub quiz (Sundays) includes the tie-break: draw a cartoon of the landlord and his dog. Tucked away in the depths of Jericho, this vegetarian's haven boasts an impressive menu of veggie burgers, hotdogs, salads... read more Oxford OX2 6LX Nice place. Truly huge sandwiches. Do have a look at the menus, which are most entertaining. Great pub. Great atmosphere, welcoming landlords, good food and beer. Highly recommended! ... read more OX2 7HQ Upmarket French patisserie. Excellent bread and products - if you appreciate real taste and service get yourself into the premises.... read more Oxford OX2 6PE Delicious, upscale cuisine in an iconic glass house. Run by the same folks as the Old Parsonage Hotel, just down the road. After celebrating our engagement at Gee's (pre-refurbishment), and enjoying the outstanding food, ambiance and service... read more Oxford OX1 5AS Only pub in lovely tiny village accessible via the 'Devil's Backbone' footpath over the lake at Hinksey Park, Abingdon Rd. Hosts a monthly quiz on Tuesday nights, Saturday steak specials and regular Friday night jazz. Also has guest rooms. Went to the General Elliot yesterday for the Beer and Cider Festival - lovely pub to spend the afternoon in and not too far from... read more OX10 7HH 17 en suite rooms in 15th c pub. Oxford 8 miles. We have just returned from a night's stay at The George Hotel and I have to say it was fantastic! I had read the reviews... read more 35 New Inn Hall Street Oxford OX1 2DH A lively coffee, craft beer, cocktail & canteen bar. Bright but cosy, lively but low-key, George Street Social is an intimate venue with good food and a nice atmosphere. Downstairs... read more OX2 7PL Lovely, popular caf with splendid cakes, lunches and drinks and natty decor. Unpretentious upstairs hideaway and a great spot for breakfast, Georgina's is still going strong. They started serving... read more OX1 2BU Family-run Italian restaurant I have been recommended this Italian restaurant several times but had never quite got round to visiting until now. It turns... read more Oxford OX1 2BQ New (early 2008) slightly organicky, family-friendly, smily, right-on type of place with sunshiny outlook, and other products to buy as well as food. Firstly were we seated and then told that the table had been booked so we had to move, not a problem but a bit of a faff.&nbsp... read more 1-3 Golden Cross (off Cornmarket) Oxford OX1 3EU Cosy, discreetly café on two levels. No longer a Puccino's franchise, but still has the odd scribbles on the wall. I visited Golden Cross Café with a friend on a Saturday in the afternoon, and I liked it. It's down a wide alleyway with some... read more Upscale burger joint in the same vein as Byron. Delivery available through Deliveroo . This place has potential but does not deliver. As a foodie that really knows a good burger this was not good. It was okay but... read more Oxford OX1 4BG 'The site of the first coffee house in England (according to Samuel Pepy's Diary, 1650)'. Small, posh café by day (high and champagne teas, etc.), cocktails by night (happy hour 7-11pm Mon- Sat). Interesting décor, especially the door-closure device. Very crowded on May morning and at exam time. No bookings taken. Private hire available. Nice atmosphere, and probably a good place for a drink. The scones were fresh from the oven. But the sandwiches were very disappointing... read more Oxford OX1 3LU Sandwich shop and cafe with an emphasis on home made, organic, local produce. Hot meals too. Seating upstairs and free Wi-Fi access. Outside catering/delivery services too. One of my favourite places in Oxford & the top front room is a brilliant place to work, with an unspoken quiet-room agreement... read more OX5 1EA New Nepalese restaurant in February 2012. Spacious venue with parking for over 50 cars. Fantastic food and excellent service! It the best asian restaurant I've ever been to. They recently have won 2nd best restaurant... read more H Oxfordshire OX14 3JF Popular, tiny Vietnamese café/restaurant in former tea shop. No alcohol is served; small corkage charge for BYO wine. oh noooooooooo, what a shame. my boyfriend and I used to come all the way from Brighton for their delicious food, it's a real... read more Woodstock OX20 1TH Deli full of delicious things, savoury and sweet, with as many as possible sourced locally. Business breakfasts / lunches can be provided for conferences or meetings. And, as the name suggests, hampers are a speciality: gift hampers, picnics and hampers for glampers! 24h notice required, and they can come in a jute bag, cool bag or real wicker hamper. Perfect for a picnic in Blenheim Gardens. OX29 5RJ Under new management since Summer 2012. Great pub, friendly landlady, v. g. value food. Great beer too. A good old village pub with better food! Recommended - worth... read more Oxford OX1 4AS Replacing Mr Simm's Olde Sweet Shoppe, Hardys offers much of the same. Huge selection of sweets, old and new; everything from boiled sweets to implausible-sounding lemon meringue pie chocolate bars. Great shop, but they really should offer gift vouchers. ... read more Woodstock OX20 1TF I decided to treat our visiting family and their in-laws to a delicious afternoon tea at Harriet's Tea Room but was disappointed... read more Broad Street Oxford Hassan et al. I have been a faithful customer since October 2010, and I must say your cuisine never fails to disappoint. From... read more Oxford OX4 4DZ 66 rooms set in 3 acres of grounds 2 miles from Oxford centre. The Iffley Blue Restaurant is attached. Oxford OX1 4LB Popular outdoor summer venue (right on the river, heatlamps available), much frequented by students. Warning: may get busy around times of rowing events!! Has 12 hotel rooms if you don't feel up to staggering home. Guide dogs only. Have just spent two nights here and the setting is ideal for walking to the centre of Oxford. However the rooms were £130 per... read more OX13DA Hot sandwiches, Italian and Mexican food. This cozy little cafe/takeaway is tucked away on Ship Street but well worth a visit if you need a hot or cold meal. Homemade white... read more Oxford OX4 1JB A longstanding Cowley Road institution. David Cameron was supposedly a regular during his time at Oxford. On wednesday we paid our second visit to Hi-Lo and have promised ourselves that this will now be our restaurant from now on. A... read more OX27HN Best spare ribs in Oxford, allegedly. Excellent good value for money nosh. Last time I visited I was the only non-Chinese person in the place so it must be... read more OX1 4EE New cocktail bar from the owners of the Duke of Cambridge, with upstairs games room. Not at all bad if you want somewhere civilised. Bit of a drawback that if you want to get to it from the High you have to navigate... read more St Giles Oxford I had a terrible kebab here the other night. The chicken was so dry it tasted like cardboard, the pitta was stale and the salad... read more I OX4 4DZ British-Italian restaurant (under new management March 2014) within the Hawkwell House Hotel , open to non-residents. Under new management as of March 2014! The new management state 'Iffley Blue is a new, exciting addition to Hawkwell... read more OX4 1JB Authentic Italian deli with hot and cold takeaway options. After reading so many excellent reviews and having enjoyed my visits to the deli I was really excited to try the takeaway service... read more Oxford OX4 4EL Characterful free house undergoing constant refurbishment. Homemade cakes and cream teas, local beers, limited home-made hot meals (call to check hours). Room for hire. Canoe hire and boat storage. Cash payment only - no cards accepted. We held our wedding for 130+ guests at the Isis last weekend. It was an absolutely perfect day: an arrival by boat, a drinks reception... read more Oxford OX1 3EZ A sort of cross between Pret a Manger (indeed itsu was founded by the man behind Pret) and Wagamama - healthy, Asian-inspired hot food and snacks. Itsu is a well-established brand in London, and this is the first store outside the capital. Downloadable pdfs online list allergens and count the calories of each menu item. J Oxford OX3 9HP 'Grocer...deli...coffee house' with a Waitrose-customer-friendly range of local & ethical meats/fish/cheese/fresh groceries/sandwiches/bread and many other specialities. Also external catering (inc. hamper) service. Used to be great, but not so good. I have been a regular at the deli since it opened and used to enjoy my visits there. I looked... read more Oxford OX2 8PG Formerly the Red Lion, this is a new all day dining pub, delicatessen and bistro concoction brought to you by the talented minds behind Jacobs & Field. Open July 2013. Who is Jacob? He seems to be taking over the Oxford food scene. Between Jacobs and Field (the café in Headington), Jacobs... read more Oxford OX1 1HU Modern, open-plan restaurant, bar & arts centre at rear of former marmalade factory building. Local, organic food alongside selling exhibitions by local artists. Acoustic gigs, talks, films, workshops, etc. Having eaten, drunk and enjoyed many evenings at the Jam Factory, I thought it was about time I submitted a review. First of all... read more Oxford OX1 2AE Simple Italian food venture from Jamie Oliver. NB: bookings taken for parties of 6 - 14; smaller groups just turn up. My friends and I went to Jamie's in Oxford today for lunch. We all thoroughly enjoyed the meals. I had a mishap with... read more Oxford OX1 2AE Standalone pizzeria in the George Street basement of Jamie's Italian. Expect thin crust, oven baked, Italian style pizzas. OX2 9DG Indian food - home delivery / collection only. Complimentary home delivery on orders over £10. Can't believe it has taken me so long to try this takeaway (I live locally). Excellent - excellent value for money, an... read more Oxford OX2 6LX Indian and Bangladeshi cuisine. Currently free delivery and 10% discount within 3 miles (min £20), 10% discount within 5 mile radius over £25, 15% off collection orders over £15. £6.95 (curry, rice and bread) & £9.95 (starter, curry, rice and bread) lunch offers, dine-in only. Student offer: Sun - Thu dine-in only 20% off total bill, min £15 per head; mention student offer on arrival, bring ID. I do like Jee Saheb. Although I don't eat in often, it's on the route home for my partner and I, and we get takeaway... read more Oxford OX2 6AJ Excellent breakfast menu; lots of fattening things made with vaguely whole-food ingredients so you can pretend that they're good for you. Strange artworks downstairs. One of the few cafes in Oxford that goes beyond the standard coffee-and-panini arrangement; you can get either food or a sweet... read more Oxford OX1 4HS Brought to you by the same people who run Pukeko, the roving coffee tuk-tuk, this pop-up cafe is not actually located in Jericho. Apparently they roast their own beans in a warehouse there (and sell them by weight at the cafe). Formerly Baby Love, Jericho Coffee Traders have set up shop on King Edward Street. While the exterior makes it seem appealing... read more Oxford OX1 3AE Fancy new sandwich bar, where Rainbow Café used to be. Offering a 10% discount if you pay in Bitcoin, Litecoin or Dogecoin! Now they do ice cream, too. "Probably the best thing I've eaten in Oxford," a friend recently said of Jimbob's. She has just moved here from Paris, so... read more Oxford OX4 1UT Chinese restaurant and takeaway, opened in May 2014 replacing the defunct Oxford Thai. Serve a huge menu of dishes you'd expect to find, including a set £12 per person combination, and 12noon-6pm lunch specials. Offer a loyalty card system which rewards enough visits with a 10% off VIP card. Had a really fantastic meal at Jin Jin on Saturday. Very tasty food, friendly staff and good value for money.... read more Oxford OX4 1AH East Oxford Craft Cocktail bar and Eatery. Selection of craft beer as well as a boilermaker and shot menu with home infused spirits. American cuisine with a seasonally changing menu. Brunch and coffee available at weekends. With a new menu, new management and an Insta-feed of mouth-watering dishes tagged #JoePerksGrowsUp, how is this St. Clements gem... read more OX2 7DX Barstaurant, with emphasis on the bar. Lots of big comfy brown-leather-upholstered crannies to sit in. I was working in Summertown and decided to try Joe's Bar & Grill. Upon arrival the façade is rather underwhelming and... read more Oxford OX2 6AE Once Oxford's only theatre pub. Now a medium-sized, average pub with outdoor seating in a suntrap courtyard. Sunday roasts. Popped in for a quick drink before a meal last night having not been in for a couple of years. The atmosphere was lovely with... read more K Oxford OX4 1XF Refurbished and renamed since Sherpa, Nepalese restaurant Kadai & Naan offers a vast array of small spicy dishes. Free delivery OX1/2/3/4. 15% off if you order online. Delivery also available through Deliveroo . I might be spoilt by the high standard of Nepalese food in Oxford, but I enjoy Himalayan cuisine so much because the curries... read more Oxford OX4 2EA We eat in this restaurant at least once a week. The menu is sufficiently varied that we can have fun trying new dishes, and... read more Oxford OX4 1HP Kazbar has several attractive features, including its sangria, tasty tapas (regular lunchtime '1 drink & a couple of tapas' offers), Moroccan/Spanish feel, guitar on a string weighing the door closed, amazing loos & lovely staff. You can't book, veggies are well catered for and there is disabled access. If it's full you may be able to squeeze into its tiny sister bar, BaBa, further up the Cowley Road. I cannot for the life of me work out how this place has so many positive reviews, perhaps it has something to do with the fact... read more Oxford OX4 1UE Reliable, late-opening, brightly lit fast food outlet with decent sized internal seating area. Chips, kebabs, curries etc. Without a shadow of doubt, Kebab Kid is THE best Kebab establishment in the country. Has to be done after a gig at the... read more Oxford OX1 1AG OX1 2BL From a kid to a king. Halal meat, fairly synthetic but convenient. After a long and exhausting train journey I thought I'd stop for a kebab before staggering the rest on the way home through the... read more OX4 1UE 18/3/15 Temporarily closed for refurbishment KFC serves fried chicken and fries. They also do fizzy drinks. They have some side salads also. Very tasty and cheap food. Popular... read more Oxford OX4 4YB Large pub at Sandford lock. Big patio seating area with picturesque views and a children's play area. This was our second visit, but the first try of the menu. We very pleased with the service and the quality of the food. Food prices... read more 117 Bicester Road, Gosford, Kidlington OX5 2PX Oxford OX1 3SP Spacious, busy venue serving a good range of real ales, catering mainly for the Oxford student market. Multi-level, small separate bars (one coffee area). Some comfy sofas; walls adorned with photos of the pub's favourite visitors and other interesting paraphernalia. Unintentional eavesdropping on study-related conversation is inevitable. The staff are very unfriendly. Food, ale selection and atmosphere are great, but the staff need to cheer up and learn about good... read more Oxfordshire OX7 6XQ Former 16th century cider house converted into a 3* free house with 13 rooms. Set in the heart of the Cotswolds, midway between Oxford and Stratford Upon Avon (both 20 miles away). Organic and local food served. Oxford OX2 0AL Friendly backstreet local with good cheap pub grub. Sunday roast choices are pork, lamb and beef. Big screens show National Geographic channel when not sporting. There's a pool table & a rack of ships' clocks showing the time in various Antipodean towns and the red kite above the bar are worth noting, as are the photos comparing the local area in 1914 and 1993. Reopens from 1/10/15 under new management ... read more 12 New Inn Hall Street North Bailey House OX1 2DW Does what it says on the tin. Baguettes and panini underneath a handy internet café. La Baguette gives the best paninis and baguettes in whole of oxford. Their mexican chicken baguettes are just too delicous. and... read more OX3 9HP Sandwiches, patisserie, drinks etc. to eat in or take away. Give yourself a treat if you are in Headington - great food, coffee and environment, and with friendly, smiling, efficient service... read more East Oxford branch of Oxford chain of sandwicheries. Croissants and pain au chocolat very nice but avoid the pasties, they're horrible.... read more OX1 1AY Tapas, sangria and Spanish wines & beers. I really like this place. We went on a day when they had free sangria so it was an added bonus. The two for one tapas specials... read more OX1 1JD Feisty Latino venue importing Brasil into the heart of Oxford's clubbing district. Situated on the corner of Park End Street overlooking the Millstream, Las Iguanas is always packed out on a Friday and Saturday... read more Oxford OX2 7HN Excellent staff, good value and 100% delicious Lebanese food including pastries, wraps, salads and more. External catering service too. Mmmmm! I love LB's. The proprietors are indeed very friendly. The mousaka bizeit is delicious, as are the warak enab. I recommend that... read more OX4 1UE Formerly Café Nour. Lebanese & Moroccan fusion cuisine, plus shisha. Loads of vegetarian options. Welcoming and friendly restaurant on the Cowley Road - delicious Lebanese food, all very reasonably priced, and if you want... read more Oxford OX1 1LJ Oxford's poshest Chinese restaurant. Delicious food in gorgeous, winding, dark oak-beamed Tudor venue hidden behind grubby looking black-and-white facade on Castle Street. Expensive but correspondingly tasty. Can get busy. Booking recommended. A most charming and authentic Chinese eating place. Highly recommend it. ... read more Oxford OX2 6AE Despite the fact Oxford is probably the most landlocked town in Britian... there flourishes Loch Fyne fish restaurant. Sustainability is obviously a concern when choosing fish. Loch Fyne say on their website "we will not serve fish from endangered stocks and we ensure that the products used in the restaurants derive from a sustainable resource, either wild or farmed responsibly". It was lovely to meet a friend for supper at Loch Fyne earlier this week. After hugs and kisses on the doorstep we were... read more M Oxford OX4 1SJ The management describe their aim as "Just good food and good drink". See the Guardian's favourable review of March 2010 here . NO CUSTOMER PARKING. Wheelchair lift behind building. Takeaway cake and coffee. Open for coffee and toasties in the mornings. After having read the reviews, I was very looking forward to eating at the Magdalen Arms, but was not pleased with what I was... read more Oxford OX4 1RQ Vegan/veggie café with family (and hippy)-friendly vibe. Regular exhibitions and massive free local noticeboard. Free wifi. My studenthood is betrayed in this first statement: The Magic Café is cheap in price and generous in portions. It was... read more OX2 6HA Pricey but spectacularly good posh patisserie. I have been going to Maison Blanc on and off for the last 3 years since we moved to Oxford in 2007. My biggest complaint about... read more OX4 1JE New addition to Oxford's Curry Mile, March 09. I don't think I'm the only person who would score Majliss highly for food and a complete shambles on the organisational front... read more Oxford OX1 2DU Oxford's only specifically Malaysian restaurant (we think). Very impressive selection of cakes, brought downstairs from the Nosebag Cafe. No private room, but parties welcome. Great food! There aren't many Malaysian restaurants in Oxford, and Makan La is simply the best among many places in Oxford... read more Oxford OX4 1UR Indian restaurant opposite Manzil Way, noted for its friendly service (formerly Jaipur). Does takeaway with a 15% discount on collection. Also delivery service throughout lunch time. Oxford OX1 1AY Stylish luxury conversion of the former old Oxford Prison, in the city's most recently refurbished old quarter. All mod cons plus excellent restaurant. 94 rooms. Average food, appalling service, massively overpriced. Nothing else needs to be said.... read more Oxford OX2 7JL Excellent independent Pizzeria. Winner of the Platinum independent pizza award 2016. Offers gluten-free pizza bases, and gluten-free pasta on request. A cosy setting, with a bustling feel. Parking spaces available to Mamma Mia customers. Food great and child friendly, though we left grandchildren at home this time. Staff excellent - always a warm welcome. Relaxing... read more Oxford OX2 6EB Second branch of excellent independent Pizzeria. Winner of the Platinum independent pizza award 2016. Offers gluten-free pizza bases, and gluten-free pasta on request. A cosy setting, with a bustling feel. Very handy for the Phoenix! I can’t believe that living in Jericho, I had never been to Mamma Mia Pizzeria before last week. It was honestly the best pizza... read more Oxfordshire OX44 7PD It was our 30th Wedding Aniversary, so off we went.The booking was easy: we opted for luncheon, our credit-card details were taken... read more Oxford OX2 6EB Greek deli & food bar/café serving a range of soups, cakes, hot and cold dishes, wine and preserved goods. Live jazz nights monthly. Garden. Manos is a must! He does the best Greek coffee and food... a real must. Great value and friendly service.... read more OX1 4BE New Italian-with-hotdogs restaurant from Marco Pierre White, at the Eastgate Hotel. Opened February 2015. Marco Pierre White's cooking ranges from the sublime (he was the youngest ever chef to be awarded three Michelin stars) to the... read more OX4 1HU Often full - booking advised. We went to Mario's yesterday at ten past six to try to get a table - we were lucky & were seated immediately. We had... read more Oxford OX4 2HH Cosy, village pub-like pub with free fast WiFi, large garden, quizzes every Sunday and tasty beers. Slightly off the beaten track down Marsh Road, the Marsh Harrier isn’t necessarily the first Oxford pub that springs to my... read more OX1 1ER Chain American barstaurant above Queen Street. Private room seats 60. Delivery available through Deliveroo . I spent many happy hours in Maxwell's in my teens, and this was going back over 20 years ago, so on a trip to Oxford this week... read more St Aldates (outside Pembroke) Kebab van, beloved of Pembroke students McCoy's is the best kebab van I know of in Oxford city centre. Staff are friendly and efficient. The food is delicious... read more Oxford OX1 4TA As of August 2015, cod is £4.50 and small chips £1.70. Can be a 15 min wait for haddock. A few Chinese dishes (egg fried rice, spare ribs), and some kebabs. If you get the fish when it is fresh out and is light yellow, it is better than most coastal chippies. If you get one that has... read more OX4 1HP Clean and friendly Greek deli & cafe stacked with delicious, authentic Greek products. Méli is my family's favourite café on the Cowley Road. Agnes is consistently friendly and serves up wonderful coffee and fresh... read more Oxfordshire OX7 6HR 13th century stone Cotswold free house (inn) with 9 rooms in converted stable block. 23 miles from Oxford. OX2 6AG Southern Mediterranean coast cuisine ranging from tapas to mezze. Mezzeto has become our favourite place to eat before or after a visit to the Phoenix, or if we just want to meet for lunch in... read more Oxfordshire OX7 6UH Converted stone mill (dating back as far as 1086) set in 10 acres of lawn gardens (including trout stream) in what Country Life Magazine names as England's favourite village. 23 luxury bedrooms (refurbished 2008). Mill Brook Room Restaurant has two AA Rosettes; menu features local and organic produce. 75 mins train journey from London; chauffeur driven Mercedes courtesy car available to and from Kingham Station. Oxford 24 miles. Oxford OX4 1JB Cowley Road patisserie with a particular focus on baklava. Gluten free and vegan options. Cash only. Lovely, unusual ambiance here. Sauntering down the Cowley Road at 11 am, I decided to drop in and was rewarded with a lovely... read more Oxfordshire RG8 9AW Grade II listed coaching inn minutes' walk from Goring station (20 mins train journey from Oxford, 15 from Reading, 45 from Paddington). 15 luxury en suite rooms. Oxford OX3 7PD Friendly people, nice atmosphere. Offer takeaway and home delivery, which can be ordered via their website. Had a disappointing experience at the Mirabai. We used a Groupon voucher and found the management to be completely inflexible... read more Closed in March 2015 90 seater restaurant (hireable for private parties). Bring your own wine Monday to Saturday. Mirch Masala is my favourite restaurant in Oxford, and my first port of call at the start of term and a good send off at the end... read more OX1 3DQ Independent, REAL coffee shop opened late 2009. The atmosphere of Missing Bean could be described as frantic, but really it reflects its popularity. The shop is buzzing, full... read more OX1 2DU Fresh burritos prepared on site. Vegetarian, vegan and wheat-free options available. Carnitas, pinto beans, hot sauce - what more can I say? One of the few Oxford foods I miss. Always eat one when I'm... read more Oxford OX1 4HS The Mission offers hefty portions of freshly prepared ingredients, authentically cooked at value for money prices. Expect fresh burritos, tacos, salads, Mexican beers and frozen margaritas in a relaxed friendly environment. The restaurant is wheelchair friendly but unfortunately the toilets are not wheelchair accessible. Delivery available through Deliveroo . I find the Mission irritatingly below par every time I go. It's very close to where I work, so every now and then I pop in and... read more Oxford OX1 1BP Changing seasonal homemade menu, cakes and drinks. High chairs and baby changing facilities available. Cuisine: Vegetarian friendly. I was lucky enough to win free lunch for myself and a guest (via a Daily Info 'retweet and win' promotion), and so we headed into... read more Oxford OX3 9HZ Selection of sandwich fillings & bread, hot and cold drinks, panini, baguettes, cakes, jacket potatoes etc. Eat in or takeaway. Toot Baldon (about 7.5 miles south east of Oxford) OX44 9NG The Mole Inn is for sure one of the best restaurants/pubs around - case closed! It has beautiful gardens, is a beautiful restaurant... read more Oxford In the pitch formerly occupied by Tasty Kebabs as of spring 2010. Having noticed that this van has reappeared down St. Ebbe's, and equally that it's not had a review for over four years, I decided... read more Oxford OX1 3DX Quirky and rather excellent milkshake-and-smoothie bar, located just inside the Covered Market. Over 200 flavours and counting! A pink cow paintjob and a willingness to accept loyalty cards from competing milkshake bars make Moo-Moo's stand out. Expect longish queues at lunchtimes, weekends and after school. Oxford OX1 3AS Oxford baguette chain. Other branches on New Inn Hall Street, Cornmarket and in the Covered Market. Everything reduced to £1.75 fifteen minutes before closing. Good value 'meal deal'. I enjoyed a delicious mozzarella, rocket and sun-dried tomato baguette, with a banana and bottle of water... read more Oxford OX1 2HU Tasty baguettes! Other branches on Cornmarket, New Inn Hall Street and in the Covered Market. Everything reduced to £1.75 fifteen minutes before closing. 22 New Inn Hall Street Oxford OX1 2DW Oxford sandwich shop chain and delivery service. Everything reduced to £1.75 fifteen minutes before closing. We have eaten at this cafe a few times. The food has always been nice, reasonably priced, and the staff are friendly and efficient... read more OX4 1HU Inventive, friendly coffee purveyors based in Truck Store. Supplied by UE Coffee Roasters. Any new coffee-purveyor on Cowley Road isn't short of competition, but Mostro Coffee has certain factors in its favour. Being... read more OX9 2LH Free home delivery, lunchtime 2 for £8 offer. On first appearance it looks like a shabby old pub, though there are signs of some work, but once you walk inside you find yourself... read more Oxford OX4 1AR Great, friendly cocktail bar (happy hour: 5.30-8pm - 30% off) & Oxford's only Slovakian restaurant (reviewed favourably by both the Guardian & Daily Info). Delightful all round. Well-thought-out, delicious food; splendid cocktails; excellent service; nice atmosphere. Menu pleasantly reliable but also has interesting specials board. I've only ever heard very favourable things about Moya, and here are a few more. Oxford’s only Slovakian restaurant offers... read more 22 Little Clarendon Street OX1 2HU Italian gelato, authentic Italian coffee (Hausbrandt), Italian pizza, desert parlour with sundaes, waffles. Italian sandwiches (ciabatta and panini). Smart, open-plan layout. A really nice, unpretentious café - excellent coffee, ice creams, and good value pizzas.... read more Oxford OX1 2DF Wide range of authentic Sichuan treats including pigs' ears, fried bullfrog, preserved eggs, jellyfish (and many other less adventurous dishes) - plus Karaoke. Truly very good Chinese food that's as close to authentic as you'll get in Oxford. Very much worth a visit -- try some... read more N St Giles (outside St John's College) Oxford OX1 Friendliest food outlet and best falafel in Oxford apparently! Najar and Masood are likely to remember your favourite order. Also outside catering. I've lived in Oxford for 5 years now and only just discovered this place - I'm kicking myself. This is so much more than just... read more Oxford OX1 2BQ My friend and I were running errands before a big night out and, it being sunny and gorgeous, looked for somewhere to stop for... read more OX4 1JB Open 12-11.30pm, midnight Fri + Sat Nandos is a world famous Portuguese chicken specialist restaurant. I'd never been so went to one of Oxford's two branches... read more OX3 7NU Classic Bangladeshi and Indian cuisine, free home delivery I've been using them for years and highly recommend them...Food is always delicious, service is polite and delivery is fast.... read more Oxon. OX29 0RZ It is a very nice and ambient venue. I have eaten here once. I had the wild boar sausages with bubble and squeak and it was... read more OX1 3DA Reliable venue just off the bustle of Cornmarket. I went there today, by chance, for lunch and will go back again. The staff were quick, bright, and very pleasant to everyone... read more OX1 2DF Speed-noodles for all. Delivery available through Deliveroo . Went here at the weekend for a quick lunch and I have to say we were really disappointed - the food was really underwhelming... read more Oxford OX1 2DU Charming little café/restaurant just off Cornmarket. Fare is wholesome and hearty - quiches, salads, chilli con carne and the like - and portions are large. Their water glasses could be a little bigger. Why be negative about a well-known restaurant in Oxford? Most people I talk to have good things to say about it. Service in a... read more O OX1 2AY Somewhat cheesy & generic Irish-themed pub/bar. Pub grub served. Pretty good burger fare and chips, for half the price of the other 'gourmet' burger joint on this street. Honest, no difference... read more OX1 1BT Smallish, central pub serving fresh Thai and British food. Student meal deals. I come back to the Old Tom again and again for the excellent Thai food. The menu offers a good selection, everything is tasty... read more Oxford OX4 1RB Thai restaurant new in Summer 2013. Daily changing menu of only twelve items. Highly rated, and tends to be booked up several months in advance. But there are rumours of a couple of unreservable tables, so patrons turning up early on the night they wish to dine may be lucky. I'm going to just come out and say it: Oli's Thai is the best restaurant in Oxford. It's actually one of the best restaurants... read more OX1 4AP Covered-Market-style Italian/French deli. All sorts of the usual goodies plus gluten-free pasta and bisuits. In my experience definitely the best and friendliest deli in Oxford. A cornucopia of interesting condiments, outstanding sandwiches... read more Oxford OX2 6LX Adventurous sandwiches, brunches, omelettes and the like. Baguette loyalty cards available. Buy 11 get one free. Cash only. Easily the best sandwich shop in Oxford (think delicious chunks of REAL FOOD, rather than gobs of mayo), with friendly service... read more Oxford OX2 0AB Formerly The White House pub, now a fusion restaurant and bar offering Chinese and Thai food, with a good dim sum selection. Open late on Friday and Saturday nights. OX1 2BQ Formerly Café Opium. Hurrah! Rating from Food Standards Agency has gone back up to a 5 - now back eating there! And loving it every time. Great... read more Oxford OX1 2BY Specialists in homemade, organic & gluten free breads, cakes, & snacks. Speciality. Extensive breakfast options incl. pancakes & berries, Tofu Scramble, various eggs & the full English (with veggie, vegan and gluten free options). Exciting raw salads & filled spuds. Full range of organic fairtrade looseleaf teas & fairtrade organic coffee. Organic wholefoods store with over 200 lines. Spread over 3 floors, free wifi, family friendly and large tables for big groups. Simple hot food meals using grains. Private & commercial event caterers. I like to come here for a leisurely breakfast. I emphasise the "leisurely" not only because the service can be a little slow but... read more 61 Botley Rd OX2 0BP Smaller branch of the Friar's Entry store. Specialists in homemade, organic & gluten free breads, cakes, & snacks. Speciality. Extensive breakfast options incl. pancakes & berries, Tofu Scramble, various eggs & the full English (with veggie, vegan and gluten free options). Exciting raw salads & filled spuds. Full range of organic fairtrade looseleaf teas & fairtrade organic coffee. Organic wholefoods store with over 200 lines. Simple hot food meals using grains. Private & commercial event caterers. Kidlington OX5 2BP Indian restaurant and takeaway located in Kidlington. You can now book a table or order a takeaway online . Kidlington has numerous takeaways and eat in restaurants so the competition is a tough one. Having tried the majority of them... read more Oxford OX4 1JU Speciality meat, much slow-cooked and with a heavy BBQ slant, Oxford Blue Smokehouse is the latest addition to Oxford's burgeoning American food scene. Sister to the Chequers Smokehouse in Witney, this new palace of meat (and to a certain extent, cheese, and to a distinctly less certain extent, vegetables) promises patient expertise alongside enormous wood-smokers. Get it while it's hot! The Oxford Blue Smokehouse is the newest meat joint in the Cowley area. The owners – who also run a smokehouse in... read more OX4 4AQ Usual chippie fayre plus some veggie fodder. Good thick chips and friendly owner! Wonderful little place! The staff are always really friendly and helpful, the food is surprisingly cheap for Oxford but great... read more Oxford OX2 6HJ Varied and flexible business lunch delivery service. Free delivery on orders for 10+ diners. Vegetarians & the gluten-intolerant catered for. Wow - if you want to business lunch in style, call these chaps! Beautifully presented platters are cheerfully delivered right... read more Oxford Open 11.30am-1.30am daily, -2am Fri & Sat I found it useless to try to get a delivery- took about half an hour to answer! But other than that, very, very tasty... read more Oxford Kebab Van – (formerly the van with no name) George Street This is a useful van: it is very close to the centre of Oxford and in the perfect position for anyone living at the northern end... read more Oxford OX1 2BQ Oxford's first and only Kosher café, at the David Slager Jewish Student Centre. Kosher sandwiches, soup, bagels, schnitzel, fish and chips, burgers etc., all served in their spacious lounge. All special requirements can be catered for. Satellite tv, wifi, wii, newspapers and 'well stocked, diverse Judaica library'. 10% student discount. Delicious! Very reasonable prices and a good selection. Staff are very hospitable!... read more OX1 2EW Gastropub occupying the space formerly home to the Antiquity Hall. Another great meal at the Retreat. Steak was cooked exactly as I like it, rare. Lovely relaxed atmosphere. Thanks Webster and... read more Oxford River Cruises Dining Cruises Leaves from Christchurch moorings What a wonderful way to spend a summer's evening. Everything about the trip was perfect and helped my husband celebrate his birthday... read more Oxford OX1 3DX I remember this as possibly the first sandwich shop I ever went to in Oxford. Thirty years ago, in any case, and I still use it... read more Oxford OX2 7JN Formerly the much-loved Summertown Wine Café - reopened in April 2013 under new name and management after a 4 month absence. Specialist wine bar. Sample wines or buy bottles that take your fancy. Food served to complement a large selection of wines, coffees and teas. Ideal. Informal wine tastings and jazz on Sundays. I've never been to a wine tasting before. It seemed a bit intimidating - terminology I don't understand, etiquette I don't know... read more OX4 1HP Turkish/Mediterranean cuisine. Oxford's Grill is firstly a silly name for this restaurant. Though they do grill various ingredients the name conjures... read more OX4 3DH Oxford's roving pop-up restaurant finds a permanent base in east Oxford. This is a really pretty cafe, with some nice food options, but I found the price is a bit ambitious for some of the stuff ... read more Ozone Leisure Park (Vue Cinema Complex) Grenoble Rd Oxford OX4 4XP Eat As Much As You Like. Oriental / Sushi / Tepanyaki / Brazilian Roast. Seats 180. Fully licensed. No smoking. Free car park. Can't believe some people are dissing the Oxy. The food is more than adequate and they do have duck during the day which is under... read more P OX1 2EP Popular Chinese restaurant. I went to Paddyfield with my partner for an evening meal. I had never been before which was more reason to go. The greeting... read more Oxford OX4 1JJ Organic Persian-Italian-Greek-twist deli with traditional counter-style display. Offering homemade and healthy organic salads, cakes, jams, olives, herbal teas, dried fruits, and more. Oxford OX1 4BJ New patisserie & café late 2008. Steps up to front entrance (and down to loo inside) but wheelchair users can ring bell to summon help. I am constantly disappointed at Pat Val- it would only take a little effort to make it much better. Service is unbearably slow... read more Oxford OX4 1RE East Oxford's vibrant community theatre, newly refurbished in 2010. Check out the fabulous bike rack - probably the best example of a functional art installation in Oxford. Pegasus is a venue with a range of rooms suitable for meetings and presentations as well as social events and birthday parties. Can cater for multiple purposes within various locations around the building, including an auditorium seating 133 and purpose built sprung floor dance studio. The newly redeveloped Pegasus is a joy to inhabit (though, performers: please be aware that the steeply raked seating's sightlines... read more OX2 6EA Jericho's legendary long-standing burger joint. I lived and studied in Oxford in the late 80's and loved a Pepper's Vegie burger with blue cheese sauce. The fact that... read more Oxford OX2 0NG Popular thatch-roofed 17th-century riverside pub and restaurant accessible from Port Meadow as well as by road from west Oxford; very popular in summer. Serving British pub food. While you're in Binsey, why not visit the original treacle well in Binsey churchyard? Outside bar in summer. Miraculously this was my first time coming to The Perch, drawn out to Binsey by the Irregular Folk Summer Sessions Weekender... read more OX4 1UH Chicken takeaway joint. Free delivery. I am fond of Peri Peri chicken... The taste here is quite good, though not like Nandos. However, given its price I believe... read more Oxford OX4 1UH International fast food. Choose between vegetarian, chicken and beef options for your dish and then add one of eight special sauces. Minimum delivery £15 within three mile radius. £1 delivery charge. Bucks HP18 9TG Gastropub next to the windmill and quarry. An evening's cycle ride from Oxford, or the end of a good walk. Real ale, home cooked food, and soon rooms as well. Views of 7 counties from the beer garden... Oxford OX1 3DX Fantastic place: brings pie-mash-n'peas up to the level of fine art. Eat-in or take away, student deals and handy for the central libraries. Green Goddess PieWhat's in it you say? I found out on SaturdayRed onion, spinach, spices and feta,Butternut, tomato, poppy seed... read more Oxford OX1 2HP Established in 1996, privately owned, lively and informal with candlelight for intimate teta-a-tetes. Authentic French head chef. 6 menus for different price ranges at different times of day. See menus for details. Awful experience after 12+ years of using and recommending people to this bistro I will not do so again. Hassled from table, wrong... read more Oxford OX4 1AG Originally, when The Pink Giraffe first opened in January 1998, it was solely a vegetarian restaurant, therefore the association of the vegetarian Giraffe was incorporated into the restaurant name and Pink was also used because it is the owner's favourite colour! We have ordered from this restaurant many times and generally enjoy the food but on the last 3 or 4 occasions the order has taken... read more OX1 2AU Craft ales, British beer, meat cooked over charcoal and fab bar snacks. Beer Nirvana! This place is fantastic. Went in last night for a drink and ended up staying and having some food too. The burger... read more Oxford OX4 1AH Small, reliable fast food joint with some seating and a wider menu than its name suggests. In this day and age of impersonal service and internet alienation, it is a great experience to have very good food served by great... read more outside Christ Church OX1 1DP Wood-fired pizza van. Amazing silver bubble, like a 50's camper van that's been too close to Area 51. It contains on board a real wood-fired pizza oven and sells a range of vegetarian and meat pizzas. It doesn't do kebabs and suchlike. Possibly THE GREATEST pizza in Oxford. Delicious and made right in front of you - super fresh, and the option at the end to 'personalise... read more OX1 1AY Oxford's second branch of the pizza chain. The staff are friendly polite and honest with a good customer service. We were warned there would be a delay. Also a member of... read more OX1 3EU Pizza in a grade II listed building In response to the previous message - if someone took me for a romantic meal at pizza express that would probably be the last... read more OX4 6NG Delivery only (free). Fresh-made Pizza with a variety of side orders. Yep - it's all true - delivery is on time, the food is piping hot, amounts are generous for the prices (particularly compared... read more Oxford OX4 1UH Pizza outlet stating use of organic ingredients. Chicken wings, halloumi cheese etc. also available. Pizzas from £6 - £12. Cheerful and endearing service, freshly made pizzas and always enough deals to keep it competitively priced with other pizza stores... read more Oxford OX1 2LW A nice place to grab a drink before your play, or a coffee at any time. Choose between the Foyer Bar to the right of the main entrance or the quieter Circle Bar upstairs. This fine piece of architecture, designed by Sir Edward Brantwood Maufe in 1938, houses the recently refurbished (in shades of... read more Oxford OX2 8BD Greene King. Traditional friendly village pub. Buzzing even on a Wednesday lunchtime. Looks out onto Wolvercote Green, the canal and Port Meadow beyond. Heated covered outdoor area for smoking or just braving the wintery elements. Serves standard Greene King ales with regular guests, imported lagers being Staropramen and Becks Vier. Thank you to The Plough for making my gran's 99th birthday one to remember! There were 18 of us for a lunchtime meal and they... read more Oxford OX4 1JE Pomegranate is a Lebanese kitchen. They do take-away though if the weather's nice you'll be very tempted to stay and eat at one of the mosaic-ed tables set out on the street, or indoors among the spice fragrance. There's a little stove for colder weather too. Delivery available through Deliveroo . Had dinner there last night. Mediocre is a generous description, of the food, the service, and the ambience. Two of us shared... read more Oxford OX4 1AW Cosy split-level pub serving home cooked food. Sky sports and beer garden (open in the summer). Real log fire in winter. Benches on street at front. Lower bar available for private hire (£50). Went here for lunch today and was very impressed with the roast. I had slow cooked pork which was delicious. My friend had... read more OX2 7LJ Delivery available through Deliveroo . Although in a pleasant setting, Portobello was disappointing due to unfriendly staff. When we arrived and chose a table outside... read more Oxford OX4 1UE Just had a big battered haddock and freshly cooked chips - top marks, well cooked and tasty.... read more OX3 9ED Open to midnight every day. Wow what a surprise! Last Friday around 8.30pm, the wife and one of my brood along with my good self stopped off en route back... read more OX14 3HN Abingdon kebab van. I am an American student studying here for a while and I had a kebab from Posh Nosh last night. It was by far the best I've had... read more nr. Carfax Tower Oxford My friend and I went to the cinema on Saturday evening. On the way back to the bus, we stopped at this van. I have not had... read more Oxford Fresh sandwiches, cakes, breakfast foodstuffs and salads. Excellent quality fare that couldn't be fresher! Their sandwiches really are delicious and the staff are professional and efficient... read more OX1 1AY Upmarket Italian café-bar. Went to this place one sunny Sunday evening. I was impressed by the décor - the white tablecloths give it a clean, fresh... read more Oxford OX4 6NG Delivery only. Authentic Italian recipe pizzas. Halal approved toppings. Buy any 2 pizzas & get another free. 10% discount for students. Free delivery in Oxford, minimum order £9. Oxford OX4 4EF Traditional Wadworth real ale pub with Casque Marque-awarded licensee and home-cooked food. Loads of other regular community-related fun events - see our Pub Events section for details. Oh dear our village pub has been given a makeover, resulting in an atmosphere that has all the charm of the household section... read more Oxford OX2 0BE Formerly The Watermans Arms, this new pub seems to be related to one of the same name in Cambridge, and specialises in good food. Thursday night English folk session. I've now been here three times to eat in the last 3 months as my favourite choice of restaurant in Oxfordshire! - currently... read more Q OX4 1JB Independent coffee shop, regularly hosting talks, book readings and coffee tasters. With coffee, as with so many things, you get what you pay for. The coffee here is really excellent. The price reflects this... read more OX3 7BL Open 7.30am-5.30pm Mon-Sat 8.30am-2.30pm Sun. I loved this place when I was England for uni. Its been about 10 years since I was there but I still remember the manageress and... read more Oxford OX1 4AP Vies with the considerably posher Grand Cafe on the opposite side of the road for the title of England's oldest coffee shop. Tried this place again recently having used it on and off 6 months prior. The paninis are still good but the coffee was nothing... read more Oxford OX4 1AR Qumins is an attempt to create a better than average curry house, with prices to match. In my opinion it fails to achieve this... read more Oxford OX1 4BN There's something immensely reassuring about Quod. It looks right, it feels right, they get the orders right (including allergy... read more R OX4 1AG Independent Asian home baking, sandwiches and coffee. Fresh food, cash only payment. I love this place - such a friendly service and delicious pastries. Will need to try some of the savoury stuff too! Real Chinese... read more Oxford OX1 2LN 5* hotel, possibly the grandest in Oxford. Parking, for residents only, must be pre-booked. £20 per 24 hours. Spa in the basement, featuring Thermal Suite: rock sauna, bio sauna, aroma steam therapy room, steam room, ice room, and hydrotherapy. Plus 4 treatment rooms. We stayed at the Randolph overnight. I felt for the price the Randolph did not deliver that extra special something (say compared... read more Oxford OX3 0PH Greene King / Morlands pub. Recently renovated beer garden with outside bar for major events. Tea and coffee served all day. Sunday roast, including the option of gluten-free gravy and yorkshire puds. Excellent pub, the food is always served within reasonable time, well presented and tastes great. The roast on a Sunday is... read more OX1 2BN Formerly The Goose. Now recently undergone refurbishment and re-opened as a gastro-pub. There are some amazingly rave reviews here for the new Red Lion. Our experience was different, at least in some respects. Admittedly... read more Oxford OX4 1UT Excellent canteen-style Japanese/Asian restaurant specialising in speedy home-cooked food and quick service. It's cosy, you may end up sharing your table with some strangers, but the food will be delicious and authentic. Good help and advice for gluten-free diners, and lots of dishes with tofu in. They are happy to swap out ingredients. Do ask for a loyalty card as they offer free food for every 10 or so visits. Lunch: 12.00pm - 2.30pm. Dinner: 6.00pm-11.00pm. Open 7 days a week including bank holidays. I really like Red Star. It's fast, efficient, good-value and most of all tasty! They are quick to provide take-aways... read more Witney OX29 0SY All food freshly prepared on site, even the chutneys! Local products where possible. Function room available, and large functions can be catered for. The resort which the restaurant is attached to has various sports facilities including golf and spa. Baguettes, cakes, burgers, carvery etc. Outside tables. Best Baguette in Oxford. Friendly service too . ... read more Oxford OX4 1UE Cheap and cheerful Chinese takeaway/fast food restaurant. Showing an Oxford student card may get you up to 10% off. Amazingly good quality food for the price you pay. The specials menu is actually fairly authentic and better than most London... read more Oxford OX4 1JB Smart but friendly café, joining the throng of places on the Cowley Rd. We're told the free wifi actually works here! Wooden floors and tables look both sophisticated and practical, and staff seem friendly. Lots of people sit with laptops. There are artworks on the walls some of which are for sale, and the pastries are homemade by a Parisian baker. Keen for a break from the office on a sunny day, Dave and I decided to head down to Rick’s Café on Cowley Road. Famed for... read more Oxford OX2 6DE The people who brought you The Rusty Bicycle have revamped the former Radcliffe Arms. Great food (they've got a Michelin Bib Gourmand don't cha know!) and a cosy atmosphere. Grown up sibling of Magdalen Road’s Rusty Bicycle, The Rickety Press has been a firm favourite of Jericho residents for five... read more Roll With Me Sushi Kidlington area Sushi delivered to your home or office in and around Kidlington. Gluten-free options available. No minimum order, no delivery charge. Order by 4pm the day before. Oxford OX2 6LX Pleasant, old-fashioned venue with good food at reasonable prices (hence lots of business lunchers to be spotted). Lots of interior nooks and crannies supplemented by a heated & covered all-year-round courtyard, popular (and leafy, Mediterranean-feeling, and uncovered) in summer. The 'cottage' at the end of the garden is available for hire for meetings etc. In long-standing landlord Andrew's own words, "the R&C is as renowned for what it does have, as it is for what it doesn't - no games machines, no music machines and no televisual aids!". Up until a few years ago, mobile phones were barred from the premises and it was strictly cash only at the bar, although times do change, and the R&C now has free wi-fi and accepts card payments. The landlord is as welcoming as ever, and this is definitely a traditional pub with a traditional landlord - one of the most traditional you will possibly find, in fact. They serve pub food including pies and Sunday roasts - it's a pub that serves food, not a gastropub. You can even take a walk through the pub on Google Street View! This place is an Oxford classic in the most expensive part of Oxford (for those worried about prices). I've never had a duff... read more Oxford OX1 1PT The White Horse Brewery's first pub is now in the Good Pub Guide for its selection of consistently good ales, and serves food with good Veggie choice and largely made from locally sourced ingredients, mostly from the Covered Market. Live TV sport is mainly rugby, with the pub being very busy during international rugby tournaments. The Wednesday quiz starts at 8.30pm and has a couple of music rounds and a cheese raffle. When me and a few colleagues decided to go there for lunch we had a nice time. The place is like a hidden gem in Oxford. It looks... read more (J10 of the M40 - between Bicester and Banbury) Oxon OX25 Supper club held in farmhouse home overlooking the Cherwell Valley. Supper clubs are a cross between private dinner parties and pop-up restaurants, but this one is in a home setting - guests can play the host's LPs, for instance! Check out Supper Club etiquette on the Secret Supper Society website. 5 course gourmet fixed menu is usually around £35. Guests bring their own drinks (soft / alcoholic) and there is no corkage charge. This is a destination restaurant for intrepid foodies, and guests come from all over the country. They can recommend local B&B's. Plenty of nearby off-road parking. For wheelchair users there is an accessible loo in that it has plenty of room, but it does not have specialist handholds etc. The kitchens have been inspected by Cherwell and given a 5 star hygiene rating. Special diets require prior notice! OX1 3DZ Coffee, sandwiches and light lunches. Me and the boyfriend are almost part of the furniture at this point: reasonably priced for students, lovely friendly staff (when... read more 6 - 9 Hythe Bridge Street Oxford OX1 2EW Said to be some of the best Chinese food in Oxford. Incorporating the former Mongolian Wok Bar Worst food ever, ordered takeaway of Shangai Mushroom and mixed vegetables and beancurd, but there was no sign of mushroom, and... read more Queen Street Oxford This is the van that used to be outside the Radcliffe Infirmary, opposite the Royal Oak. Last year we gave it the thumbs up, but... read more Oxford OX1 1BP The Story Museum celebrates story in all forms and explores their enduring power to teach and delight. It offers a rolling programme of events (including talks, storytelling, courses, workshops, author appearances and events for the whole family) and interactive family-friendly exhibitions. We have a large theatre space that can accommodate 80 seated or 100 standing, and two rooms that comfortably host up to 30 people. This place is actually kind of amazing: a dilapidated building that used to be the telephone exchange tucked away off St Aldates... read more 31-32 St Clements (Angel Pavement) and Cowley Road, Oxford OX4 1AG East Oxford outlets of the American sandwich giant. There are various others around town (including on Brookes University campus). Oxford OX4 1HU The African & African-Caribbean Kultural Heritage Initiative promotes the cultural heritage of peoples of African and African Diasporic heritage and descent. A delicious part of this project is their Wednesday lunchtime community pop-up restaurant at the East Oxford community centre. The menu changes weekly; there are usually 3 meat options, 1 fish and 1 veggie, and everything comes with deliciously garlicky rice and peas. Service is friendly but you may have quite a wait for your food - don't try to eat here if you have to rush off somewhere soon. If you have time for a luxuriously lazy lunch, however, the food is substantial and tasty, the atmosphere is vibrant and cheerful and it's well worth a visit. We used to have delicious vegan meals there and not expensive, but is it still going?... read more Oxford OX1 4DB Over three floors. Coffee and free wifi by day. Cocktails by night. Happy hour Mon - Fri 5pm - 7pm. Private hire. Stunning unique roof terrace now open! University Church of St Mary the Virgin (entrance via Radcliffe Square) Oxford OX1 4AH Busy cafe/restaurant, always packed at lunchtime (in a queuing out of the door kind of way). Food (worth the queue) includes excellent homemade cakes, salads & filling hot dishes made of ethical, well-sourced ingredients. Veggie and carnivorous options available. Also external catering (weddings, parties, festivals). I like it here. A lot. I'm a fussy vegetarian eater & coffee lover that spends a lot of time in Italy with my girlfriend... read more Oxford OX1 3DQ Just what it says on the tin - many many different varieties of whisky, including four huge barrels of unusual brands (£7 - £10 for a taster bottle of about 3-4 glasses-worth). We think they are a chain but it's a nice idea and they have a friendly Scottish bloke behind the counter, which always lends atmosphere. 12 St Andrew’s Road Headington Oxford OX3 9DL Old, rambling traditional pub with an impressive range of free-range pies. Often frequented by medics from the nearby hospitals, yet retaining very 'local' feel. Not been for a while and hardly ever before during the warmer months but had a great time here recently. Had an excellent burger... read more	Tie
Which World Heavyweight Champion boxer (1944-2011) won Olympic Gold in 1964?	Eating Out in Oxford: Daily Info’s Guide - Daily Info Daily Info Eating Out in Oxford: Daily Info’s Guide Oxford Restaurants and Cafés New Road OX1 1AY Krispy Kremes Donuts has been swankified into this wine bar in the Oxford Castle complex. Serves light bites, coffee and (obviously) wine. 25% off during happy hour Mon - Thurs 5pm - 6.55pm. Although I still mourn the loss of Krispy Kreme, 1855 wine bar is a worthy replacement. Slightly hidden in the Castle complex... read more 6 Restaurant within the Cotswold Lodge Hotel, open to both guests and the public. A Beckley OX3 9UU Approved by the No Muzak in pubs campaign and the good pub guide. Looks like a nice place for a drink and some warmth after a bracing walk on Otmoor. Under new management as of August 2015.... read more Oxford High Street, outside Scrivens Opticians A new kebab van on the High Street offering food and drink, including some organic choices. I was missing the original taste of the Doner kebab so much since my movement from Germany to UK. Finally there is a GREAT... read more High Street (opposite Catte St) Oxford Traditional kebab van. Rumoured to have fed a Univ College student kebabs through his window, which looked out onto the van. The student spent a year unable to resist the smell of tasty fried food and Ahmed was most obliging, saving the student a round trip of approximately 200 yards (360 metres). Wow! What a van, if indeed it should be called a van - more apt would be a mobile restaurant! Sooo much choice! Where else... read more Oxford OX1 4RA Portuguese & Brazilian cafe & food shop, newly opened Jan 2013, serving tasty fresh pastries, paninis, hot drinks etc. Visited here in the last week, and left feeling very satisfied after our lovely lunch. Will be visiting again. ... read more Oxford OX1 1HH Belly-dancing, shisha, and a very wide variety of mezze-style dishes (like Lebanese tapas) make this restaurant very popular. Special offers at different times of year include Christmas and Valentine's. Delivery available through Deliveroo . Al-Salam is one of my favourite restaurants in Oxford - the food is always really tasty (their tabbouleh is the best I've had... read more OX1 2JG Jericho's long-standing Lebanese restaurant, with a hotel upstairs should you over-indulge. Went to Al Shami on Saturday evening for a friend's birthday with high hopes for a delicious meal. As predicted, the food was... read more OX1 2HP Spanish tapas and - very occasionally - live music/dancing. Al-Andalus, situated on Little Clarendon Street, is set to be my go-to tapas restaurant for the foreseeable future. The food... read more Oxford OX2 6AU New bookstore with a lively calendar of readings, music and more, including bookbinding sessions. Now opens late on weekends. Love the venue, love the music, hate the beer. ... read more On the Woodstock Road (opposite St Anne's) Very handily-placed by the bus-stop, this van lures in late night drinkers after a night in the Royal Oak. So many of their clientele are students that the van is not always there outside term-time, especially on weekdays. Good chips, and they do a nice chilli sauce. I've come all the way from sunny Doncaster to sample the superb kebabs and I can honestly admit that they are the tastiest I have... read more Oxford OX1 4DF Stylish in a clean, chain bar kind of way. Large enough to mean there is nearly always somewhere to sit down. Former premises of Russell Acott - instruments and sheet music sales, 1894-1999 - as the tiled mosaic on the doorway floor testifies. Having only ever glanced into All Bar One through their huge glass windows, I didn't realise quite how large the place is! It... read more Avenue 3 Oxford Take-away sandwich and salad bar serving natural and organic foods. Very busy at lunchtime, especially in the summer. This salad and hot food bar at the back of the covered market is in my experience pretty reliable. I went to get a takeaway staff... read more OX1 3SB Nearest sandwicherie to New College, Wadham, Harris Manchester, Mansfield, Linacre... I love ATS. The best sandwiches in Oxford by a country mile, and fantastic service. I go once or twice a week and have done for... read more OX2 6TT Recently refurbished by the folks who run The Duke of Cambridge and The House. Good house burgers, and nice lager. Ale apparently also well kept (my co-consumer informs me). Nice location and a lovely place... read more Oxford OX4 1AB Characterful Youngs pub with street-front beer garden, coal fires, various games and decent grub. Toilets upstairs, hence not wheelchair-friendly. Has Wi-Fi. The Angel & Greyhound is one of two Young's Brewery pubs in Oxfordshire; the other is The King's Arms. This... read more Oxford OX1 2BT I've been a frequent visitor to this restaurant (usually at least once a week for about 5 years), but over the last few months... read more Bicester OX26 6RD Under new management! Current deal: 3 course meal for £10.00 (Excluding Prawn, King Prawn, Duck and Venison) Sunday - Thursday, 5-11pm. Offer open to Daily Info customers! Found my ideal tasty dish with the "handy curry" with naan bread. Can't fault the service either. If I had to mention the worst... read more Oxford OX1 1EU Sandwich shop and cafe with an emphasis on home made, organic, local produce - with regular art exhibitions. External catering too. Seating upstairs for 50 (room hireable for private parties); free Wi-Fi access. I just want to say a huge "thank you" to the lovely staff here who helped my husband when he was taken ill in town a... read more Oxford OX1 2PH Good, reasonably-priced, upmarket hot and cold food in the museum's attractively vaulted basement. The Ashmolean Dining Room is open on Saturday and Friday evenings. After a morning visiting the excellent Titian to Canelletto exhibition today, I went to the busy and very noisy basement caf�... read more Oxford OX1 2PH 'Rustic, regional European dishes made from fresh local ingredients...80 handpicked wines'. On the top floor of the museum, this rather classy venue has an outdoor rooftop terrace (highly enjoyable on a hot day but rather exposed in inclement weather). It's always busy, and it's definitely worth booking in advance (although if it's full you can always go down to the comfortably proletarian café in the basement). Dress is usually smart-casual and there's rarely a toddler in sight. The Dining Room can be hired outside museum opening hours, and will take up to 100 people for a drinks reception, 70 for a seated dinner and 80 for an informal buffet. We went on a Saturday to taken advantage of a Groupon offer. The restaurant was less than half full and the staff were friendly... read more OX3 9ED Refurbed Chinese takeaway, formerly Hang Chow. I have been going to and getting deliveries from this restaurant for the last 6 years as I love their salt and pepper prawns and... read more OX1 2AT Glossy and popular chain pizza provider. We had another great meal at ASK last night - the service is excellent, whether you are having three courses or a single meal... read more OX1 4DH Thai food upstairs on Oxford's High Street. Not the worst place in the world, However service was pretty bad. We had to ask three times where the rest of our drinks order... read more East Oxford culinary comic book chain, associated with Atomic Pizza and Big Ron's Burrito Shack . Burgers!The eagerly awaited (at least in this office...) new menu from Atomic Burger is now live, so we were forced to test a... read more Oxford, OX4 1XG Sister of Atomic Burger and now Big Ron's Burrito Shack , child of former Italian pizzeria Fratelli's: Oxford's own celebration of Americana, the 80's, and how much pop culture you can cram on to one pizza. Also thick shakes, burgers, ribs, wings, & sticky puds. Great evening, lovely pizza, very child friendly. ... read more Headington Quarry OX3 8JN We paid a visit last Saturday on my birthday and I have to say the food was really good, as was the service. Really recommend... read more B Oxford OX1 1HR Oxford's only Korean restaurant, located in Royal Oxford Hotel. Seats 100, private room available. Korean food is not just Chinese by another name - so this is one for the adventurous of spirit. But we hear it's authentic and very rare - there are only a couple in London and one in Birmingham. I've never been particularly keen on the idea of hotel restaurants. Perhaps too much television is to blame, since they always... read more OX1 2BQ Serves Thai, Vietnamese, Malaysian and Singaporean dishes. Sandwiched between Zizzis and the Opium Den, across the street from the Old Fire Station, Banana Tree is the latest culinary chain... read more OX1 2EP Thai restaurant close to the station. Set lunch £9.50, one plate lunches £4.50 - £5.50 Bangkok House is my favourite restaurant of any description in Oxford, and has been for years. The prices haven't risen much over... read more Oxford OX44 9HJ Lovely village pub with a cricketing theme, 7 rooms and a cracking restaurant. Oxford less than 10 miles. Excellent Sunday roasts (this weekend it was pork or beef), and many meaty mains. The lamb shank looked like about a quarter of... read more Oxford OX2 9QH 16th century pub / restaurant with oak beams and log fires. Oliver Cromwell once resided here and there's supposed to be a ghost. Specialises in welcoming all ages. The Bear and Ragged Staff has all the comfort of a classic olde worlde English pub while providing an above average menu... read more Oxfordshire OX20 1SZ 13th century coaching inn once used as a romantic hideaway by Liz Taylor & Richard Burton. One room has wheelchair access. Oxford 7 miles. OX1 2AT Zeitgeist-seizing craft beer and pizza bar, formerly The Grapes Victorian boozer. Let's face it, The Grapes was probably due a few quid spent on it. It was a bit grubby, with a fairly stubborn odour, and... read more OX5 2QD Gastropub and 9-bedroom hotel, handy for the Cotswolds, Blenheim Palace and Oxford Airport. Visited mid-week for a meal for two and received a warm welcome. The food was high quality and the portion sizes were just... read more Oxfordshire OX7 3PP 18th century Cotswold stone hotel 12 mins train journey from Oxford. 13 rooms. Restaurant serves fine food, locally sourced. OX1 2AF Central branch of the Italian chain restaurant. Bella Italia doesn't have the celebrity appeal or faux-rustic props of a newcomer like Jamie's, or the modernist sheen... read more OX2 6UJ 70 rooms in quiet suburb 1 mile from Oxford centre. Excellent hotel with very high quality cuisine. Staff very friendly and helpful, the newly refurbished rooms are very comfortable... read more Oxford OX4 1JB Serving up mild to mouth-meltingly hot burritos and American beverages to eat in or take away. I had visited when this was just a burrito restaurant and always loved their food but now they have really upped their game with... read more Oxford OX1 2DU Bill started out as a greengrocer, then opened a café and now has a chain of restaurants. So the emphasis is on good produce. It's gastropub style food, and they sell jars of Bill's pickle and suchlike. Now doing breakfasts. Menus are helpfully labelled gluten-free, dairy-free, veggie and vegan, and nutty. But the labelling doesn't necessarily translate into a lot of choice, for instance none of the breakfasts are gluten-free. However they do offer the option of gf toast, so hopefully they can make something to suit. Dining out is a special treat for most, so if you want something that looks fancy but serves standard food for reasonable prices... read more Oxford OX3 9HT Large, popular pub with gorgeous rear garden. Opened in gastropub incarnation in 2008 (by Chris and Abi, Raymond Blanc-trained and formerly of The High Table on the High Street). Live music and events (see website). Click here for a complete history of the pub. And check out their Christmas Day menu! Visited for Sunday Lunch on a beautiful sunny day. There were 4 adults and one baby - I called ahead to book and check if they... read more Thame OX9 2BL Family-run pub with accommodation in central Thame, specialising in gluten-free food (extensive and exciting menu which lists ingredients, knowledgable staff, guests are even welcome to see the kitchen to admire the lack of cross-contamination!). Also offer accommodation, and have live music on Saturdays. Plus Sunday roasts, specials board, senior citizens' meal deals and kids eat free (t&c's apply). They even stock gluten-free beer! And if you stay there you might meet the resident ghost. OX28 6BH Former Georgian coaching inn with 23 en suite rooms, bar and restaurant. Oxford 13 miles. The room seemed ok at first but it was on the second floor with no lift - oldies beware. The bathroom was out of the ark with... read more Oxford OX4 1UH Authentic Turkish food including Turkish pizzas, kebabs, burgers, baked potatoes, casseroles & more. Telephone orders welcome, but no delivery. Undoubtedly the best kebab I've ever tasted! Mixed kebab with chips, came with a well dressed salad. The lamb and shish kebab... read more 5 miles n/w Oxford on A40 OX29 6XE I think things have changed - the food is excellent and the choices are wide ranging and from our party of eight all of whom had... read more (opposite Liaison Chinese Restaurant) Oxford Boss is the best Kebab Van and Man on the planet!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! and he gives me free fruity pops!!! lol. We want him to... read more Banbury Road (nr South Parade) Summertown Oxford OX2 7HN Only kebab van we are eating from, it is realy delicious. [I assume this review is short because the author was eating... read more Oxford OX4 3XH Shopping centre cafe serving hot drinks, pastries and other snacks, plus more substantial lunch menu (jackets, paninis, etc.). OX2 6AJ Next door is the Branca Deli, formerly Gluttons. Delivery available through Deliveroo . We had an excellent dinner here of hake and pizza, good side salad, good service, lively place, good location, but we left after... read more 108 Gloucester Green, St George's Pl, Oxford OX1 2BU OX2 9LS Chic Indian brasserie on the former site of Bilash. Having had takeaways a couple of times from Brasserie B, last night was my turn for the inhouse experience, and very pleasant... read more The concept of Oxfordshire-based French culinary wizard Raymond Blanc. Lunch/dinner deals £10/£15; a la carte £25-£30. Well, just read a very mixed bag of comments! We arranged to meet friends for lunch, and took up the offer of £25 off... read more Oxford OX2 6LX Trendy coffee shop on North Parade since October 2013. Also serves mouthwatering cakes and everything you need to make coffee at home. A lovely coffee shop close to St Anne's, Hugh's and Ant's Colleges on North Parade. The coffee is really amazing... read more OX3 7AH Traditional pub. Mon - Fri set menu: two courses for £6.50 lunch and £8.50 dinner The quiz is quite busy, and the scores are usually quite high. Usually in the 50's out of 60. The lowest score I've seen is 36... read more Oxford OX3 0BP Recently placed 3rd in the Oxfordshire Restaurant 2011 awards. Incorporates local and seasonal produce into its dishes, using local meat, vegetables and fruits and sustainable fish. Had a great lunch at Brookes restaurant this week. Spur of the moment booking on the day, good value at two courses for around... read more Avenue 3, Covered Market Oxford Popular café with seating indoors or in the avenue itself. Tasty sandwiches, cakes and hot drinks to take away or eat in. Great Café but pretty unfriendly service. ... read more OX1 3DZ Classic greasy spoon, and none the worse for that. Brown's is an Oxford institution, no question. When I arrived here from the North East thirteen years ago I was dismayed... read more Oxford OX2 6HA Something of an Oxford institution (we remember the chocolate milkshakes the size of our heads when we were five). Browns serves predominantly English cuisine, with the odd Mediterranean ingredient. I visited Browns with a friend on Saturday afternoon, hoping to have a cup of tea and a piece of cake. But once seated, I was... read more 102 Gloucester Green, Oxford. OX1 2DF Describing itself as a FoodPoint, this authentic Italian serves every meal of the day with traditional fare, as well as selling ingredients in an onsite mini-market. Amazing place, truly Italian. Fresh ingredients and lovely staff members. Highly recommended.... read more Oxford OX1 2AY Upscale burger-and-salad-joint. George Osborne got a lot of flack for tweeting a picture of himself with a Byron burger. The tabloids considered it too posh. On our way home and hungry after work we decided to try the new hamburger joint Byron in George Street; great tiled decor,... read more C Oxford OX1 2DW Internet cafe offering high speed internet access (£1 per 50 minutes); colour (25p per page) and mono (15p per page) laser printing; faxing (local: £1 first page, 50p per additional page. Overseas: £2/£1; receiving: 50p per page); photocopying/scanning (50p per page/item); computer repairs; web design; network & Wi-Fi installation; mobile phone unlocking; computer & mobile accessories; toner & cartridge refilling; e-top-ups; Western Union money transfer... OX1 1AY Sandwiches, paninis, jacket potatoes, soups and homemade cakes. Free wifi. Named after the year in which Robert D'Oilly built Oxford's original motte-and-bailey castle, this lovely café attached to... read more OX2 9LH Open for breakfast and lunch. Bar and eatery in the evening. Free wifi. I just held a cupcake party for my 8 year old daughter at Café Aloha and I was very impressed. 12 girls had great fun decorating... read more Oxford OX4 1HP Crazy décor includes man in bath. They offer drinks of all kinds and snack foods including pizza. Delivery available through Deliveroo . I'd forgotten how tasty the food was! Such a lovely setting, especially when the doors are opened out and a miniature courtyard... read more Nice little independent café. Some pavement tables. Excellent, one of the treats of Oxford.... read more OX4 1UH Asian fusion deli and restaurant. Takeaway available. This is a great little cafe. Although it only looks like they have a few tables in the front, there is a large seating area... read more Oxford OX1 1RA Views over Christ Church meadow in this European café - baguettes, salads, cream teas, cakes and proper beer. This is definitely my favourite cafe in Oxford! I love their fruit tarts, which are beautifully and artistically made. Each is... read more OX4 1UE A seamless replacement of Wok To Go, Café Orient is popular, cheap and cheerful. We were so impressed we ate there three days in a row :) Chefs from one of Oxford's posh central restaurants in this cafe setting... read more OX1 2HP Chain 'French' restaurant and cafe. It had been a while since I last visited that Cafe Rouge, and the meal then had been fine. As others have noted, things have changed... read more Oxford OX4 4HX Newly refurbished restaurant 2007; outdoor catering service available. Free delivery if your order is over £8; 5 mile radius. 10% discount if you collect your order. I have ordered take-away from Cafe Spice over the past 2 years and have eaten inside on about 4 occassions. Except for perhaps... read more Oxford OX4 1EQ Café inside the Oxford University Sports Complex serving breakfasts, coffee, flapjacks etc. & daily meals. 2 computers with internet free to use. Follow signs from Iffley Road entrance, it's near main reception. Oxford OX1 4DB Chain café with nice big sofas and two levels. Can make lattes and such with soya milk if you ask. Oxford OX1 3BQ Comfy sofas. Not very good for wheelchair access, but there is a lift from the floor below. Do a gluten-free very sticky chocolate brownie. My favourite coffee shop in Oxford, its setting gives it a clear edge over similar chains. The setting in Blackwell's is completely... read more OX3 9HZ Lovely wooden bar. Be warned! It seems that the Cafe Toscana is under new management, and has now changed it's menu to 'Pizza'. Although... read more OX4 1EA Upmarket but relaxed pub with decent food and a hire-able upstairs (with staffed bar). I have to confess I was a little suspicious of the new management of the Cape- solely because they call us “Dialy Info” on... read more 135 High Street (via enclosed alleyway) Oxford OX1 4DN Fish and chips, scarily large sausages and other battered & non-battered items. Oxford's last (and longstanding) fixed abode and central chippy. Recommended! Happened to fancy fish & chips tonight, after a film. Haven't visited for at least 5 years, so wasn&#39... read more Oxford OX1 2HP Oxford has been without the Italian chain restaurant since 2010, when the branch in the castle closed its doors. Now there is a new one, replacing Strada on Little Clarendon Street. Delivery available through Deliveroo . I just wanted to recommend Carluccio’s on Little Clarendon Street as a great place to eat gluten free in Oxford - the pasta... read more OX14 5AX Thai restaurant new in 2013. Cosy little upstairs restaurant with a modern yet Thai decor. Fantastic food and service. In fact, some of the best Thai food... read more Oxford OX4 2NA Caribbean takeaway with all meals priced at £6.50 and served with salad and coleslaw. Cooked for you by 'original chef known as bloodys'! Champion House is our favourite takeaway in Oxford with amazing variety of Jamaican food. We have bought from there countless... read more Oxford OX1 2BN The first Oxford branch of a London-based Taiwanese bubble tea chain. Their tea constructions are unrecognisably elaborate. Oxford Kebab van, conveniently located nearby the pubs and clubs around Queen Street and St Ebbe's I'm not sure I'd agree with the last review (which does, admittedly, date from eighteen months ago) that this place represents... read more OX3 8JN Pleasant Headington Quarry pub with a large back garden. Serves Indian and Bangladeshi food. Have recently visited The Chequers Inn as heard it was now under new management. As a local I used to enjoy visiting but over... read more Oxford OX2 6ST Punt Station: 01865 515978. Earlyish closing in the restaurant: once you're there, the kitchen will stay open for you, but you do need to get there by about 8.45pm. It's as well to book. Went there on Saturday evening for a 'special meal' to celebrate our 45th wedding anniversary. The waiter had no time to make... read more Banbury OX16 9QA Training restaurant, staffed by Hospitality and Catering Students, with food from the trainee Chefs. They need customers to practice on. This means sometimes surprising, sometimes cordon-bleu cookery at ridiculously cheap prices. Expect to pay less than £10 for three courses. Individual and party bookings are welcome and special dietary requirements can be catered for with prior notice. Oxford OX2 6LX Pancake restaurant. This is a nice cosy little cafe-restaurant which specialises in crepes and galettes with a few other options. They do all-buckwheat galettes, though you need to check the fillings are gluten-free. Wheelchairs accommodated by arrangement Phenomenal food! A hearty seafood pasta and an exquisite crepe Suzette made for a delicious meal. This served by... read more Oxford OX1 4DH Beautiful juxtaposition of exquisite Thai food complete with edible orchid-style presentation, in endearingly-wonky Elizabethan half-timbered house. We have been eating at Chiang Mai Kitchen for years, as we consider it the best Thai restaurant in Oxford. The atmosphere is... read more Oxford OX4 1HU Like KFC, only different, and (we're assured) better! Whatever strange images the name conjures up, this is a palace for all things chickeny. There are discounts for students and local businesses, free home delivery if you're feeling lazy, and free wifi if you make it in to the shop. The chicken wings here are usually very fresh and delicious (tasting as good as the KFC wings as described below in some reviews... read more OX4 7EX Takeaway establishment recommended by our readers. The food from here is always excellent. Tastes really traditional and is always fresh and hot. The vegetable curry is amazing... read more Oxford OX4 2ES China Kitchen offer over 100 Chinese dishes to take away. Delivery service available to Temple Cowley, Slade, Town Furze, Wood Farm, Littlemore, Rose Hill, Donnington, Blackbird Leys, Greater Leys, Kings Copse, Garsington, Horspath. They've been serving chinese food for 40 years. Sadly a recent revamp means you can no longer read the fabulous FAQ about Chinese food nor an explanation of 'Wok Hey' and general good humour. But the new one retains the helpfulness at least. I am very fed up with China Kitchen. When I had my order delivered, I realised that the size of the chicken fried rice was small... read more Oxford OX1 2EB Centrally located curry house. Bill Clinton was a fan, and their wall is adorned with a picture of him. Have just eaten at Chutney's, best Indian meal I have had in a long while, attentive service plus a good pint of Kingfisher. A... read more Oxford OX2 7JL Spacious, modern Italian in the South Parade dining strip. Decked street-front dining area for summer/smokers. Delivery available through Deliveroo . We have always loved Cibo but they need to sort out their children's menus and pricing. I have to put a disclaimer in here... read more Oxford OX1 2BY Cafe by day, shisha and cocktail bar by night. Covered pavement seating area. 10% student discount Mon-Thu. 2-4-1 cocktails during daily happy hour, 5-7pm. Free wifi. OX44 9NX Thai/asian gourmet restaurant. Ample parking, all major credit and debit cards accepted. If stylishly presented (expect a crispy adornment to some of your dishes) pan-Asian food within a smart, yet amenable, setting... read more Oxford OX3 9AA Luxury chocolatier (everything handmade in Brussels). Also hot drinks (traditional Belgian hot chocolates, coffee & tea) and desserts. A great independent shop in Headington. The coffee is excellent - good and strong macchiato, as it should be. The ice-cream is... read more Oxford OX4 1HP Chain cafe, handy for meeting up before going to the cinema. Free Wifi with purchase, and internet-able computers which you can pay for. Not actually located in the centre of a golf course (as google would have you believe). This lovely little cafe is a rare find - great coffee and food (check out the waffle and ice cream offer!), welcoming staff... read more Oxford OX1 2BU Family run café with wifi access, extensive breakfast menu, customer loyalty voucher schemes and 10% student discount, serving drinks sourced from fair trade, ethical and family-owned businesses. Completely agree with the previous reviewer: it's a fantastic coffee shop, lively, friendly, great food and drink&hellip... read more Oxford OX1 3JD Pasties, hot drinks and other fayre from a hatch on Queen Street, temptingly adjacent to Clarendon Shopping Centre entrance. OX4 1HU Spacious branch in former bank. Exterior decking forming smoking patio. Visited Costa whilst on vacation. Nice ambience but the coffee was only average. The cakes we bought tasted as though they were... read more New in Feb 2012, a strangely retro branch of the coffeeshop chain. I really like to spend my free time in Odeon Costa Oxford. ... read more Oxford OX1 2BE Oxford's branch of a national franchise, offering simple, freshly prepared French food at value for money prices. I have to be honest & say that this is an establishment/location I never would have considered before - but how wrong I... read more OX4 1AB Authentic Moroccan café and sandwich bar One of my all-time Oxford favourites. Delicious food (particularly the aubergine-based dishes and bastilla), stunning decor... read more Oxfordshire OX44 7UR Fabulous restaurant(s - one Thai brasserie, one British bar) in insanely luxurious boutique hotel (branches also in London & Beaconsfield). Also has farm shop attached. The Crazy Bear at Stadhampton is part of a small chain of hotels, bars and a farm shop – the latter of which is located... read more 40 George Street / Gloucester Green Oxford OX1 2AQ An inspirational social enterprise providing accredited on the job training and routes to employment for homeless people. The Café is open to the public and there is space inside to showcase artwork from the Skylight Centre. Delicious food photos by Helen Ward. Lovely place. Delicious food in light, airy decor and fanatastic value. The best range of jacket potato fillings in town... read more Oxford OX1 3HB Properly historic pub, popular site for plotting and intrigues since Shakespeare's wife dallied with the landlord. Now a gastropub (Jan 2011). OX4 1AB 'Italian kitchen'-style trattoria & pizzeria. Delivery available through Deliveroo . La Cucina has only shut once before for a private function, but yesterday, as a special favour, they closed for the evening... read more Oxford OX2 0BN Indian restaurant and takeaway. Bombay tiffin service available. Free home delivery within a five mile radius, minimum order £10. 15% discount on collection. We've been ordering takeaways from this place for over 6 years now. It was our local when we lived on the Botley Rd, and... read more D OX2 8PQ Telephone orders welcome. Our experience of Dak Bo is that, bizarrely, they do extremely average Chinese food but excellent fish and chips!... read more Oxford OX2 7JF Cheap and cheerful eat-as-much-as-you-like Chinese buffet restaurant. All major debit & credit cards accepted (min. £10); no cheques. 10% service charge applies to all meals. Entertainment & karaoke on request. Also takeaway & outside catering. Children under 120cm pay half price. Been here about 4 times. Its a bit café tacky inside but friendly staff. Food is cheap and of good quality, only gripe is that... read more Kirtlington OX5 3JH Grade II listed building with 12 rooms furnished with a sleek contemporary chic. Restaurant serves high quality contemporary British food made from local ingredients. 20 mins from Oxford. Excellent service, fabulous food and lovely surroundings. Can one really ask for much more ? We were pleasantly surprised by the... read more Oxford OX3 0LY Soup, cakes, seasonal specials (like pancakes for Shrove Tuesday) and groceries including oddities like Caramelised Biscuit Spread and Blue Popcorn on the cob! Plus more regular foods to fill your cupboards. We're told this is a regular oasis for gourmets in the area. Seating inside and out. There are not many places in Marston worthy of a food-based journey. However, Deli-Licious, at the unprepossessing junction... read more 42A Abingdon Road OX1 4PE Sit-in (or out) and takeaway coffee, croissants, home made cake, sandwiches etc. Local art on the walls for sale Oxford OX1 2HP Delicious and unusual fruit liqueurs and the occasional whisky, plus high-end oils and vinegars. Taste your preferences, choose your bottle and take away your liquid jewels. Review - Demi John tasting. 26/11/15Oxford English Dictionary: Demijohn: 'A large bottle with bulging body and narrow neck, holding... read more Bicester OX26 6LP Superb quality food in well decorated, relaxed atmosphere. Excellent flavours with great quality of service. Party arrangements available, fully licensed. Have eaten at Denis a few times, and have enjoyed every meal! A wonderful atmosphere, pleasant service and flavours that remind... read more Botley Road, behind train station For all your late-night, en-route-home-to-west-Oxford-from-town snacking needs. I bought two medium chicken kebabs today. They normally cost £4 each, but today I handed over £10 and received no change. I... read more Oxfordshire OX13 6QJ Situated in the beautiful Oxfordshire countryside, 15 minutes from the centre of Oxford. Excellent access to both Redbridge and Seacourt Park & Ride. Available for weddings, birthdays and anniversaries, meetings and corporate functions. Part of Greene King's 'Old English Inns' group. Have visited The Dog House Frilford Heath twice recently for lunch with a group of friends and both times enjoyed really good... read more Now with online ordering. Your pizza should be with you in 20 - 25 minutes. I love dominos. I dont understand how people can complain. Lush pizzas. ... read more OX3 9HZ Order your pizza online and have it delivered in about half an hour. I always try to give this branch of Dominoes another chance, but it never fails to disappoint. Pizzas very dry and I have had... read more Oxford OX1 1HU I ordered a home delivery for a party of 10. The food arrived on time, it was hot, it was tasty, and was 50% off (because of promotional... read more Oxford OX3 7BL Dong Dong has been my favourite, for its cheap prices and generous portions. However, on my last visit 2 days ago, I was disappointed... read more Oxford OX1 1HU Refurbished autumn 2013. Formerly Ruchi. South Indian food including dosa, idly and thali - alongside the usual fast food offerings of chicken, burgers & kebabs. Free home delivery within 5 miles. This place is still the best curry house in Oxford by a country mile. The food is authentic south Indian and the quality is superb... read more OX4 2NA Add £1 and allow 30 mins for delivery. I am a great fan. The spicy French beans are addictive, last night we tried a hot sticky mushroom dish as a starter, which... read more OX1 2HP Half-price cocktails: 5-8.30pm Sun-Thu, 5-7.30pm Fri & Sat. Tables can be booked by phone. Feels rather behind the times in the overall scheme of things in the drinks world, but far and away the best of the Jericho cocktail... read more OX1 4TA Saturday live music, garden at front with benches. Sky Sports and ESPN. Would thouroughly recommend a visit. Extremely good value food and drink. The staff are efficient and incredibly friendly. We... read more E Oxford OX1 3LU This long, narrow pub is where Tolkien, C.S Lewis and other Inklings used to drink for 30 years or so. You will occasionally hear it referred to as the Bird and Baby. There has been a pub on this site since 1650. Small conservatory at rear is available for private functions (though avoid the undersides of the tables, or you will discover what 360 years of sticky beer residue does to your trousers). Ate here in December. Best service we've encountered. Young staff, knowledgeable, personable and efficient. Beer was good... read more Oxford OX2 6HJ Posh groceries (staples including dry goods, fresh bread, fruit & veg) and unusual deli items (including fresh ground coffee to takeaway) in tardis-like store established in the 1930s. Off license; several delivery services. This shop stocks the stuff you can't get in supermarkets - for example, some really nicely backed farmhouse biscuits, cakes, chocolate... read more Oxford OX1 3SA Wonderful, tiny restaurant offering Japanese home-cooking, and sushi (Thursday evenings). Unusual opening hours - check website before you travel. No reservations. Delicious lunch at Edamame today. I have never had a lunch there that wasn't, but today's was a nice sushi surprise. Unusually... read more Oxford OX2 0BS Fresh sandwiches, fruit, veg, basic domestic stuff and, of course, eggs. Also off licence, deli counter, and bakery. A good stock of local produce including milk, eggs, cheese, and veg. Thanks to the staff of Eggs Eggcetera who helped me when my baby was accidentally locked in the car outside their shop. It really... read more OX4 3AZ The first of a growing number of Nepalese restaurants in Oxford. And it's very good. We ordered a home delivery from Everest last night (Thursday). The delivery was reasonably quick, and the driver very friendly... read more Oxfordshire OX29 6PN Hotel located inside a beautiful 18th-century Georgian manor house, set in 3,000 acres of park land. Also available for conferences, weddings and other functions. Twelve miles from Oxford, Eynsham Hall Hotel has an instant impact.No visitor can fail to be impressed by its magnificent symmetrical... read more F Oxon OX13 5BH Restaurant: High quality British nosh, with many ingredients sourced from the hotel's own kitchen garden (and the rest sourced sustainably and non-GM). The farm and garden are stocked with veg and herbs, and Dexter calves, Tamworth pigs, ducks, chickens and quails. Food miles (and food yards!) are printed on the menu. Now with a dedicated vegetarian menu. Oxford 9 miles. Fallowfields Country House Hotel is a hotel and restaurant in rural Oxfordshire; set in acres of green land with frolicking... read more Oxford OX1 3DZ Amazing pasta (fresh and dried) plus delicious deli items - all squeezed into an implausibly small and beautiful cupboard. OX28 6BS Cosy gig and comedy venue, often hosting bands from Oxford. Fat Lil's had already livened up our little market town for years with its vibrant music scene but since last autumn... read more OX3 9QS Traditional stone-baked pizza. Two 12" pizzas for £12! Free delivery. Owner/manager really friendly and helpful, amazing 2 for 1 deals, good prices and fantastic pizza! Worth travelling across town... read more Oxfordshire OX20 1SX 20-room luxury 17th-century town hotel by the gates of Blenheim Palace. Beauty spa; horse-riding; fishing; award-winning gastropub. Oxford 8 miles. 1 Queen Street (at Carfax tower) Oxford OX1 1EP Hot drinks and all sorts of food to takeaway or sit and eat at their covered outdoor tables. Personally I really like Fernando´s. It´s a very nice restaurant located in the centre of Oxford, next to the Carfax tower.... read more Oxford OX4 1UE Coffee lounge which transforms into a pan-Asian buffet (self-service, eat-as-much-as-you-like for a set fee) for lunch and dinner. Free wifi. On Friday 19th it was my daughter's birthday so we went out for lunch with her. As soon as we got in the door, we had a lovely... read more Oxford OX2 0ES Concept Kitchen based upstairs at Haymans Fisheries and open for breakfast and lunch. This was started as a delicious way to promote fish cookery, which needn't be expensive and time-consuming. The menu changes every two weeks to ensure that the fish being showcased are the most recently available, and recipes are published so you can try the same thing at home. Fish and chips every Friday! See the latest menus on the facebook page. Dishes are labelled for dairy and gluten - good marks for the labelling but there is not always a dairy and gluten-free option available: check menu on facebook before you go. Prices are amazingly cheap for what looks like some fancy cookery. Oxford OX4 1AB From their website: "Fishers Restaurant Oxford has now closed – a new fish restaurant is due to open on the site in the New... read more Oxford OX2 0NA Large, busy gastropubstaurant in semi-rural location. Outdoor seating on terrace and amongst pine trees; picnic hampers available in summer. Salsa evenings and other events (see website). We came to The Fishes to celebrate my birthday last Monday. It was a hot day, and the terrace was full, but otherwise the restaurant... read more Oxfordshire OX28 4AZ 10 rooms in award-winning gastropub with excellent ethical food sourcing policy. Good facilities for disabled guests. Oxford 13 miles. Ssshhhh... The Fleece is a hidden gem! Fantastic food, superb selection of wines, excellent coffee and, even better, the service... read more Oxford OX1 4LB Riverside cafe & brasserie restaurant 5 minutes' walk from Oxford city centre & new in 2011. Food & drinks served indoors or outdoors on the floating pontoon. Also embarkation point for Oxford River Cruises (sightseeing & picnic trips). Had a fantastic meal here. The food is on the better side of fine dining, seasonal and fresh. Great service with even better views... read more Oxford OX1 4DF New (2012) Taiwanese tea bar offering bubble tea, pearl tea, oolong, jasmine & more on the former site of Gill's ironmongers. Delivery available through Deliveroo . The staff are very friendly, the venue is relaxed, pretty and delightful and the tea is fab! Love the hot Jasmine green tea... read more Oxford OX1 1JD Smart Indian restaurant close to the train station. Lunchtime buffet from £7.95. Delivery available through Deliveroo . Went in for Sunday lunch buffet - and were not impressed. The choice was very limited, the food was cold, the service average... read more Oxon OX18 4TB Charming riverside pub serving, among other things, draught Perry - a locally-brewed pear cider. Also draught apple cider. Presents Foxstock folk festival over the August Bank Holiday. Without quite reaching the heights (or depths) of the gastro prefix, this comfortable pub puts some serious dedication into its... read more Oxford OX1 5DR Lovely country pub 4 miles south west of the city. Sunday roasts, good disabled access, unusual terraced garden. The service was mixed - a couple of members being really polite, but also a couple being uncommunicative or acting as if we were... read more Ozone Leisure Park (Vue Cinema Complex) Grenoble Rd Oxford OX4 4XP Impersonal New York Italian good for hot chocolate after a cold car boot sale. Often full of children having birthday parties. I've been here a few times in 2011, as it is 5 minutes away from our house. We normally go for a late breakfast. There is a deal... read more G Oxford OX1 1BT Cow-themed café serving bagels and freshly-made ice-cream in many interesting flavours (customers can suggest new ones). The raspberry yoghurt ice-cream is to be recommended. Has siblings in Jericho and the Cowley Road . I first came upon G and D in 1992 when I was walking to the St Margarets Centre in Jericho. Never before had I been... read more Oxford OX1 2HS Cow-themed café serving bagels and freshly-made ice-cream in many interesting flavours (customers can suggest new ones). Possibly the best coffee ice cream in Oxford. A bit noisy and crowded, especially after the pubs close, but there's a tiny garden out the back, and you can read Daily Info there too. Has siblings in St Aldates and the Cowley Road . I went there alone on a Wednesday around 2pm and practically had the whole place to myself. I'm devoted to ice cream so my visit... read more Oxford OX4 1JE Cowley Road outlet of Oxford's cow-themed ice cream café empire. Bagels, cakes and drinks too. Ongoing customer flavour suggestion competition. Sibling outlets on St Aldates and Little Clarendon St . The eastern outpost of a modern Oxford institution, Cowley Road’s George and Delila always seems half full. Offering WiFi... read more Oxford OX2 6JE One of Daily Info's favourite pubs (used to be our local before we moved). Cosy and friendly, with lovely vegetarian food and nice barpeople. The pub is so nice, and the food so good, that even non-vegetarians are moved to seek it out. The pub quiz (Sundays) includes the tie-break: draw a cartoon of the landlord and his dog. Tucked away in the depths of Jericho, this vegetarian's haven boasts an impressive menu of veggie burgers, hotdogs, salads... read more Oxford OX2 6LX Nice place. Truly huge sandwiches. Do have a look at the menus, which are most entertaining. Great pub. Great atmosphere, welcoming landlords, good food and beer. Highly recommended! ... read more OX2 7HQ Upmarket French patisserie. Excellent bread and products - if you appreciate real taste and service get yourself into the premises.... read more Oxford OX2 6PE Delicious, upscale cuisine in an iconic glass house. Run by the same folks as the Old Parsonage Hotel, just down the road. After celebrating our engagement at Gee's (pre-refurbishment), and enjoying the outstanding food, ambiance and service... read more Oxford OX1 5AS Only pub in lovely tiny village accessible via the 'Devil's Backbone' footpath over the lake at Hinksey Park, Abingdon Rd. Hosts a monthly quiz on Tuesday nights, Saturday steak specials and regular Friday night jazz. Also has guest rooms. Went to the General Elliot yesterday for the Beer and Cider Festival - lovely pub to spend the afternoon in and not too far from... read more OX10 7HH 17 en suite rooms in 15th c pub. Oxford 8 miles. We have just returned from a night's stay at The George Hotel and I have to say it was fantastic! I had read the reviews... read more 35 New Inn Hall Street Oxford OX1 2DH A lively coffee, craft beer, cocktail & canteen bar. Bright but cosy, lively but low-key, George Street Social is an intimate venue with good food and a nice atmosphere. Downstairs... read more OX2 7PL Lovely, popular caf with splendid cakes, lunches and drinks and natty decor. Unpretentious upstairs hideaway and a great spot for breakfast, Georgina's is still going strong. They started serving... read more OX1 2BU Family-run Italian restaurant I have been recommended this Italian restaurant several times but had never quite got round to visiting until now. It turns... read more Oxford OX1 2BQ New (early 2008) slightly organicky, family-friendly, smily, right-on type of place with sunshiny outlook, and other products to buy as well as food. Firstly were we seated and then told that the table had been booked so we had to move, not a problem but a bit of a faff.&nbsp... read more 1-3 Golden Cross (off Cornmarket) Oxford OX1 3EU Cosy, discreetly café on two levels. No longer a Puccino's franchise, but still has the odd scribbles on the wall. I visited Golden Cross Café with a friend on a Saturday in the afternoon, and I liked it. It's down a wide alleyway with some... read more Upscale burger joint in the same vein as Byron. Delivery available through Deliveroo . This place has potential but does not deliver. As a foodie that really knows a good burger this was not good. It was okay but... read more Oxford OX1 4BG 'The site of the first coffee house in England (according to Samuel Pepy's Diary, 1650)'. Small, posh café by day (high and champagne teas, etc.), cocktails by night (happy hour 7-11pm Mon- Sat). Interesting décor, especially the door-closure device. Very crowded on May morning and at exam time. No bookings taken. Private hire available. Nice atmosphere, and probably a good place for a drink. The scones were fresh from the oven. But the sandwiches were very disappointing... read more Oxford OX1 3LU Sandwich shop and cafe with an emphasis on home made, organic, local produce. Hot meals too. Seating upstairs and free Wi-Fi access. Outside catering/delivery services too. One of my favourite places in Oxford & the top front room is a brilliant place to work, with an unspoken quiet-room agreement... read more OX5 1EA New Nepalese restaurant in February 2012. Spacious venue with parking for over 50 cars. Fantastic food and excellent service! It the best asian restaurant I've ever been to. They recently have won 2nd best restaurant... read more H Oxfordshire OX14 3JF Popular, tiny Vietnamese café/restaurant in former tea shop. No alcohol is served; small corkage charge for BYO wine. oh noooooooooo, what a shame. my boyfriend and I used to come all the way from Brighton for their delicious food, it's a real... read more Woodstock OX20 1TH Deli full of delicious things, savoury and sweet, with as many as possible sourced locally. Business breakfasts / lunches can be provided for conferences or meetings. And, as the name suggests, hampers are a speciality: gift hampers, picnics and hampers for glampers! 24h notice required, and they can come in a jute bag, cool bag or real wicker hamper. Perfect for a picnic in Blenheim Gardens. OX29 5RJ Under new management since Summer 2012. Great pub, friendly landlady, v. g. value food. Great beer too. A good old village pub with better food! Recommended - worth... read more Oxford OX1 4AS Replacing Mr Simm's Olde Sweet Shoppe, Hardys offers much of the same. Huge selection of sweets, old and new; everything from boiled sweets to implausible-sounding lemon meringue pie chocolate bars. Great shop, but they really should offer gift vouchers. ... read more Woodstock OX20 1TF I decided to treat our visiting family and their in-laws to a delicious afternoon tea at Harriet's Tea Room but was disappointed... read more Broad Street Oxford Hassan et al. I have been a faithful customer since October 2010, and I must say your cuisine never fails to disappoint. From... read more Oxford OX4 4DZ 66 rooms set in 3 acres of grounds 2 miles from Oxford centre. The Iffley Blue Restaurant is attached. Oxford OX1 4LB Popular outdoor summer venue (right on the river, heatlamps available), much frequented by students. Warning: may get busy around times of rowing events!! Has 12 hotel rooms if you don't feel up to staggering home. Guide dogs only. Have just spent two nights here and the setting is ideal for walking to the centre of Oxford. However the rooms were £130 per... read more OX13DA Hot sandwiches, Italian and Mexican food. This cozy little cafe/takeaway is tucked away on Ship Street but well worth a visit if you need a hot or cold meal. Homemade white... read more Oxford OX4 1JB A longstanding Cowley Road institution. David Cameron was supposedly a regular during his time at Oxford. On wednesday we paid our second visit to Hi-Lo and have promised ourselves that this will now be our restaurant from now on. A... read more OX27HN Best spare ribs in Oxford, allegedly. Excellent good value for money nosh. Last time I visited I was the only non-Chinese person in the place so it must be... read more OX1 4EE New cocktail bar from the owners of the Duke of Cambridge, with upstairs games room. Not at all bad if you want somewhere civilised. Bit of a drawback that if you want to get to it from the High you have to navigate... read more St Giles Oxford I had a terrible kebab here the other night. The chicken was so dry it tasted like cardboard, the pitta was stale and the salad... read more I OX4 4DZ British-Italian restaurant (under new management March 2014) within the Hawkwell House Hotel , open to non-residents. Under new management as of March 2014! The new management state 'Iffley Blue is a new, exciting addition to Hawkwell... read more OX4 1JB Authentic Italian deli with hot and cold takeaway options. After reading so many excellent reviews and having enjoyed my visits to the deli I was really excited to try the takeaway service... read more Oxford OX4 4EL Characterful free house undergoing constant refurbishment. Homemade cakes and cream teas, local beers, limited home-made hot meals (call to check hours). Room for hire. Canoe hire and boat storage. Cash payment only - no cards accepted. We held our wedding for 130+ guests at the Isis last weekend. It was an absolutely perfect day: an arrival by boat, a drinks reception... read more Oxford OX1 3EZ A sort of cross between Pret a Manger (indeed itsu was founded by the man behind Pret) and Wagamama - healthy, Asian-inspired hot food and snacks. Itsu is a well-established brand in London, and this is the first store outside the capital. Downloadable pdfs online list allergens and count the calories of each menu item. J Oxford OX3 9HP 'Grocer...deli...coffee house' with a Waitrose-customer-friendly range of local & ethical meats/fish/cheese/fresh groceries/sandwiches/bread and many other specialities. Also external catering (inc. hamper) service. Used to be great, but not so good. I have been a regular at the deli since it opened and used to enjoy my visits there. I looked... read more Oxford OX2 8PG Formerly the Red Lion, this is a new all day dining pub, delicatessen and bistro concoction brought to you by the talented minds behind Jacobs & Field. Open July 2013. Who is Jacob? He seems to be taking over the Oxford food scene. Between Jacobs and Field (the café in Headington), Jacobs... read more Oxford OX1 1HU Modern, open-plan restaurant, bar & arts centre at rear of former marmalade factory building. Local, organic food alongside selling exhibitions by local artists. Acoustic gigs, talks, films, workshops, etc. Having eaten, drunk and enjoyed many evenings at the Jam Factory, I thought it was about time I submitted a review. First of all... read more Oxford OX1 2AE Simple Italian food venture from Jamie Oliver. NB: bookings taken for parties of 6 - 14; smaller groups just turn up. My friends and I went to Jamie's in Oxford today for lunch. We all thoroughly enjoyed the meals. I had a mishap with... read more Oxford OX1 2AE Standalone pizzeria in the George Street basement of Jamie's Italian. Expect thin crust, oven baked, Italian style pizzas. OX2 9DG Indian food - home delivery / collection only. Complimentary home delivery on orders over £10. Can't believe it has taken me so long to try this takeaway (I live locally). Excellent - excellent value for money, an... read more Oxford OX2 6LX Indian and Bangladeshi cuisine. Currently free delivery and 10% discount within 3 miles (min £20), 10% discount within 5 mile radius over £25, 15% off collection orders over £15. £6.95 (curry, rice and bread) & £9.95 (starter, curry, rice and bread) lunch offers, dine-in only. Student offer: Sun - Thu dine-in only 20% off total bill, min £15 per head; mention student offer on arrival, bring ID. I do like Jee Saheb. Although I don't eat in often, it's on the route home for my partner and I, and we get takeaway... read more Oxford OX2 6AJ Excellent breakfast menu; lots of fattening things made with vaguely whole-food ingredients so you can pretend that they're good for you. Strange artworks downstairs. One of the few cafes in Oxford that goes beyond the standard coffee-and-panini arrangement; you can get either food or a sweet... read more Oxford OX1 4HS Brought to you by the same people who run Pukeko, the roving coffee tuk-tuk, this pop-up cafe is not actually located in Jericho. Apparently they roast their own beans in a warehouse there (and sell them by weight at the cafe). Formerly Baby Love, Jericho Coffee Traders have set up shop on King Edward Street. While the exterior makes it seem appealing... read more Oxford OX1 3AE Fancy new sandwich bar, where Rainbow Café used to be. Offering a 10% discount if you pay in Bitcoin, Litecoin or Dogecoin! Now they do ice cream, too. "Probably the best thing I've eaten in Oxford," a friend recently said of Jimbob's. She has just moved here from Paris, so... read more Oxford OX4 1UT Chinese restaurant and takeaway, opened in May 2014 replacing the defunct Oxford Thai. Serve a huge menu of dishes you'd expect to find, including a set £12 per person combination, and 12noon-6pm lunch specials. Offer a loyalty card system which rewards enough visits with a 10% off VIP card. Had a really fantastic meal at Jin Jin on Saturday. Very tasty food, friendly staff and good value for money.... read more Oxford OX4 1AH East Oxford Craft Cocktail bar and Eatery. Selection of craft beer as well as a boilermaker and shot menu with home infused spirits. American cuisine with a seasonally changing menu. Brunch and coffee available at weekends. With a new menu, new management and an Insta-feed of mouth-watering dishes tagged #JoePerksGrowsUp, how is this St. Clements gem... read more OX2 7DX Barstaurant, with emphasis on the bar. Lots of big comfy brown-leather-upholstered crannies to sit in. I was working in Summertown and decided to try Joe's Bar & Grill. Upon arrival the façade is rather underwhelming and... read more Oxford OX2 6AE Once Oxford's only theatre pub. Now a medium-sized, average pub with outdoor seating in a suntrap courtyard. Sunday roasts. Popped in for a quick drink before a meal last night having not been in for a couple of years. The atmosphere was lovely with... read more K Oxford OX4 1XF Refurbished and renamed since Sherpa, Nepalese restaurant Kadai & Naan offers a vast array of small spicy dishes. Free delivery OX1/2/3/4. 15% off if you order online. Delivery also available through Deliveroo . I might be spoilt by the high standard of Nepalese food in Oxford, but I enjoy Himalayan cuisine so much because the curries... read more Oxford OX4 2EA We eat in this restaurant at least once a week. The menu is sufficiently varied that we can have fun trying new dishes, and... read more Oxford OX4 1HP Kazbar has several attractive features, including its sangria, tasty tapas (regular lunchtime '1 drink & a couple of tapas' offers), Moroccan/Spanish feel, guitar on a string weighing the door closed, amazing loos & lovely staff. You can't book, veggies are well catered for and there is disabled access. If it's full you may be able to squeeze into its tiny sister bar, BaBa, further up the Cowley Road. I cannot for the life of me work out how this place has so many positive reviews, perhaps it has something to do with the fact... read more Oxford OX4 1UE Reliable, late-opening, brightly lit fast food outlet with decent sized internal seating area. Chips, kebabs, curries etc. Without a shadow of doubt, Kebab Kid is THE best Kebab establishment in the country. Has to be done after a gig at the... read more Oxford OX1 1AG OX1 2BL From a kid to a king. Halal meat, fairly synthetic but convenient. After a long and exhausting train journey I thought I'd stop for a kebab before staggering the rest on the way home through the... read more OX4 1UE 18/3/15 Temporarily closed for refurbishment KFC serves fried chicken and fries. They also do fizzy drinks. They have some side salads also. Very tasty and cheap food. Popular... read more Oxford OX4 4YB Large pub at Sandford lock. Big patio seating area with picturesque views and a children's play area. This was our second visit, but the first try of the menu. We very pleased with the service and the quality of the food. Food prices... read more 117 Bicester Road, Gosford, Kidlington OX5 2PX Oxford OX1 3SP Spacious, busy venue serving a good range of real ales, catering mainly for the Oxford student market. Multi-level, small separate bars (one coffee area). Some comfy sofas; walls adorned with photos of the pub's favourite visitors and other interesting paraphernalia. Unintentional eavesdropping on study-related conversation is inevitable. The staff are very unfriendly. Food, ale selection and atmosphere are great, but the staff need to cheer up and learn about good... read more Oxfordshire OX7 6XQ Former 16th century cider house converted into a 3* free house with 13 rooms. Set in the heart of the Cotswolds, midway between Oxford and Stratford Upon Avon (both 20 miles away). Organic and local food served. Oxford OX2 0AL Friendly backstreet local with good cheap pub grub. Sunday roast choices are pork, lamb and beef. Big screens show National Geographic channel when not sporting. There's a pool table & a rack of ships' clocks showing the time in various Antipodean towns and the red kite above the bar are worth noting, as are the photos comparing the local area in 1914 and 1993. Reopens from 1/10/15 under new management ... read more 12 New Inn Hall Street North Bailey House OX1 2DW Does what it says on the tin. Baguettes and panini underneath a handy internet café. La Baguette gives the best paninis and baguettes in whole of oxford. Their mexican chicken baguettes are just too delicous. and... read more OX3 9HP Sandwiches, patisserie, drinks etc. to eat in or take away. Give yourself a treat if you are in Headington - great food, coffee and environment, and with friendly, smiling, efficient service... read more East Oxford branch of Oxford chain of sandwicheries. Croissants and pain au chocolat very nice but avoid the pasties, they're horrible.... read more OX1 1AY Tapas, sangria and Spanish wines & beers. I really like this place. We went on a day when they had free sangria so it was an added bonus. The two for one tapas specials... read more OX1 1JD Feisty Latino venue importing Brasil into the heart of Oxford's clubbing district. Situated on the corner of Park End Street overlooking the Millstream, Las Iguanas is always packed out on a Friday and Saturday... read more Oxford OX2 7HN Excellent staff, good value and 100% delicious Lebanese food including pastries, wraps, salads and more. External catering service too. Mmmmm! I love LB's. The proprietors are indeed very friendly. The mousaka bizeit is delicious, as are the warak enab. I recommend that... read more OX4 1UE Formerly Café Nour. Lebanese & Moroccan fusion cuisine, plus shisha. Loads of vegetarian options. Welcoming and friendly restaurant on the Cowley Road - delicious Lebanese food, all very reasonably priced, and if you want... read more Oxford OX1 1LJ Oxford's poshest Chinese restaurant. Delicious food in gorgeous, winding, dark oak-beamed Tudor venue hidden behind grubby looking black-and-white facade on Castle Street. Expensive but correspondingly tasty. Can get busy. Booking recommended. A most charming and authentic Chinese eating place. Highly recommend it. ... read more Oxford OX2 6AE Despite the fact Oxford is probably the most landlocked town in Britian... there flourishes Loch Fyne fish restaurant. Sustainability is obviously a concern when choosing fish. Loch Fyne say on their website "we will not serve fish from endangered stocks and we ensure that the products used in the restaurants derive from a sustainable resource, either wild or farmed responsibly". It was lovely to meet a friend for supper at Loch Fyne earlier this week. After hugs and kisses on the doorstep we were... read more M Oxford OX4 1SJ The management describe their aim as "Just good food and good drink". See the Guardian's favourable review of March 2010 here . NO CUSTOMER PARKING. Wheelchair lift behind building. Takeaway cake and coffee. Open for coffee and toasties in the mornings. After having read the reviews, I was very looking forward to eating at the Magdalen Arms, but was not pleased with what I was... read more Oxford OX4 1RQ Vegan/veggie café with family (and hippy)-friendly vibe. Regular exhibitions and massive free local noticeboard. Free wifi. My studenthood is betrayed in this first statement: The Magic Café is cheap in price and generous in portions. It was... read more OX2 6HA Pricey but spectacularly good posh patisserie. I have been going to Maison Blanc on and off for the last 3 years since we moved to Oxford in 2007. My biggest complaint about... read more OX4 1JE New addition to Oxford's Curry Mile, March 09. I don't think I'm the only person who would score Majliss highly for food and a complete shambles on the organisational front... read more Oxford OX1 2DU Oxford's only specifically Malaysian restaurant (we think). Very impressive selection of cakes, brought downstairs from the Nosebag Cafe. No private room, but parties welcome. Great food! There aren't many Malaysian restaurants in Oxford, and Makan La is simply the best among many places in Oxford... read more Oxford OX4 1UR Indian restaurant opposite Manzil Way, noted for its friendly service (formerly Jaipur). Does takeaway with a 15% discount on collection. Also delivery service throughout lunch time. Oxford OX1 1AY Stylish luxury conversion of the former old Oxford Prison, in the city's most recently refurbished old quarter. All mod cons plus excellent restaurant. 94 rooms. Average food, appalling service, massively overpriced. Nothing else needs to be said.... read more Oxford OX2 7JL Excellent independent Pizzeria. Winner of the Platinum independent pizza award 2016. Offers gluten-free pizza bases, and gluten-free pasta on request. A cosy setting, with a bustling feel. Parking spaces available to Mamma Mia customers. Food great and child friendly, though we left grandchildren at home this time. Staff excellent - always a warm welcome. Relaxing... read more Oxford OX2 6EB Second branch of excellent independent Pizzeria. Winner of the Platinum independent pizza award 2016. Offers gluten-free pizza bases, and gluten-free pasta on request. A cosy setting, with a bustling feel. Very handy for the Phoenix! I can’t believe that living in Jericho, I had never been to Mamma Mia Pizzeria before last week. It was honestly the best pizza... read more Oxfordshire OX44 7PD It was our 30th Wedding Aniversary, so off we went.The booking was easy: we opted for luncheon, our credit-card details were taken... read more Oxford OX2 6EB Greek deli & food bar/café serving a range of soups, cakes, hot and cold dishes, wine and preserved goods. Live jazz nights monthly. Garden. Manos is a must! He does the best Greek coffee and food... a real must. Great value and friendly service.... read more OX1 4BE New Italian-with-hotdogs restaurant from Marco Pierre White, at the Eastgate Hotel. Opened February 2015. Marco Pierre White's cooking ranges from the sublime (he was the youngest ever chef to be awarded three Michelin stars) to the... read more OX4 1HU Often full - booking advised. We went to Mario's yesterday at ten past six to try to get a table - we were lucky & were seated immediately. We had... read more Oxford OX4 2HH Cosy, village pub-like pub with free fast WiFi, large garden, quizzes every Sunday and tasty beers. Slightly off the beaten track down Marsh Road, the Marsh Harrier isn’t necessarily the first Oxford pub that springs to my... read more OX1 1ER Chain American barstaurant above Queen Street. Private room seats 60. Delivery available through Deliveroo . I spent many happy hours in Maxwell's in my teens, and this was going back over 20 years ago, so on a trip to Oxford this week... read more St Aldates (outside Pembroke) Kebab van, beloved of Pembroke students McCoy's is the best kebab van I know of in Oxford city centre. Staff are friendly and efficient. The food is delicious... read more Oxford OX1 4TA As of August 2015, cod is £4.50 and small chips £1.70. Can be a 15 min wait for haddock. A few Chinese dishes (egg fried rice, spare ribs), and some kebabs. If you get the fish when it is fresh out and is light yellow, it is better than most coastal chippies. If you get one that has... read more OX4 1HP Clean and friendly Greek deli & cafe stacked with delicious, authentic Greek products. Méli is my family's favourite café on the Cowley Road. Agnes is consistently friendly and serves up wonderful coffee and fresh... read more Oxfordshire OX7 6HR 13th century stone Cotswold free house (inn) with 9 rooms in converted stable block. 23 miles from Oxford. OX2 6AG Southern Mediterranean coast cuisine ranging from tapas to mezze. Mezzeto has become our favourite place to eat before or after a visit to the Phoenix, or if we just want to meet for lunch in... read more Oxfordshire OX7 6UH Converted stone mill (dating back as far as 1086) set in 10 acres of lawn gardens (including trout stream) in what Country Life Magazine names as England's favourite village. 23 luxury bedrooms (refurbished 2008). Mill Brook Room Restaurant has two AA Rosettes; menu features local and organic produce. 75 mins train journey from London; chauffeur driven Mercedes courtesy car available to and from Kingham Station. Oxford 24 miles. Oxford OX4 1JB Cowley Road patisserie with a particular focus on baklava. Gluten free and vegan options. Cash only. Lovely, unusual ambiance here. Sauntering down the Cowley Road at 11 am, I decided to drop in and was rewarded with a lovely... read more Oxfordshire RG8 9AW Grade II listed coaching inn minutes' walk from Goring station (20 mins train journey from Oxford, 15 from Reading, 45 from Paddington). 15 luxury en suite rooms. Oxford OX3 7PD Friendly people, nice atmosphere. Offer takeaway and home delivery, which can be ordered via their website. Had a disappointing experience at the Mirabai. We used a Groupon voucher and found the management to be completely inflexible... read more Closed in March 2015 90 seater restaurant (hireable for private parties). Bring your own wine Monday to Saturday. Mirch Masala is my favourite restaurant in Oxford, and my first port of call at the start of term and a good send off at the end... read more OX1 3DQ Independent, REAL coffee shop opened late 2009. The atmosphere of Missing Bean could be described as frantic, but really it reflects its popularity. The shop is buzzing, full... read more OX1 2DU Fresh burritos prepared on site. Vegetarian, vegan and wheat-free options available. Carnitas, pinto beans, hot sauce - what more can I say? One of the few Oxford foods I miss. Always eat one when I'm... read more Oxford OX1 4HS The Mission offers hefty portions of freshly prepared ingredients, authentically cooked at value for money prices. Expect fresh burritos, tacos, salads, Mexican beers and frozen margaritas in a relaxed friendly environment. The restaurant is wheelchair friendly but unfortunately the toilets are not wheelchair accessible. Delivery available through Deliveroo . I find the Mission irritatingly below par every time I go. It's very close to where I work, so every now and then I pop in and... read more Oxford OX1 1BP Changing seasonal homemade menu, cakes and drinks. High chairs and baby changing facilities available. Cuisine: Vegetarian friendly. I was lucky enough to win free lunch for myself and a guest (via a Daily Info 'retweet and win' promotion), and so we headed into... read more Oxford OX3 9HZ Selection of sandwich fillings & bread, hot and cold drinks, panini, baguettes, cakes, jacket potatoes etc. Eat in or takeaway. Toot Baldon (about 7.5 miles south east of Oxford) OX44 9NG The Mole Inn is for sure one of the best restaurants/pubs around - case closed! It has beautiful gardens, is a beautiful restaurant... read more Oxford In the pitch formerly occupied by Tasty Kebabs as of spring 2010. Having noticed that this van has reappeared down St. Ebbe's, and equally that it's not had a review for over four years, I decided... read more Oxford OX1 3DX Quirky and rather excellent milkshake-and-smoothie bar, located just inside the Covered Market. Over 200 flavours and counting! A pink cow paintjob and a willingness to accept loyalty cards from competing milkshake bars make Moo-Moo's stand out. Expect longish queues at lunchtimes, weekends and after school. Oxford OX1 3AS Oxford baguette chain. Other branches on New Inn Hall Street, Cornmarket and in the Covered Market. Everything reduced to £1.75 fifteen minutes before closing. Good value 'meal deal'. I enjoyed a delicious mozzarella, rocket and sun-dried tomato baguette, with a banana and bottle of water... read more Oxford OX1 2HU Tasty baguettes! Other branches on Cornmarket, New Inn Hall Street and in the Covered Market. Everything reduced to £1.75 fifteen minutes before closing. 22 New Inn Hall Street Oxford OX1 2DW Oxford sandwich shop chain and delivery service. Everything reduced to £1.75 fifteen minutes before closing. We have eaten at this cafe a few times. The food has always been nice, reasonably priced, and the staff are friendly and efficient... read more OX4 1HU Inventive, friendly coffee purveyors based in Truck Store. Supplied by UE Coffee Roasters. Any new coffee-purveyor on Cowley Road isn't short of competition, but Mostro Coffee has certain factors in its favour. Being... read more OX9 2LH Free home delivery, lunchtime 2 for £8 offer. On first appearance it looks like a shabby old pub, though there are signs of some work, but once you walk inside you find yourself... read more Oxford OX4 1AR Great, friendly cocktail bar (happy hour: 5.30-8pm - 30% off) & Oxford's only Slovakian restaurant (reviewed favourably by both the Guardian & Daily Info). Delightful all round. Well-thought-out, delicious food; splendid cocktails; excellent service; nice atmosphere. Menu pleasantly reliable but also has interesting specials board. I've only ever heard very favourable things about Moya, and here are a few more. Oxford’s only Slovakian restaurant offers... read more 22 Little Clarendon Street OX1 2HU Italian gelato, authentic Italian coffee (Hausbrandt), Italian pizza, desert parlour with sundaes, waffles. Italian sandwiches (ciabatta and panini). Smart, open-plan layout. A really nice, unpretentious café - excellent coffee, ice creams, and good value pizzas.... read more Oxford OX1 2DF Wide range of authentic Sichuan treats including pigs' ears, fried bullfrog, preserved eggs, jellyfish (and many other less adventurous dishes) - plus Karaoke. Truly very good Chinese food that's as close to authentic as you'll get in Oxford. Very much worth a visit -- try some... read more N St Giles (outside St John's College) Oxford OX1 Friendliest food outlet and best falafel in Oxford apparently! Najar and Masood are likely to remember your favourite order. Also outside catering. I've lived in Oxford for 5 years now and only just discovered this place - I'm kicking myself. This is so much more than just... read more Oxford OX1 2BQ My friend and I were running errands before a big night out and, it being sunny and gorgeous, looked for somewhere to stop for... read more OX4 1JB Open 12-11.30pm, midnight Fri + Sat Nandos is a world famous Portuguese chicken specialist restaurant. I'd never been so went to one of Oxford's two branches... read more OX3 7NU Classic Bangladeshi and Indian cuisine, free home delivery I've been using them for years and highly recommend them...Food is always delicious, service is polite and delivery is fast.... read more Oxon. OX29 0RZ It is a very nice and ambient venue. I have eaten here once. I had the wild boar sausages with bubble and squeak and it was... read more OX1 3DA Reliable venue just off the bustle of Cornmarket. I went there today, by chance, for lunch and will go back again. The staff were quick, bright, and very pleasant to everyone... read more OX1 2DF Speed-noodles for all. Delivery available through Deliveroo . Went here at the weekend for a quick lunch and I have to say we were really disappointed - the food was really underwhelming... read more Oxford OX1 2DU Charming little café/restaurant just off Cornmarket. Fare is wholesome and hearty - quiches, salads, chilli con carne and the like - and portions are large. Their water glasses could be a little bigger. Why be negative about a well-known restaurant in Oxford? Most people I talk to have good things to say about it. Service in a... read more O OX1 2AY Somewhat cheesy & generic Irish-themed pub/bar. Pub grub served. Pretty good burger fare and chips, for half the price of the other 'gourmet' burger joint on this street. Honest, no difference... read more OX1 1BT Smallish, central pub serving fresh Thai and British food. Student meal deals. I come back to the Old Tom again and again for the excellent Thai food. The menu offers a good selection, everything is tasty... read more Oxford OX4 1RB Thai restaurant new in Summer 2013. Daily changing menu of only twelve items. Highly rated, and tends to be booked up several months in advance. But there are rumours of a couple of unreservable tables, so patrons turning up early on the night they wish to dine may be lucky. I'm going to just come out and say it: Oli's Thai is the best restaurant in Oxford. It's actually one of the best restaurants... read more OX1 4AP Covered-Market-style Italian/French deli. All sorts of the usual goodies plus gluten-free pasta and bisuits. In my experience definitely the best and friendliest deli in Oxford. A cornucopia of interesting condiments, outstanding sandwiches... read more Oxford OX2 6LX Adventurous sandwiches, brunches, omelettes and the like. Baguette loyalty cards available. Buy 11 get one free. Cash only. Easily the best sandwich shop in Oxford (think delicious chunks of REAL FOOD, rather than gobs of mayo), with friendly service... read more Oxford OX2 0AB Formerly The White House pub, now a fusion restaurant and bar offering Chinese and Thai food, with a good dim sum selection. Open late on Friday and Saturday nights. OX1 2BQ Formerly Café Opium. Hurrah! Rating from Food Standards Agency has gone back up to a 5 - now back eating there! And loving it every time. Great... read more Oxford OX1 2BY Specialists in homemade, organic & gluten free breads, cakes, & snacks. Speciality. Extensive breakfast options incl. pancakes & berries, Tofu Scramble, various eggs & the full English (with veggie, vegan and gluten free options). Exciting raw salads & filled spuds. Full range of organic fairtrade looseleaf teas & fairtrade organic coffee. Organic wholefoods store with over 200 lines. Spread over 3 floors, free wifi, family friendly and large tables for big groups. Simple hot food meals using grains. Private & commercial event caterers. I like to come here for a leisurely breakfast. I emphasise the "leisurely" not only because the service can be a little slow but... read more 61 Botley Rd OX2 0BP Smaller branch of the Friar's Entry store. Specialists in homemade, organic & gluten free breads, cakes, & snacks. Speciality. Extensive breakfast options incl. pancakes & berries, Tofu Scramble, various eggs & the full English (with veggie, vegan and gluten free options). Exciting raw salads & filled spuds. Full range of organic fairtrade looseleaf teas & fairtrade organic coffee. Organic wholefoods store with over 200 lines. Simple hot food meals using grains. Private & commercial event caterers. Kidlington OX5 2BP Indian restaurant and takeaway located in Kidlington. You can now book a table or order a takeaway online . Kidlington has numerous takeaways and eat in restaurants so the competition is a tough one. Having tried the majority of them... read more Oxford OX4 1JU Speciality meat, much slow-cooked and with a heavy BBQ slant, Oxford Blue Smokehouse is the latest addition to Oxford's burgeoning American food scene. Sister to the Chequers Smokehouse in Witney, this new palace of meat (and to a certain extent, cheese, and to a distinctly less certain extent, vegetables) promises patient expertise alongside enormous wood-smokers. Get it while it's hot! The Oxford Blue Smokehouse is the newest meat joint in the Cowley area. The owners – who also run a smokehouse in... read more OX4 4AQ Usual chippie fayre plus some veggie fodder. Good thick chips and friendly owner! Wonderful little place! The staff are always really friendly and helpful, the food is surprisingly cheap for Oxford but great... read more Oxford OX2 6HJ Varied and flexible business lunch delivery service. Free delivery on orders for 10+ diners. Vegetarians & the gluten-intolerant catered for. Wow - if you want to business lunch in style, call these chaps! Beautifully presented platters are cheerfully delivered right... read more Oxford Open 11.30am-1.30am daily, -2am Fri & Sat I found it useless to try to get a delivery- took about half an hour to answer! But other than that, very, very tasty... read more Oxford Kebab Van – (formerly the van with no name) George Street This is a useful van: it is very close to the centre of Oxford and in the perfect position for anyone living at the northern end... read more Oxford OX1 2BQ Oxford's first and only Kosher café, at the David Slager Jewish Student Centre. Kosher sandwiches, soup, bagels, schnitzel, fish and chips, burgers etc., all served in their spacious lounge. All special requirements can be catered for. Satellite tv, wifi, wii, newspapers and 'well stocked, diverse Judaica library'. 10% student discount. Delicious! Very reasonable prices and a good selection. Staff are very hospitable!... read more OX1 2EW Gastropub occupying the space formerly home to the Antiquity Hall. Another great meal at the Retreat. Steak was cooked exactly as I like it, rare. Lovely relaxed atmosphere. Thanks Webster and... read more Oxford River Cruises Dining Cruises Leaves from Christchurch moorings What a wonderful way to spend a summer's evening. Everything about the trip was perfect and helped my husband celebrate his birthday... read more Oxford OX1 3DX I remember this as possibly the first sandwich shop I ever went to in Oxford. Thirty years ago, in any case, and I still use it... read more Oxford OX2 7JN Formerly the much-loved Summertown Wine Café - reopened in April 2013 under new name and management after a 4 month absence. Specialist wine bar. Sample wines or buy bottles that take your fancy. Food served to complement a large selection of wines, coffees and teas. Ideal. Informal wine tastings and jazz on Sundays. I've never been to a wine tasting before. It seemed a bit intimidating - terminology I don't understand, etiquette I don't know... read more OX4 1HP Turkish/Mediterranean cuisine. Oxford's Grill is firstly a silly name for this restaurant. Though they do grill various ingredients the name conjures... read more OX4 3DH Oxford's roving pop-up restaurant finds a permanent base in east Oxford. This is a really pretty cafe, with some nice food options, but I found the price is a bit ambitious for some of the stuff ... read more Ozone Leisure Park (Vue Cinema Complex) Grenoble Rd Oxford OX4 4XP Eat As Much As You Like. Oriental / Sushi / Tepanyaki / Brazilian Roast. Seats 180. Fully licensed. No smoking. Free car park. Can't believe some people are dissing the Oxy. The food is more than adequate and they do have duck during the day which is under... read more P OX1 2EP Popular Chinese restaurant. I went to Paddyfield with my partner for an evening meal. I had never been before which was more reason to go. The greeting... read more Oxford OX4 1JJ Organic Persian-Italian-Greek-twist deli with traditional counter-style display. Offering homemade and healthy organic salads, cakes, jams, olives, herbal teas, dried fruits, and more. Oxford OX1 4BJ New patisserie & café late 2008. Steps up to front entrance (and down to loo inside) but wheelchair users can ring bell to summon help. I am constantly disappointed at Pat Val- it would only take a little effort to make it much better. Service is unbearably slow... read more Oxford OX4 1RE East Oxford's vibrant community theatre, newly refurbished in 2010. Check out the fabulous bike rack - probably the best example of a functional art installation in Oxford. Pegasus is a venue with a range of rooms suitable for meetings and presentations as well as social events and birthday parties. Can cater for multiple purposes within various locations around the building, including an auditorium seating 133 and purpose built sprung floor dance studio. The newly redeveloped Pegasus is a joy to inhabit (though, performers: please be aware that the steeply raked seating's sightlines... read more OX2 6EA Jericho's legendary long-standing burger joint. I lived and studied in Oxford in the late 80's and loved a Pepper's Vegie burger with blue cheese sauce. The fact that... read more Oxford OX2 0NG Popular thatch-roofed 17th-century riverside pub and restaurant accessible from Port Meadow as well as by road from west Oxford; very popular in summer. Serving British pub food. While you're in Binsey, why not visit the original treacle well in Binsey churchyard? Outside bar in summer. Miraculously this was my first time coming to The Perch, drawn out to Binsey by the Irregular Folk Summer Sessions Weekender... read more OX4 1UH Chicken takeaway joint. Free delivery. I am fond of Peri Peri chicken... The taste here is quite good, though not like Nandos. However, given its price I believe... read more Oxford OX4 1UH International fast food. Choose between vegetarian, chicken and beef options for your dish and then add one of eight special sauces. Minimum delivery £15 within three mile radius. £1 delivery charge. Bucks HP18 9TG Gastropub next to the windmill and quarry. An evening's cycle ride from Oxford, or the end of a good walk. Real ale, home cooked food, and soon rooms as well. Views of 7 counties from the beer garden... Oxford OX1 3DX Fantastic place: brings pie-mash-n'peas up to the level of fine art. Eat-in or take away, student deals and handy for the central libraries. Green Goddess PieWhat's in it you say? I found out on SaturdayRed onion, spinach, spices and feta,Butternut, tomato, poppy seed... read more Oxford OX1 2HP Established in 1996, privately owned, lively and informal with candlelight for intimate teta-a-tetes. Authentic French head chef. 6 menus for different price ranges at different times of day. See menus for details. Awful experience after 12+ years of using and recommending people to this bistro I will not do so again. Hassled from table, wrong... read more Oxford OX4 1AG Originally, when The Pink Giraffe first opened in January 1998, it was solely a vegetarian restaurant, therefore the association of the vegetarian Giraffe was incorporated into the restaurant name and Pink was also used because it is the owner's favourite colour! We have ordered from this restaurant many times and generally enjoy the food but on the last 3 or 4 occasions the order has taken... read more OX1 2AU Craft ales, British beer, meat cooked over charcoal and fab bar snacks. Beer Nirvana! This place is fantastic. Went in last night for a drink and ended up staying and having some food too. The burger... read more Oxford OX4 1AH Small, reliable fast food joint with some seating and a wider menu than its name suggests. In this day and age of impersonal service and internet alienation, it is a great experience to have very good food served by great... read more outside Christ Church OX1 1DP Wood-fired pizza van. Amazing silver bubble, like a 50's camper van that's been too close to Area 51. It contains on board a real wood-fired pizza oven and sells a range of vegetarian and meat pizzas. It doesn't do kebabs and suchlike. Possibly THE GREATEST pizza in Oxford. Delicious and made right in front of you - super fresh, and the option at the end to 'personalise... read more OX1 1AY Oxford's second branch of the pizza chain. The staff are friendly polite and honest with a good customer service. We were warned there would be a delay. Also a member of... read more OX1 3EU Pizza in a grade II listed building In response to the previous message - if someone took me for a romantic meal at pizza express that would probably be the last... read more OX4 6NG Delivery only (free). Fresh-made Pizza with a variety of side orders. Yep - it's all true - delivery is on time, the food is piping hot, amounts are generous for the prices (particularly compared... read more Oxford OX4 1UH Pizza outlet stating use of organic ingredients. Chicken wings, halloumi cheese etc. also available. Pizzas from £6 - £12. Cheerful and endearing service, freshly made pizzas and always enough deals to keep it competitively priced with other pizza stores... read more Oxford OX1 2LW A nice place to grab a drink before your play, or a coffee at any time. Choose between the Foyer Bar to the right of the main entrance or the quieter Circle Bar upstairs. This fine piece of architecture, designed by Sir Edward Brantwood Maufe in 1938, houses the recently refurbished (in shades of... read more Oxford OX2 8BD Greene King. Traditional friendly village pub. Buzzing even on a Wednesday lunchtime. Looks out onto Wolvercote Green, the canal and Port Meadow beyond. Heated covered outdoor area for smoking or just braving the wintery elements. Serves standard Greene King ales with regular guests, imported lagers being Staropramen and Becks Vier. Thank you to The Plough for making my gran's 99th birthday one to remember! There were 18 of us for a lunchtime meal and they... read more Oxford OX4 1JE Pomegranate is a Lebanese kitchen. They do take-away though if the weather's nice you'll be very tempted to stay and eat at one of the mosaic-ed tables set out on the street, or indoors among the spice fragrance. There's a little stove for colder weather too. Delivery available through Deliveroo . Had dinner there last night. Mediocre is a generous description, of the food, the service, and the ambience. Two of us shared... read more Oxford OX4 1AW Cosy split-level pub serving home cooked food. Sky sports and beer garden (open in the summer). Real log fire in winter. Benches on street at front. Lower bar available for private hire (£50). Went here for lunch today and was very impressed with the roast. I had slow cooked pork which was delicious. My friend had... read more OX2 7LJ Delivery available through Deliveroo . Although in a pleasant setting, Portobello was disappointing due to unfriendly staff. When we arrived and chose a table outside... read more Oxford OX4 1UE Just had a big battered haddock and freshly cooked chips - top marks, well cooked and tasty.... read more OX3 9ED Open to midnight every day. Wow what a surprise! Last Friday around 8.30pm, the wife and one of my brood along with my good self stopped off en route back... read more OX14 3HN Abingdon kebab van. I am an American student studying here for a while and I had a kebab from Posh Nosh last night. It was by far the best I've had... read more nr. Carfax Tower Oxford My friend and I went to the cinema on Saturday evening. On the way back to the bus, we stopped at this van. I have not had... read more Oxford Fresh sandwiches, cakes, breakfast foodstuffs and salads. Excellent quality fare that couldn't be fresher! Their sandwiches really are delicious and the staff are professional and efficient... read more OX1 1AY Upmarket Italian café-bar. Went to this place one sunny Sunday evening. I was impressed by the décor - the white tablecloths give it a clean, fresh... read more Oxford OX4 6NG Delivery only. Authentic Italian recipe pizzas. Halal approved toppings. Buy any 2 pizzas & get another free. 10% discount for students. Free delivery in Oxford, minimum order £9. Oxford OX4 4EF Traditional Wadworth real ale pub with Casque Marque-awarded licensee and home-cooked food. Loads of other regular community-related fun events - see our Pub Events section for details. Oh dear our village pub has been given a makeover, resulting in an atmosphere that has all the charm of the household section... read more Oxford OX2 0BE Formerly The Watermans Arms, this new pub seems to be related to one of the same name in Cambridge, and specialises in good food. Thursday night English folk session. I've now been here three times to eat in the last 3 months as my favourite choice of restaurant in Oxfordshire! - currently... read more Q OX4 1JB Independent coffee shop, regularly hosting talks, book readings and coffee tasters. With coffee, as with so many things, you get what you pay for. The coffee here is really excellent. The price reflects this... read more OX3 7BL Open 7.30am-5.30pm Mon-Sat 8.30am-2.30pm Sun. I loved this place when I was England for uni. Its been about 10 years since I was there but I still remember the manageress and... read more Oxford OX1 4AP Vies with the considerably posher Grand Cafe on the opposite side of the road for the title of England's oldest coffee shop. Tried this place again recently having used it on and off 6 months prior. The paninis are still good but the coffee was nothing... read more Oxford OX4 1AR Qumins is an attempt to create a better than average curry house, with prices to match. In my opinion it fails to achieve this... read more Oxford OX1 4BN There's something immensely reassuring about Quod. It looks right, it feels right, they get the orders right (including allergy... read more R OX4 1AG Independent Asian home baking, sandwiches and coffee. Fresh food, cash only payment. I love this place - such a friendly service and delicious pastries. Will need to try some of the savoury stuff too! Real Chinese... read more Oxford OX1 2LN 5* hotel, possibly the grandest in Oxford. Parking, for residents only, must be pre-booked. £20 per 24 hours. Spa in the basement, featuring Thermal Suite: rock sauna, bio sauna, aroma steam therapy room, steam room, ice room, and hydrotherapy. Plus 4 treatment rooms. We stayed at the Randolph overnight. I felt for the price the Randolph did not deliver that extra special something (say compared... read more Oxford OX3 0PH Greene King / Morlands pub. Recently renovated beer garden with outside bar for major events. Tea and coffee served all day. Sunday roast, including the option of gluten-free gravy and yorkshire puds. Excellent pub, the food is always served within reasonable time, well presented and tastes great. The roast on a Sunday is... read more OX1 2BN Formerly The Goose. Now recently undergone refurbishment and re-opened as a gastro-pub. There are some amazingly rave reviews here for the new Red Lion. Our experience was different, at least in some respects. Admittedly... read more Oxford OX4 1UT Excellent canteen-style Japanese/Asian restaurant specialising in speedy home-cooked food and quick service. It's cosy, you may end up sharing your table with some strangers, but the food will be delicious and authentic. Good help and advice for gluten-free diners, and lots of dishes with tofu in. They are happy to swap out ingredients. Do ask for a loyalty card as they offer free food for every 10 or so visits. Lunch: 12.00pm - 2.30pm. Dinner: 6.00pm-11.00pm. Open 7 days a week including bank holidays. I really like Red Star. It's fast, efficient, good-value and most of all tasty! They are quick to provide take-aways... read more Witney OX29 0SY All food freshly prepared on site, even the chutneys! Local products where possible. Function room available, and large functions can be catered for. The resort which the restaurant is attached to has various sports facilities including golf and spa. Baguettes, cakes, burgers, carvery etc. Outside tables. Best Baguette in Oxford. Friendly service too . ... read more Oxford OX4 1UE Cheap and cheerful Chinese takeaway/fast food restaurant. Showing an Oxford student card may get you up to 10% off. Amazingly good quality food for the price you pay. The specials menu is actually fairly authentic and better than most London... read more Oxford OX4 1JB Smart but friendly café, joining the throng of places on the Cowley Rd. We're told the free wifi actually works here! Wooden floors and tables look both sophisticated and practical, and staff seem friendly. Lots of people sit with laptops. There are artworks on the walls some of which are for sale, and the pastries are homemade by a Parisian baker. Keen for a break from the office on a sunny day, Dave and I decided to head down to Rick’s Café on Cowley Road. Famed for... read more Oxford OX2 6DE The people who brought you The Rusty Bicycle have revamped the former Radcliffe Arms. Great food (they've got a Michelin Bib Gourmand don't cha know!) and a cosy atmosphere. Grown up sibling of Magdalen Road’s Rusty Bicycle, The Rickety Press has been a firm favourite of Jericho residents for five... read more Roll With Me Sushi Kidlington area Sushi delivered to your home or office in and around Kidlington. Gluten-free options available. No minimum order, no delivery charge. Order by 4pm the day before. Oxford OX2 6LX Pleasant, old-fashioned venue with good food at reasonable prices (hence lots of business lunchers to be spotted). Lots of interior nooks and crannies supplemented by a heated & covered all-year-round courtyard, popular (and leafy, Mediterranean-feeling, and uncovered) in summer. The 'cottage' at the end of the garden is available for hire for meetings etc. In long-standing landlord Andrew's own words, "the R&C is as renowned for what it does have, as it is for what it doesn't - no games machines, no music machines and no televisual aids!". Up until a few years ago, mobile phones were barred from the premises and it was strictly cash only at the bar, although times do change, and the R&C now has free wi-fi and accepts card payments. The landlord is as welcoming as ever, and this is definitely a traditional pub with a traditional landlord - one of the most traditional you will possibly find, in fact. They serve pub food including pies and Sunday roasts - it's a pub that serves food, not a gastropub. You can even take a walk through the pub on Google Street View! This place is an Oxford classic in the most expensive part of Oxford (for those worried about prices). I've never had a duff... read more Oxford OX1 1PT The White Horse Brewery's first pub is now in the Good Pub Guide for its selection of consistently good ales, and serves food with good Veggie choice and largely made from locally sourced ingredients, mostly from the Covered Market. Live TV sport is mainly rugby, with the pub being very busy during international rugby tournaments. The Wednesday quiz starts at 8.30pm and has a couple of music rounds and a cheese raffle. When me and a few colleagues decided to go there for lunch we had a nice time. The place is like a hidden gem in Oxford. It looks... read more (J10 of the M40 - between Bicester and Banbury) Oxon OX25 Supper club held in farmhouse home overlooking the Cherwell Valley. Supper clubs are a cross between private dinner parties and pop-up restaurants, but this one is in a home setting - guests can play the host's LPs, for instance! Check out Supper Club etiquette on the Secret Supper Society website. 5 course gourmet fixed menu is usually around £35. Guests bring their own drinks (soft / alcoholic) and there is no corkage charge. This is a destination restaurant for intrepid foodies, and guests come from all over the country. They can recommend local B&B's. Plenty of nearby off-road parking. For wheelchair users there is an accessible loo in that it has plenty of room, but it does not have specialist handholds etc. The kitchens have been inspected by Cherwell and given a 5 star hygiene rating. Special diets require prior notice! OX1 3DZ Coffee, sandwiches and light lunches. Me and the boyfriend are almost part of the furniture at this point: reasonably priced for students, lovely friendly staff (when... read more 6 - 9 Hythe Bridge Street Oxford OX1 2EW Said to be some of the best Chinese food in Oxford. Incorporating the former Mongolian Wok Bar Worst food ever, ordered takeaway of Shangai Mushroom and mixed vegetables and beancurd, but there was no sign of mushroom, and... read more Queen Street Oxford This is the van that used to be outside the Radcliffe Infirmary, opposite the Royal Oak. Last year we gave it the thumbs up, but... read more Oxford OX1 1BP The Story Museum celebrates story in all forms and explores their enduring power to teach and delight. It offers a rolling programme of events (including talks, storytelling, courses, workshops, author appearances and events for the whole family) and interactive family-friendly exhibitions. We have a large theatre space that can accommodate 80 seated or 100 standing, and two rooms that comfortably host up to 30 people. This place is actually kind of amazing: a dilapidated building that used to be the telephone exchange tucked away off St Aldates... read more 31-32 St Clements (Angel Pavement) and Cowley Road, Oxford OX4 1AG East Oxford outlets of the American sandwich giant. There are various others around town (including on Brookes University campus). Oxford OX4 1HU The African & African-Caribbean Kultural Heritage Initiative promotes the cultural heritage of peoples of African and African Diasporic heritage and descent. A delicious part of this project is their Wednesday lunchtime community pop-up restaurant at the East Oxford community centre. The menu changes weekly; there are usually 3 meat options, 1 fish and 1 veggie, and everything comes with deliciously garlicky rice and peas. Service is friendly but you may have quite a wait for your food - don't try to eat here if you have to rush off somewhere soon. If you have time for a luxuriously lazy lunch, however, the food is substantial and tasty, the atmosphere is vibrant and cheerful and it's well worth a visit. We used to have delicious vegan meals there and not expensive, but is it still going?... read more Oxford OX1 4DB Over three floors. Coffee and free wifi by day. Cocktails by night. Happy hour Mon - Fri 5pm - 7pm. Private hire. Stunning unique roof terrace now open! University Church of St Mary the Virgin (entrance via Radcliffe Square) Oxford OX1 4AH Busy cafe/restaurant, always packed at lunchtime (in a queuing out of the door kind of way). Food (worth the queue) includes excellent homemade cakes, salads & filling hot dishes made of ethical, well-sourced ingredients. Veggie and carnivorous options available. Also external catering (weddings, parties, festivals). I like it here. A lot. I'm a fussy vegetarian eater & coffee lover that spends a lot of time in Italy with my girlfriend... read more Oxford OX1 3DQ Just what it says on the tin - many many different varieties of whisky, including four huge barrels of unusual brands (£7 - £10 for a taster bottle of about 3-4 glasses-worth). We think they are a chain but it's a nice idea and they have a friendly Scottish bloke behind the counter, which always lends atmosphere. 12 St Andrew’s Road Headington Oxford OX3 9DL Old, rambling traditional pub with an impressive range of free-range pies. Often frequented by medics from the nearby hospitals, yet retaining very 'local' feel. Not been for a while and hardly ever before during the warmer months but had a great time here recently. Had an excellent burger... read more	i don't know
Terrible Tudors and Awesome Egyptians are the first two titles in which series of illustrated books by Terry Deary?	Horrible Histories \| Horrible Histories Wiki \| Fandom powered by Wikia Former cover of Two in One book The Angry Aztecs and The Incredible Incas Horrible Histories Two in One Current cover of Two in One book Angry Aztecs and Incredible Incas There are also the 'Two Horrible Books in One' versions The Frightful First World War and The Woeful Second World War The Groovy Greeks and the Rotten Romans Gorgeous Georgians and Vile Victorians Smashing Saxons and Stormin' Normans The Terrible Tudors and The Slimy Stuarts Vicious Vikings and Measly Middle Ages The Barmy British Empire and The Blitzed Brits Angry Aztecs and Incredible Incas Horribly Huge Book of Awful Egyptians and Ruthless Romans There has also been a book package released entitled the Blood Curdling Box Set. It includes the books: Savage Stone Age, Awesome Egyptians, Groovy Greeks, Rotten Romans, Cut-Throat Celts, Smashing Saxons, Vicious Vikings, Stormin Normans, Angry Aztecs, Incredible Incas, Measly Middle Ages, Slimy Stuarts, Terrible Tudors, Gorgeous Georgians, Vile Victorians, Villainous Victorians, Barmy British Empire, Frightful First World War, Woeful Second World War, Blitzed Brits. [7 ] Grisly Quiz Book and Gruesome Games Pack Gory Stories A new fiction-type of Horrible Histories series has recently sprouted, called Gory Stories. The first set of books to be published in July 2008 were: Gory Stories - Tower of Terror (Terrible Tudors ) Gory Stories - Tomb of Treasure (Awful Egyptians ) Gory Stories - Wall of Woe - (Rotten Romans ) Gory Stories - Shadow of the Gallows (Vile Victorians ) Gory Stories - Raiders and Ruins ( Vikings ) - March 2009 Gory Stories - Blackout in the Blitz ( World War II ) - May 2009 Gory Stories - The Plague of Pain (aka Plague and Peril) ( Middle Ages ) - 2009 Gory Stories - The Trail of Treasure (aka Pirates and Plunder) ( Pirates ) - 2009 Big Book of Gory Stories (Pack of Tomb of Treasure, Wall of Woe and Tower of Terror) Blackout in the Blitz is listed on Terry Deary's website as Bombs on Britain, [1 ] but on Amazon.co.uk it is listed as Blackout in the Blitz, along with a cover. [2 ] High-speed History Beginning in 2010, a new sub-series called "High-speed History" was published. These books are written by Terry Deary and illustrated by Dave Smith. The books in the sub-series are: Egypt - A High-Speed History - 3 May 2010 Tudors - A High-Speed History - 2 Aug 2010 Knights - A High-Speed History - 3 Mar 2011 Rome - A High-Speed History - July 2011 Others Edit Terry Deary's background is "very much in theatre". He studied at a drama college and worked as an actor-teacher at the TIE company in Wales. He then became a theatre director and began to write plays for children. Many of his TIE plays were eventually rewritten and adapted into the Horrible Histories book series. [4 ] The fifth book in the series was Blitzed Brits. This book was published in 1995, and by chance the date of publication coincided with the 50th anniversary of VE day, which is cited at being responsible for the book reaching no. 1 on the bestseller list. A couple of years later, Deary decided that the book only gave the British viewpoint during World War II, and recognised that this was a bias way of writing such a book. Therefore, Deary wrote Woeful Second World War, because he thought he owed it to his fans to give them an accurate and unbiased account of the war, by writing about it from the European viewpoint as a whole. As the British viewpoint had already been extensively described in the previous book, and as "publishers don't like you covering the same information in new books", this new book focused on the roles of France, Poland, Germany and Russia during the war. The book was published in September 1999, which coincided with the 60th anniversary of the outbreak of World War II [4 ] Deary eventually returned to the stage. Mad Millennium was commissioned by director Phillip Clark, who was a fellow TIE participant 25 years before. He said "your [Horrible Histories] books are very successful. Can we turn them into a large-scale theatre production?” Deary was happy to return to writing plays. [4 ] Philosophy Edit Terry Deary gave the following testimony to The Guardian in 2003: "Everything I leant [at school] after 11 was a waste of time...it was boring, badly taoguth and not related to the real world...schools are nothing but a Victorian idea to get people off the street..who decided that that putting 30 kids with only their age in common in a classroom wiht one teacher was the best way of educating?" This outlook on the education system served as the inspiration for the Horrible Histories series, as a possible alternative. [5 ] Deary has also said in an interview, "If I had it my way, I wouldn't have schools at all. They don't educate, they just keep kids off the streets. But my books educate, because they prepare kids for life." [6 ] Deary has said, "It's outrageous - why don't we start telling children the truth about history? I hope my books do just that." [6 ] According to Consuming history: historians and heritage in contemporary popular culture by Jerome De Groot, Horrible Histories books are designed to engage and enthuse the reader about a subject while appearing subversive. QAccording to him, the books are primarily entertainment with educative purpose. [2 ] Groot also suggests that Horrible Histories has a sceptical view on the accuracy and validity of history. In an introduction to one of the books in series, it states [2 ] “ History can be horrible. Horribly hard to learn. The trouble is it keeps on changing ... In history a 'fact' is sometimes not a fact at all. Really it's just someone's 'opinion'. And opinions can be different for different people ... Teachers will try to tell you there are 'right' and 'wrong' answers even if here aren't. ” Deary has many research methods when he is writing his books. He uses researchers for all Horrible Histories books, and sometimes uses researchers in specialised fields, such as a military historian for The Woeful Second War. Deary always "read[s] the most up-to-date books on the period [he's] writing about", although he also uses the internet more and more as time goes by. He also "completely absorb[s] [him]self into a period so [he]'ll know the whole historical context as well as all the events of that time". In cases when he "end[s] up with far more information than [he] need[s]", he tends to exclude all the "boring facts" such as dates because according to Deary himself, "dates don't matter. Human experience matters". [4 ] Deary does not want his books to come over as preachy, saying "I'm an adult, I know this and I'm going to tell you". Instead, in his opinion the author's voice is an ignorant person exclaiming "you'll never believe what I found out when I read this book". He thinks that this series is essentially about discovering the wonders of human nature, and questioning whether we could possibly behave how those before us behaved. [4 ] Deary does not consider himself "an academic...a teacher...[or] even an adult". Instead, he views himself as kid who wants to share facts with other kids. He thinks that the writer of a non-fiction series such as Horrible Histories has to "entertain first and inform second". Deary does not respect authors who follow each extreme. He believes that "readers are more important than writers and their needs have to come first". He believes that if you engage the reader, and if they are entertained by the substance, they will retain more knowledge from the work. [4 ] Deary uses many generic conventions of literature to make his books more accessible to his readers. He will deliberately write his books in a prose style so they follow natural speech cadences, and are therefore more natural to speak. He also uses alliteration and assonance quite frequently. Deary considered poetry to be "just another weapon in the writer's armoury" rather than a specialised form of prose that may only be used in specific circumstances, and is "very comfortable with [using] it" in his non-fiction works. Deary thinks that the impersonal language used in textbooks alienates the reader, and feels that this is a huge drawback in engaging the reader in the work. He therefore uses the second person to talk directly to the reader, the grammatical person he would use if he were talking to the reader in real life. He views Horrible Histories as one of the few non-fiction or fiction series which utilise this "underused style of writing". [4 ] “ How did people really behave in the Second World War? And how would you have behaved? ” Deary uses the medium of a newspaper to make serious material more accessible to the reader so they approach the piece in "a more relaxed frame of mind than they would a school text", for example in an article about the Massacre at Lidice. Newspapers can also be used to illustrate "mysterious and quite lighthearted" stories, such as those which might appear in a "Sun newspaper". In these circumstances, this medium is used as its subject matter is reminiscent of the other, more recognisable medium. Newspapers extracts, along with letters and diaries are used to tell stories from the perspectives of individual people, to engage the reader into the story. he "[tries] to get away from the objective, and to get [his] readers to view history subjectively". [4 ] When writing about events and historical periods that are still in living memory, such as the Second World War, a degree of "sensitivity [needs to be] involved". While the story about an executioner that requires ten hacks to chop someone's head off in Even More Terrible Tudors is comical as contemporary society is so far removed from the event, relatively recent events are controversial to write about as readers may personally know people who died in the war, or may not want to discuss the Holocaust with their children. However, Deary believes that it is important for children to know about these events, and that they cannot be deemed taboo and never spoken of. [4 ] The majority of the demographic of Horrible Histories readers are "reluctant readers", who like Deary's series as they can "pick one up, read a small section, and then put it down again". Deary attributes this to the use of short chapters, the fact that one may read the book in a non-linear order, and the varying uses of media in each book, such as quizzes and comic strips. [4 ] Nikki Gamble writes in her book ICT and literacy that two Year 5 twins appreciated the book's non-linear structure as "you don't have to read [the books] from beginning to end..one of us can, um, read the first chapter and the other one can be reading the last bit...it doesn't really matter about the order, does it?" “ With Horrible Histories I want children to think about how people in certain moments of history felt and also for them to consider what these people were experiencing...in Horrible Histories I'm asking, 'Why do people do what they do?' And, ultimately, 'Why do I behave the way I do?' ” The information in the books is presented in an informal way, and the tone of the books is conversational. [2 ] “ you would be disgusted by [Ivan the Terrible's] life story. So I won't tell you. What? You still want to read it? Oh, very well. I'll tell you the story but I'll leave out the gruesome bits. Book makeover Edit On 7 May 2007, the original series of the Horrible Histories books began to be republished with a new look and new content. The new books have altered information on the back cover, an index and a brighter, redesigned front cover. Magazines Edit The book series has been generally well received. Some reviews from CaptainD [1 ] gives positive feedback towards the books. A review by Tammy McQuoid at [2 ] states that "While the book is quite irreverent at times, it does have plenty of historical information in it." citing an example as "the fact that they say the Normans brought the feudal system to England and that Henry II of England said that he wished he could be rid of Thomas a Becket. And then some of Henry's knights took it upon themselves to kill Thomas a Becket, an archbishop." She however does state some positive remarks including "There's plenty more of good, factual history included...I think it's a good idea to mix up unit studies a bit with some educational fun and games." Carole Green of the BBC did a review on the Terrible Tudors play at the Grand Opera House, 2006 [3 ].She gave a very positive review stating "It was a wonderful evening, very funny and educational without realising it." The Guardian gave a review about the series as a whole [4 ], also stating comments from a variety of distinguished people. Angela Marks, the history co-ordinator and teacher at St Luke's Church of England Primary School said that the books "...are very cleverly done...children feel that they shouldn't be reading them, that there is something slightly naughty about them. That immediately engages them." Julian Pooley, an archivist said "I wish there had been books like this around when I was at school, when history was all facts and no life. I made do with Ladybird guides." yummy87 at [5 ] stated that the series "...is interesting, and is written in such an amusing way, that it will keep children and adults enthralled for hours. I believe that the magazine represents wonderful value for money, as the magazines will be used continually." Joseph Allen McCullough Of Suite101 offered a review on the city-themed book Oxford: Not only is this new little book a great read for anyone (child or adult) with a passing interest in history, it is also a necessary book for any tourist to the city of Dreaming Spires. Any tourist guide will likely tell you who got killed where in Oxford, but Deary's book will do the same thing and entertain you at the same time." ( http://britishhistory.suite101.co m/article.cfm/horrible_histories_oxford_review) However, the series causes trouble in some parts of the world. Awards Best Book with Facts in the Blue Peter Book Awards 2000 Best Book for Knowledge Award at the Blue Peter Book Awards 2001 Terry Deary tops the list of most-borrowed non-fiction children’s authors every year. (Figures based on the Library Survey) Terry Deary was voted the fifth most popular living children’s author in a 2005 Guardian survey. Narins [16 ] Winner of British Comedy Awards 2011(TV series) Controversy Edit The book Bloody Scotland drew the ire of the tiny Scottish Separatist Group , who claimed it promoted a "UK centric, anti-Scottish viewpoint of Scottish history", using comments like "Cook the haggis until it looks like a hedgehog after the fifteenth lorry has run over it". They reported the book to the Commission for Racial Equality , who rejected their claim. [4 ] The National Trust was unhappy with Cruel Kings and Mean Queens because it made jokes about Prince Charles 's ears (the prince is the trust's patron) and Queen Elizabeth II. [4 ] [5 ] The book "Slimy Stuarts" has been accused of Anti-Catholic views. According to Terry Deary's homepage, "Several of the books have been banned in some places." [4 ] In the Horrible Histories series, there are two books titled The Horrible History of the World and The Wicked History of the World; however, they are the same book, only with different headings. To confuse things further, compact and mini editions are planned for release at the end of 2007. The same incident occurred with The Horribly Huge Quiz Book and Massive Millennium Quiz Book, and The Mad Millennium and Mad Millennium Play. Also, there are two different covers for Horrible Christmas, as well as new paperback, compact and mini editions soon to be published. In an article called "Scholastic's Horrible Histories Book Series: Promoting Hate", posted on October 10, 2006 on Literanista , [6 ] a comment was made on the use of violent imagery in the book Angry Aztecs: "Now I understand trying to promote reading through the use of gross graphics and cartoonish depictions in an attempt to engage kids, but honestly do Latinos and other foreign groups really need children having these depictions encrypted into their little heads at school." A user named Anonymous rebutted this comment by stating the book/s historical accuracy, and hence the images being justified: "The Aztecs DID engage in human sacrifice in the manner depicted on the front cover of The Angry Aztecs. There is nothing inaccurate there. If you read the book you will see it covers other aspects of Aztec culture, not just the brutal parts, although the Horrible Histories series does tend to focus on the sensational." Other languages	Horrible Histories
"Which word completes the title of the jazz song first recorded in 1931 by Cab Calloway and his Orchestra, ""Minnie the _______""?"	Home - Horrible Histories Copyright © 2015 Horrible Histories® Privacy Policy Terms and Conditions Horrible Histories® is a registered trademark of Scholastic Inc. and is used under authorization. All rights reserved. Based on the bestselling books written by Terry Deary and illustrated by Martin Brown. Illustration copyright © Martin Brown Powered by Supadü	i don't know
The momentum of a body is calculated by multiplying its mass by its what?	What is Momentum Force? What is Momentum Force? What forces are involved in a crash? What is Momentum Force? Momentum is the force that exists in a moving object. The momentum force of a moving object is calculated by multiplying its mass (weight) by its velocity (speed). Simply put, a 20-lb. rock going at 10 mph has much more momentum force than a 3-lb. ball going at the same speed. When you are driving, you and your vehicle have momentum force based on the total weight of your vehicle and your speed. If you increase your speed from 30 mph to 60 mph, you will just double your momentum force. This calculation also applies when you haul materials that can increase your vehicle's weight, which will increase your vehicle's momentum proportionally based on added weight. When you need to slow down or stop, you will need to decrease your vehicle's momentum by: Using the friction force of your brakes by applying your brakes. Using the friction force between your tires and the road, which is done automatically. Using the compression force of your engine by switching to a lower gear. If you are in a moving vehicle and you have an accident with an object, the momentum force and kinetic force of your moving vehicle and your body must be absorbed, which can cause damage to your vehicle and injury to your body. Drivers Education, Inc.	Velocity
Which ‘Doctor Who’ played the title character in the film Carry On Sergeant?	No. 1246: Momentum Click here for audio of Episode 1246. Today, let's talk about momentum. The University of Houston's College of Engineering presents this series about the machines that make our civilization run, and the people whose ingenuity created them. In another episode I talk about a museum docent who didn't understand the role of momentum in a demonstration she ran for school children. When my wife saw that, she said, "Look, a whole lot of people like me never learned about momentum. If it's important, why don't you explain it in a program?" That's a tough challenge because we all have at least a gut sense of the concept. But what would you do if you had to define momentum? The dictionary calls it the impetus of a moving body -- not much help there! Your gut sense is probably more accurate. When you say something gains momentum, you mean it's increasingly hard to stop. And that's absolutely correct. In a physics class, we're told that you calculate the momentum of, say, an automobile by multiplying its velocity by its mass. So, to understand momentum we have to understand mass. Suppose you have a six-pound rock. That rock would only weigh one pound on the moon but its mass would be the same as it is on Earth. Years ago, when I first studied physics, I came home terribly frustrated trying to understand mass and momentum. I complained to my father that I couldn't see how mass differed from weight. So he picked up a paper weight and tossed it to me. "What happens when you catch it," he asked. "It pushes my hand back," I said. "Okay," he went on, "How much would that weigh on the moon?" "Only a sixth as much," I answered, wondering where he was headed. "All right then, what would you feel if I tossed it to you on the moon?" And, just like that, the scales fell from my eyes. Of course! Matter has a property independent of its weight. Catching a paper weight would feel just the same on the moon as it would in my living room. A six-pound weight is just the reaction of a certain mass to Earth's gravity. That object would have different weights on Jupiter or Mars. But it'd still have the same mass -- even in outer space where it weighs nothing at all. Now, back to momentum. Put an object in motion, and you give that mass a momentum which is hard to stop or deflect. The momentum of a spinning skater can change form. With her arms outstretched, she spins slowly, but the outstretched tips of her fingers are really moving quite fast. With arms drawn inward, she spins faster, but the tips of her indrawn elbows move fairly slowly. What stays about the same is her net momentum. Years ago, a construction worker told of a friend working on the side of a building. A wrecking ball swung toward him -- gently and slowly. Instead of getting out of its way, he reached out to stop it. He didn't realize that, with its enormous mass, it also had enormous momentum even if it was moving slowly. The result? It slowly crushed him -- left him lame. If he'd only had a proper gut sense of basic physics -- he might still be walking today. I'm John Lienhard, at the University of Houston, where we're interested in the way inventive minds work. (Theme music)	i don't know
Whose first novel published in 1973 was The Rachel Papers?	Martin Amis (Author of Money) Fiction , Essays Influences edit data Martin Amis is an English novelist, essayist and short story writer. His works include the novels Money, London Fields and The Information. The Guardian writes that "all his critics have noted what Kingsley Amis [his father] complained of as a 'terrible compulsive vividness in his style... that constant demonstrating of his command of English'; and it's true that the Amis-ness of Amis will be recognisable in any piece before he reaches his first full stop." Amis's raw material is what he sees as the absurdity of the postmodern condition with its grotesque caricatures. He has thus sometimes been portrayed as the undisputed master of what the New York Times has called "the new unpleasantness."	Martin Amis
What was the stage name of American ecdysiast Rose Louise Hovick (1911- 1970)?	Martin Amis (Author of Money) Fiction , Essays Influences edit data Martin Amis is an English novelist, essayist and short story writer. His works include the novels Money, London Fields and The Information. The Guardian writes that "all his critics have noted what Kingsley Amis [his father] complained of as a 'terrible compulsive vividness in his style... that constant demonstrating of his command of English'; and it's true that the Amis-ness of Amis will be recognisable in any piece before he reaches his first full stop." Amis's raw material is what he sees as the absurdity of the postmodern condition with its grotesque caricatures. He has thus sometimes been portrayed as the undisputed master of what the New York Times has called "the new unpleasantness."	i don't know
Which species of penguin is named after the cold water current that it swims in?	NaturZoo Rheine’s Penguins Go to Kindergarten - ZooBorns NaturZoo Rheine’s Penguins Go to Kindergarten May 24, 2016 NaturZoo Rheine considers themselves very lucky to be able to announce the hatching and rearing of nine Humboldt Penguin chicks this year. NaturZoo’s breeding success with this species has been so huge over the past four decades, their Humboldt Penguin’s, known as “made in Rheine”, are spread all over Europe. Care must be given for a balanced distribution of bloodlines. After brooding for 40 days, all of the eggs from this season have hatched. At an age of approximately six-weeks, the young penguins have now moved from their parents’ den nests to the “kindergarten” or crèche. When they have successfully completed kindergarten and have molted to the first full plumage, the young Humboldt Penguins will return to the colony or move to another zoo. Photo Credits: NaturZoo Rheine The Humboldt Penguin (Spheniscus humboldti) (also known as the Chilean Penguin, Peruvian Penguin, or Patranca) is a South American penguin that breeds in coastal Chile and Peru. Its nearest relatives are the African Penguin, the Magellanic Penguin and the Galápagos Penguin. The penguin is named after the cold water current it swims in, which is named after Alexander von Humboldt, an explorer. Humboldt Penguins are medium-sized, growing to 56–70 cm (22–28 in) long and a weight of 3.6-5.9 kg (8-13 lbs). They have a black head with a white border that runs from behind the eye, around the black ear-coverts and chin, and joins at the throat. They have blackish-grey upper parts and whitish underpants, with a black breast-band that extends down the flanks to the thigh. Juveniles have dark heads and no breast-band. They have spines on their tongue, which they use to hold their prey. Humboldt’s nest on islands and rocky coasts, burrowing holes in guano and sometimes using scrapes or caves. Penguins, for the most part, breed in large colonies. Living in colonies results in a high level of social interaction between birds, which has led to a large repertoire of visual as well as vocal displays in all penguin species. Penguins form monogamous pairs for a breeding season. Most penguins lay two eggs in a clutch. With the exception of the Emperor Penguin, where the male does it all, all penguins share the incubation duties. These incubation shifts can last days, and even weeks, as one member of the pair feeds at sea. Penguins generally only lay one brood; the exception is the Little Penguin, which can raise two or three broods in a season. Penguin eggs are smaller than any other bird species, when compared proportionally to the weight of the parent birds. The relatively thick shell forms between 10 and 16% of the weight of a penguin egg, presumably to minimize the risk of breakage in an adverse nesting environment. The yolk, too, is large, and comprises 22–31% of the egg. Some yolk often remains when a chick is born, and is thought to help sustain the chick if the parents are delayed in returning with food. When mothers lose a chick, they sometimes attempt to "steal" another mother's chick, usually unsuccessfully as other females in the vicinity assist the defending mother in keeping her chick. In some species, such as Emperor Penguins, young penguins assemble in large groups called crèches. Due to a declining population caused in part by over-fishing, climate change, and ocean acidification, the Humboldt Penguin is classified as “Vulnerable” on the IUCN Red List . Related articles	Humboldt
In which 1958 film did Virginia McKenna play SOE agent Violette Szabo?	How Many Types of Penguins Are There \| How Many Are There You Are Here: Home » Animals » How Many Types of Penguins Are There How Many Types of Penguins Are There Posted by: admin Posted date: May 22, 2012 In: Animals \| Comment : 0 \| 9,172 views How many species of penguins are there? There are just 17 species of penguin worldwide. Penguins are birds that are able to swim very well underwater, with the help of their paddle muscles that propel them in the water at 25 mph. They walk with an erect posture as their legs are located far below their bodies. Of this 17, there are 4 that live and nest on and around the Antarctic continent and a further 3 that live and nest on Antarctic and sub-Antarctic islands, giving us 7 species that can be considered “Antarctic Penguins” All of the species live in the Southern hemisphere. Many live at the South Pole on Antarctica. But some don’t live in such cold places. They are found on the coasts of South America, Africa, Australia, New Zealand and the Galapagos Islands. List of Penguin Species Little (Blue) penguins (Eudyptula minor) Macaroni penguins (Eudyptes chrysolophus) Yellow-eyed penguins (Megadyptes antipodes) Adélie Penguin The Adélie Penguin, Pygoscelis adeliae, is a species of penguin common along the entire Antarctic coast. They are among the most southerly distributed of all seabirds, as are the Emperor Penguin, the South Polar Skua, the Wilson’s Storm Petrel, the Snow Petrel, and the Antarctic Petrel. In 1840, French explorer Jules Dumont d’Urville named them for his wife, Adèle. The Adélie Penguin is one of three species in the genus Pygoscelis. Mitochondrial and nuclear DNA evidence suggests the genus split from other penguins around 38 million years ago, about 2 million years after the ancestors of the genus Aptenodytes. In turn, the Adélie penguins split off from the other members of the genus around 19 million years ago. African Penguin The African Penguin (Spheniscus demersus), also known as the Black-footed Penguin is a species of penguin, confined to southern African waters. It is known as Brilpikkewyn in Afrikaans, Inguza or Unombombiya in Xhosa, Manchot Du Cap in French and Pingüino Del Cabo in Spanish. It is also widely known as the “Jackass” Penguin for its donkey-like bray, although several species of South American penguins produce the same sound. The African Penguin was one of the many bird species originally described by Linnaeus in the landmark 1758 10th edition of his Systema Naturae, where he grouped it with the Wandering Albatross on the basis of its bill and nostril morphology and gave it the name Diomedea demersa. The African Penguin is a banded penguin, placed in the genus Spheniscus. The other banded penguins are the African Penguin’s closest relatives, and are all found mainly in the Southern Hemisphere: the Humboldt Penguin and Magellanic Penguins found in southern South America, and the Galápagos Penguin found in the Pacific Ocean near the equator. All are similar in shape, colour and behaviour. Chinstrap Penguin The Chinstrap Penguin (Pygoscelis antarcticus) is a species of penguin which is found in the South Sandwich Islands, Antarctica, the South Orkneys, South Shetland, South Georgia, Bouvet Island and Balleny. Their name derives from the narrow black band under their heads which makes it appear as if they are wearing black helmets, making them one of the most easily identified types of penguin. Other names for them are “Ringed Penguins”, “Bearded Penguins”, and “Stonecracker Penguins” due to their harsh call. Chinstrap Penguins can grow up to 68 cm (27 in) in length, and a weight of 6 kg (13.2 lbs); however, their weight can drop as low as 3 kg (6.6 lbs) depending on the breeding cycle. Males are both larger and heavier than females. The adult Chinstraps’ flippers are black, with a white edge. The inner sides of the flippers are white. The face is white extending behind the eyes. The chin and throat are white as well. The short bill is black. The eyes are reddish-brown. The strong legs and the webbed feet are pink. Their diet consists of krill, shrimp, and fish, for which they swim up to 80 km (50 mi) offshore each day. The chinstrap penguin is able to withstand swimming in freezing waters due to its tightly packed feathers, which provide a waterproof coat. Thick blubber deposits provide insulation as well, and blood vessels in the flippers and legs have evolved intricate structures to preserve heat. The chinstrap penguin’s black-and-white plumage helps camouflage it in the water from predators, such as seals. When seen from above, the bird’s black back blends into the dark water below, while the bird’s underside blends into the sunshine above when seen from below. They live on barren islands and large icebergs of the sub-Antarctic Region and the Antarctic Peninsula; however, they generally require solid, snow-free ground to nest on. The Chinstrap Penguin’s primary predator is the leopard seal. There are 12 – 13 million chinstrap penguins. They have an average life span of 15-20 years. Chinstrap Penguins are considered the most aggressive penguin. Emperor Penguin The Emperor Penguin (Aptenodytes forsteri) is the tallest and heaviest of all living penguin species and is endemic to Antarctica. The male and female are similar in plumage and size, reaching 122 cm (48 in) in height and weighing anywhere from 22 to 45 kg (49 to 99 lb). The dorsal side and head are black and sharply delineated from the white belly, pale-yellow breast and bright-yellow ear patches. Like all penguins it is flightless, with a streamlined body, and wings stiffened and flattened into flippers for a marine habitat. Its diet consists primarily of fish, but can also include crustaceans, such as krill, and cephalopods, such as squid. In hunting, the species can remain submerged up to 18 minutes, diving to a depth of 535 m (1,755 ft). It has several adaptations to facilitate this, including an unusually structured hemoglobin to allow it to function at low oxygen levels, solid bones to reduce barotrauma, and the ability to reduce its metabolism and shut down non-essential organ functions. The Emperor Penguin is perhaps best known for the sequence of journeys adults make each year in order to mate and to feed their offspring. The only penguin species that breeds during the Antarctic winter, it treks 50–120 km (31–75 mi) over the ice to breeding colonies which may include thousands of individuals. The female lays a single egg, which is incubated by the male while the female returns to the sea to feed; parents subsequently take turns foraging at sea and caring for their chick in the colony. The lifespan is typically 20 years in the wild, although observations suggest that some individuals may live to 50 years of age. The Emperor Penguin was described in 1844 by English zoologist George Robert Gray, who created its generic name from Ancient Greek word elements, “without-wings-diver”. Its specific name is in honour of the German naturalist Johann Reinhold Forster, who accompanied Captain James Cook on his second Pacific Voyage and officially named five other penguin species. Together with the similarly coloured but smaller King Penguin (A. patagonicus), the Emperor Penguin is one of two extant species in the genus Aptenodytes. Fossil evidence of a third species—Ridgen’s Penguin (A. ridgeni)—has been found in fossil records from the late Pliocene, about three million years ago, in New Zealand. Studies of penguin behaviour and genetics have proposed that the genus Aptenodytes is basal; in other words, that it split off from a branch which led to all other living penguin species. Mitochondrial and nuclear DNA evidence suggests this split occurred around 40 million years ago. Erect-crested Penguin The Erect-crested Penguin (Eudyptes sclateri) is a penguin from New Zealand. It breeds on the Bounty and Antipodes Islands. This is a small-to-medium-sized, yellow-crested, black-and-white penguin, at 50–70 cm (20–28 in) and weighing 2.5–6 kg (5.5–13 lb). As in all penguin species, the male is slightly larger than the female and the birds weigh the most prior to moulting. It has bluish-black to jet black upperparts and white underparts, and a broad, bright yellow eyebrow-stripe which extends over the eye to form a short, erect crest. Its biology is poorly studied and only little information about the species has emerged in the past decades. Erect-crested Penguins nest in large colonies on rocky terrain. It presumably feeds on mainly krill and squid like other crested penguin species. The binomial commemorates the British zoologist Philip Lutley Sclater. This species is threatened by population decline, and a small breeding range restricted to two locations. The current population is estimated at 154,000. In addition to being listed as an endangered species on the IUCN Red List, the Erect-crested Penguin is listed as endangered and granted protection under the U.S. Endangered Species Act. The mascot character of the anime Neon Genesis Evangelion is an erect-crested penguin named Pen Pen. Fiordland Penguin The Fiordland Crested Penguin (Eudyptes pachyrhynchus), also known as Tawaki (Maori), is a species of crested penguin from New Zealand. It breeds along the Fiordland coast and its outlying islands as well as on Stewart Island/Rakiura. Also known as the Fiordland Crested Penguin, the Fiordland Penguin was described in 1845 by English zoologist George Robert Gray, its specific epithet derived from the Ancient Greek pachy-/παχυ- ‘thick’ and rhynchos/ρυνχος ‘beak’. It is one of six species in the genus Eudyptes, the generic name derived from the Ancient Greek eu/ευ ‘good’ and dyptes/δυπτης ‘diver’. Galapagos Penguin The Galapagos Penguin (Spheniscus mendiculus) is a penguin endemic to the Galapagos Islands. It is the only penguin that lives north of the equator in the wild; it can survive due to the cool temperatures resulting from the Humboldt Current and cool waters from great depths brought up by the Cromwell Current. The Galapagos Penguin is one of the banded penguins, the other species of which occur mostly on the coasts of mainland South America, and Africa. The average Galapagos Penguin is 49 centimetres (19 in) long and 2.5 kilograms (5.5 lb) in weight. They have a black head with a white border running from behind the eye, around the black ear-coverts and chin, to join on the throat. They have blackish-grey upperparts and whitish underparts, with two black bands across the breast, the lower band extending down the flanks to the thigh. Juveniles differ in having a wholly dark head, greyer on side and chin, and no breast-band. The female penguins are smaller than the males, but are otherwise quite similar. The Galapagos Penguin is the third smallest species of penguin. Gentoo Penguin The long-tailed Gentoo Penguin, is a penguin species in the genus Pygoscelis papua, most closely associated with the Adelie Penguin (P. adeliae) and the Chinstrap penguins (P. antarctica). The first scientific description was made in 1781 by Johann Reinhold Forster on the basis of Falkland Islands. They call in a variety of ways, but the most frequently heard is a loud trumpeting which is emitted with its head thrown back. The application of Gentoo to the penguin is unclear, according to the OED, which reports that Gentoo was an Anglo-Indian term, used as early as 1638 to distinguish Hindus in India from Muslims, the English term originating in Portuguese gentio (compare “gentile”); in the twentieth century the term came to be regarded as derogatory. The Gentoo Penguin is one of three species in the genus Pygoscelis. Mitochondrial and nuclear DNA evidence suggests the genus split from other penguins around 38 million years ago, about 2 million years after the ancestors of the genus Aptenodytes. In turn, the Adelie Penguins split off from the other members of the genus around 19 million years ago, and the Chinstrap and Gentoo finally diverging around 14 million years ago. Two sub-species of this penguin are recognised: Pygoscelis papua papua and the smaller Pygoscelis papua ellsworthii’ Humboldt Penguin The Humboldt Penguin (Spheniscus humboldti) (also termed Peruvian Penguin, or Patranca) is a South American penguin, that breeds in coastal Peru and Chile. Its nearest relatives are the African Penguin, the Magellanic Penguin and the Galápagos Penguin. The penguin is named after the cold water current it swims in, which is itself named after Alexander von Humboldt, an explorer. Humboldt Penguins are medium-sized penguins, growing to 56–70 cm (22–28 in) long and a weight of 3.6-5.9 kg (8-13 lbs). They have a black head with a white border that runs from behind the eye, around the black ear-coverts and chin, and joins at the throat. They have blackish-grey upperparts and whitish underparts, with a black breast-band that extends down the flanks to the thigh. They have a fleshy-pink base to the bill. Juveniles have dark heads and no breast-band. They have spines on their tongue which they use to hold their prey. King Penguin The King Penguin (Aptenodytes patagonicus) is the second largest species of penguin at about 11 to 16 kg (24 to 35 lb), second only to the Emperor Penguin. There are two subspecies—A. p. patagonicus and A. p. halli; patagonicus is found in the South Atlantic and halli elsewhere. King Penguins eat small fish, mainly lanternfish, and squid and rely less than most Southern Ocean predators on krill and other crustaceans. On foraging trips they repeatedly dive to over 100 metres (330 ft), and have been recorded at depths greater than 300 metres (980 ft). King Penguins breed on the subantarctic islands at the northern reaches of Antarctica, South Georgia, and other temperate islands of the region. The total population is estimated to be 2.23 million pairs and is increasing. The King Penguin was described in 1778 by English naturalist and illustrator John Frederick Miller, its generic name derived from the Ancient Greek a/α ‘without’ pteno-/πτηνο- ‘able to fly’ or ‘winged’ and dytes/δυτης ‘diver’. Its specific epithet patagonicus derived from Patagonia. Together with the similarly coloured but larger Emperor Penguin (A. forsteri), it is one of two extant species in the genus Aptenodytes. Fossil evidence of a third species—Ridgen’s Penguin (A. ridgeni)—has been found in fossil records from the late Pliocene, about three million years ago, in New Zealand. Studies of penguin behaviour and genetics have proposed that the genus Aptenodytes is basal; in other words, that it split off from a branch which led to all other living penguin species. Mitochondrial and nuclear DNA evidence suggests this split occurred around 40 million years ago. Little Penguin The Little Penguin (Eudyptula minor) is the smallest species of penguin. The penguin, which usually grows to an average of 33 cm (13 in) in height and 43 cm (17 in) in length (though specific measurements vary by subspecies), is found on the coastlines of southern Australia and New Zealand, with possible records from Chile. Apart from Little Penguins, they have several common names. In Australia, they are also referred to as Fairy Penguins because of their tiny size. In New Zealand, they are also called Little Blue Penguins, or just Blue Penguins, owing to their slate-blue plumage, and they are called Kororā in Māori. The Little Penguin was first described by German naturalist, Johann Reinhold Forster in 1781. There are several subspecies but a precise classification of these is still a matter of dispute. The holotypes of the subspecies Eudyptula minor variabilis and Eudyptula minor chathamensis are in the collection of the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa. The White-flippered Penguin is sometimes considered a subspecies, sometimes a distinct species, and sometimes a morph. As the Australian and Otago (eastern South Island) Little Penguins seem to be a distinct species to which the specific name minor would apply, the White-flippered birds indeed belong to a distinct species, although not exactly as originally assumed. Mitochondrial and nuclear DNA evidence suggests the split between Eudyptula and Spheniscus occurred around 25 million years ago, with the ancestors of the White-flippered and Little Penguins diverging about 2.7 million years ago. Macaroni Penguin The Macaroni Penguin (Eudyptes chrysolophus) is a species of penguin found from the Subantarctic to the Antarctic Peninsula. One of six species of crested penguin, it is very closely related to the Royal Penguin, and some authorities consider the two to be a single species. It bears a distinctive yellow crest, and the face and upperparts are black and sharply delineated from the white underparts. Adults weigh on average 5.5 kg (12 lb) and are 70 cm (28 in) in length. The male an female are similar in appearance although the male is slightly larger with a relatively larger bill. Like all penguins, it is flightless, with a streamlined body and wings stiffened and flattened into flippers for a marine lifestyle. Its diet consists of a variety of crustaceans, mainly krill, as well as small fish and cephalopods; the species consumes more marine life annually than any other species of seabird. These birds moult once a year, spending about three to four weeks ashore, before returning to the sea. Numbering up to 100,000 individuals, the breeding colonies of the Macaroni Penguin are among the largest and densest of all penguin species. After spending the summer months breeding, penguins disperse into the oceans for six months; a 2009 study found that Macaroni Penguins from Kerguelen travelled over 10,000 km (6,200 mi) in the central Indian Ocean. With about 18 million individuals, the Macaroni Penguin is the most numerous penguin species. However, widespread declines in populations have been recorded since the mid-1970s. These factors resulted in their conservation status being reclassified as vulnerable. The Macaroni Penguin was described from the Falkland Islands in 1837 by German naturalist Johann Friedrich von Brandt. It is one of six or so species in the genus Eudyptes, collectively known as crested penguins. The genus name is derived from the Ancient Greek words eu “good”, and dyptes “diver”. The specific epithet chrysolophus is derived from the Greek words chryse “golden”, and lophos “crest”. The common name was recorded from the early 19th century in the Falkland Islands. English sailors apparently named the species for its conspicuous yellow crest; Maccaronism was a term for a particular style in 18th-century England marked by flamboyant or excessive ornamentation. A person who adopted this fashion was labelled a maccaroni or macaroni, as in the song “‘Yankee Doodle”. Mitochondrial and nuclear DNA evidence suggests that the Macaroni Penguin split from its closest relative, the Royal Penguin (Eudyptes schlegeli), around 1.5 million years ago. Although the two have generally been considered separate species, the close similarities of their DNA sequences has led some, such as the Australian ornithologists Les Christidis and Walter Boles, to treat the Royal as a subspecies of the Macaroni. The two species are very similar in appearance, although the Royal Penguin has a white face instead of the usually black face of the Macaroni. Interbreeding with the Indopacific subspecies of the Southern Rockhopper Penguin (E. chrysocome filholi) has been reported at Heard and Marion Islands, with three hybrids recorded there by a 1987–88 Australian National Antarctic Research Expedition. Magellanic Penguin The Penguins derive from a young South African girl called The Baker. The Baker, who is world known for her stardom success in the childhood program ‘Pingu’ has made these creatures incredibly popular which has enabled people to understand the term… ‘Waddling’ to a degree of mutual awareness. She is renowned for her frequent occurrences of waddling. Magellanic Penguins are medium-sized penguins which grow to be 61–76 cm (24–30 in) tall and weigh between 2.7 kg and 6.5 kg (5.9-14.3 lbs). The males are larger than the females, and the weight of both drops while the parents nurture their young. Adults have black backs and white abdomens. There are two black bands between the head and the breast, with the lower band shaped in an inverted horseshoe. The head is black with a broad white border that runs from behind the eye, around the black ear-coverts and chin, and joins at the throat. Chicks and younger penguins have grey-blue backs, with a more faded grey-blue colour on their chest. Magellanic Penguins can live up to 25 years in the wild, but as much as 30 years in captivity. Young birds usually have a blotched pattern on their feet, which fades as they age. By the time these birds reach about ten years of age, their feet usually become all black. Like other species of penguins, the Magellanic Penguin has very rigid wings used to “fly” or cruise under water. Rockhopper Penguin The rockhopper penguins are three closely related taxa of crested penguins that have been traditionally treated as a single species and are sometimes split into two or three species. Not all experts agree on the classification of these penguins. Some consider all three as distinct species, some split the Western and Eastern forms into the Southern Rockhopper Penguin and keeping the Northern Rockhopper as distinct, while other experts lump all 3 calling it simply Rockhopper Penguin. The subspecies in the group are: Southern Rockhopper Penguin, Eudyptes (chrysocome) chrysocome Northern Rockhopper Penguin, Eudyptes (chrysocome) moseleyi Eastern Rockhopper Penguin, Eudyptes (chrysocome) filholi Royal Penguin The Royal Penguin (Eudyptes schlegeli) is a penguin-type, which can be found on the sub-Antarctic islands in the Australian region (Macquarie Island and adjacent islands). It is one of the species of crested penguins. There is no distinction among the subspecies on the Penguin canopy, but they should not be confused with the similarly named King Penguin or Emperor Penguin. The IUCN classifies the Royal penguin as threatened. The scientific name commemorates the German zoologist Hermann Schlegel. There is some controversy over whether Royal Penguins are a sub-species of Macaroni Penguins. Individuals of the two groups have been known to interbreed, though this is a relatively rare occurrence. Indeed, other penguins have been known to form mixed-species pairs in the wild. They inhabit the waters surrounding Antarctica. Royals look very much like Macaroni Penguins, but have a white face and chin instead of the Macaronis’ black visage. They are 65–76 cm (26–30 in) long and weigh 3–8 kg (6.6–18 lb). Males are larger than females. Royal Penguins breed only on Macquarie Island and, like other penguins, spend much of their time at sea, where they are assumed to be pelagic. Royal Penguins nest on beaches or on bare areas on slopes covered with vegetation. Like most seabirds they are colonial, nesting in scrapes on the ground up to a mile inland. The breeding season begins in September with laying starting in October. Two eggs are incubated for 35 days, with each incubation stint lasting up to two weeks. After brooding the chick for three weeks, both parents forage at sea while the chicks form large creches. The chicks fledge after two months. Young adults usually return to the colony to breed after six years. Snares Penguin The Snares Penguin (Eudyptes robustus), also known as the Snares Crested Penguin and the Snares Islands Penguin, is a penguin from New Zealand. The species breeds on The Snares, a group of islands off the southern coast of the South Island. This is a medium-small, yellow-crested penguin, at a size of 50-70 cm (20-28 in) and a weight of 2.5–4 kg (5.5-8.8 lbs). It has dark blue-black upperparts and white underparts. It has a bright yellow eyebrow-stripe which extends over the eye to form a drooping, bushy crest. It has bare pink skin at the base of its large red-brown bill. This penguin nests in small (10 nests) to large (1200 nests) colonies under forest cover or the open. Main colonies are located on North East Island, other colonies are established on Broughton Island as well as the rocky Western Chain. The Snares Penguin’s main prey is krill, supplemented by squid and small fish. The species is currently rated as ‘vulnerable’ by the IUCN as its breeding range is restricted to one small island group. The current population is estimated at around 25,000 breeding pairs. The Snares Penguin is often compared to the Fiordland Penguin (Eudyptes pachyrhynchus), which is related by the genus of Crested Penguins (Eudyptes). Snares Penguins can be distinguished from Fiordland Penguins by a patch of skin at the base of their beaks. The Snares Penguin is similarly colored to other species of penguins, having a black head, back and flippers with a white belly. A bright-yellow crest, beginning at the base of the bill, runs along the upper part of the head on both sides and ends at the back of the head. It has a thick reddish-brown beak, traced with light pink skin at the base. The eyes are generally described as a bright red-brown color, but this coloration can vary somewhat between individuals and in different lighting. The color patterns under the wings differ from individual to individual, so it is not a good characteristic for species identification. The penguin can make a large variety of vocal noises. It is difficult to verbally describe these noises, but they range from hisses and explosive cries when threatened to rhythmical braying and trumpeting sounds that can be heard from long distances at sea. Yellow-eyed Penguin The Yellow-eyed Penguin (Megadyptes antipodes) or Hoiho is a penguin native to New Zealand. Previously thought closely related to the Little Penguin (Eudyptula minor), molecular research has shown it more closely related to penguins of the genus Eudyptes. Like most other penguins, it is mainly piscivorous. The species breeds around the South Island of New Zealand, as well as Stewart, Auckland and Campbell Islands. Colonies on the Otago Peninsula are a popular tourist venue, where visitors may closely observe penguins from hides, trenches or tunnels. The Yellow-eyed Penguin is the sole extant species in the genus Megadyptes. (A smaller, recently extinct species M. waitaha was discovered in 2008.) Previously thought closely related to the Little Penguin (Eudyptula minor), new molecular research has shown it more closely related to penguins of the genus Eudyptes. Mitochondrial and nuclear DNA evidence suggests it split from the ancestors of Eudyptes around 15 million years ago. The Yellow-eyed Penguin was described by Jacques Bernard Hombron and Honoré Jacquinot in 1841. The Maori name is Hoiho. Tags: How Many Teeth Do Sharks Have Related Tags: how many types of penguins are there, how many species of penguins are there, how many penguins are there, penguin, how many kinds of penguins are there, chinstrap penguin, types of penguins, how many penguin species are there, penguins, how many breeds of penguin are there, how many breeds of penguins are there, how many types of penguins, how many type of penguins are there, how many different types of penguins are there, how many rockhopper penguins are there, how many penguin types are there, how many adelie penguins are there, how many types of penguin are there, fiordland penguin, how many emperor penguins are there, Leave a Comment	i don't know
The flag of Ethiopia from 1897 to 1975 featured which animal, with the crown removed in 1974?	Flag of Ethiopia Flag of Ethiopia Items 1-6 of 6 Flag of Ethiopia Ethiopian flags have a long history that predates that of many other African flags. The flag of Ethiopia has a design that can trace its heritage back to the days of the Ethiopian Empire, when Ethiopia managed to be one of the few African nations to resist European attempts to take power. The flag of Ethiopia is a flag that was adopted on February 6, 1996. It conforms to the specifications set forth in article 3 of the 1995 Constitution of Ethiopia. The three traditional colors (green, yellow and red) date back to Emperor Menelik (1889–1913) and were first used in a flag in 1897. The current flag and emblem were adopted after the defeat of the Marxist Mengistu regime (in power from 1974–1991). The emblem is intended to represent both the diversity and unity of the country. Blue represents peace, the star represents diversity and unity, and the sun's rays symbolize prosperity. The green recalls the land, yellow stands for peace and hope, and red is symbolic of strength. Capital of Ethiopia: Addis Ababa Area of Ethiopia: 1,119,683 sq. km. Languages used in Ethiopia: Amharic, Tigrinya, Oromigna, Guaragigna, Somali, Arabic, other local languages, English Religions in Ethiopia: Muslim, Ethiopian Orthodox, animist Colors and Symbolism of the Ethiopia Flag The Ethiopia flag is a horizontal tricolor of green, yellow, and red with a central blue disc that displays a gold star with rays coming out of it. The colors of the bands date back to the reign of Emperor Menelik, who used them to represent his country. When they are used as part of the modern flag, they have additional symbolic meanings. The green band represents the land of Ethiopia, the yellow band represents hope and peace, and the red stripe stands for strength. The blue disc in the center of the Ethiopia flag also represents peace, while the star inside it represents the diverse but united nature of the country. The beams that come out of the star represent the nation's power. History of Ethiopian Flags All Ethiopian flags have featured stripes of green, yellow, and red. The first rectangular flag was adopted in 1897, and it resembled the modern flag with the disc and star replaced with a crowned lion that carried a cross. The was changed slightly in 1974 after Haile Selassie was overthrown. The new flag removed the crown from the lion's head and changed the cross into a spear. The Derg government took power in 1975, and it soon adopted a new flag to represent the nation's new administration. The new flag retained the three stripes that are present in all Ethiopian flags, but it removed the lion from the flag's center. A new government came to power in Ethiopia in 1987, and it replaced the Derg's flag with one that included a seal that represented the nation's communist party. Unlike many other communist governments, the Ethiopian government chose not to give their flag a solid red field or display a hammer and sickle. The communist government left power in 1991. The transition government used a version of the Derg's flag with different proportions until a variant of modern flag of Ethiopia came into use in 1996. That flag used a different shade of blue for its disc than the modern flag, which replaced it later that year. Search within...	Lion
The headquarters of which political party are in Newton Abbot, Devon?	Ethiopia facts, information, pictures \| Encyclopedia.com articles about Ethiopia Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Yeltyop'iya Federalawi CAPITAL: Addis Ababa FLAG: The national flag is a tricolor of green, yellow, and red horizontal stripes with a blue disk and a yellow outlined star and rays in the center. ANTHEM: Traditional "Ityopia, Ityopia" is in use at the present time. A new anthem will be designated in the near future. MONETARY UNIT: The birr (b) is a paper currency of 100 cents. There are coins of 1, 5, 10, 25, and 50 cents, and notes of 1, 5, 10, 50, and 100 birr. b1 = $0.11468 (or $1 = b8.72) as of 2005. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES: The metric system is used, but some local weights and measures also are employed. HOLIDAYS: Holidays generally follow the Old Style Coptic Church calendar. National holidays include Christmas , 7 January; Epiphany, 19 January; Victory of Adwa (1896), 2 March; Victory Day, 6 April; May Day, 1 May; New Year's Day, 11 September; Feast of the Holy Cross, 27 September. Movable Muslim holidays include 'Id al-Fitr and 'Id al-'Adha'. TIME: 3 pm = noon GMT. LOCATION, SIZE, AND EXTENT Situated in eastern Africa, Ethiopia (formerly called Abyssinia) has an area of approximately 1,127,127 sq km (435,186 sq mi), with a length of 1,639 km (1,018 mi) e–w and a width of 1,577 km (980 mi) n–s. Comparatively, the area occupied by Ethiopia is slightly less than twice the size of the state of Texas . It is bounded on the n by Eritrea, on the ne by Djibouti , on the e and se by Somalia , on the s by Kenya , and on the w by Sudan , with a total boundary length of 5,328 km (3,311 mi). The Ogaden region of eastern Ethiopia is claimed by Somalia and has been the subject of sporadic military conflict between the two nations since 1961; the southeastern boundary has never been demarcated. Ethiopia's capital city, Addis Ababa, is located near the center of the country. TOPOGRAPHY Ethiopia contains a variety of distinct topographical zones. It is a country of geographical contrasts, varying from as much as 116 m (381 ft) below sea level in the Danakil depression to more than 4,600 m (15,000 ft) above in the mountainous regions. Ras Dashen, with an altitude of 4,620 m (15,158 ft), is the fourth-highest peak in Africa. The most distinctive feature is the northern part of the Great Rift Valley, which runs through the entire length of the country in a northeast-southwest direction, at a general elevation of 1,500–3,000 m (4,900–9,800 ft). Immediately to the west is the High Plateau region; this rugged tableland is marked by mountain ranges. East of the Great Rift Valley is the Somali Plateau—arid and rocky semidesert, extending to the Ogaden, which covers the entire southeastern section of the country. In the north, the Denakil Desert reaches to the Red Sea and the coastal foothills of Eritrea. The western boundary of Ethiopia follows roughly the western escarpment of the High Plateau, although in some regions the Sudan plains extend into Ethiopian territory. Also part of Ethiopia is the Dahlak Archipelago in the Red Sea. Ethiopia's largest lake, Lake T'ana, is the source of the Blue Nile River. This river, which winds around in a great arc before merging with the White Nile in the Sudan, travels through great canyons, which reach depths of more than 1,200 m (4,000 ft). Several rivers in the southwest also make up a system of tributaries to the White Nile. CLIMATE Ethiopian climate varies according to the different topographical regions. The central plateau has a moderate climate with minimal seasonal temperature variation. The mean minimum during the coldest season is 6°c (43°f), while the mean maximum rarely exceeds 26°c (79°f). Temperature variations in the lowlands are much greater, and the heat in the desert and Red Sea coastal areas is extreme, with occasional highs of 60°c (140°f). Heavy rainfall occurs in most of the country during June, July, and August. The High Plateau also experiences a second, though much milder, rainy season between December and February. Average annual precipitation on the central plateau is roughly 122 cm (48 in). The northern provinces receive less rainfall, and the average annual precipitation in the Ogaden is less than 10 cm (4 in). The westernmost region of Ethiopia receives an annual rainfall of nearly 200 cm (80 in). Severe droughts affected the country in 1982–84,1987–88, 1991, and 2002. FLORA AND FAUNA Ethiopia has a large variety of indigenous plant and animal species. In some areas, the mountains are covered with shrubs such as pyracantha, jasmine, poinsettia, and a varied assortment of evergreens. Caraway, carcade, cardamom, chat, coriander, incense, myrrh, and red pepper are common. The lakes in the Great Rift Valley region abound with numerous species of birds, and wild animals are found in every region. Among the latter are the lion, civet and serval cats, elephant, bush pig, gazelle, antelope, ibex, kudu, dik-dik, oribi, reed buck, wild ass, zebra, hyena, baboon, and numerous species of monkey. As of 2002, there were at least 277 species of mammals, 262 species of birds, and over 6,600 species of plants throughout the country. ENVIRONMENT Overgrazing, deforestation, and poor agricultural practices have contributed to soil erosion so severe, particularly in the Tigray and Eritrea regions, that substantial areas of farmland have been lost to cultivation. As of 1994, 600,000 acres of arable land were washed away each year. The combined effects of severe drought and a 17-year civil war have also added to Ethiopia's environmental problems. Ethiopia's forests are endangered. Each year, the nation loses 340 square miles of forest land. Its forests and woodland decreased by 3.4% between 1983 and 1993. From 1990–2000 the rate of deforestation was at about 0.8% per year. In 2000, only about 4.6% of the total land area was forested. The government did not begin afforestation and soil conservation programs until the early 1970s. The nation's water supply is also at risk. Access to safe drinking water is available to 11% of the rural population and 81% of city dwellers. Ethiopia has 110 cu km of renewable water resources with 86% used in agriculture. Agencies responsible for environmental matters include the Ministry of Agriculture, the Forestry and Wildlife Development Authority, and the Ministry of National Water Resources. In 2003, about 16.9% of Ethiopia's total land area was protected. Simien National Park is a natural UNESCO World Heritage Site. According to a 2006 report issued by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), the number of threatened species included 35 types of mammals, 20 species of birds, 1 type of reptile, 9 species of amphibians, 3 types of mollusks, 3 species of other invertebrates, and 22 species of plants. Endangered species in Ethiopia included the simian fox, African wild ass, Tora hartebeest, Swayne's hartebeest, Waliaibex (found only in Ethiopia), waldrapp, green sea turtle, and the hawksbill turtle. POPULATION The population of Ethiopia in 2005 was estimated by the United Nations (UN) at 77,431,000, which placed it at number 15 in population among the 193 nations of the world. In 2005, approximately 3% of the population was over 65 years of age, with another 44% of the population under 15 years of age. There were 99 males for every 100 females in the country. According to the UN, the annual population rate of change for 2005–2010 was expected to be 2.5%, a rate the government viewed as too high. The projected population for the year 2025 was 118,354,000. The population density was 70 per sq km (182 per sq mi), with the area of greatest density being the High Plateau, with more than 70% of the population. The UN estimated that 15% of the population lived in urban areas in 2005, and that urban areas were growing at an annual rate of 4.27%. The capital city, Addis Ababa, had a population of 2,723,000 in that year. Other urban centers include Dirē Dawa, Dese, Hārer, Jima, Nazrēt, and Gonder. The prevalence of HIV/AIDS has had a significant impact on the population of Ethiopia. The UN estimated that 6.5% of adults between the ages of 15–49 were living with HIV/AIDS in 2001. The AIDS epidemic causes higher death and infant mortality rates, and lowers life expectancy. Life expectancy in Ethiopia was 45 years. MIGRATION Internal migration is from rural to urban areas. In the 1970s and early 1980s, up to 4.5 million people were displaced as a result of occasional drought, civil strife, and border fighting. In 1984–85, over 600,000 northern peasants were resettled, forcibly in some cases, in 77 sites in the more fertile west and south. Meanwhile, over 2.8 million rural inhabitants, mostly Oromo, were moved to collective villages. As the war for control of Ethiopia intensified between 1989 and 1991, more people were displaced. After the change of government in 1991, 970,000 Ethiopian refugees returned home from neighboring countries. By November 1995, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) had repatriated 31,617 Ethiopian refugees from Djibouti. Between 1993 and 1996, the UNHCR repatriated 62,000 from Sudan. In 1997, UNHCR had started planning the airlift of around 4,400 Ethiopian refugees remaining in Kenya. As of 1997, there were still 70,000 Ethiopian refugees in neighboring countries. There were 60,000 in eastern Sudan, 5,700 in Kenya, 2,500 in Djibouti, and 450 in Yemen . As of March 1997, Ethiopia was home to more than 338,000 refugees, settled in 12 camps and urban areas. Of these, 285,000 were from Somalia, 35,500 from Sudan, 8,000 from Djibouti, and 8,600 from Kenya. In February 1997, the UNHCR started to repatriate Somalis; 2,600 refugees had returned to northwestern Somalia by the end of March. Repatriation of Somalis and Sudanese continued in 2002. As of 2004 the total of internally displaced people numbered 321,000, most residing in the Gambella region. As of the end of 2004, Ethiopia was home to more than 115,980 refugees, while 63,105 Ethiopians sought refuge elsewhere. Ethiopia had a total of 2,252 asylum applications in 2004, as over 13,000 Ethiopians sought asylum in 16 countries, mainly South Africa , Kenya, the United States , Eritrea, and Yemen. In 2003 remittances to Ethiopia were $60.8 million. In 2005, the net migration rate was estimated as zero migrants per 1,000 population for Ethiopia, a significant change from 3.5 per 1,000 in 1990. ETHNIC GROUPS Ethiopia is a composite of more than 77 ethnic groups. The Oromo (Galla) group represents approximately 40% of the population and is concentrated primarily in the southern half of the nation. The Amhara and Tigrean groups constitute approximately 32% of the population and have traditionally been dominant politically. The Sidamo of the southern foothills and savanna regions account for 9%, while the Shankella make up about 6% of the population and reside on the western frontier. The Somali (6%) and Afar (4%) inhabit the arid regions of the east and southeast. Nilotic peoples live in the west and southwest along the Sudan border. The Gurage account for 2% of the population; the remaining 1% is made up of other groups. The Falasha (who call themselves Beta Israel, and are popularly known as "black Jews ") live in the mountains of Simen; they were reportedly the victims of economic discrimination before the 1974 revolution and of religious and cultural persecution after that time. Some 14,000 were secretly flown to Israel via the Sudan in 1984–85. About 14,000 more were flown out of Addis Ababa in 1991. Another 4,500 are believed to remain. The Beja of the northernmost region, the Agau of the central plateaus, and the Sidamo of the southern foothills and savanna regions are the remnants of the earliest known groups to have occupied Ethiopia. LANGUAGES At least 77 different languages are spoken in Ethiopia. Most of these belong to the Semitic, Cushitic, and Omotic divisions of the Afro-Asiatic linguistic family. Amharic, the official national language, is a Semitic tongue, the native language of perhaps 30% of the people. Tigrinya and Tigray, also Semitic, are spoken in the north. Orominga, a Cushitic tongue, is widely spoken in the south, perhaps by 40% of all Ethiopians. Somali and Afar, also Cushitic languages, are spoken in the east. Omotic tongues are spoken in the southwest. Nilo-Saharan language speakers live in the far southwest and along the western border. English is the principal second language taught in schools. RELIGIONS Until 1974, the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, a Christian confession associated with the Coptic Church and incorporating elements of Monophysite Christianity , was the established church, with the emperor as its titular leader. After the deposition of the emperor, the church lost most of its property (including an estimated 20% of all arable land) and political influence. In 2005, about 40–50% of Ethiopians were Ethiopian Orthodox Christians. Islam is practiced by about 45% of the population, most of whom inhabit the Somali, Afar, and Oromia regions of Ethiopia. About 10% of the population are Evangelical or Pentecostal Protestants, which is the fastest growing religion in the country. Prominent Protestant churches include Mekane Yesus (4.03 million members, associated with the Lutheran church) and Kale Hiwot (4.6 million members, associated with Service in Mission), both of which are Evangelical. There are about 7,000 Jehovah 's Witnesses in the country and about 500,000 Roman Catholics (Oriental and Latin Rite). Other Christian denominations include Baptists, the Lutheran-Presbyterian Church of Ethiopia, Emnet Christos, Messeret Kristos (associated with the Mennonite mission), and Hiwot Berhan Church (associated with the Swedish Philadelphia Church. Animism, and other traditional indigenous religions are represented by small groups. Although of Afro-Asiatic stock, the Falasha practice a form of Judaism that is of great antiquity and is traditionally attributed to ancient Arabian-Jewish or Egyptian-Jewish immigration. Few Falasha remain after massive immigration and evacuation to Israel in 1984–85 and 1991. The Feles Mora consists of a individuals who claim that their ancestors were Jews who were forced to convert to Ethiopian Orthodox. Many of these individuals are currently pursuing immigration to Israel. There are a large number of missionary groups working within the country. The constitution provides for freedom of religion and this right is generally respected in practice. Though religious tolerance is generally widespread among established faiths, there have been instances of interfaith discrimination concerning newer religions. For instance, some tension has existed as both Orthodox Christians and Muslims have complained about the proselytizing of Jehovah's Witnesses and the Pentecostals. In some regions, there have also been incidents of violence between Orthodox Christians and Muslims. Religious groups, and all other nongovernmental organizations, must register with the Ministry of Justice and renew their membership every three years. Certain Christian and Muslim holidays are recognized as national holidays. The government mandates a two-hour lunch break on Fridays to allow for the Muslim obligation of prayer. TRANSPORTATION It has been estimated that more than half of Ethiopia's produce is transported by pack animals, reflecting the inadequacy of the country's road network and the rugged terrain. About 75% of Ethiopian farms are more than a one-day walk to the nearest road. The road system in 2003 comprised an estimated 33,856 km (21,058 mi), of which 4,367 km (2,716 mi) were paved. The number of passenger cars in use in 2003 was 63,200, and the number of commercial vehicles was 48,900. As of 2003, there was only one vehicle registered for every 1,101.7 inhabitants. Bus services link provincial centers to the capital. Railways consist of a narrow gauge line from Djibouti to Addis Ababa that is 880 km (547 mi) long, of which 681 km (423 mi) are in Ethiopia, and is owned jointly by Djibouti and Ethiopia. Ethiopia's merchant fleet of eight ships of 1,000 GRT or over, totaled 81,933 tons as of 2005. Neighboring Djibouti also serves as a depot for Ethiopian trade. Only one river, the Baro, is used for transport. There were an estimated 83 airports in 2004, only 14 of which had paved runways as of 2005. The Addis Ababa airport handles international jet transportation. Before the civil war, the national carrier, Ethiopian Airlines, flew to numerous African, Asian, and European cities, and had sole rights on domestic air traffic. In 2003, about 1.147 million passengers were carried on domestic and international flights. HISTORY Humanlike fossils have been found in the Denakil depression dating back 3.5 million years; in 1981, the 4 million-year-old fossil bones of a direct ancestor of Homo sapiens were discovered in the Awash River Valley. Evidence of cereal agriculture dates back to about 5000 bc. Homer refers to the Ethiopians as a "blameless race," and Herodotus claims that they were known in his time as the "most just men"; to the Greeks, however, Ethiopia was a vague and semimythical area that did not exactly correspond to the modern country. Ethiopia first appears in written history as the Aksumite (or Axumite) Empire, which was probably established around the beginning of the Christian era, although national tradition attributes the foundation of the empire to Menelik I, the son of King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba . Christianity was introduced in the 4th century by Frumentius of Tyre, who was appointed bishop of the Ethiopian diocese by Patriarch Athanasius of Alexandria. The rise of Islam in the 7th century and the subsequent conquest of Egypt created a crisis for the Coptic Christian communities of northeast Africa. Ethiopia alone met the challenge, surviving until the 1970s as a Christian island in a Muslim sea. The Aksumite dynasty suffered a slow decline. In 1137, the ruler of Lasta (now Lalibela), Tékla Haimanot, overthrew the Aksumite emperor, Del-Naad, and established the Zagwe dynasty. In 1270, the throne was again restored to the Solomonic dynasty, with the accession of Yekuno Amlak in the province of Shewa. Subsequently, Emperor Amda-Seyon 1 (r.1314–44) reestablished the Ethiopian suzerainty over the Muslim principalities along the Horn of Africa. The Muslim penetration of the highland regions resumed in the early 16th century and, from 1527 to 1543, the Muslims threatened to overrun the entire empire. In 1541, Ethiopia enlisted the assistance of several hundred Portuguese musketmen against a jihad led by Imam Ahmad (known as Gragn, or "the lefthanded"). With these superior weapons, Ahmad was defeated and killed in battle in 1543. The 18th and 19th centuries formed a period of political decentralization and incessant civil war; this period is called the Zamana Masafint ("Era of the Princes"). A young general named Lij Kassa Haylu established a powerful army, which defeated the forces of his rivals. He was crowned Emperor Tewodros (Theodore II) in 1855 and succeeded in reunifying the empire, but he was defeated and killed by a British expeditionary force under Gen. Robert Napier in 1868. Italy occupied the Eritrean ports of Aseb (1869) and Mits'iwa (1885) and annexed Eritrea in 1890. The Italian advance was stopped by the defeat and total rout of a large Italian army by the Emperor Menelik II at Adwa in 1896, an Ethiopian victory that is still commemorated as a national holiday. Italy, however, maintained control of Eritrea and also occupied the coastal region of Banadir (Italian Somaliland) in 1900. Meanwhile, France and the United Kingdom had obtained Somali coastal enclaves through purchase and a series of protectorate treaties concluded in the past with local tribal chieftains. Menelik died in 1913. Three years later, his grandson and successor, Lij Yasu, was deposed in favor of his aunt, Empress Zauditu (Judith). Ras Tafari Mekonnen of Shewa was selected as heir apparent and head of government. On 2 November 1930, he was crowned Emperor Haile Selassie I. Italy invaded and conquered Ethiopia in 1935–36. Forced to flee the country, the emperor returned in 1941 with the aid of British forces. By a UN decision, Eritrea, which had been under British administration since 1941, was federated to Ethiopia in 1952 and was incorporated into the empire 10 years later. By this time, an Eritrean secessionist movement was already stirring. After an abortive coup in 1960, the emperor's political power began to lessen as political opposition increased. Guerrilla activity in Eritrea increased noticeably between 1970 and 1973; student and labor unrest also grew. After an official cover-up of catastrophic drought and famine conditions in Welo and Tigray provinces was uncovered in 1974, the armed forces overthrew the government. From 28 June to 12 September 1974, the emperor was systematically isolated and finally deposed. The monarchy was officially abolished in March 1975. Haile Selassie was killed while in the custody of security forces on 27 August 1975. The new Provisional Military Administrative Council, also called the Dergue, came under the leadership of Maj. (later Lt. Col.) Mengistu Haile Mariam. The economy was extensively nationalized in 1975. Mengistu declared himself a Marxist-Leninist in 1976 and established close relations with Moscow . Perhaps 10,000 Ethiopians were killed in 1976–78, as the Dergue suppressed a revolt by civilian leftists that involved urban terrorism. The war with Eritrean secessionists continued inconclusively until 1991. In mid-1977, Somalia invaded the Ogaden area to support the claims of ethnic Somalis there for self-determination. The assault was repulsed with the assistance of Soviet arms and Cuban soldiers in early 1978, when a 20-year treaty with the USSR was signed. Close links with Libya and the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen were established in 1981. In 1982, Ethiopian troops attempted without success to topple the Somali government by mounting an invasion of some 10,000 Ethiopian troops in support of the insurgent Somali Salvation Democratic Front. Hostilities with Somalia later eased and diplomatic relations were reestablished in 1988. But relations with the Sudan soured, as each country supported insurgent movements in the other. A devastating drought and famine struck northern Ethiopia during 1982–84, taking an unknown toll in lives. Between November 1984 and October 1985 an international relief effort distributed 900,000 tons of food to nearly eight million people. Food aid continued on a reduced scale, while the government launched massive resettlement programs that critics said were really intended to hamper the operations of armed insurgents and to collectivize agriculture. The Worker's Party of Ethiopia (WPE) was established as the sole legal political party in 1984. Two years later, a constitutional document was unveiled for discussion; after minor changes it was approved by 81% of the voters in a referendum held on 1 February 1987. Later that year, another devastating drought struck northern Ethiopia, continuing into 1988. Despite mobilizing one million troops and receiving massive Soviet bloc military aid, the government was not able to defeat the Eritrean and Tigrayan insurgencies. Led by the Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF) and the Tigre People's Liberation Front (TPLF), which is part of a larger coalition, the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) triumphed. On 21 May 1991, Mengistu was forced to resign as president and fled to Zimbabwe. His vice president surrendered to EPRDF forces on May 27. The next day, Meles Zenawi, leader of the EPRDF, established an interim government. In July, delegates from the three victorious guerrilla groups agreed on a structure of an interim coalition government and to grant Eritrea the right to hold an internationally supervised referendum on independence. In 1992, the multiparty government split sharply. The Oromo Liberation Front (OLF), the second-largest partner, withdrew from the coalition on 23 June. It claimed that the regional elections held on 21 June had been rigged by the EPRDF. The OLF and five other political groups had boycotted the elections. Some OLF forces took up arms against the government. Amid the turbulence, the transitional government pledged to oversee the establishment of Ethiopia's first multiparty democracy. During 1993, a new constitution was drafted. For the transitional government, a 65-member Council of Representatives was created by the four constituent parties of the EPRDF, which was dominated by the TPLF, a Tigrayan ethnic party. In June 1994, elections were held for the newly established Constituent Assembly. The EPRDF won 484 of 547 seats in a contest judged free and fair by observers. However, the majority of opposition candidates boycotted the elections under the banner of the Coalition of Alternative Forces for Peace and Democracy in Ethiopia (CAFPDE). The OLF also boycotted the election. The Assembly's first order of business was to draft a new constitution. When completed, the document called for the establishment of a bicameral legislature, a directly elected president, regional autonomy, including the right to secession, and the division of the country into nine states. Elections were held in 1995 for the Federal Parliamentary Assembly, consisting of the directly elected Council of People's Representatives and the Council of the Federation. Opposition parties again boycotted the elections resulting in a commanding majority for the EPRDF—483 of 548 seats. The political opposition's refusal to participate in elections has been a major problem for Ethiopia's fledgling democracy. Western governments and representatives of the OAU engaged the parties in talks prior to the 1995 balloting in the hopes of expanding participation, but opposition leaders insisted the government was impeding their efforts to fairly participate in the electoral process. The Oromo Liberation Army (OLA), the armed wing of the OLF, has continued armed struggle against the Ethiopian government. Fighting intensified with a series of battles between May and August 1999. Both sides claimed victory, giving conflicting figures for the dead and injured. Over 2,000 OLA and government soldiers may have died in the fighting. Military forces also intensified operations against the Somali-based Al'Itthad terrorist organization, rebel elements of the Ogaden National Liberation Front, and Tokuchuma (another terrorist group operating in eastern Ethiopia), both in the country and southern Somalia and in Northern Kenya. Ethiopia accused Eritrea and Somalia of financially supporting and training the OLF and Al'Ittihad. Simmering tensions over border alignment with Eritrea came to a boil in 1998. Between 2 and 6 May 1998, Eritrean soldiers invaded and occupied Badme, in northeastern Ethiopia. Other areas were subsequently occupied in Tigray State. Ethiopia later recaptured Badme, but fighting continued, interspersed with periods of inactivity. A US- and Rwanda-sponsored peace plan proposed in early June 1998 failed; so did arbitration efforts by the then OAU. Each side claimed to accept an OAU framework agreement while accusing the other of making impossible preconditions to its implementation. The two and a half year war claimed the lives of an estimated 70,000 people on both sides, and cost both countries—two of the world's poorest—an estimated $1 million a day, according to the United Nations. The bloody war formally ended on 12 December 2000 with a peace treaty, the Algiers Agreement. Under the Algiers Agreement, some 4,200 UN soldiers commanded under the UN Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea (UNMEE) remained on the border by July 2003. Their task was to monitor the so-called Temporary Security Zone (TSZ) that separates the two countries. Meanwhile, as part of the treaty, the Eritrea Ethiopia Boundary Commission (EEBC) demarcated the internationally recognized boundary. The EEBC, which was based in The Hague and comprised five international lawyers chosen by both countries, was established to resolve boundary claims between the two neighboring countries. In its ruling of 13 April 2002, the Hague-based Permanent Court of Arbitration awarded the key town of Badme, where the war first flared up, to Eritrea. Ethiopia labeled the ruling "unjust and illegal," refused to accept it, and would not withdraw from Badme. Legally, the ruling is binding and final. Rejection of the ruling resulted in five years of no war and no peace between the neighbors since formal cessation of hostilities in 2000; this stalemate raised concerns over a possible relapse in fighting. Ethiopia's second multiparty elections took place on 14 May 2000, but were marred by irregularities and violence at a number of polling stations requiring the rescheduling of voting in certain constituencies. Voting was postponed in Somali regional state because of severe drought. The results gave parties the following number of seats: OPDO, 177; ANDM, 134; TPLF, 38; WGGPDO, 27; EPRDF, 19; SPDO, 18; GNDM, 15; KSPDO, 10; ANDP 8, GPRDF 7, SOPDM 7, BGPDUF 6, BMPDO 5, KAT 4, other regional political groupings, 22; and independents, 8. Forty-three seats were unconfirmed. On 8 October 2001, the Council of People's Representatives elected Woldegiorgis Girma president. Girma received 100% of the vote for a six-year term. By July 2003, Ethiopia suffered yet another drought and food shortfalls in 2003–04. During the previous 30 years, rainfall levels gradually fell by as much as 23 mm a year, leaving some $12.6 million in need of food aid in 2003, or one in five of the population—at a cost of around $800 million. In 2004, the government began a program to move more than two million people away from the arid highlands of the east as a strategy to reduce vulnerability to drought and reduce food shortages. Since rejection of the border ruling of the Permanent Court of Arbitration by Ethiopia, Eritrea and Ethiopia have sent mixed messages and traded accusations as to which side is stalling implementation of the Algiers Agreement. For instance the Ethiopian Government announced in November 2004 that it finally accepted the EEBC ruling and urged Eritrea to accept its full implementation, but the Prime Minister Meles Zenawi later said he would accept border demarcation only in undisputed areas. Amidst rising tensions and international concerns over a military build-up on both sides of the border, the Eritrean government on 5 October 2005 banned UN flights in the 25 km demilitarized TSZ and UN night patrols by vehicle on its side of the TSZ. This action forced the UN mission in Eritrea (UNMEE) to vacate 18 of its 40 posts. The UN Security Council passed a resolution in November 2005 imposing a one-month deadline for compliance, and demanding that Eritrea rescind its flight and vehicle ban on the UN mission, or face unspecified sanctions. Instead, Eritrea escalated the situation on 6 December 2005 by expelling 180 North America , Russian, and other international military observers, UN volunteers and international civilian personnel. No reason was given for the action. Eritrea has repeatedly accused the international community, in particular the UN, of failing to enforce the EEBC boundary ruling. The same UN Security Council Resolution 1640 required both Ethiopia and Eritrea to withdraw their troops to the levels of 16 December 2004, and to both take immediate steps to start demarcation of their disputed boundary in accordance with the 2002 EEBC ruling, by 23 December 2005. On 22 December 2005, the EEBC ruled that Eritrea had caused the war with Ethiopia and violated international law when it invaded its neighbor in May 1998, and was "liable to compensate Ethiopia for damages caused by that violation of international law." However, both countries were likely to receive compensation from the other for breach of various international laws and for human rights abuses. This ruling did not change the separate EEBC ruling on boundaries between the two countries. Ethiopia held its third multiparty elections on 15 May 2005. The elections resulted in the EPRDF's disputed return to power. The EPRDF retained its control of the government with 327 of the 547 parliamentary seats, or 59 % of the vote, while opposition parties shared 174 seats, or 32 % of the vote. The opposition charged that the ruling EPRDF coalition had rigged the vote and engaged in acts of voter intimidation and violence, necessistating the rescheduling of voting in certain constituencies. On 8 June 2005 demonstrations, mounted by unarmed university students in Addis Ababa protesting the alleged electoral fraud and demanding investigations or a rerun, turned violent when police opened fire killing some 42 people. At least one of the international observer groups, the European Union Election Observation Mission concluded that the election and electoral process had been below international standards. Both the Ethiopian government and electoral commission dismiss the report as biased, self-contradictory and lacking credibility. With the controversy surrounding the elections, final official election results were not released until nearly four months later on 5 September. By the end of December 2005, the main opposition party, CUD, was still boycotting the legislature. Announcement of the final 2005 election results was followed by more violence starting November 1 when the opposition Coalition for Democracy and Unity led protests of the results and at least 46 people were killed when security forces opened fire. More than 60,000 arrests are reported to have resulted, and Prime Minister Zenawi announced that 3,000 of them would face charges. On 28 December 2005, a Federal High Court judge remanded 129 opposition leaders, journalists, civil society members and a 15-year-old boy on charges related to violent demonstrations. The defendants claimed they were political prisoners, but the state charged the 129 with crimes ranging from treason to genocide, and blamed opposition leaders for the deaths of 34 people and damages allegedly worth $110 million. As of 29 December 2005, neither Eritrea nor Ethiopia had met their obligations under the UN resolution 1640, except for a partial withdrawal of troops from the border by Ethiopia. The military situation along the border remained tense and potentially volatile, and the Eritrea-Ethiopia conflict unresolved. The UN Security Council was to meet to review compliance in January 2006. GOVERNMENT In name, Ethiopia was a constitutional monarchy between 1931 and 1974, but sovereignty was vested solely in the emperor, a hereditary monarch. The ruler appointed the prime minister, senators, judges, governors, and mayors. The emperor was assisted by the Council of Ministers and the Crown Council, whose members he appointed. After the military takeover in 1974, the parliament was dissolved and the provisional military government (PMG) established. The PMG assumed full control of the government and continued to rule through its provisional military administrative council, also called the Dergue, whose chairmanship Mengistu seized in February 1977. Government decisions were made by Mengistu on an ad hoc basis, sometimes in consultation with members of the Dergue's Standing Committee. Control over government ministries was maintained by assigning Dergue representatives to oversee their operations. The Commission for Organizing the Party of the Working People of Ethiopia acted as the Dergue's political arm. The constitution approved by referendum on 1 February 1987 declared Ethiopia to be a people's democratic republic. A national assembly (Shengo), with 835 members chosen by proportional representation for the various nationalities, theoretically had supreme power. The president, who was elected to a five-year term by Shengo, acted as chief executive and commander-in-chief of the armed forces and nominated and presided over the cabinet and the state council, which had legislative power when the Shengo was not in session. The president also appointed top officials of the Worker's Party of Ethiopia (WPE), which was called the leading force in the state and society. The assembly held its first meeting on 9 September; the next day, it elected Mengistu president. It also redrew the political map, creating five "autonomous regions" in order to weaken the appeal of the independence movements; it failed. Despite the trappings of representative government, all power remained in Mengistu's hands. He was head of state and government, leader of the only party and commander of the armed forces. After Mengistu's defeat in May 1991, a transitional government was established, under the leadership of the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front, a coalition of parties opposed to the Dergue and led by President Meles Zenawi. Elections for a constituent assembly were held in June 1994. A new constitution was drafted, providing for a directly elected president, a bicameral legislature, regional autonomy with the right to secede, and a nine-state national structure. Elections to the newly established Federal Parliamentary Assembly were held in 1995; they resulted in a huge victory for the EPRDF owing to opposition boycotts. In the May 2000 elections, Zenawi's coalition gained 368 of the 548 seats in the Council of People's Representative. The next presidential elections were scheduled for October 2007. The Federal Parliamentary Assembly has two chambers. The Council of People's Representative (Yehizbtewekayoch Mekir Bet), the lower chamber, has 547 members, elected for a five-year term in single seat constituencies. The Council of the Federation (Yefedereshn Mekir Bet) or upper chamber has 117 members chosen by state assemblies to serve five-year terms. The third multiparty parliamentary elections were held on 15 May 2005. These elections were marred by allegations of vote rigging, voter intimidation, and the death of at least 88 people in postelection violence during two major demonstrations to protest the results. The elections brought Zenawi's EPRDF coalition to power with 327 of the 547 parliamentary seats while opposition parties shared 174 seats. Meles Zenawi began his third five-year term as prime minister. The main opposition party, CUD, won 109 seats in the 547-member parliament but by the end of December 2005, was still boycotting the legislature. The EPRDF won state council elections in 5 of the 10 states. POLITICAL PARTIES In the past, there were no established political parties, although political factions existed on the basis of religion, ethnicity, regionalism, and common economic interests. In the 1970s, a number of illegal separatist groups became active militarily. They included the Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF), Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF), the Oromo People's Democratic Organization (OPDO), Tigray People's Liberation Front (TPLF), Oromo Liberation Front (OLF), and Western Somali Liberation Front (WSLF). Eventually, EPLF defeated the ELF in Eritrea. Two civilian left-wing parties, the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Party and the All-Ethiopian Socialist Movement, were crushed by the Dergue in 1976 and 1977, respectively. In 1979, the Dergue established the Commission for Organizing the Party of the Working People of Ethiopia (COPWE), in order to lay the groundwork for a Marxist-Leninist party along Soviet lines. The Worker's Party of Ethiopia (WPE) was established in 1984 as the sole legal political party. Its 11-man politburo was headed by Mengistu. The separatists successfully defeated Mengistu's forces and after Mengistu fled in May 1991, they established a transitional government under their coalition banner, the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF). The TPLF is the most prominent member of the EPRDF, which also includes the Ethiopian People's Democratic Movement (EPDM) and the Afar Democratic Union. The OLF is not part of the coalition. There are also numerous small, ethnic-based groups and several Islamic militant groups. Following 1994 elections to a transitional national assembly, 30 opposition groups—not including the OLF—formed the Coalition of Alternative Forces for Peace and Democracy in Ethiopia (CAFPDE), and began pressing for electoral reform. New elections were held in 1995 for a newly created Federal Parliamentary Assembly (consisting of two chambers). The elections, despite being overseen by international observers, were boycotted by the opposition and were won by the EPRDF, which secured substantial majorities. The main parties contesting the 14 May 2000 elections were: Afar Democratic Association, Afar Democratic Union, Amhar National Democratic Movement, Ethiopia People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF), Ethiopian Democratic Officers' Revolutionary Movement, Oromo People's Democratic Organization, and Tigre People's Liberation Front. There were approximately 58 national and regional parties, 29 of them belonging to the four-party coalition of the ruling EPRDF. The People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) ruling coalition were returned to power in the contested elections of 15 May 2005 amidst opposition charges of widespread vote rigging and intimidation. A total of 10 parties and coalitions and one independent won the 547 parliamentary seats, which were split as follows: Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF), 327; the Coalition for Unity and Democracy (CUD), 109; United Ethiopian Democratic Forces (UEDF) Alliance, 52; Oromo Federalist Democratic Movement, (OFDM) 11; Afar National Democratic Party (ANDP), 8; Gambela People's Democratic Movement (GPDM), 3; Sheko and Mezenger People's Democratic Unity Organization (SMPDUO), 1; Somali People's Democratic Party (SPDP), 24; Hareri National League (HNL), 1; Argoba Nationality Democratic Organization (ANDO), 1; and Independent, 1. LOCAL GOVERNMENT According to a 2006 CIA report, Ethiopia has nine ethnically based states and two self-governing administrations—Addis Ababa and Dirē Dawa. Until 1987, Ethiopia was divided into 15 administrative regions, which in turn were subdivided into 103 sub-regions and 505 districts. In 1976, peasant associations were empowered to collect taxes and form women's associations, cooperatives, and militias. In the mid-1980s, an estimated 25,000 such peasant groups were in existence. Urban dwellers' associations were established for a variety of functions, including law and order. In 1987, at its first sitting, the Shengo redrew the political map. It created five "autonomous regions" (Eritrea, Assab, Dirē Dawa, Ogaden, and Tigre). The remaining provinces were further subdivided into 24 administrative zones. The establishment of regions was altered with the creation of the transitional government in 1991. In 1993, Eritrea gained its independence. The new regime called for 14 regional governments, but the June 1992 elections for 11 of the 14 regional assemblies were challenged and widespread fraud was alleged. In the May 2000 elections, 3,300 regional and national seats were to be contested. Results of the third multiparty elections of 15 May 2005 were equally protested. The EPRDF alliance won half of the 10 state councils. According to the National Electoral Board of Ethiopia, a total of 1,920 Regional Council and City Administration seats were contested in 10 of the 11 regions. Results for the Dirē Dawa Region were still outstanding by the end of 2005. JUDICIAL SYSTEM The government of Ethiopia is now putting into place a decentralized federal system of courts consisting of regional and district courts consistent with the 1994 constitution. Each region has district (woreda), higher, and supreme courts. There are also local Shariah courts that hear religious and family cases involving Muslims. The Federal High Court and Federal Supreme Court have jurisdiction over cases involving federal laws, transregional issues, and issues of national import. The president and vice president of the Federal Supreme Court are recommended by the prime minister and appointed by the House of People's Representatives; for other federal judges, the prime minister submits to the House of People's Representatives for appointment candidates selected by the Federal Judicial Administrative Council. The constitution provides for an independent judiciary; trials are public. Defendants have a right to legal counsel and a public defender's office provides counsel to indigent defendants. The law, however, does not allow the defense access to prosecutorial evidence before the trial, and the current judiciary suffers from a lack of trained personnel and financial constraints. In 1995, the government began training new judges and prosecutors. However, it is estimated that the creation of a fully independent and skilled judicial system will take several decades. In 1992, a special prosecutor's office was established. In 1994 this office began trying defendants charged with crimes against humanity during the Mengistu regime. As of 1997, approximately 1,300 detainees were charged with war crimes. Up to 5,198 persons had been charged with war crimes by the end of 1999. The Council of People's Representatives in October 1999 passed enabling legislation to meet the constitutional requirement for the creation of a human rights commission and office of the ombudsman. The commission has full powers to receive and investigate all complaints of human rights violations made against any person. By the end of 1999, neither entity was operational. ARMED FORCES In 2005, Ethiopia had 182,500 active armed forces personnel. The Army, which was in the process of being organized into three military regions, was equipped with more than 250 main battle tanks and over 460 artillery pieces. The Air Force had an estimated 2,500 members and was equipped with 48 combat capable aircraft, including 31 fighters and 15 fighter ground attack aircraft. The service also had 25 attack helicopters. The military budget for 2005 was $229 million. INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION Ethiopia is a charter member of the United Nations (UN), having joined on 13 November 1945; it belongs to the ECA and all the nonregional specialized agencies. A participant in the African Development Bank, G-24, and G-77. The former Ethiopian emperor, Haile Selassie, was a founder of the Organization of African Unity (OAU), which is now known as the African Union (AU). The AU secretariat and the UN Economic Commission for Africa are located in Addis Ababa. The nation has observer status in the WTO. It is part of COMESA, the ACP Group, the New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD), and the Intergovernmental Authority on Development, a Horn of Africa regional grouping. Ethiopian troops fought under UN command in the Korean conflict and served in the Congo (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo) in the early 1960s. The nation also supports the UN Operation in Burundi (est. 2004). A border dispute with Eritrea resulted in war from 1998–2000.The United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea (UNMEE) was established in 2000 to monitor the cessation of hostilities agreement made between the two countries, both of which later accepted a 2002 Boundary Commission delimitation decision. Ethiopia has received UN technical assistance in the fields of public administration, telecommunications, vocational training, agriculture, animal husbandry, education, civil aviation, and health. Ethiopia is a member of the Nonaligned Movement and the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons. In environmental cooperation, Ethiopia is part of the Basel Convention, the Convention on Biological Diversity, CITES, the Montréal Protocol, and the UN Conventions on Climate Change and Desertification. ECONOMY Ethiopia's economy has undergone major reforms since May 1991, when a market-oriented government came to power. Droughts, civil war, and cross-border conflicts have devastated the economy as much as socialist-style totalitarianism. The government continues to institute economic reforms designed to liberalize the economy and increase the role of private capital. Land, however, as of 2002 remained firmly in the hands of the government. A large trade deficit hampers economic development. Agriculture, hunting, forestry, and fishing engaged 85% of the Ethiopian population and in 2002 accounted for over half of GDP and almost all exports. The agricultural sector is diverse, producing maize, sorghum, millet, other cereals (barley, wheat, and teff), tubers, and sugarcane. Coffee generated $175 million in exports in 2001 (down from $262 million in 2000), which was 60% of export earnings. Livestock production is also important, responsible for around 20% of export earnings. The manufacturing sector, centered around Addis Ababa, produces construction materials, metal and chemical products, and basic consumer goods including food, beverages, leather, clothing and textiles. Over 90% of large-scale industry is state owned. Ethiopia produces gold and has additional undeveloped deposits of platinum, marble, tantalite, copper, potash, salt, soda ash, zinc, nickel, and iron. Natural gas is found in the Ogaden. To break the cycle of famine, the government has promoted extension services and fertilizers in the hope that farmers could realize their potential and poverty would be reduced. After the border war with Eritrea ended in 2000, however, bumper crops were offset by farmers' inability to find markets for their goods. The progress in the country's economic fortunes that began in the 1990s was largely quashed by the 1998–2000 war and a sharp decline in international coffee prices. Nonetheless, new building projects were due to begin in the early 2000s; dams, a new airport building, and a $15 million sugar-processing factory numbered among them. Reforms are needed in the financial sector, telecommunications, land ownership, and a cumbersome bureaucracy. The World Bank granted Ethiopia $450 million for postwar reconstruction, and the EU was an equally large contributor of development aid in 2003. Economic growth was modest in 2002 (only 1.2%), and negative in 2003 (-3.8%), but by 2004 the economy recovered expanding at a whopping 11.6%; for 2005 the GDP growth rate is expected to be 5.7%. The yoyo effect that has plagued the Ethiopian economy is largely due to the finicky weather patterns—droughts in late 2002 led to the economic recess of 2003, whereas normal weather patterns in late 2003 helped the economy recover in 2004. The inflation rate fluctuated in previous years (with the economy), growing from 1.5% in 2002, to 17.8% in 2003, and down to 3.2% in 2004. INCOME The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reports that in 2005 Ethiopia's gross domestic product (GDP) was estimated at $59.9 billion. The CIA defines GDP as the value of all final goods and services produced within a nation in a given year and computed on the basis of purchasing power parity (PPP) rather than value as measured on the basis of the rate of exchange based on current dollars. The per capita GDP was estimated at $800. The annual growth rate of GDP was estimated at 6.5%. The average inflation rate in 2005 was 11.6%. It was estimated that agriculture accounted for 40.1% of GDP, industry 12.7%, and services 47.2%. According to the World Bank, in 2003 remittances from citizens working abroad totaled $46 million or about $1 per capita and accounted for approximately 0.7% of GDP. Foreign aid receipts amounted to $1,504 million or about $22 per capita and accounted for approximately 22.8% of the gross national income (GNI). The World Bank reports that in 2003 household consumption in Ethiopia totaled $5 billion or about $73 per capita based on a GDP of $6.7 billion, measured in current dollars rather than PPP. Household consumption includes expenditures of individuals, households, and nongovernmental organizations on goods and services, excluding purchases of dwellings. It was estimated that for the period 1990 to 2003, household consumption grew at an average annual rate of 5.1%. It was estimated that in 2004 about 50% of the population had incomes below the poverty line. LABOR In the latest years for which data was available, government estimates in 1998 indicated that about 26 million Ethiopians were economically active. This figure is subject to fluctuation because of the seasonal nature of much of the activity. In 1999, about 85% of the total were engaged in agriculture and livestock raising. In 1997, about 34,570 persons were classified as unemployed. The 1993 Labor Law provides workers with the right to form and join unions and engage in collective bargaining. This right however, excludes many categories of employment, including teachers and civil servants. The right of workers to strike (and the employer's right to lockout) is also somewhat restricted. Both sides must seek conciliation efforts, provide 10 days' notice and give reasons for the strike or lockout. The government may refer labor disputes to arbitration, which is binding on the parties. As of 2005, about 300,000 workers were members of a union. Estimates by labor experts indicate that over 90% of union members were covered by collective bargaining agreements in that same year. The legal minimum age for employment is 14, with special provisions for these workers up to age 18. However, child labor is widespread, in both rural and urban areas. As of 2005, Ethiopia did not have a national minimum wage rate, although some public enterprises and government institutions had set there own minimum wage rates. For that same year, employees in the public sector had a minimum wage of $23 per month, while those in the insurance and banking sector had a rate of $27 per month. In neither case were these wage rates sufficient to provide a decent standard of living to a worker and family. The standard legal workweek was 48 hours with a 24 hour rest period. In addition there was premium pay for overtime, while compulsory and/or excessive overtime was prohibited. AGRICULTURE It has been estimated that nearly 70% of Ethiopia's land mass is cultivable, yet only 12% of the land is under cultivation and permanent crops. Agricultural and pastoral pursuits supported over 80% of the population and formed 42% of the GDP in 2003. Subsistence farming and livestock grazing, both inefficient, are the rule. Field crops account for 40% of gross agricultural output, cash crops for 20%, and livestock for the rest. The coffee variety known as arabica may have originated in Ethiopia, and the word coffee is derived from Kaffa (Kefa), the region in the southwest that is still the largest coffee-producing area of the country. Coffee is the most valuable cash export crop, accounting for 10% of foreign exchange earnings. Coffee production was an estimated at 260,000 tons in 2004, the highest in Africa. Qat, the leaves from a shrub that are used to make tea and which have a mild narcotic effect, is another important cash export crop. The most commonly produced cereal is teff (Eragrostis abyssinica ), which is used to make the Ethiopian unleavened bread called injera. Corn and barley are the next most important grains, with an annual gross production of at least 1 million tons each. Sorghum, wheat, millet, peas, beans, lentils, and oilseeds are produced in substantial quantities; sugarcane and cotton are also grown. Production in 2004 included corn, 2,744,000 tons; wheat, 1,618,000 tons; sorghum, 1,784,000 tons; barley, 1,087,000 tons; dry beans, 175,000 tons; potatoes, 400,000 tons; yams, 310,000 tons; millet, 305,000 tons; and sugarcane, 2,454,000 tons. The agricultural sector suffered severe damage from the civil war and its aftermath. Forced recruitment into the military led to a shortage of farm labor. Reforms aimed at introducing market-based incentives have been implemented, including freeing agricultural marketing and farm labor hiring practices. Emergency provisions of seeds, fertilizer, and other inputs have also been vital in rebuilding Ethiopia's agriculture. Since 1999, however, the border war with Eritrea and reduced harvests have caused Ethiopia to rely heavily on food donations from international organizations in order to ward off starvation. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY Ethiopia has the largest livestock population in Africa, and this subsector accounts for 40% of gross agricultural output. In normal years, animal husbandry provides a living for 75% of the population. The number of cattle (zebu type) was estimated at 38.5 million in 2005; about three-fifths of them primarily work animals. The country lacks facilities for fattening cattle brought in to slaughter, an adequate veterinary service, and breeding herds. Meat production was estimated at 606,500 tons in 2005. Milk production from cows was an estimated 1,500,000 tons in 2005; from sheep, 42,500 tons; and from goats, 17,250 tons. The number of sheep and goats was estimated at 17 million and 9.6 million, respectively, but periodic drought may have made the actual number much lower. The number of horses was estimated at 1,500,000, mules at 325,000, donkeys at 3,800,000, and camels at 470,000. These were primarily pack animals. Hides and skins constitute the country's second-largest export item and generally command high prices on the world market. In 2005, production of cattle hides was 65,100 tons; sheepskins, 10,800 tons; and goatskins, 16,100 tons. In 2005, Ethiopia produced 39,000 tons of honey, more than any other nation in Africa. FISHING With the secession of Eritrea, Ethiopia lost access to an estimated 1,011 km (628 mi) of Red Sea coastline. In 1992, the Ethiopian and provisional Eritrean governments agreed to make Assab a free port for Ethiopia. Most Ethiopians do not eat seafood; hunting and fishing accounts for only a tiny fraction of the GDP. The catch was 9,213 tons in 2003, up from 5,318 tons in 1994. FORESTRY In the 1930s, more than 30% of Ethiopia consisted of forests, but that total has fallen to 13%. Boswellia and species of commiphora produce gums used as the basis for frankincense and myrrh, respectively. A species of acacia is a source of gum arabic. Eucalyptus stands, introduced in the 19th century, are a valuable source of firewood, furniture, and poles. Roundwood production was an estimated 94 million cu m (3.3 billion cu ft) in 2003; all but 2.5 million cu m (87 million cu ft) was for fuel. MINING Ethiopia's main mineral export is gold, but the country has also been a producer of silver, tantalite, talc, soda ash, brick clay, feldspar, gemstones, diatomite, granite, anhydrite and gypsum, limestone, pumice, kaolin, salt, sand and scoria. The country also has metal deposits of manganese, iron ore, platinum and nickel. Despite this, little of Ethiopia's expected mineral potential has been exploited, although foreign investment was increasing. Gold mine output in 2003 was estimated at 5,300 kg, unchanged from 2002. Silver mine production in 2002 and 2003 each totaled 1,100 kg. Cement was the most important mineral industry in value and quantity. In 2003, hydraulic cement output totaled 1,200,000 metric tons, up from 900,000 metric tons the previous year. Substantial iron ore deposits were discovered in the Welega region in 1985. Other undeveloped resources included copper, semiprecious gemstones (agate, aquamarine, chalcedony, chrysoprase, emerald, garnet, jasper, obsidian, ruby, sapphire, spinel), molybdenum, mercury, palladium, rhodium, tungsten, zinc, apatite, bentonite, dolomite, potash, and quartz sand. Expected improvements in the general economic situation and the need to rebuild infrastructure were likely to increase demand for building materials and the viability of Eritrea's metals and industrial minerals deposits. ENERGY AND POWER Hydropower accounts for the bulk of Ethiopia's electric power generating capacity and output. In 2002, the country's generating capacity stood at 0.501 million kW, with hydropower accounting for 0.451 million kW, and conventional thermal at 0.050 million kW. Electricity production for that same year stood at 2.024 billion kWh, of which 2.003 billion kWh and 0.020 billion kWh came from hydroelectric and conventional thermal plants, respectively. Electric power consumption in 2002 totaled 1.882 billion kWh. However, Ethiopia's heavy reliance upon hydropower to supply its electric power has made the country vulnerable to lengthy droughts. Ethiopia has small reserves of oil and natural gas. As of 1 January 2003, the country's crude oil and natural gas reserves were placed at 0.428 million barrels and 880 billion cu ft, respectively. Ethiopia has no crude oil refining capacity and must import all refined petroleum products. Imports of refined petroleum products totaled 24,910 barrels per day, with consumption was an estimated 23,000 barrels per day in 2001. In 1997, due to high maintenance and operating costs, Eritrea and Ethiopia agreed to shut down their joint operations at the petroleum refinery at Assab and import refined petroleum products. In 2001, Ethiopia signed an agreement to import petroleum products from Sudan, which began in January 2003. Although Ethiopia has few proven hydrocarbon reserves, it is estimated to have considerable potential for oil and gas exploration. INDUSTRY While Ethiopia's industrial sector engages primarily in food processing, it also produces sugar, alcohol and soft drinks, cigarettes, cotton and textiles, footwear, soap, ethyl alcohol, and quicklime. Cement production is also significant. Industrial facilities are concentrated around Addis Ababa, depend heavily on agricultural inputs, and primarily serve the domestic market. Since 1991, privatization of Ethiopia's industry has been a major objective of the government. In 1995, the government established the Ethiopian Privatization Agency to help privatize companies. By 1999, about 180 government enterprises had been privatized, including Pepsi-Cola and Coca-Cola bottling plants, the St. George Brewery, and the Lega Dembi Gold Mine. Other companies for sale included the Kenticha Tantalum Mine, the Calub Gas Company, and the Wonji-Shoa Sugar Factory, hotels, tanneries, textile mills, and garment factories. Ethiopia has few proven oil and natural gas reserves, although the potential of these industries is seen as promising. Hydrocarbon exploration began in the Ogaden Basin in the 1920s, and in 1994, the World Bank approved a $74 million loan to develop natural gas fields in the Ogaden Basin. As of 2002, there were plans to build an oil refinery. One of the key components of Ethiopia's industrial success is its access to ports. Two-thirds of Ethiopia's goods passed through the Eritrean port of Assab prior to the 1998–2000 border war. Ethiopia subsequently shifted its trade to Djibouti, but Port Sudan and Berbera in Somaliland were targeted as future outlets for trade. Industry made up 12.4% of the economy in 2004, and it employed only a fraction of the labor force; agriculture is by far the biggest employer and also the biggest contributor to the GDP (47%); services come in second with a 40.6% participation in the GDP. Whereas agricultural growth rates were influenced by the weather, industry has managed to register stable growth rates—5.8% in 2001–02, 4.6% in 2002–03, and 6.9% in 2003–04. Agriculture remained the country's main wealth producer. SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Scientific societies and research institutes in Addis Ababa include the Association for the Advancement of Agricultural Sciences in Africa, the Desert Locust Control Organization for Eastern Africa, the Ethiopian Mapping Authority, the Ethiopian Medical Association, the Ethiopian Institute of Geological Surveys, the Geophysical Observatory, the National Herbarium, the Institute of Agricultural Research, and the International Livestock Center for Africa. Another Institute of Agricultural Research is located in Sidamo. The University of Addis Ababa, founded in 1950, maintains faculties of science, technology, and medicine, a college of agriculture, and a school of pharmacy. The Alemaya University of Agriculture, founded in 1952, has faculties of agriculture and forestry and a division of natural and social sciences. Also in Ethiopia are the Jimma Junior College of Agriculture and the Polytechnic Institute at Bahir-Dar. In 1987–97, science and engineering students accounted for 26% of college and university enrollments. DOMESTIC TRADE Addis Ababa is the paramount commercial and distribution center. Most of the economy is monetary, but transactions are still conducted by barter in some of the more isolated rural sectors. Underdeveloped transportation systems prohibit domestic trade, particularly in agriculture. As of 2001, about 75% of all farms were more than half a day's walk from the nearest all-weather road. Even so, about 80% of the work force is employed in agriculture, which accounts for about 52% of the GDP. The 1999–2000 war with Eritrea and recurring droughts have severely effected the economy. Growth in the industrial sector has been further prohibited by the land tenure system, through which the government owns and leases all land. In general, business hours are from 8:30 or 9 am to 1 pm and from 2 pm to 5 or 6 pm, Mondays through Fridays. Shops are open until 8 pm. The national language, Amharic, is spoken along with English, the second official language. Credit cards are not widely accepted. Coffee exports generate more than half of Ethiopia's export returns (53%), but the country's coffee production only accounts for 2.2% of the world's coffee exports. Leather, animal hides, and skins also bring in export revenues (9.9%). Other agricultural products, Country (…) data not available or not significant. including vegetables, oil seeds, and cotton reflect the remainder of major exports (10%). Ethiopia is heavily dependent on imported manufactures. Machinery, petroleum, and petroleum products represent the leading import items. In 2004, exports reached $563 million (FOB—free on board), while imports grew to $2.1 billion (FOB). The bulk of exports went to Djibouti (13.3%), Germany (10%), Japan (8.4%), Saudi Arabia (5.6%), the United States (5.2%), the UAE (5%), and Italy (4.6%). Imports included food and live animals, petroleum and petroleum products, chemicals, machinery, motor vehicles, cereals, and textiles, and mainly came from Saudi Arabia (25.3%), the United States (5.8%), China (6.6%), and India (4.0%). BALANCE OF PAYMENTS Ethiopia's balance of payments has been significantly affected by weather conditions, terms of trade, and emergency drought relief efforts provided by the international community. The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reported that in 2000 the purchasing power parity of Ethiopia's exports was $442 million while imports totaled $1.54 billion resulting in a trade deficit of $1.098 billion. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) reported that in 2001 Ethiopia had exports of goods totaling $433 million and imports totaling $1.63 billion. The services credit totaled $523 million and debit $526 million. Exports of goods and services reached $1.5 billion in 2004, up from $1.2 billion in 2003. Imports grew from $2.4 billion in 2003, to $3.2 billion in 2004. The resource balance was consequently negative in both years, reaching -$1.3 billion in 2003, and -$1.7 billion in 2004. The current account balance was also negative, deteriorating from -$402 million in 2003, to -$620 million in 2004. Foreign exchange reserves (including gold) grew to $1.4 billion in 2004, covering more than five months of imports. Current Account BANKING AND SECURITIES All banking institutions were nationalized after the government's formal Declaration of Socialism on 20 December 1974. The country's three private commercial banks were placed under the management of the National Bank of Ethiopia (NBE) and, in 1981, under the state-owned Commercial Bank of Ethiopia (established in 1963), which had 170 branches and $3 billion in total assets as of July 1999. It also holds $1.4 in deposits. Other banks included the Agricultural and Industrial Development Bank and the Housing and Savings Bank. A proposal to deregulate the banking sector, giving greater autonomy to the NBE, was introduced by the Council of Ministers in September 1993. Legislation allowing for the establishment of private banks and insurance companies; but not the privatization of existing institutions, or the foreign ownership of such companies; was passed in January 1994. The first private bank, Awash International, started operations at the end of 1994, and had eight branches by 1999. Five other private banks have opened, including Dashen Bank, The Bank of Abyssinia, Wegagen Bank, NIB International, and United Bank. There are no securities exchanges, and Ethiopians are legally barred from acquiring or dealing in foreign securities. A private-sector initiative plans to establish a market for buying and selling company shares by 2000. The International Monetary Fund reports that in 2001, currency and demand deposits—an aggregate commonly known as M1—were equal to $1.4 billion. In that same year, M2—an aggregate equal to M1 plus savings deposits, small time deposits, and money market mutual funds—was $2.8 billion. INSURANCE In January 1976, the 13 insurance companies operating in Ethiopia were nationalized and fused into an inclusive national insurance organization, the Ethiopian Insurance Corp. In 1994, the insurance industry was deregulated. Seven private insurance companies opened between 1994 and 1997: United, Africa, Nile , Nyala, Awash, National, and Global. PUBLIC FINANCE The Ethiopian fiscal year begins 8 July, in the Ethiopian month of Hamle. Ethiopia's public finances are under great budgetary pressure, as years of war and poverty have taken a heavy toll on the countryside, population, and infrastructure. The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) estimated that in 2005 Ethiopia's central government took in revenues of approximately $2.3 billion and had expenditures of $2.8 billion. Revenues minus expenditures totaled approximately -$542 million. Total external debt was $2.9 billion. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) reported that in 1999, the most recent year for which it had data, budgetary central government revenues were b9,707.3 million and expenditures were b12,993.7 million. The value of revenues in US dollars was us$1,222 million and expenditures us$1,689 million, based on a official exchange rate for 1999 of us$1 = b7.9423 as reported by the IMF. Government outlays by function were as follows: general public services, 14.2%; defense, 33.0%; public order and safety, 4.3%; economic affairs, 29.2%; housing and community amenities, Revenue and Grants (…) data not available or not significant. 2.0%; health, 4.9%; recreation, culture, and religion, 0.9%; education, 13.1%; and social protection, 1.6%. TAXATION Ethiopia has a standard corporate tax rate of 30%. However, companies in the mining industry (excluding oil shale, petroleum and natural gas) are taxed at rates of 35% for small-scale mining operations, and at 45% for large-scale mining operations. Income generated from petroleum, oil shale and natural gas operations are subject to the 30% rate. Capital gains derived from the sale of buildings in municipal areas that are used for a business are subject to a 15% tax. Gains from the sale of company shares are taxed at 30%. A 5% tax is levied on royalties paid to residents and nonresidents, and a 2% ad valorem turnover tax on domestic sales. On 1 January 2003, Ethiopia replaced its sales tax with a value-added tax (VAT). As of 2005, the standard rate was 15%. Exempt from the VAT were food and pharmaceuticals. CUSTOMS AND DUTIES The primary purpose of the tariff system is to provide revenues rather than to protect Ethiopian industry or to prohibit the importation of certain commodities. However, there are restrictions on importing certain goods that compete with domestically produced goods. Excise tax brackets range from 10% for textiles to 100% for vehicles with engines larger than 1,800 cc. Taxes on imports are based on the cost, insurance and freight (CIF) value. Imports of certain agricultural and industrial tools and parts and many raw materials are duty-free. FOREIGN INVESTMENT Since May 1991, the climate for foreign investment has improved dramatically. Private investment policies are more liberal, commercial performance standards have been applied to public enterprises, tax and tariffs have been reformed, and the currency has been devalued by 58%. The devaluation was the policy action required for the rescheduling of Ethiopia's foreign debt in 1992. Foreign exchange is now auctioned. In 1996, a revised investment proclamation was approved that created additional incentives for foreign investors. Major provisions included duty-free entry of most capital goods and a cut in the capital gains tax from 40 to 10%. In addition, the government opened a number of previously closed sectors of the economy to foreign investment, although financial services, large-scale power production, telecommunications, and other public utilities remain off limits. Official estimates are that as of June 1996, 52 foreign investors had been given licenses. In 1998, amendments to the 1996 investment proclamation allowed Ethiopian expatriates and permanent residents the ability to invest in industries that had previously been reserved for nationals only. The inflow of foreign direct investment (FDI) peaked in 1997 at $288.5 million and has declined sharply since. In 2000, FDI inflow was $134 million and in 2001, grew to $349 million. Subsequent years brought with them significant levels of capital inflow ($255 million in 2002, $465 million in 2003, and $545 million in 2004), but not enough for a country the size of Ethiopia. At the end of 2004, total FDI stocks amounted to only $2.5 billion. ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT The policy of the Ethiopian government is to create the conditions necessary for sustained economic growth. Farmers have reacquired the economic freedom of price, of production, and of settlement. The government aspires to an agriculture-led industrialization and focuses its attention on food security, rural savings, and labor formation issues. The government holds all land and issues long-term leases to tenants. The 1996 economic reform plan promoted free markets and liberalized trade laws as essential to economic growth. Increased military expenditures during 1999 and 2000 largely due to the war with Eritrea threatened stability. Ethiopia's per capita income is the second lowest in the world, according to the International Monetary Fund (IMF), at about $100. In 2001, Ethiopia reached its decision point under the IMF/World Bank Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative, and was to receive $1.9 billion in debt relief. Also in 2001, Ethiopia negotiated a three-year $115 million Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF) Arrangement with the IMF, due to expire in March 2004. Although there was a bumper crop in 2000–01, the prices of coffee and cereals fell in 2001–02, and agricultural output was lower. Since July 2002, a severe drought affected Ethiopia; over 15 million people in Ethiopia and Eritrea alone were at risk of starvation in 2003. The economy recovered well in 2004 and continued to grow substantially in 2005, due to a good performance of the agriculture sector. Since weather patterns were stable and favorable in 2005, analysts expected 2006 to be another good year for the Ethiopian economy. However, rising oil prices were expected to tone down the positive effect of the weather. The fact that the government owns all of the land in the country, which it leases to interested tenants, means that economic growth is seriously hindered because entrepreneurs cannot use that land as collateral for loans. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT Other than modest government allocations for pensions, labor and social welfare for public employees, Ethiopia has no comprehensive public welfare or social security programs. Retirement is set at age 55 for public employees. Retired employees receive 30% of their average monthly salary during the last three years of employment. Most of the population depends on subsistence agriculture in deprived rural areas and therefore falls outside the scope of this limited retirement system. Women have traditionally been restricted to subordinate roles in society. In rural areas, women are burdened with most of the strenuous agricultural and domestic work, while in urban areas, women are limited in their job opportunities. The civil code discriminates against women in family law and property issues. Domestic abuse is pervasive; societal norms inhibit most women from seeking intervention from the authorities. However, in 2004 a court was created to try cases of sexual abuse. Young women are still abducted for the purpose of marriage. The majority of girls are subject to female genital mutilation. Human rights abuses persist, including arbitrary arrests, lengthy pretrial detention, and mistreatment of prisoners. However, the government encourages international human rights groups to send observers. HEALTH The availability of modern health services has been greatly extended since 1960, but these services still reach only a small portion of the population. Free medical care for the needy was introduced in 1977; however, in 1993, only 55% of the population had access to health care services. Ethiopia built a new hospital at Gore and a 500-bed hospital in Hārer was completed. The tuberculosis center in Addis Ababa was expanded and five new leprosariums were built in the provinces. Mental hospitals were built in Hārer and Asmera and the one in Addis Ababa was renovated. As of 2004, there were fewer than 3 physicians per 100,000 people, one of the lowest number of doctors per capita in the world. Additionally, there were only 19 nurses and 2 midwives per 100,000 people. The wars, drought, political turmoil, and population pressures of the 1970s and early 1980s left their mark on the Ethiopian health situation. Between 1974 and 1992, there were 575,000 warrelated deaths. Hundreds of thousands of Ethiopians died during a famine in 1973 and as many as one million may have died between 1983 and 1985. Only 4% of women used any form of contraception. The fertility rate in 2000 was 5.6. Average life expectancy in 2005 was estimated at only 48.83 years; infant mortality was estimated at 95.32 per 1,000 live births. Widespread diseases include malaria, tuberculosis, syphilis, gonorrhea, leprosy, dysentery, and schistosomiasis. In 2000, 24% of the population had access to safe drinking water and 15% had adequate sanitation. In 1999, there were 373 reported cases of tuberculosis per 100,000 people. Ethiopia made an effort to vaccinate children up to one year old against tuberculosis, 90%; diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus, 63%; polio, 64%; and measles, 52%. As of 2000, an estimated 51% of all children under five years old were moderately or severely malnourished. Public health care expenditures were estimated at 4.1% of GDP. The HIV/AIDS prevalence was 4.40 per 100 adults in 2003. As of 2004, there were approximately 1,500,000 people living with HIV/AIDS in the country. There were an estimated 1,200 deaths from AIDS in 2003. Ethiopia is one of several African countries in which female genital mutilation is performed. About 90% of all Ethiopian women undergo the ritual; no specific law in the country prohibits it. HOUSING Except in Addis Ababa, Hārer, Dirē Dawa, and a few other urban centers, most houses are built of mud or mortar and have thatched or tin roofs. In the rural areas the traditional thatched hut (tukul ) is still the most common dwelling. A 2005 Habitat for Humanity report indicated that about 85% of all houses are made with mud, sticks, and thatch. Only about 8% of all housing units are built with stone walls. Housing shortages and overcrowding were still major concerns as of 2005. Only about 27% of the population had access to safe drinking water and 10% had access to sanitation facilities. Homelessness is a big problem in urban areas; it has been estimated that 80% of the residents in Addis Ababa are homeless or in substandard housing. The housing deficit for urban areas alone has been estimated at over 699,000 units, about 42% of the total housing stock in the nation. Housing development and finance are the joint responsibility of the Ministry of Housing and Urban Development and the Housing and Savings Bank, which was established in November 1975. The government has developed the Ethiopian Housing Cooperative to encourage Ethiopia emigrants to return and build homes. EDUCATION After the 1974 revolution, emphasis was placed on increasing literacy in rural areas. Practical subjects were stressed, as was the teaching of socialism. Public education is compulsory and free at the primary level, which covers eight years of study. The first cycle of secondary studies covers an additional two years. After this, students may choose another two years of preparatory studies or three-year technical or vocational studies. The academic year runs from September to July. Primary school enrollment in 2003 was estimated at about 47% of age-eligible students; 52% for boys and 42% for girls. The same year, secondary school enrollment was about 17% of age-eligible students; 21% for boys and 12% for girls. It is estimated that about 39% of all students complete their primary education. The student-to-teacher ratio for primary school was at about 67:1 in 2003; the ratio for secondary school was about 48:1. Addis Ababa University (formerly Haile Selassie I University) has extension centers in Alemaya, Gonder, Awasa, Bahir-Dar, and Debre Zeyit. The University of Asmara is a Roman Catholic institution. In 2003, about 2% of the tertiary age population were enrolled in some type of higher education program. The adult literacy rate for 2004 was estimated at about 41.5%, with 49.2% for men and 33.8% for women. As of 2003, public expenditure on education was estimated at 4.6% of GDP, or 13.8% of total government expenditures. LIBRARIES AND MUSEUMS The Addis Ababa University Library contains 550,000 volumes. The National Library, established in 1944, holds 164,000 volumes. The Alemaya University of Agriculture in Dirē Dawa holds 47,000 volumes. The first children's library in Ethiopia opened in 2003 in Addis Ababa. Addis Ababa is also the site of the Ethiopia Public Information Center, a depository library of the World Bank. Addis Ababa is home to the National Museum, which houses a general collection of regional archaeology, history, and art; the Ethnographic Museum at the Institute of Ethiopian Studies, which includes collections of religious art, musical instruments, and ancient coins; the archaeological museum; the Natural History Museum; the Museum at the Holy Trinity Church; and the War Museum. There are regional museums in Harar, Makale, Wollamo Sodo, and Yirgalem. Many provincial monasteries and churches, as well as municipal authorities, maintain collections of documents, art, and antiquities. MEDIA All telephone and telegraph facilities are owned by the government and operated by the National Board of Telecommunications. The principal population centers are connected with Addis Ababa by telephone and radio circuits, and there is an earth-satellite station. In 2003, there were an estimated 6 mainline telephones for every 1,000 people; about 146,100 people were on a waiting list for telephone service installation. The same year, there was approximately 1 mobile phone in use for every 1,000 people. Radio and television stations are run by the government. The Voice of Ethiopia radio service broadcasts mostly on AM in Amharic, but also in English, French, Arabic, and local languages. Ethiopian Television broadcasts about four hours daily. In 2001 there were eight radio stations and one television station. In 2003, there were an estimated 189 radios and 6 television sets for every 1,000 people. The same year, there were 2.2 personal computers for every 1,000 people and 1 of every 1,000 people had access to the Internet . There was one secure Internet server in the country in 2004. The two major daily newspapers (with estimated 2002 circulations) are Addis Zeman (40,000; Amharic) and the Ethiopian Herald (37,000; English), both published by the government at Addis Ababa. There are also several weeklies published by the government. There were about 28 private Amharic-language weeklies and 1 independent Tigrinya-language weekly. Most independently owned newspapers are printed at government-owned presses. All newspapers are strictly censored by the Ministry of Information and National Guidance. A 1992 Press Law, along with the constitution of Ethiopia, provide for free speech and a free press. The government is reported to use legal mechanisms to repress press rights in practice. ORGANIZATIONS Since the 1974 revolution, peasants' and urban dwellers' associations, encouraged by the government, have been the chief voluntary societies. Ethiopia has a national chamber of commerce as well as regional and local ones. Trade unions are encouraged and supported through the Confederation of Ethiopian Trade Unions. The African Economic Community has an office in Addis Ababa. The Institute of Ethiopian Studies promotes interest and research in the nation's history and culture. The Association for Higher Education and Development is a multinational organization formed in 1999 to promote education in the country. The Ethiopian Medical Association promotes research and education on health issues and works to establish common policies and standards in healthcare. There are also several associations dedicated to research and education for specific fields of medicine and particular diseases and conditions, such as the Ethiopian Diabetes Association. The Ethiopian Youth League is a primary organization promoting education and job training. The National Union of Eritrean Youth and Students serves as an umbrella organization that develops local youth groups interested in promoting traditional culture and values. The Ethiopian Scouts Association is also active. There are several sports associations throughout the country. Branches of the YMCA/YWCA are also active. The African Center for Women is a multinational organization encouraging women's participation in development programs and providing various educational and training programs. There are national chapters of the Red Cross Society, the Society of St. Vincent de Paul, UNICEF, and Habitat for Humanity. TOURISM, TRAVEL, AND RECREATION All visitors are required to have a valid passport and visa. Exit visas are required for visitors who stay more than 30 days. The chief tourist attractions are big-game hunting, early Christian monuments and monasteries, and the ancient capitals of Gonder and Aksum. There are seven national parks. In 2003, about 180,000 foreign visitors arrived in Ethiopia, a 15% increase from 2002. There were 3,497 hotel rooms with 5,419 beds and an occupancy rate of 60%. Tourism receipts totaled $336 million. The average length of stay in Ethiopia was three nights. In 2005, the US Department of State estimated the daily cost of staying in Addis Ababa at $216. FAMOUS ETHIOPIANS The most famous Ethiopian in national legend is Menelik I, the son of the Queen of Sheba and King Solomon, regarded as the founder of the Aksumite Empire. This tradition is contained in the Kebra Negast, or Book of the Glory of Kings. The most famous Christian saint of Ethiopia is Frumentius of Tyre (b.Phoenicia, d.380?), the founder of the Ethiopian Church. The 15th-century composer Yared established the Deggua, or liturgical music, of the Ethiopian Church. A 13th-century monarch, Lalibela, is renowned for the construction of the great monolithic churches of Lasta (now called Lalibela). Emperor Amda-Seyon I (r.1313–44) reestablished suzerainty over the Muslim kingdoms of the coastal lowland regions. During the reign of King Zar' a-Ya'qob (1434–68), a ruler renowned for his excellent administration and deep religious faith, Ethiopian literature attained its greatest heights. Emperor Menelik II (1844–1913) is considered the founder of modern Ethiopia. Emperor Haile Selassie I (1891–1975) was noted for his statesmanship and his introduction of many political, economic, and social reforms. Lt. Col. Mengistu Haile Mariam (b.1937) led the 1974 coup and was head of state from 1977 to 1991. Legesse ("Meles") Zenawi (b.1955) became prime minister in 1995. BIBLIOGRAPHY Clapp, Nicholas. Sheba: Through the Desert in Search of the Legendary Queen. Boston, Mass.: Houghton Mifflin, 2002. Crummey, Donald. Land and Society in the Christian Kingdom of Ethiopia: From the Thirteenth to the Twentieth Century. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2000. Ethiopia: Accelerating Industrial Growth through Market Reforms. New York: United Nations Industrial Development Organization, 1996. Grierson, Roderick. Red Sea, Blue Nile: The Civilisation of Ancient and Medieval Ethiopia. London, Eng.: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 2002. Henze, Paul B. Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1999. Kamoche, Ken M. (ed.). Managing Human Resources in Africa. New York: Routledge, 2004. Marcus, Harold G. A History of Ethiopia. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1994. McCann, James. People of the Plow: An Agricultural History of Ethiopia, 1800–1990. Madison, Wis.: University of Wisconsin Press, 1995. McPherson, E. S. P. Ethiopian Sovereignty and African Nationhood: Voice from the Ethio-Diaspora Call. Brooklyn, N.Y.: AandB Publishers, 2000. Morell, Virginia. Blue Nile: Ethiopia's River of Magic and Mystery. Washington, D.C.: Adventure Press, 2001. Shinn, David H. and Thomas P. Ofcansky. Historical Dictionary of Ethiopia. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 2004. ——. Historical Dictionary of Ethiopia and Eritrea. Boulder, Colo.: netLibrary, 2000. Woodward, Peter. The Horn of Africa: Politics and International Relations. New York: I.B. Tauris, 2003. Zeilig, Leo and David Seddon. A Political and Economic Dictionary of Africa. Philadelphia: Routledge/Taylor and Francis, 2005. Cite this article Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Ityop'iya Federalawi Demokrasiyawi Ripeblik COUNTRY OVERVIEW LOCATION AND SIZE. Located in the Horn of Africa— the pointy peninsula-like landmass that emanates out of the eastern part of the continent—Ethiopia has a total area of 1,127,127 square kilometers (935,183 square miles), rendering it slightly less than twice the size of Texas . A landlocked country completely surrounded by other states, Ethiopia has a total border length of 5,311 kilometers (3,300 miles). Ethiopia is bordered by Kenya to the south, Somalia to the east, Djibouti and Eritrea to the northeast, and Sudan to the west. The capital of Ethiopia, Addis Ababa , is located in the heart of the country. POPULATION. In 1975, the population of Ethiopia was approximately 32.2 million. With a relatively high growth rate of 2.7 percent between 1975 to 2000, the population of Ethiopia doubled during this period, reaching a total of 64,117,452 by July 2000. Currently, the population growth rate remains high (2.76 percent), and it is forecasted that the population will reach 90.9 million by 2015 (July 2000 est.). In order to restrain the growth process, the Ethiopian government recently included a population control component in its overall development program. The death rate was estimated at 17.63 deaths per 1,000 people, and the birth rate was 45.13 births per 1,000 people (2000 est.). In terms of the age structure of the population, 47 percent of Ethiopians are younger than 15 years of age, 50 percent are between the ages of 15 to 64, and only 3 percent are older than 65 years of age. Only 16.3 percent of the population live in urban areas. Ethnically, the population of Ethiopia is extremely heterogeneous (diverse). The country's principal ethnic groups are the Oromo (40 percent), the Amhara and Tigre (32 percent), Sidamo (9 percent), Shankella (6 percent), Somali (6 percent), Afar (4 percent), and Gurage (2 percent). The remaining 1 percent belong to various other ethnic groups. In total, there are more than 80 different ethnic groups within Ethiopia. Islam is the predominant religion with 45 to 50 percent of the population identifying as Muslim , 35 to 40 percent as Ethiopian Orthodox (a distinct denomination of Christianity ), and 12 percent as animist (a term used to delineate a wide range of native African religious belief systems). The remaining 3 to 8 percent are adherents of various other religions. Many languages are spoken by the inhabitants of Ethiopia, including Amharic, Tigrinya, Orominga, Guaraginga, Somali, and Arabic. Numerous other local languages and dialects also are spoken. Many of the languages are from the Semetic or Cushtic linguistic groups. Amharic is the country's only official language, while English is the major foreign language taught to Ethiopians in the educational system. Like many African countries, one of the most daunting prospects that Ethiopia faces is a massive HIV/AIDS epidemic. By the end of 1997, conservative estimates stated that 2.6 million Ethiopians were living with HIV/AIDS, while the adult prevalence rate was 7.4 percent. In addition to causing considerable suffering, HIV/AIDS places a large burden on health care expenditure and diminishes the ability of the poor to save and invest, due to the high cost of treating the disease. According to the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), the efficacy of the government's plan to curb the epidemic will depend on its ability to address the structural factors that facilitate the spread of the disease, such as poverty and gender inequality. OVERVIEW OF ECONOMY The Ethiopian state consists, territorially, of the only area in Africa that was never colonized by a European power, with the exception of a brief Italian occupation from 1936 to 1941. Indeed, Ethiopia—or Abyssinia, as the area was once called—is one of the oldest independent countries in the entire world. Modern Ethiopia, characterized by political centralization and a modern state apparatus, emerged in the mid-19th century. Throughout much of the 20th century, Ethiopia was presided over by the emperor, Haile Selassie , who ruled the state autocratically (single-handedly and dictatorially), until he was overthrown and subsequently executed in the revolution of 1974. Under Selassie's rule, the Ethiopian economy relied primarily on agriculture, particularly coffee production. During this time, agricultural production resembled a feudal system since land ownership was highly inequitable, and the vast majority of Ethiopians were obliged to till the fields of the wealthy landowners. Much of the marginal amount of industry that did exist was concentrated in the hands of foreign ownership. For example, by 1962, the Dutch H.V.A. Sugar Company, which commenced operations in Ethiopia in the early 1950s, employed 70 percent of the Ethiopian workforce involved in the industrial food-processing sector. The food-processing sector, in turn, employed 37 percent of all workers involved in manufacturing and industry. Spouting anti-feudal and anti-imperialist (anti-foreign dominance) rhetoric, an administrative council of soldiers, known as the Derg, overthrew Selassie in 1974, ushering in a lengthy period of military dictatorial rule. The Derg regime, in turn, vocally promoted a Marxist -Leninist system, though according to Ghelawdewos Araia, author of Ethiopia: The Political Economy of Transition, it was only ostensibly (superficially) based on socialist principles. The Derg introduced substantial land reform and nationalized almost all of the country's important industries. The Derg regime, however, known for its particularly brutal suppression of opposition forces, failed to solve Ethiopia's many economic problems. In 1991, massive discontent led by the student movement, declining economic conditions caused by drought and famine, and provincial insurrections led by ethnic separatist groups forced the Derg chairman and Ethiopian president, Mengistu Haile Mariam, to flee the country. Following a period of transitional rule by the Transitional Government of Ethiopia, free elections were held in 1995, resulting in a victory for the Ethiopian's People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF). Since its democratic assumption of power, the EPRDF has supported a process of economic reform based on the privatization of state-owned enterprises, promotion of agricultural exports, and deregulation of the economy. By 1999, the Ethiopian Privatization Agency had already overseen the privatization of more than 180 parastatals , including most state-owned retail shops, hotels, and restaurants. Since the fall of the Derg regime, the economy has experienced several positive economic developments. In 1992, for example, the International Monetary Fund's (IMF) Staff Country Report No. 98/6 stated that 62,941 persons were registered as unemployed, whereas in 1996, the figure of officially unemployed fell to 28,350 persons. Of course, for both years, many unemployed Ethiopians, and perhaps even the majority, did not register themselves as such. Nonetheless, it would be fair to deduce that a considerable amount of formerly unemployed Ethiopians have found jobs throughout the 1990s. At the same time, however, the UNDP estimates that the annual growth rate in gross national product (GNP) per capita between 1990 to 1998 was 1.0 percent, while the average annual rate of inflation during the same period was 9.7 percent. This means that Ethiopians were having an increasingly difficult time purchasing the commodities, such as food, that are essential for human existence. The Ethiopian economy remains highly dependent upon coffee production, with 25 percent of the population deriving its livelihood from the coffee sector. Indeed, from 1995 to 1998, coffee accounted for an average of 55 percent of the country's total value of exports. Gold, leather products, and oilseeds constitute some of the country's other important exports. Major export partners include Germany , Japan , Italy, and the United Kingdom , while import partners include Italy, the United States , Japan, and Jordan . Ethiopia's imports include food and live animals, petroleum and petroleum products, chemicals, machinery, and motor vehicles. Since Ethiopia mostly exports agricultural products and imports higher valued capital goods , the country runs a severe balance of trade deficit. This deficit, in turn, means that Ethiopia must borrow heavily to finance its imports, a factor that has led to the development of a significantly sized external debt (owed to both foreign-owned banks and international financial institutions, such as the World Bank and the IMF). In 1997, the total debt stood at US$10 billion. The frequent droughts that plague the country also prevent the creation of a self-sufficient agricultural economy. Consequently, as many as 4.6 million people rely on annual food assistance provided by the wealthy industrial countries. Indeed, Ethiopia is the largest recipient of U.S. aid in sub-Saharan Africa. Notwithstanding (not including) emergency food aid, in 1996 Ethiopia received a total of US$45 million in Official Development Assistance (ODA) from the United States alone. POLITICS, GOVERNMENT, AND TAXATION The executive branch of the Ethiopian government consists of both an elected president, who is the chief of state, and a prime minister, who is the head of government. Cabinet ministers are selected by the prime minister and approved by the House of People's Representatives, the lower chamber of the bicameral parliament. Members of the lower chamber are directly elected by popular vote, while members of the upper chamber, the House of Federation, are chosen by the various state assemblies. The president and vice president of the Federal Supreme Court, the chief institution of the judicial branch of government, are recommended by the prime minister and appointed by the House of People's Representatives. In June 1994, the first democratic multiparty elections in Ethiopia's history took place, ending a 3-year transitional period that commenced following the overthrow of the Derg regime. During the transitory phase, the Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF) assumed control of Eritrea and established a provisional government in the Ethiopian province. In April 1993, the EPLF administered a separatist referendum under the auspices of the United Nations (UN), which subsequently formed the basis of a declaration of independence at the end of that month. Thereafter, Eritrea was recognized internationally as an independent sovereign nation. Since 1998, Ethiopia and Eritrea have officially been engaged in a border war as a result of territorial disputes. The June 1994 national elections resulted in an overwhelming victory for the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF), a coalition of numerous ethnically based Derg-opposition movements led by the Tigrayan Peoples' Liberation Front (TPLF). The TPLF initially entered politics as a Marxist guerrilla movement bent on overthrowing the Derg regime. As the leading party in the EPRDF, however, the TPLF has officially adopted a pro-democracy and pro-free market stance, as its economic and political policies clearly make manifest. Nonetheless, the U.S. Department of State argues that the EPRDF displays certain residual (left-over) control-oriented tendencies, which result from the party's quasi-authoritarian guerrilla past (during the insurgency, the TPLF was directed necessarily as a military unit). The recently held 2000 national elections saw the EPRDF return to power, and Meles Zenawi, the leader of the party, is serving his second term as prime minister. Most observers have agreed that Zenawi's government has pursued sound policies, which have contributed to economic growth and reductions in unemployment. Several other parties also add to the plurality of Ethiopian political life, including the Coalition of Alternative Forces for Peace and Democracy (CAFPD); the Ethiopian Democratic Union (EDU); The Ethiopian Movement for Democracy, Peace, and Unity (EMDPU); the Ethiopian National Democratic Party (ENDP); the Oromo Liberation Front; and the All-Amhara People's Organization (AAPO), not to mention dozens of other smaller parties. While most parties are more or less prodemocracy and pro-free market, several Ethiopian parties, including the last 2 listed above, represent the specific interests of particular ethnic groups. Import duties , which ranged from 0 to 50 percent and averaged approximately 20 percent in 1997, are the most significant contributor to government tax revenue. Income tax on employment, in turn, is the second most important source of tax revenue, while taxation of business profits is the third most important. There are 5 income tax brackets, with the highest marginal tax rate set at 40 percent for monthly incomes above 3,301 birr, and the lowest marginal tax rate set at 10 percent for monthly incomes between 121 to 600 birr. The profits of incorporated businesses are taxed at a uniform rate of 35 percent. Excise taxes are also quite important, and the tax rates of many products, including pure alcohol (150 percent), perfumes and automobiles (100 percent), dishwashers (80 percent), and tobacco and tobacco products (75 percent), are set at exceptionally high rates. Since most of these items are luxury products, the high tax rates do not affect poor consumers. However some of the more essential commodities, such as petroleum and petroleum products (20 percent), are also taxed quite heavily. The government's total revenue stood at US$1 billion in 1996. INFRASTRUCTURE, POWER, AND COMMUNICATIONS According to the U.S. Department of State's Country Commercial Guide 2000, Ethiopia's surface and transport infrastructure is exceedingly poor and underdeveloped. Indeed, the country has the lowest road density in the world, and only 13.3 percent of all roads are paved (1999 est.). There are few interconnecting links between nearby regions and large parts of the country are isolated and dependent upon pack animals for transportation. The main highway route is from Addis Ababa to the port of Djibouti, which Ethiopia uses extensively since it is a landlocked country without ports and harbors of its own. The only train network consists of the 681-kilometer (423-mile) long segment of the century old Addis Ababa-Djibouti railroad. Communications aData are from International Telecommunication Union, World Telecommunication Development Report 1999 and are per 1,000 people. bData are from the Internet Software Consortium ( http://www.isc.org ) and are per 10,000 people. SOURCE: World Bank. World Development Indicators 2000. Since May 1998, Ethiopia has expended considerable effort to repair and maintain the railroad lines. Moreover, with the help of various donors, including the World Bank, the European Union (EU), and the African Development Bank (ADB), the government has implemented a US$3.9 billion Road Sector Development Plan designed to expand the road network by 80 percent for 2007. In 1998, the World Bank approved a US$309 million loan to be used for the project, a welcome contribution even though the loan will contribute significantly to Ethiopia's overall debt. As for air transport, there are a total of 85 airports in Ethiopia, 11 of which have paved runways. All passenger and cargo flights are provided by Ethiopian airlines. The airlines' international services link the country with 43 cities on 3 continents, while domestic services link 38 airfields and 21 landing strips with Addis Ababa. The government-owned Ethiopian Telecommunications Corporation (ETC) provides the population with telephone services. However, with only 3.1 telephone mainlines per 1,000 people, very few Ethiopians actually have telephone access (1999 est.). The situation compares unfavorably with most other sub-Saharan African nations, to say nothing of the wealthier industrialized nations of the world. In the United States, for example, there are 640 phone lines per 1,000 people (1996 est.). Almost 90 percent of Ethiopia's electricity is derived from hydropower, which is exclusively provided by the parastatal Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation. In 1999, the country's total electric capacity was 400 megawatts. Over the next several years, the government plans on tripling this capacity to reach 1,200 megawatts. Although doing so would satisfy current electrical needs, Ethiopia has an untapped natural potential to generate over 30,000 megawatts of hydroelectric power. Ethiopia neither exports nor imports electricity, though it does heavily import oil. ECONOMIC SECTORS Like most of the countries of the African continent, Ethiopia's economy is dominated by agricultural production. For many similar countries, this dominance is the direct result of the colonial period, which encouraged policies of agricultural exportation at the expense of industrial development. African territories were forced to export primary crops to their colonizing countries and to import higher value-added manufactured commodities. For Ethiopia, however, which was never a European colony, the agricultural predominance is in part a historical legacy of the feudalistic policies that prevailed throughout most of 20th century. These policies consisted of onerous (oppressive) obligations on the part of the peasantry, who were expected to provide high taxes and agricultural surplus to sustain the livelihoods of the ruling classes (consisting of the royal family, government officials, and lords and nobles). In this system, which lasted until the mid-1970s, the government was more concerned with maintaining the rule of the status quo (the existing order) than in fostering industrial development, which resulted in the foreign domination of industry. Industry still remains a relatively small aspect of the Ethiopian economy, though there is potential for growth in both manufacturing and mining. The service sector, which has become extremely important in terms of contribution to the gross domestic product ( GDP ), is characterized by a strong financial system. Tourism is one area of the service sector that is currently marginal, though there is significant potential for commercial development. AGRICULTURE Agriculture, which constituted 46 percent of GDP and more than 80 percent of exports in 1998, is by far the most important economic activity in the Ethiopian economy (1998 est.). An estimated 85 percent of the population are engaged in agricultural production. Important agricultural exports include coffee, hides and skins (leather products), pulses, oilseeds, beeswax, and, increasingly, tea. Domestically, meat and dairy production play an integral role for subsistence purposes. Socialist agricultural reforms conducted by the Derg included land reforms that led to relatively equitable patterns of land tenure. The state maintained complete ownership of land, and state marketing boards were created with monopolistic rights to purchase and sell agricultural commodities. Currently, the government retains the right of ultimate land ownership in the agricultural sector, though most marketing boards have been abolished. While marketing boards enabled farmers to sell their crops to the highest bidder, they also required the dissolution of minimum prices for agricultural commodities. Since the government normally purchased agricultural commodities at low prices, however, the abolition of marketing boards may prove to be a positive development. With 25 percent of all Ethiopians—approximately 15 million people—gaining their livelihoods from coffee production, the coffee sector is the most important agricultural activity. According to the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency World Factbook 2000, coffee production, Ethiopia's largest source of foreign exchange, contributed US$267 million to the economy in 1999, with export volumes equaling 105,000 metric tons. Coffee has long held a central role in Ethiopia's export economy and, as early as the mid-1970s, about 55 percent of the nation's total export earnings derived from coffee exports. This percentage share remained more or less constant until the mid-1990s, when it increased to an average of 63 percent of total export earnings between 1995 to 1998. With the export economy so heavily dependent upon the exportation of a single crop, the Ethiopian economy is structured into a precarious (insecure and dangerous) position. If annual production declines as a result of a bad harvest (due to natural factors, such as drought—a constant threat), export earnings will suffer considerably, exacerbating (making worse) the country's already negative balance of trade. Similarly, if all coffee producing countries produce large amounts of coffee in a given year—resulting in an excessive supply—international prices for coffee will decline and Ethiopia's export economy will accordingly suffer. Such was the case in 1998, when a glut in the world supply of coffee reduced Ethiopia's coffee earnings by 22 percent from the previous year. With 75 million heads of livestock, Ethiopia has the largest concentration of livestock on the African continent. According to the Country Commercial Guide 2000, however, it is difficult to calculate the cattle sector's exact value, since a substantial amount of meat and dairy production is for subsistence consumption. In certain regions, such as the highlands, livestock is utilized only to support farming. Still, hides and leather products are Ethiopia's second most important export, though the Commercial Guide states that the sector's huge potential remains largely untapped, as a result of weather conditions (drought), diseases, and the lack of a coherent government plan for the development of the sector. In 1996, Ethiopia produced 8,500 metric tons of leather and leather products for exportation, thereby earning a total of US$6.5 million. Ethiopia is also the continent's leading producer and exporter of beeswax and honey. The country has approximately 7 million bee colonies. Other important agricultural activities include tea production, which has reached approximately 4,000 metric tons of output in recent years, and cotton and sugar production. Moreover, there are opportunities for expanding cultivation and export of dried fruits, cut flowers, and canned vegetable products. While the agricultural export economy is constantly subjected to the caprices (whims) of the weather, so too is agricultural production geared towards domestic consumption. In 1992, for example, IMF statistics indicate that Ethiopia produced 51,850 quintals of cereals, mostly for domestic consumption, whereas the following year the cereals output dropped to 47,404 quintals—a decline of 8.6 percent. The decrease was largely the result of drought. The fact that Ethiopia has an extremely poor infrastructure for agricultural production does not help the matter. Though there is the potential for Ethiopia to become self-sufficient in grain production, the country must currently continue to import grains in addition to receiving food aid in order to feed the population. Like many African countries, Ethiopia confronts several environmental issues that are particularly problematic for the agricultural sector of the economy. Such issues include deforestation (depletion of forests), over-grazing (depletion of pastures), soil erosion (depletion of quality soil), and desertification (extensive drying of the land). Since only 12 percent of all Ethiopian land is arable, 1 percent is used for permanent crops, and 40 percent is comprised of permanent pastures, it is essential for Ethiopia to address these environmental problems in order to maintain the land so fundamental for agricultural activities. Moreover, according to Girma Kebbede, the author of The State and Development in Ethiopia, it is precisely these environmental problems—rather than just the shifting weather patterns—which contribute primarily to the chronic famines that so frequently plague the country. Quite simply, limited arable land as a result of soil erosion and other environmental difficulties mean that in times of drought, there are very few available methods to prevent widespread famine. INDUSTRY Ethiopian industry, including both mining and manufacturing, constitutes approximately 12 percent of the GDP, while providing employment for 8 percent of the country's labor force (1998 est.). Under the Derg regime, almost all of the major industries were owned exclusively by the state. With a marginal average annual growth rate of 3.8 percent between 1980 and 1987, the state's policies of industrial control did not fare well. According to Kebbede, the failure of such policies can be attributed to "bureaucratic mismanagement, inefficiency, and corruption." State bureaucracies were costly and wasteful because they were not held responsible to any section of the society and because political and ideological questions took precedence over questions of efficiency or practicality. At the same time, however, one must remember that for many impoverished African countries fearful of foreign domination and eager to create more or less equitable societies, state control of industry seemed to be the most reasonable form of economic organization throughout the 1960s and 1970s. The country's first democratic government, formed in the early 1990s, made privatization of Ethiopia's industrial sector a major objective to promote economic growth, but progress remained slow at the beginning of 2000. MINING. Regarding the exploitation of natural resources, gold, marble, limestone, and small amounts of tantalum are the major minerals mined in Ethiopia. Of these minerals, gold, which provided US$12.5 million to the economy in 1996, is the most significant contributor to export earnings. Gold mining output has oscillated (wavered) considerably throughout the 1990s, fluctuating, for example, from 3,500 metric tons in 1992 to 1,800 metric tons in 1994 and 5,100 metric tons in 1996. Traditionally, the mining industry, which remains under state domination, has played a marginal role in Ethiopia's economy. Resources with potential for future commercial development include potash (recently found in large deposits), natural gas, iron ore, and possibly coal and geothermal energy. MANUFACTURING. Manufacturing as a percentage of the GDP only marginally increased throughout the 1990s. In 1992, for example, manufacturing constituted 3.9 percent of the GDP, whereas its percentage share had slightly increased to 4.3 percent by 1998. The manufacturing sector of the Ethiopian economy produces construction materials, metal, and chemical goods, in addition to basic consumer goods such as food, beverages, clothing, and textiles. Despite massive privatization campaigns, the industrial sector remained dominated by the state, with 150 public (state) enterprises accounting for more than 90 percent of the entire sector's value in 1999. Production by state-owned enterprises is centered on food and beverages, textiles, clothing, leather products, tobacco, rubber, plastic and cement. In 1999, there were also 165 private sector manufacturing firms involved in producing goods such as bakery products, textiles, footwear, and furniture. Though certain areas of manufacturing are now open to participation by foreigners with permanent residence status as a result of legislation passed in 1998, still other areas, such as garment factories, are restricted from foreign participation. In 1998, there were a total of 163 foreign investment projects with total projected capital investment of US$1.2 billion. Of these projects, 90 were wholly foreign owned while 73 were joint ventures with local partners. Major foreign investors include the United States, with investments worth US$9 million in 1999, as well as Saudi Arabia , South Korea, Kuwait , and Italy. U.S.-based manufacturing companies that have a significant presence in Ethiopia include Pepsi-Cola, Coca-Cola, Caterpillar, General Motors, Xerox, and John Deere. Numerous other U.S. firms also operate in Ethiopia, albeit in different sectors of the economy. SERVICES Accounting for 42 percent of the GDP, services are an extremely important component of Ethiopia's economy (1998 est.). At the same time, however, with only 12 percent of the labor force engaged in services and government employment, a relatively small percentage of Ethiopians work in the service sector. The large contribution of services to the GDP stems mostly from the government and the strong financial sector. TOURISM. According to the aforementioned Country Commercial Guide 2000, the tourism industry in Ethiopia is negligible, though there is great potential for commercial development. With many unique indigenous plant, bird, and mammal species, the country has an enormous diversity of wildlife, exotic landscapes, and architectural ruins of prehistoric, historical, and religious significance. As such, Ethiopia is an ideal location for foreign and local visitors embarking upon historic, cultural, or ecotourism expeditions. FINANCIAL SERVICES. Following the 1974 revolution, the banking and financial sector in general came under the domination of the state. In 1994, legislation was passed that permitted the establishment of private banks and insurance companies but prohibited foreign ownership of such companies. Ethiopia's central bank, the National Bank of Ethiopia (NBE), seeks to foster monetary stability and a sound financial system by maintaining credit and exchange conditions perceived to be conducive to the balanced growth of the economy. All transactions in foreign exchange must be carried out through authorized dealers under the control of the NBE. The Commercial Bank of Ethiopia (CBE), whose assets totaled over US$3 billion in 1996, is a government-owned bank with 167 branches in operation and over US$1.5 billion on deposit (1996 est.). The CBE, the largest bank in Ethiopia, offers credit to investors on market terms, though the 100 percent collateral requirement limits the ability of small entrepreneurs with limited resources to capitalize upon business opportunities. Ethiopia's first private bank, Awash, commenced operations in 1994 and now boasts 6 branches in Addis Ababa and 2 in the Oromiya Regional State. In addition to Awash, 5 other private banks now operate in Ethiopia, including Dashen Bank (with a total of 12 branches), the Bank of Abyssinia (2 branches), and Wegagen Bank (5 branches). The 2 newest private banks in operation are NIB International and United Bank. Since the banking and financial reforms of 1994, there are also 7 private insurance companies in operation—United, Africa, Nile , Nyala, Awash, National, and Global. Ethiopia does not have a securities market, although the U.S. Department of State reported that a private sector initiative to establish a mechanism for buying and selling company shares was expected to begin by the year 2000. RETAIL. Ethiopia's retail sector consists mostly of small shops, local markets, and roadside stands, many of which are part of the informal sector of the economy, which remains unregulated and untaxed. Investment legislation passed in September 1998 also allows foreigners with permanent resident status to participate in retail and wholesale trade. INTERNATIONAL TRADE Ethiopia has chronically run a negative balance of payments , rendering the country highly dependent upon foreign aid and loans to finance imports. Throughout the 1990s, the situation has shown little sign of improvement. Indeed, the balance of trade deficit was US$829.4 million in 1992 and—despite a brief amelioration in 1994 when the deficit declined to US$609.5 million—it remained approximately the same in 1998, when it Trade (expressed in billions of US$): Ethiopia Exports N/A SOURCE: International Monetary Fund. International Financial Statistics Yearbook 1999. reached US$830.0 million. The constant deficit ensures Ethiopia's perpetual indebtedness to the commercial banks of the rich industrial countries and international financial institutions, such as the IMF, the World Bank, and the ADB. In 1997, Ethiopia's total external debt stood at US$10 billion. Ethiopia's major exports include coffee, gold, leather products, beeswax, canned vegetables, tea, sugar, cotton, and oilseeds. Purchasing approximately 22 percent of Ethiopia's exports in 1997, Germany is Ethiopia's largest trading partner. Along with many other countries of EU— such as Italy, France , and the United Kingdom—Germany has steadily increased its quantity of Ethiopian imports. In 1992, for instance, the countries of the EU purchased approximately Br203.3 million worth of Ethiopian exports, whereas this figure increased dramatically to Br1,351.5 million in 1996. Similarly, the United States has increased its quantity of Ethiopian imports from Br19.6 million in 1992 to Br169.9 million in 1996. This major increase in trade with the Western countries can be explained primarily by the fall of the Derg and the subsequent liberalization policies pursued by the EPRDF. Other major importers of Ethiopian products include Saudi Arabia, China , and Japan, the latter of which purchased 12 percent of all Ethiopian exports in 1997. Ethiopia's largest trading partner in Africa is Djibouti, a neighboring country through which Ethiopia must conduct all of its importing and exporting since Ethiopia is landlocked and thus lacks a port of its own. Ethiopia's major imports include food and live animals, petroleum and petroleum products, chemicals, machinery, civil and military aircraft, transport and industrial capital goods, agricultural machinery and equipment, and motor vehicles. Ethiopia's imports have followed the same pattern as its exports in the 1990s, with the percentage of imports from the countries of the EU and the United States steadily increasing. In 1991, imports worth Br364.7 million were purchased from the countries of the EU, while this figure increased to Br2,006.7 million in 1995. In the same year, a similar value (Br2,300.7 million) of imports came from various countries of Asia and the Middle East , including Japan, Saudi Arabia, and China. With imports to Ethiopia equaling Br146.8 million in 1995, Djibouti is Ethiopia's number-one regional exporter, while Kenya is second. Ethiopia's balance of trade deficit can be largely explained by the unequal terms of trade between agricultural commodities (the country's major exports) and capital goods (Ethiopia's major imports). International markets accord a higher price to commodities that are manufactured—or "value-added"—than to those that are in their raw form. Recognizing the uneven terms of international trade, many countries, including Ethiopia, pursued policies of protectionism throughout the 1960s and 1970s to develop national industrial capacity or import-substitution . In many cases, where the state pursued policies of complete industrial control, they failed miserably. For others, however, such as the economies of Southeast Asia , the policies were more successful, enabling these countries to eventually partake in liberalized free trade at the global level. Ethiopia's policies of import substitution were largely disastrous. This does not mean, however, that the country should necessarily abandon all forms of protection in favor of free trade, which is theoretically designed to increase the efficiency of national industries through competition with the outside world. Instead, such liberalization may lead to the inability of Ethiopian industries to compete at all, thereby further assuring the dominance of the agricultural sector. To date, Ethiopia has proceeded with the liberalization process relatively cautiously, maintaining an average tariff rate of approximately 20 percent (1997 est.), though there are plans to reduce this figure to 17 to 18 percent. Ethiopia is considering application to the World Trade Organization (WTO), and it is already a member of the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA). Regional trading arrangements such as the latter may offer member countries the opportunity to profit from increased trade while competing from a more level playing field. There has been little trade increase between the members of COMESA, however. MONEY Prior to 1993, the official rate of the Ethiopian birr was pegged (fixed) to the U.S. dollar at US$1:Br5.000. Since a pegged exchange rate does not necessarily represent a currency's true market value, the EPRDF replaced the fixed exchange rate system with a floating exchange rate system. The value of the birr is thus determined in an inter-bank market where the national bank sells foreign currency to private banks, the Commercial Bank of Ethiopia, and large corporations at weekly auctions. Exchange rates: Ethiopia 1996 6.4260 Note: Since May 1993, the birr market rate has been determined in an interbank market supported by weekly wholesale auction. SOURCE: CIA World Factbook 2001 [ONLINE]. In this way, the official exchange rate is auction-determined. The purchasers of foreign exchange, in turn, are free to establish their own exchange rates. The value of the birr in relation to the U.S. dollar has steadily depreciated since the implementation of the floating exchange system. In 1995, for instance, the exchange rate was set at US$1:Br6.3200 while, 3 years later in 1998, the rate had decreased to US$1:Br7.5030. As of January 2000, the rate was determined at US$1:Br8.2. According to the Country Commercial Guide 2000, the Ethiopian currency has remained relatively stable, especially in comparison to the currencies of most other sub-Saharan African nations, as a result of conservative monetary policies and considerable foreign exchange reserves . Nonetheless, the steady depreciation of the currency means that it takes a growing amount of Ethiopian birr to purchase imports from abroad. While this can help the export economy, since fewer U.S. dollars are needed to purchase Ethiopian exports, it also renders valuable imports, such as food for the population, more expensive. In 1998, incidentally, food imports constituted 14 percent of all merchandise imports. POVERTY AND WEALTH Under the rule of Haile Selassie, Ethiopian society was characterized by gross inequality between the largely aristocratic elite—consisting of landowners, lords, nobles, the royal family, government officials, and elements of the clergy—and the impoverished peasantry. Indeed, according to Kebbede, the massive famines of the 1960s could have been avoided if the obligations on the part of the peasantry towards the elite (in terms of providing agricultural produce) had not been so oppressive. The Derg regime subsequently abolished feudal obligations and titles of privilege, even going to the extreme of executing numerous members of the high-ranking nobility (the socalled "red terror"). Despite the egalitarian rhetoric of the Derg, however, high-ranking government officials GDP per Capita (US$) 175 SOURCE: United Nations. Human Development Report 2000; Trends in human development and per capita income. retained privileged economic positions. Today, Ethiopia's elite continues to consist of government officials, in addition to a small upper class of highly skilled managers and professionals. Like all the countries of Sub-Saharan Africa, poverty is rampant in Ethiopia. The UNDP's Human Development Index (HDI) listings, which arranges countries according to their overall level of human development, ranks Ethiopia 171st out of a total of 174 nations. The HDI is a composite index (one that assesses more than one variable) that measures life expectance at birth, adult literacy rate, school enrollment ratio, and the GDP per capita . It is indicative of a country's general social and economic well-being. As such, Ethiopia's HDI ranking demonstrates that the country is one of the poorest and least developed in the world. Fortunately, the situation has shown small signs of improvement, and the Ethiopian HDI score increased from a dismal 0.265 in 1985 to a slightly better 0.309 in 1998 (the highest possible rank is 1.0, and Canada—the highest ranking HDI country— scored 0.935 in 1998). The Ethiopian government spends relatively little on education and health. In 1998, for example, public expenditure on health and education as percentages of the GDP equaled 1.6 percent and 4.0 percent respectively. Though these expenditures displayed marginal increases, Distribution of Income or Consumption by Percentage Share: Ethiopia Lowest 10% 33.7 Survey year: 1995 Note: This information refers to expenditure shares by percentiles of the population and is ranked by per capita expenditure. SOURCE: 2000 World Development Indicators [CD-ROM]. they are nowhere near the percentage level of industrialized countries, such as the United States, which spent 5.4 percent of the GDP on education and 6.5 percent on health in 1998. Moreover, the Ethiopian government spends a significant amount on military expenditure, largely as a result of the border war with Eritrea, though such expenses have decreased substantially from 10.4 percent of the GDP in 1990 to 3.8 percent in 1998. The fact that the Ethiopian government must continually service a large debt does not help the social expenditure cause. The vast majority of Ethiopians spend their meager incomes on the basic necessities of life, such as food, rents, clothing, fuel, and transportation. Very little is spent on entertainment and recreation, which are considered luxuries for those that live in considerable poverty. To make matters worse, in the past 10 years, the increase in the GNP per capita has been grossly outweighed by mounting inflation, which means that Ethiopians are having an increasingly difficult time purchasing the commodities essential for human existence. The UNDP estimates that the annual growth rate in GNP per capita between 1990 to 1998 was 1.0 percent, while the average annual rate of inflation during the same period was 9.7 percent. WORKING CONDITIONS Since 85 percent of Ethiopia's workforce engages in subsistence farming in the countryside, only a very small percentage of the population is involved in wage labor. The Ethiopian constitution and the 1993 labor law provide wage laborers with the right to form and belong to unions, though employees of the civil and security services (where most wage earners work), judges, and prosecutors are denied these rights. The Confederation of Ethiopian Trade Unions (CETU), established after the fall of the Derg regime in 1993, includes 9 federations organized by industrial and service sector. There is no requirement that unions belong to the CETU. Approximately 250,000 Ethiopian workers are unionized. Workers who provide an "essential service," such as those who work in air transport, railways, bus service, police and fire services, post and telecommunications, banks, and pharmacies, are denied the right to strike. Other workers are granted the right to strike, though the unions involved must follow certain detailed procedures before doing so. The same applies for the right of an employer to lock out workers. Both sides must make efforts at reconciliation and provide at least 10 days notice to the government before the commencement of an action. The minimum age for wage labor is 14 years, and various laws protect children between the ages of 14 to 18 years, including restrictions that they may not work more than 7 hours per day. The U.S. Department of State maintains that there are some efforts to enforce such regulations within the formal industrial sector, though there are large numbers of children of all ages that grow and harvest crops outside government regulatory control in the countryside or work as street peddlers in the cities. The harsh reality is that many impoverished parents depend on the work contributions of their children to ensure the survival of the household. While there is no minimum wage in the private sector, a minimum wage in the public sector has been in effect since 1985. According to the U.S. Department of State, however, the minimum wage in the public sector, which equaled about US$16 per month in 1996, is insufficient to provide a decent standard of living for a worker and family. The Office of the Study of Wages and Other Remunerations, for instance, reports that a family of 5 requires a monthly income of US$61 in Ethiopia. Even with 2 minimum wage earners, therefore, a family receives only about half the income needed for adequate subsistence. These factors result in the family's reliance upon the children to contribute to the household income. Most employees in Ethiopia work a 40-hour week, and the government, industry, and unions negotiate occupational health and safety standards. The Inspection Department of the Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs cannot enforce these standards effectively, however, due to a lack of human and financial resources. COUNTRY HISTORY AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT 5TH CENTURY B.C. Ethiopia becomes one of the first countries in Africa. Ethiopia is described by the Greek historian Herodotus , and the Old Testament records a visit by the Ethiopian Queen of Sheba to Jerusalem . 4TH CENTURY. Missionaries from Syria and Egypt introduce Christianity to the country. 1493. The Portuguese establish contact with Ethiopia, prompting a lengthy conflict between Roman Catholic converts and adherents of Ethiopian Coptic Christianity. 1630s. All foreign missionaries are expelled from Ethiopia, and the country subsequently remains isolated from the West until the mid-19th century. MID-19TH CENTURY. Under the Emperors Theodore (1855-68), Johannes IV (1872-89), and Menelik II (1889-1913), Ethiopia becomes a modern state characterized by political centralization. 1930. Adopting the throne name Haile Selassie, Ras Tafari Makonnen is crowned emperor, commencing a lengthy period of rule that witnesses the perpetuation of a quasi-feudal system, albeit with marginal reforms. 1936-42. The Italians occupy Ethiopia despite Selassie's plea to the League of Nations for intervention. The Italians are expelled by British and Ethiopian forces, and Selassie returns to rule after a period of forced exile. 1974. Following a period of civil unrest, Selassie is deposed, and a military administrative council known as the Derg declares a military dictatorship supposedly based on socialist principles. The Derg, which pursues abhorrent policies of political repression (the "red terror"), nationalizes the land and most of the economy. 1991. Ethnic insurrection, a collapsed economy, and recalcitrant (rebellious) students cause the final collapse of the Derg regime. The Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) is democratically voted into office. 1993. Eritrea establishes its independence under a UN-monitored referendum. Ethiopia and Eritrea commence a border war that continues to restrain the development of both countries. FUTURE TRENDS Despite the pervasive poverty, marginal growth rates, and tumultuous political and economic history of Ethiopia, there are several signs indicative of hope and improvement. For the first time in the country's history, for instance, an effective democracy has been institutionalized. While this will most certainly not solve Ethiopia's deeply embedded economic difficulties overnight, it is, if nothing else, a huge step forward in the direction of the establishment of a responsive and stable government. Moreover, the economy has experienced an unprecedented degree of stability since the mid-1990s, though this is, admittedly, counterbalanced by a precarious agricultural dependence and a chronic balance of payments deficit. While there are undeniably positive developments, there remain severe impediments that prevent the assurance of a sustained path towards economic development. Perhaps the most significant question that the Ethiopian government must address is the specific policy framework that must be implemented over an extended period of time to surmount these impediments. Privatization and the absolute rule of the free market currently reign supreme in the international neo- liberal economic environment. Rather than accepting the virtues of neo-liberal ideology at face value, however, Ethiopia must adopt policies that are relevant to its particular circumstances. To its credit, this is precisely what the EPRDF seem to be doing. Though the government has pursued policies of trade liberalization, they have not promoted unobstructed free trade. Similarly, while many state-owned enterprises have been privatized, the government retains a considerable role in certain areas of the economy, such as telecommunications, infrastructure provision, and electricity. Moreover, foreign dominance, which can be nationally unprofitable, has been entirely excluded from certain segments of the economy, such as the finance sector. The EPRDF must continue along this path, withstanding international pressure to create a complete free market economy that may not be appropriate at this stage of Ethiopia's economic development. DEPENDENCIES Ethiopia has no territories or colonies. BIBLIOGRAPHY Araia, Ghelawdewos. Ethiopia: The Political Economy of Transition. Lanham, Maryland : University Press of America, 1995. Hansson, Gote. The Ethiopian Economy 1974-1994: Ethiopian Tikdem and After. London: Routledge, 1995. International Monetary Fund. "IMF Staff Country Report, Ethiopia: Statistical Appendix." <http://www.imf.org> . Accessed May 2001. Kebbede, Girma. The State and Development in Ethiopia. NewJersey: Humanities Press, 1992. United Nations Development Programme. Human Development Report 2000. New York : Oxford University Press, 2000. U.S. Central Intelligence Agency. World Factbook 2000. <http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/index.html>. Accessed May 2001. U.S. Department of State. Background Notes: Ethiopia. <http://www.state.gov/www/background_notes/ethiopia_0398 _bgn.html> . Accessed May 2001. U.S. Department of State. FY 2000 Country Commercial Guide: Ethiopia. <http://www.state.gov/www/about_state/business/com_guides/2000/africa/ethiopia00_08.html> . Accessed May 2001. World Bank Group. Ethiopia: Competitiveness Indicators. <http://wbln0018.worldbank.org/psd/compete.nsf/1f2245620075540d85256490005fb73a/74c17aa2249b1b70852564e40068db3c>. Accessed May 2001. Neil Burron Addis Ababa. MONETARY UNIT: Ethiopian birr (Br). One Ethiopian birr equals 100 cents. Notes come in denominations of 1, 5, 10, 50, and 100 birr, and coins come in denominations of 5, 10, 25, and 50 cents. CHIEF EXPORTS: Coffee, gold, leather products, oilseeds. CHIEF IMPORTS: Food and live animals, petroleum and petroleum products, chemicals, machinery, motor vehicles. GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT: US$33.3 billion (purchasing power parity, 1999 est.). BALANCE OF TRADE: Exports: US$420 million (1998 est.). Imports: US$1.25 billion (1998 est.). Cite this article Asmara, Axum, Dire Dawa, Gondar, Harar, Jima, Mekele, Nazret EDITOR'S NOTE This chapter was adapted from the Department of State Post Report 2001 for Ethiopia . Supplemental material has been added to increase coverage of minor cities, facts have been updated, and some material has been condensed. Readers are encouraged to visit the Department of State's web site at http://travel.state.gov/ for the most recent information available on travel to this country. INTRODUCTION An assignment to Ethiopia offers an opportunity to live and work in a country with a rich and diverse culture and a heritage and history of independence among the longest and proudest on the African continent. The seventeen years of revolution under the cruel, dictatorial Mengistu regime ended in 1991. Since then the Transitional Government has been working toward the creation of a democratically-based government and a free market economy. Much progress remains to be made, infrastructures created, and habits changed. Western donors, including the United States , are encouraging the Transitional Government through assistance programs directed toward food security, democracy and governance, and extensive privatization. Ethiopia is a very poor country which suffers from recurring droughts and famines. The international community attempts to assist the government to alleviate and, increasingly, to prevent these natural and human disasters. The U.S. remains one of the largest donors in this effort. MAJOR CITY Addis Ababa Addis Ababa, or "new flower", with an estimated population of over 3 million, spreads over a large hilly area in the mountains of the central highlands. The climate is temperate and pleasant most of the year. This high mountain settlement, a relatively new city, became Ethiopia's capital in 1890. Its architecture is a confusion of older buildings in the Italian style, modern offices and apartments, Western-style villas, and mud-walled, tin-roofed dwellings. There are slum areas scattered about the city, as there are attractive and well-groomed villas. Only a few of the main streets have names that are generally known or used. Street signs are rare, and although businesses and residences have house numbers, these appear to be in random order and difficult to locate. The main streets are paved, but many side streets are rocky and, in the rainy season, very muddy. All streets suffer from neglect and large pot holes. Traffic is impaired not only by road conditions, but also by unruly drivers, animals and pedestrians walking on the roadway, and very poor street lighting. Road accident rates in Addis Ababa are very high, fatalities frequent, and medical care very poor. Addis Ababa is often called the "Capital of Africa" because the Organization of African Unity (OAU) makes the city it headquarters. In addition, the UN Economic Commission for Africa (UN ECA) was established here in 1958, and many international conferences are held in its very impressive Africa Hall. Food Vegetables, such as potatoes, onions, garlic, leeks, carrots, cauliflower, zucchini, tomatoes, cucumbers, leaf lettuce, spinach, beets, artichokes, and avocados are abundant all year on the local economy, though the quality varies with the season. Fresh fruits, such as bananas, oranges, lemons, limes, grapefruits, papayas, melons, man-goes, pineapples, plums, and strawberries are usually good and plentiful. A variety of meats (beef, lamb, veal, fish, pork, fish, and chicken) is available, but the quality is uneven. The variety and availability of locally-available food has been improving over the past several years. Fresh milk and dairy products are sold locally, but the milk must be boiled before use. Full-fat powdered milk is available at local shops. Bread can be purchased locally. European-style grocery stores are opening throughout Addis Ababa, with an increasingly wide variety of products, mostly imported from Italy. Availability is quite good and prices are very high. A cookbook with recipes for high altitude cooking is useful, and several are included in the Recommended Reading. Clothing Addis Ababa has some reliable local dressmakers, but fabric quality is not to U.S. standards. Local tailors are available, but the workmanship tends to be poor. You will need two or three pairs of sturdy walking shoes since sidewalks are few, and roadways are general unpaved. "Shoesaver" or a similar water repellent helps to protect shoes during the rainy season. The secret of dealing with the often wide-range of daily temperatures is clothes layering. Men: Spring-and fall-weight woolen business suits, sport coats, and slacks will fulfill your needs in Addis Ababa. Summer suits are also comfortable during daytime much of the year. Jackets, sweaters, and raincoats are advisable. Sun hats and warm weather clothes are needed if you plan to spend time outdoors during the dry season or to travel in lower, warmer areas. Women: Light fall or spring wool suits and dresses combined with a limited number of wool skirts and sweaters will provide a basic wardrobe. Cotton or silk can be worn midday. Layered dressing such as sweaters or vests over blouses or dresses are often worn since homes and offices are cool. Both wool and cotton slacks can be worn here. Shorts are acceptable for tennis or jogging. A light daytime jacket and wool shawls are useful on occasion. A coat, jacket, or shawl is always needed at night. Raincoats, umbrellas, and rainboots are essential. Children: Children need a good supply of pants, long-sleeved shirts, sweaters, sweatshirts, light jackets, sturdy shoes, socks, raincoats, rain-boots, warm pajamas, and bathrobes; include warm clothing. Bring cotton sunhats or caps as they are not available and sunburn is frequent at this altitude. Jeans are acceptable for school and particularly suitable for play clothes since weather permits outdoor play much of the year. Shorts and T-shirts are worn during warm weather. Supplies and Services While it is becoming easier to find many of the desired supplies in Addis Ababa, the quality is uneven and the prices very high. Some European products are appearing in the newer grocery stores. Tailors are adequate for minor repairs and fittings. Seamstresses can reproduce a dress from a picture, pattern, or sketch to your measurements; however, the result may not be exactly what you want. Men's and women's shoe repair is adequate and inexpensive. Dry cleaning and laundry service is satisfactory. Beauty shop prices are reasonable; however, the quality of service is not always good. Many barbershops are clean, and haircutting techniques are acceptable. Education Children's Education: The International Community School (ICS—formerly the American Community School) opened in Fall 1966. It became the International Community School in May 1980. Classes are offered from pre-kindergarten through grade 12. ICS offers the International Baccalaureate Program (IB) and the Advanced Placement Program (AP). Enrollment was 320 students in the spring 2000, including Ethiopian and third-country nationals from some 50 different countries. Bingham Academy is a nondenomi-national missionary-sponsored American school, which admits international students who can pass an English proficiency test. Bingham operates an American curriculum from kindergarten through grade 8. The Sandford English Community School, which follows a British curriculum, offers instruction in English, and has begun to offer the IB program. Other national groups—German, Italian, French, and Swedish—also maintain good schools. None of the schools have cafeterias, so children must bring their own lunches. Several nursery schools in Addis Ababa accept children from age 3. Special Educational Opportunities Classes at Addis Ababa University are taught in English. Various cultural centers offers courses in French, Italian, German, Russian, and other languages. Recreation and Social Life Among the most difficult adjustments to Addis Ababa is its isolation, high altitude, lack of amenities, and socio-cultural complexity. You must often rely on your own resources to find necessary stimuli for a full and satisfying tour. Sports Weekend picnics, horseback riding, camping, hunting, and fishing are possible. Volleyball, softball, and basketball are popular sports activities in Addis Ababa. Riding enthusiasts who prefer Western saddles should bring their own, since only English saddles are available here. A riding horse can be purchased and boarded. Horses can only be leased on an hourly basis from stables. The Hilton Hotel has a sports club with a naturally heated outdoor pool, tennis courts, miniature golf, and a sauna. The International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) Zebu Club has tennis courts, squash courts, swimming pool, restaurant, and bar. Some fees may apply. The five-star Sheraton Addis opened in 1998. It has all the amenities that a five-star hotel has to offer. There are five restaurants and a 24-hour business center. Its Health Club has a swimming pool, tennis and squash courts, steam bath, and sauna. Annual membership fees are expensive and vary based on facilities used. Daily fees are available. A private, small 6-hole golf course is operated on the British Embassy compound. The season runs from October to June. and you have to apply in advance for membership. Bring clubs, balls and tees. There also is a public course used by many expatriate players. Addis Ababa also has two bowling alleys. Local equipment is satisfactory. Touring and Outdoor Activities Gardening is popular because results are almost immediate, and the growing season is year round. Flower and vegetable seeds are available on the local market although sometimes past their expiration date. Overland travel in Ethiopia is difficult, due to the poor condition of roads and the questionable quality of many of the rest stops. In addition, roadside banditry occurs with some regularity in various parts of the country, and sensible precautions need to be taken. The Grand Hotel (or Ras Hora) in Debre Zeit, 30 miles southeast of Addis Ababa, is perched on a hill overlooking a lovely crater lake. It has several in-door dining areas with European cooking. Its Sunday afternoon buffets are popular and prices are moderate. Campsites can be rented for a small fee. Some people water ski and swim in the lake, but this is not recommended as the bilharzia snail has been found in the water. The Adama Ras Hotel in Nazareth, about 2 hours from Addis Ababa, has a swimming pool and is a good place to spend a weekend. A Sunday buffet emphasizes Italian specialties. Sodere, about 2-hours from Addis Ababa, has hot mineral springs. Two swimming pools (one olympic size), a small restaurant, bungalows, and camping facilities make Sodere a pleasant weekend resort or day trip. A 4-hour drive northwest of Addis Ababa takes you to the Blue Nile Gorge and to some of the most spectacular scenery in Ethiopia. Debre Libanos, a historic monastery, is located on the rim of a tributary canyon along the route. Nearby is a 400-year-old Portuguese bridge, where a spectacular view of the canyon can be seen, as well as baboons and monkeys. The Ras Hotel at Ambo (2-hour drive) is 78 miles west of Addis Ababa on a good road that passes through beautiful countryside and the Menagesha Forest Preserve. It has a large outdoor pool filled by a warm mineral-water spring. Camping sites are available for a modest fee near the pool. Ghion, also called Welisso, is a small resort town 71 miles (2-hour drive) southwest of Addis Ababa. The Ras Hotel at Ghion has water from hot mineral springs piped into large sunken baths in the hotel rooms. In addition, hot indoor and outdoor swimming pools are filled by warm mineral springs. The Awash Game Park, about 140 miles from Addis Ababa, is another interesting point to visit. It offers an excellent opportunity for lucky camera buffs to photograph game of the Awash River valley. Overnight trailer accommodations are available in the heart of the park near the Awash River Falls. Fees are high and conditions are poor. However, the camping enthusiast can enjoy roughing it at a campsite for only a few dollars a night. Whitewater rafting trips, organized by expatriate guides, are offered from July to September on the Awash river. Cost for such weekend outings is about $150 per person. Favorite spots for Ethiopians and foreigners alike are the chain of lakes in the Great Rift Valley. Lake Awassa is a 4-hour drive from Addis Ababa. It abounds with fish (catfish and tilapia) and is an excellent spot for relaxation. Three motel-type hotels with cafes are located here. Lake Chamo at Arba Minch offers the thrill of fishing for Blue Nile perch and watching crocodiles move about. The fish is outstanding for eating and weighs up to 200 pounds. Excellent camping is offered on virtually all of the lakes. A favorite weekend spots is Lake Langano (the only bilharzia-free lake for swimming), which is a 3-hour drive from Addis Ababa. Fishing for catfish and tilapia, using light tackle and baited small hooks instead of artificial bait, is excellent. Two hotels with restaurants are also found at Lake Langano for those who prefer not to camp. Nearby is a game reserve where ostriches and other bird life is abundant. If you are interested in ancient civilizations, you should visit the towns of the "historic route", comprised of Gonder, Bahir Dar, Axum, and Lali-bela. Gonder was the seat of government in the 16th and 17th centuries and has several interesting castles. Near Bahir Dar, on the Blue Nile river, is located the spectacular Tis-Esat falls. Lalibela is the site of the fabulous below ground monolithic stone churches hewn out of solid stone during the 12th and 13th centuries. Dire Dawa and Harar are two interesting cities east of Addis Ababa and may be reached by car (10 hours), rail (10 hours), or air (35 minutes). Harar, a walled city, is the birthplace of the former Emperor and the site of the Harar Military Academy. It is considered by many to be the fourth most holy city in Islam . Road travel in this area can be hazardous. Entertainment Americans patronize several restaurants and the dining rooms of main hotels. Foreign cuisine includes Chinese, Italian, Greek, Indian, Middle Eastern, French, and Armenian. A number of restaurants serve Ethiopian food. The number, variety and quality of restaurants has increased markedly over the past year or two, yet usual precautions must be exercised to avoid intestinal difficulties. Several embassies have cultural centers offering a variety of programs, from music and dance to art exhibitions and films. The ethnological and archaeological museums are interesting. Various special interest groups are active, including drama and music groups and a wildlife club. Social Activities Rotary and Lions have chapters in Addis Ababa. The International Women's Club is a social and charitable organization for foreign and Ethiopian women. It is not limited to the diplomatic community, but provides contact with the foreign business community as well. Many churches have their own denominational clubs, and numerous opportunities exist for extracurricular activities. OTHER CITIES AXUM (or Aksum) is a small city in the northern highlands, and capital of the old Axumite Kingdom which, before and during the early part of the Christian era, extended over parts of present-day Sudan and Ethiopia. Mysterious stelae are all that remain of Axum's days of glory. The city's cathedral, the Church of St. Mary of Zion , is the repository of many of the crowns of Ethiopian emperors. Legend says that the Ark of the Covenant was brought to this spot from Jerusalem (after the fall of the city in 586 B.C.) by a descendant of King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba . Today, Axum is a tourist town noted for its antiquities. Tall granite obelisks, 126 in all, stand or lie broken in the central square. One measuring 110 feet, now fallen, is said to be the tallest obelisk ever built. A museum in town has a rich display of crosses, jewels, vestments, and ceremonial swords. DIRE DAWA , with a population over 150,000, is a commercial center second in importance to the capital. Located east of Addis Ababa, the city is a traditional caravan center situated at the intersection of roads leading to Addis Ababa, Harar, and the Republic of Djibouti . Soil in the area is extremely poor, thus food must be shipped in. The city has textile and cement factories, and coffee-and meat-canning plants. Caves decorated with prehistoric drawings are located near Dire Dawa. Dire Dawa is really two towns: new and old. New Dire Dawa is a wide-avenued, tree-lined settlement with its jacarandas and flamboyance. Here there are numerous small marketplaces, busy with vendors in colorful dress with their spices, fruits, baskets, and silverware laid out before them. Old Dire Dawa is a place of narrow, meandering streets and square buildings which is the site of the traditional Afetissa market. Well-stocked with a variety of goods, Afetissa is a melting pot for all the peoples of the region. The city population is composed mainly of Somalis, Oromos, Afars, and Arabs. GONDAR , in northwestern Ethiopia, was the seat of government in the 16th and 17th centuries. The ruins of its castles and royal buildings show evidence of Portuguese and Arabian influence. Gondar is inhabited by Christians , Muslims, Falashas (Ethiopian Jews ). The city's economy is based on subsistence agriculture, although textiles, jewelry, leatherwork, and copper-ware are produced here. Gondar (including Azeso) is a city of about 166,000 (1994), and is capital of the Begemdir and Simen province, which is home to 2.2 million people. HARAR , a medieval walled city, is the gateway to the Ogaden Desert and the birthplace of the former emperor Haile Selassie . The modern citizens of Harar live almost entirely within the walls that have encircled this city for more than 300 years, maintaining their own language, customs, and crafts. Harar is famed for its basket weaving and the work of its silversmiths who craft beautiful anklets, necklaces, arm bands, silver chains, bangles, and earrings out of the precious metal. The city is also known for the excellent coffee grown in the surrounding mountains. Harar has many ancient monuments dominated by the 16th century Grand Mosque with elegant twin towers and slender minaret. Other points of interest include the palace of the city's 1890s governor, Ras Makonnen; stained glass windows by Ethiopia's greatest living artist, Afewerk Tekle, in the Harar Military Academy; the city's cathedral Medkane Alem ("Redeemer of the World"), which houses a gallery with traditional religious art works; the tomb of Abu Said, an early Muslim ruler; and the colorful Shoa Gate Market. One of the city's most unique attractions is its Hyena Men, who make their living by collecting garbage and bones which they feed to the wild hyenas that live in the surrounding hills. Answering to a name, they dart forward to snatch their supper from the hands of the Hyena Men. There's a small charge for those who wish to see this spectacle. The city's population is composed of Hareri, Amharas, Oromos, and Somalis. Harar's 1986 population was approximately 68,000. JIMA (also spelled Jimma and Gimma) is the capital and largest town of Kefa province, 220 miles (353 kilometers) southwest of Addis Ababa. It is in a heavily-wooded area known for coffee production. The name of the province may be the origin of the term coffee. Jima is a regional commercial zone with an agricultural school and nearby airport. Potassium and sodium nitrates are mined to the northeast. It has a population of over 120,000 (1994). In the north-central area is MEKELE (also spelled Makalle), capital of Tigre province. It has a population of about 115,000 (1994). The city is noted for the ancient castle of Emperor Yohannes IV; a similar building has been converted to a hotel. Expeditions to area rock churches are arranged from Mekele. Mekele is the principal center of Ethiopia's inland salt trade. Newer industries include the production of incense and resin. Situated 62 miles southeast of Addis Ababa, NAZRET is a growing agricultural and commercial center. It has a rapidly expanding population of 150,000 (1994). Rail lines and roads converge on the town, making it an excellent transport hub. Near Nazret, a huge sugar plantation and factory provide jobs. One of Ethiopia's chief exporters of oil cakes, oil seeds, and pulses has its headquarters in Nazret. Hot springs are also in the vicinity. COUNTRY PROFILE Geography and Climate Ethiopia, part of the Horn of Africa, borders Eritrea, Sudan, Kenya , Somalia , and Djibouti and has an area of 1,127,127 square kilometers, slightly less than twice the size of Texas . Only 12 percent of the total land area is arable land, with about 85 percent of the people dependent on agriculture or animal husbandry for subsistence. The terrain consists of high plateau, mountains, and dry lowland plains. Ethiopia has some of the world's most rugged and beautiful scenery. Changes in foliage and terrain offer striking differences and are readily apparent when travelling in any direction from Addis Ababa. Fertile farmland, high mountains with crater lakes, deep canyons and abysses, low-lying savannas, and desert are some of the many aspects of Ethiopia's topography. The climate is temperate to cool in the highlands and hot in the lowlands. Addis Ababa's altitude is above 8,000 feet. So three weeks or more are required to acclimate. Addis Ababa has two primary seasons: a dry season from October to February, and for the rest of the year, a rainy season, divided into "small rains" and "big rains." The small rains, February through April, are generally intermittent showers. The big rains, June through September or longer, usually bring daily precipitation. The big rains are rarely continuous, and sunny mornings or afternoons can be expected on many days. Average annual rainfall in Addis Ababa is 50 inches (while by comparison, Washington DC has 41 inches). Daytime temperatures are fairly constant throughout the year. The dry season has bright sunny days with moderate to cool temperatures; nights are chilly. The average daily temperature in Addis Ababa is 62.9°F. Daytime temperatures are rarely over 80°F. Sharp drops in temperature occur in late afternoon, sometimes making outside entertainment uncomfortable after 5 pm. Night temperatures drop to the low forties from November to January, and are warmer in the period from February to May. Population Ethiopia's population of about 61 million is growing by more than 2% annually. Per capita income is roughly $120 a year, one of the world's lowest. Major ethnic groups include Oromo (40%), Amhara (20%), Tigrayan (12%), and Sidama (9%). Other groups include Shankella, Gurage, Welaita, Somali, and Afar. The official language is Amharic. English is spoken by the educated elite and trades people, and some older people also speak Italian. Other languages spoken are Tigrigna, Oromiffa, Afara, Somali, Arabic, and French. The eye-catching dress of the Amhara men, which, nowadays is seen only on festive occasions, consists of jodhpur-type trousers worn with a white cotton "shamma" (toga) thrown over the shoulders. Western style suits are worn for business. Women wear a loose, flowing shamma over a long, white, full-skirted dress, usually with colorful embroidered borders on both the dress and shamma. The main food of the highland people is a spicy dish called "wot," which is eaten with "injera," a thin, large, flat, spongy bread, made from a grass-like grain called "teff," and having a somewhat sour taste. (Teff is a range grass known in the U.S. as lovegrass.) Wot is a highly spiced stew prepared with meat, fish, poultry, lentils, chickpeas, vegetables, or a combination, and is eaten by hand spooning with pieces of injera. The local beverages include "tedj" (mead) made from a honey base, and "tella" (beer). Both are intoxicating. Ethiopian coffee, an intense brew, is served as a drink of hospitality and after every meal. Ethiopian custom is to name persons to emphasize their individuality. Family names and groups are identified by their surnames through only one generation. A child receives a given name from its parents and adopts the first name of the father as a second or surname. When a woman marries, she does not change her name to that of her husband. Her title changes from "Woizerit" (Miss) to "Woizero" (Mrs.). Persons are universally addressed by their first name rather than their surname, with "Ato," (Mr.) Woizero or Woizerit preceding the name. The Ethiopian calendar varies from the Gregorian in that it has 12 months of 30 days and a 13th month of 5 days (or 6 in leap year). The new year begins on Meskerem 1 (September 11). The Ethiopian 24-hour day begins at sunrise (6 a.m.). Therefore, 7 a.m. by the Western standard is called 1 o'clock. However, business is usually conducted by European time and calendar. Major religions are: Ethiopian Orthodox 45%, Muslim 45%, and the remainder divided among ani-mists, Protestants, and Roman Catholics. Many Ethiopians are deeply religious and observe fasting and feasts throughout the year, but Easter is by far the most important holiday for the Orthodox. The gayest and most spectacular festivals are Timket or Epiphany (in January) and Meskel (in September), the latter commemorating the finding of the True Cross by St. Helena. Christianity came to Ethiopia in the fourth century. The established Ethiopian Orthodox Church, formerly linked administratively to the Egyptian Coptic Church headquartered in Alexandria, became autonomous in 1948. The Orthodox faith, traditionally associated with the Ethiopian (Abyssinian) culture of the highlands, was, until the overthrow of the Emperor, the official state religion. Ethiopia is now a secular state. Islam first came to Ethiopia around 622 in Aksum in the far north of the country, when the Prophet Mohammed's disciples sought refuge. An Islamic military conquest of most areas of Ethiopia occurred in the mid-16th century, and it was only under Menelik II that religious freedom was restored in the late 19th century. Public Institutions Under its Constitution, adopted in 1994, Ethiopia has a parliamentary form of government, headed by a Prime Minister. The bicameral parliament, comprised of the 545-member House of Peoples Representatives (elected) and the 11-member House of Federation (appointed by the regional state councils), is made up largely of members of the ruling political coalition, the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF). Some opposition and private candidates were elected in May 2000. The EPRDF includes a large number of primarily ethnically based component parties, the most influential of which by far is the Tigrayan People's Liberation Front (TPLF), led by a politburo of which the Prime Minister and his most trusted advisers are members. Ethiopia's government is structured as a federalist system, ethnically based. The 1994 Constitution redrew regional borders along ethnic lines, to the extent possible, and on paper devolved significant authority to regional governments. Ethnic federalism remains an experiment to date, but the regions do have some autonomy in areas of governance. The EPRDF swept to power in 1991 by overthrowing the totalitarian Communist regime, known as the Derg, of Colonel Mengistu Haile Mariam. The Derg, which seized power in 1974 from Emperor Haile Selassie, was marked by brutality, especially during the "Red Terror" of the late 1970s, and massive militarization largely funded by the Soviet Union and Cuba . The Derg's strength was undermined by droughts and famine in the mid-1980s, but its collapse was hastened by several internal insurgent groups, including the Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF), which sought Eritrea's independence from Ethiopia, and the TPLE As the struggle against the Derg continued, the TPLF allied itself with other ethnically based insurgent groups, forming the EPRDF. Following the fall of the Derg, the EPRDF, the Oromo Liberation Front (OLF-the Oromo are Ethiopia's largest ethnic group) and others formed a transitional government, which governed until national elections in 1995. During that period, the OLF left the government, and members of some other political groupings were expelled. Eritreans, including many resident in Ethiopia, voted in favor of independence in a 1993 referendum, and Eritrea became a sovereign state. The May 1995 elections were boycotted by most groups in opposition to the EPRDF, and were marred by allegations of fraud and misconduct; nonetheless, they were found to be generally free and fair by international observers. General elections were held again in May 2000 and opposition parties scored great success. Following his overthrow in 1991, Derg dictator Mengistu went into exile in Zimbabwe, where he remains. Some 2,500 other Derg officials also took refuge outside Ethiopia. The current government established a Special Prosecutor's Office (SPO) in 1991, to investigate and try cases of Derg extrajudicial killing, torture, detention without charge and other forms of brutality. As of the end of 1999, charges had been brought against over 5,000 persons, about half of whom were in detention. Ethiopia has diplomatic relations with more than 90 countries, some 75 of which maintain missions in Addis Ababa. The Ethiopian capital is the home of the Organization of African Unity (OAU), and the UN Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA). Numerous other international organizations are also represented here. Arts, Science, and Education One of the goals of Ethiopia's transitional government was to broaden access to education. Results of these efforts are yet to show obvious results, but overall there has been a significant increase of budgetary allocations in the educational system throughout the country. The government, many donor countries and organizations have committed enormous resources to upgrading educational standards in Ethiopia. USAID has a major program to improve the quality and equity of primary schooling as the system expands. Efforts are underway to accommodate demand for schooling at all levels. Despite the overwhelming problems educational opportunities are expanding, but unfortunately not enough to keep abreast of population growth. The Peace Corps began an active teacher-training program in fall 1995, but withdrew from the country in 1999. Expansion efforts have been targeted at sectors of the population traditionally deprived of access to education, primarily girls, the rural and less sedentary populations. Current policy aims at universal primary education, although it will take decades to achieve this. As of 1999, more than 5.8 million children attended primary (grades 1-8) school. Instruction for primary students is in the local or regional language, but changes to English at grade 7. Participation rates for primary schools have dramatically increased since 1994, from 24% to 45.8%. Government policies strongly favor female participation in primary education, but girls lag boys in attendance significantly in many areas of the country. Junior and secondary schooling share many problems with primary, but the largest present concern is with issues of access, quality, and relevance of education. The Ethiopian Government has encouraged community participation in the expansion of education The Ministry of Education faces monumental problems in trying to provide education for all Ethiopians, particularly given severe budgetary constraints and its efforts to install a decentralized system of education. Expansion needs to accelerate, and the challenge will be to ensure that quality is not to be sacrificed for quantity. Opportunity for higher education also has expanded in Ethiopia, but entrance into institutions has become extremely competitive. The number of high school graduates far exceeds the number of places available in the institutes of higher learning, which now include six public universities, 11 specialized colleges, and a number of teacher training colleges and institutes, offering 2-, 3-, and 4-year programs. The Addis Ababa University celebrates its 50th anniversary in 2000. Many students go abroad each year to study in the West and India . The Ethiopian artistic community is small but active. Many artists derive their inspiration from the ancient Ethiopian Christian paintings that decorate churches and monasteries. A substantial effort is underway to collect and preserve valuable paintings and manuscripts gathered from Ethiopian Orthodox churches. The Institute of Ethiopian Studies at Addis Ababa University has a recently renovated museum that includes a wide-ranging collection of Ethiopian church paintings and manuscripts. Ethiopia is also famous for its unique crosses, some of which are quite old. The National Museum has an interesting archeological collection, including the famous fossilized "Lucy," the oldest primate skeleton; and also a collection of imperial objects taken from the various palaces following the revolution. Ethiopia has a rich musical heritage; encompassing a wide variety of styles derived from the country's many ethnic groups. Ethiopians are very proud of their traditional music and dance, and most theaters have regular cultural shows. Popular musicians and singers also perform in small bars throughout Addis Ababa and have an enthusiastic following among young and old. Western classical music is not especially popular among Ethiopians, and is generally performed only for foreign audiences, yet is part of the basic curriculum at the country's major music school. Commerce and Industry After the downfall of the Marxist Derg regime in 1991, Ethiopia began moving away from central planning for the economy and implementing open market policies. The government passed legislation to allow private banking and insurance companies, established incentives to attract foreign investment, and reduced bureaucratic hurdles and delays in registering businesses. The government also has opened up the power and telecommunications sectors to permit foreign investment. The exchange rate is determined by a weekly auction. Over the 12 months ending in May 2000, the value of the birr fell from 7.65 to the dollar to 8.20 to the dollar. The macroeconomic picture for Ethiopia in mid-2000 after eight years of steady growth is uncertain because of border hostilities with Eritrea and drought. Business has slowed enormously since May 1998 and inflation exceeds 10%. A significant amount of government expenditure goes to support the military, reducing the amount of funds available for other projects. Ethiopia's infrastructure is one of the most underdeveloped in all Africa, which has hampered economic growth. However, this situation is beginning to change. The World Bank is providing $350 million to upgrade Ethiopia's road network as part of the government's Road Sector Improvement program. Ethiopia's lone railway, stretching from Addis Ababa to the port of Djibouti, is also undergoing renovation. Ethiopia is committed to increasing the number of telephone lines by 700,000 over the next decade and has awarded contracts for the development of cellular telephone services. The national air carrier, Ethiopian Airlines, provides quality service to 37 domestic and 42 international destinations throughout Africa, Europe , the Middle East , Asia and North America utilizing primarily Boeing aircraft. Agriculture is Ethiopia's most promising sector, contributing half of the country's GNP, more than 80% of its exports, and three-fourths of the country's employment. The country has a strong potential for self-sufficiency and even export development in grains, livestock, vegetables and fruits. This sector, however, is plagued by periodic drought, soil degradation caused by overgrazing, deforestation, and high population density, and a poor road network that makes it difficult for farmers to get their goods to market. The major export crop is coffee, which generates over 60% of Ethiopia's foreign exchange earnings. Other traditional agricultural exports are hides and skins, textiles, fruits and vegetables, flowers, honey and beeswax, pulses, oil-seeds and "khat," a leafy shrub with mild narcotic qualities when chewed. Gold, marble, limestone and tantalum are mined in Ethiopia. Other resources with potential for commercial development include potash, natural gas, iron ore, coal, and possibly oil and geothermal energy. Ethiopia has vast hydroelectric potential that remains untapped. At present, however, Ethiopia is totally dependent on imports of oil for its manufacturing industries, vehicles and other petroleum needs. New hydroelectric projects are expected to triple the country's power generation by 2005. A landlocked country, Ethiopia uses the port of Djibouti for international trade. Transportation Local Taxi and bus service is inadequate and considered dangerous due to the high frequency of accidents, many of them serious or fatal. Regional Ethiopian Airlines connects with the major cities in the country and along with other regional airlines, serves Nairobi , Djibouti, and other African cities regularly. International International flights are currently available from Addis Ababa to Europe on Ethiopian Airlines ( Rome , Athens , Frankfurt, London), and Lufthansa (Frankfurt). In addition, flights are available to a variety of locations in Africa and the Middle East, as well as Bombay , Bangkok , Beijing and the U.S. Communications Telephone and Telegraph Although telephone service is affected by the heavy rains, it is dependable most of the time. Long-distance telephone calls to the U.S. are via satellite and can be dialed directly. The cost is about $3 per minute and reception is usually good. It is less expensive to place a collect call from Addis Ababa to the U.S.; the least expensive method is direct dial from the U.S. Internet service is poor and limited, but there are plans to expand service providers beyond the current state monopoly sometime in the future. Currently, those wanting internet service must spend months on a waiting list. Radio and TV A short wave radio is useful in Ethiopia, and reception is fair for the Voice of America and BBC. The Voice of Ethiopia Radio, which broadcasts on AM, FM, and short-wave stations, carries daily 1-hour broadcasts in English. Programming is good and includes news and various magazine-style shows. Ethiopian Television broadcasts 4 hours daily, including a 1 hour news program in English. Telecasts are in the 625 PAL format, which is used throughout most of Europe and Africa. Programming is about 50 percent in local languages, the remainder being films and documentaries. An increasing amount of programming is being received from the U.S. and the West, but the majority is locally produced. Well-stocked video stores have opened in Addid Ababa, and cassettes are generally VHS or PAL; bring a VCR, preferably a multisystem multivoltage one. Newspapers, Magazines, and Technical Journals Personal subscriptions to the International Herald Tribune and overseas editions of Time and Newsweek can be ordered, and occasionally may be purchased locally. The Tribune arrives regularly, usually 10 to 12 days later than its publication date. Delivery of U.S. magazines generally takes about 2 weeks. Health and Medicine Medical Facilities Have all routine and necessary dental work done before arrival. Orthodontia, root canal treatments, prostheses, etc., are not available, and local procedures are not advisable. Prescription glasses are rarely available. Acute eye conditions can be treated, but chronic diseases should be taken care of before arrival. If you need continued medication, bring a supply. Community Health Common diseases in Ethiopia include malaria, trachoma, tuberculosis, hepatitis, schistosomiasis, venereal diseases (including HIV/AIDS), influenza and common colds, parasitic and bacillary dysentery, and eye, ear, and skin infections. However, the Addis Ababa area is free of malaria-bearing mosquitoes. Domestic animals face a serious problem of tick fever for dogs and distemper for cats. Preventive Measures The 8,300-feet altitude in Addis Ababa can cause dizziness, insomnia, fatigue, and shortness of breath. The symptoms usually subside after a few weeks. When traveling to lower altitudes, take malaria suppressants weekly to improve prophylaxis. Note: Too many people think that these pills are 100 percent effective—they are not. Even if taken, they need to be supplemented by mosquito netting, insecticides, repellents, etc. Incidence of infectious hepatitis among Americans has been small, but it is widespread in the local community. Alternatives such as vaccination for hepatitis A & B can be obtained. To minimize the risk of amoebic and bacillary dysentery, you must demand scrupulous cleanliness and proper food care, hard to do when eating out. Domestic help who handle food should have periodic stool examinations. In restaurants, order well-cooked food and avoid salads, milk products, and ice cubes. Always order bottled water. Tap water is unsafe and must be boiled and filtered before drinking. Powdered or canned milk is recommended over fresh milk or milk products, although milk can be boiled and filtered as well. Long-life sterilized milk is often available in local stores. Fruits and vegetables must be cooked or peeled before eating. Leafy vegetables must be treated by soaking with bleach or an equivalent to kill bacteria. All local meats must be cooked thoroughly to avoid tapeworm. The danger of severe sunburn cannot be overlooked. The high altitude of Addis and most surrounding areas make exposure to the sun more dangerous than at lower altitudes. Use of sun screen and sun hats is strongly recommended. NOTES FOR TRAVELERS Passage, Customs and Duties The most direct air route from the U.S. to Addis Ababa is on U.S. flag carriers to Frankfurt, London, or Rome, connecting with Ethiopian Airlines and Lufthansa. A passport and a valid Ethiopian visa are required to enter or transit Ethiopia. Due to animosity stemming from the recent border conflict with Eritrea, U.S. citizens of Eritrean origin who travel to Ethiopia may experience delays in the processing of their visa applications because all such applications must be cleared through the main Ethiopian immigration office in Addis Ababa. Laptop computers must be declared upon arrival and departure. Tape recorders require special customs permits. Individuals intending prolonged stays should check, prior to travel, with the Ethiopian Embassy, 3506 International Dr., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008; telephone (202) 364-1200; fax (202) 686-9857; web site http://www.ethiopianembassy.org . Inquiries overseas may be made at the nearest Ethiopian embassy or consulate. Current yellow fever immunizations are needed for entry into Ethiopia and must be recorded on the vaccination certificates with the vaccination date, signature of the medical officer administering the vaccination, and an official seal. The record for yellow fever inoculations must also have the name of the serum manufacturer and the batch number. Yellow fever shots are not valid until 10 days after date of initial vaccination. Quarantine authorities in Ethiopia are exacting in these matters, and people have been subjected to long delays and embarrassment when certificates have not been filled out. Polio (oral), tetanus-diphtheria, and typhoid immunizations are strongly recommended. Tick fever and intestinal parasites are a special problem with pets, and rabies is common in Ethiopia. Bring a good supply of flea and tick collars and shampoos. African tick fever has killed several American-owned dogs. Rabies and puppy vaccines are available only sporadically. There are American and European veterinarians working in Addis Ababa. Ethiopian law strictly prohibits the photographing of military installations, police/military personnel, industrial facilities, government buildings and infrastructure (roads, bridges, dams, airfields, etc.). Such sites are rarely clearly marked. Travel guides, police, and Ethiopian officials can advise if a particular site may be photographed. Photographing prohibited sites may result in the confiscation of film and camera. U.S. citizens are encouraged to register at the U.S. Embassy and to obtain updated information on travel and security in Ethiopia. The U.S. Embassy is located at Entoto Avenue, P.O. Box 1014, in Addis Ababa, tel. [251] (1) 550-666, extension 316/336; emergency after-hours tel. [251] (1) 552-558; consular fax [251] (1) 551-094; web site: http://www.telecom.net.et/~usemb-et. Pets Authorization from the Ministry of Agriculture is required in advance of the arrival of pets. A certificate of good health showing valid rabies vaccination and freedom from communicable diseases is required when bringing pets into Ethiopia. No quarantine period is imposed provided these health certificates are in order. Currency, Banking and Weights and Measures The present official currency unit is the Ethiopian birr. There are 100 cents to the birr, with coins of 50, 25, 10, 5 and 1 cent. Bills are in the denominations of birr 100, 50, 10, 5, and 1. The metric system of weights and measures is used. Visitors must declare foreign currency upon arrival and may be required to present this declaration when applying for an exit visa. Official and black market exchange rates are nearly the same. Penalties for exchanging money on the black market range from fines to imprisonment. Credit cards are not accepted at most hotels, restaurants, shops, or other local facilities, although they are accepted at the Hilton and Sheraton Hotels in Addis Ababa. Foreigners are generally required to pay for hotel and car rental in foreign currency. Disaster Preparedness There is a high risk of earthquakes in Ethiopia. General information about natural disaster preparedness is available via the Internet from the U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) at http://www.fema.gov/ . LOCAL HOLIDAYS These titles are provided as a general indication of the material published on this country. Beckwith and Fischer, Angela. African Ark. Harry A. Abrahams: New York , 1990. Buxton, David. The Abyssinians. Thames & Hudson: London, 1970. A good concise historical overview through 1970. Clapham, Christopher. Transformation and Continuity In Revolutionary Ethiopia. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 1988. Gerster, Geog. Churches in Rock: Early Christian Art in Ethiopia. Phaidon: London, 1970. A beautiful book about the rock churches of Lalibela. Gilkes, Patrick. The Dying Lion: Feudalism and Modernization in Ethiopia. St. Martin's Press: New York, 1978. A history of modern Ethiopia up to the 1974 revolution. Giorgis, Dawit Wolde. Red Tears. Red Sea Press: Trenton, NJ, 1989. Hancock, Graham. The Sign and the Seal. Simon and Schuster: New York, 1992. Harbeson, John W The Ethiopian Transformation: The Quest for the Post-Imperial State. Westview Press: Boulder, CO and London, 1988. Henze, Paul B. Ethiopian Journeys, Travels in Ethiopia 1969-72. Ernest Berm Ltd.: London, 1977. A good source of ideas for in-country trips. Kane, Thomas L. Ethiopian Literature in Amharic. Otto Harassowitz: Wiesbaden, 1975. A comprehensive review of what is written in Amharic. Kaplan, Robert D. Surrender or Starve. Westview Press: Boulder, CO and London, 1988. Kapuscinski, Ryszard. The Emperor: Downfall of an Autocrat. Vintage Books: New York, 1984. Really about Poland , but also a very telling evocative account of the waning days of Haile Selassie's court. Keller, Edmond J. Revolutionary Ethiopia: From Empire to People's Republic. Indiana University Press: Bloomington: 1991. Korn, David A. Ethiopia, The U.S. and the Soviet Union. SIU Press: Carbondale, IL, 1986. Levine, Donald H. Wax and Gold. University of Chicago Press: Chicago, 1968. Culture and a social structure with a historic perspective, the "classic" about Amhara culture, a must-read. Marcus, Harold. A History of Ethiopia. Oxford University Press: Oxford, 1994. Marcus, Harold. Ethiopia, Great Britain and the United States, 1941-1974: The Politics of Empire. University of California Press: Berkeley, 1983. Ethiopia's relations with the U.S. and U.K. up to the 1974 revolution. Markakis, John. National and Class Conflict in the Horn of Africa. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 1987. Mockler, Anthony. Haile Selassie's War. The Italian-Ethiopian Campaign, 1935-41. Random House: New York, 1985. A highly readable account of the war against and occupation of Ethiopia. Ottoway, Marina. Soviet and American Influence in the Horn of Africa. Praeger: New York, 1982. An analysis of superpower rivalry and policies. Ottoway, Marina and David. Ethiopia: Empire in Revolution. Africana Publishing: New York, 1978. Pankhurst, Helen. Gender, Development and Identity: An Ethiopian Study. Zed Press: London, 1992. Pankhurst, Richard. Economic History of Ethiopia. Haile Selassie I Press: Addis Ababa, 1968. Pankhurst, Richard. A Social History of Ethiopia. Red Sea Press: Trenton, NJ, 1992. Parfitt, Tudor . Operation Moses. Werdenfeld and Nicolson: London, 1985. Prouty, Christ. Empress Taytu and Menilek IL Ethiopia 1883-1910. Raven's Educational and Development Services: London, 1986. Sorensen, John. Imaging Ethiopia. Rutgers University Press: New Brunswick, 1993. Spencer, John H. Ethiopia at Bay. Reference Publications Inc.: Algonac, MI, 1984. Memoir and history covering the period from 1935 to 1974 by an American adviser to Emperor Haile Selassie. Tessema, Mammo, Richard Pankhurst, and S. Chojnacki. Religious Art of Ethiopia. Institut fiir Auslandsbeziehunger: Stuttgart , 1973. Many pictures in color. U.S. Government, Department of the Army. Ethiopia-A Country Study. U.S. Government Printing Office: Washington, DC, 1993. Williams, J. G. A Field Guide to the Birds of East Africa. Collins: London, 1980. A must for birdwatchers. Williams, J.G. A Field Guide to the Mammals of East Africa. Collings: London, 1980. Recommended for wildlife enthusiasts. Wolde-Mariam, Mesfin. Ethiopia's Vulnerability to Drought. Vikas Publishing House: New Delhi , 1984. A geographer's analysis of the climate and policies affecting cyclical droughts in Ethiopia. Zewdie, Bahru. A History of Modern Ethiopia, 1855-1974. Ohio University Press: Athens, 1991. Cookbooks for High Altitude Cooking Cassell, Elizabeth Dyer. Mile-High Cakes. Colorado State University, Colorado Agricultural Experimental Station: Fort Collins, CO. Cassell, Elizabeth Dyer. Deep Fat Frying at High Altitudes. Wyoming Agricultural Experimental Station: Laramie, WY. Kennedy, Lillian. Altitude Recipes. More Mercantile Company: Denver, CO. Swanson, Alice. Cake Mixing at High Altitude. St. Paul, MN. Thiessen, Emma. High Altitude Vegetable Cookery. Cite this article Higher: 0.3% History & Background Ethiopia is the oldest independent nation in Africa. The current Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia is located on a massive rugged mountainous plateau in Eastern Africa. Ethiopia is a large country, twice the size of Texas or about the size of Spain and France combined. It covers 435,071 kilometers or 1,127,127 square miles in area and is the tenth largest of Africa's 53 countries. Ethiopia's mountainous terrain discouraged many foreign invaders; however, this natural fortress posed difficulties for communication and travel, thus contributing to the slow spread of education. Ethiopia has Africa's fourth largest population at 58,733,000. This number is despite millions who die periodically from some of the world's most devastating famines caused by prolonged cycles of drought. Millions of Ethiopians have fled natural and man-made disasters and live as refugees in Sudan , Kenya , Italy, Great Britain , and the United States . The population is increasing at an annual rate of about 3 percent, and is expected to double in the next 14 years. Almost 73 percent of the population is under 18 years of age. Addis Ababa , Ethiopia's capital city, has 2,431,000 inhabitants and is growing rapidly. The need for new schools increases with the rising youthful population. Ethiopia has a high infant mortality rate of approximately 121 infant deaths per 1,000 births. There is only 1 doctor for every 36,000 Ethiopians. Access to modern medicine outside of the major cities is a problem. Consequently, many people depend upon traditional ethnic medicine. The life expectancy for males is only 45, and for females it is 48 years. High death rates have moderated a massive population explosion. Because they depend on their children to support them in their old age, and, because there is no social security system, Ethiopians typically have large families. Ethiopia has an ethnically diverse population. Some 40 percent of its population is Oromo, the Christian Amhara and their Tigre allies are 35 percent of the population, 9 percent are of Sidamo descent, and the remaining 19 percent come from small indigenous groups, such as the Mursi, Hamar, Konso, Karo, Surma, and Bumi. A wide variety of physical types are evident, along with many very different languages, religious affiliations, and beliefs. Some observers believe that this diversity holds back modernization and threatens to plunge the nation into divisive conflict. Other observers believe that this diversity is Ethiopia's strength and has enabled it to resist onslaughts from Europe and Asia . For millennia, the monarchy united Ethiopians in loyalty to the emperor, just as it has held Great Britain together. Amharic (Amarigna) is the language of the dominant Amhara ethnic group. It was the language of the imperial rulers for many centuries and is still widely spoken throughout Ethiopia. This is the principal language of instruction in most Ethiopian schools today. Millions of Ethiopians also speak Tigrinya, Oromo, Somali, Arabic, Italian, or English. The English language is growing in importance as the main language of instruction, especially in universities. Arabic is widely spoken in the north and east, and 40 to 45 percent of the Ethiopian population is Muslim . These people must learn Arabic to read their holy book, the Koran , which is written in ancient Arabic. The latter is very different from modern spoken Arabic, thus many Ethiopians cannot speak modern Arabic fluently. Approximately 35 to 40 percent of Ethiopia's population is Coptic Christian. For many centuries Muslims refused to attack or invade Christian Ethiopia. Today Muslims are converting four new converts for every one converted to Christianity . They are zealous in their pursuit of converts all over Africa. By contrast, Christians seem to have lost their missionary zeal. Muslims traditionally attend Koran school, rather than state sponsored schools. This puts them at a disadvantage on national examinations for civil service jobs, as well as exams used to select government workers. These national examinations are often written in either English or Amharic. Christian schools use either Amharic or English as the language of instruction. This gives Christians a decisive advantage and helps explain their continued domination of Ethiopia's institutions, despite their minority status. Emperor Yohannes IV (1871-89) sought national unity through religious conformity, while Menelik II (1889-1913) sought centralization of government functions, creation of government health centers, financing of small industries, and spreading education as a means of creating that unity for Ethiopia. Both used church schools to educate Ethiopians. For several thousand years religion controlled education in Ethiopia. The ancient Axumites created a system of writing that evolved from a Sabean script believed to have been introduced from Arabia . Similar to written Hebrew and related to Phoenician, the system is phonetic. The ancient Ge'ez language descended from such origins. Stone monoliths record the daring feats of ancient kings in Ge'ez, which has been the liturgical language of Ethiopia's Jews for 3,000 years and the Ethiopian Coptic Christian church since A.D. 400. This language was developed by a sophisticated ancient civilization and used not only by priests, but also by rulers who created impressive stone palaces, temples, and tombs, like the obelisks found at Aksum. Writings in Ge'ez, as well as Greek and Sabean, inscribed on these monuments describe military campaigns, the victories of Ethiopian kings, and trade with Arabia, Egypt , Syria , Greece , and India . Gold and silver coins were minted to facilitate commerce and trade. Judaism , Christianity, Islam , and indigenous African religions have long peacefully co-existed in Ethiopia, but tensions have occasionally erupted in violence. Each major religion created schools for children of its adherents. Christianity is dominant in the north, northwest, and central states. Judaism is limited to the Lake Tana region. Islam is strong in the east, south, and west. Indigenous religions are strong in the southern, eastern, and western regions. By far, the greatest traditional schools were constructed and managed by the Ethiopian Orthodox Coptic Church. King Erzana started church schools to perpetuate Christianity, but church schools achieved their "golden age" of expansion between A.D. 1200 and 1500. Church education has changed little since that time. Its primary mission has been to train individuals for the priesthood, but the secondary mission has been to spread the faith through Christian culture. Church schools trained not only priests, but monks and debtera (cantors), who were often better educated than the priests they served. The debteras were church scholars, custodians of education, and a privileged elite who helped decide who held power. Many were children of the elite and sought to keep the elite in power. Teachers were also trained in church schools, along with civil servants, such as judges, governors, scribes, treasurers, and administrators of all sorts. Religious schools were the only source of trained personnel. Prompted by Italy, which militarily occupied Eritrea between 1885 and 1892, Emperor Menelik II began the modernization and secularization of Ethiopian education. The church did not challenge his opening of competing secular schools from 1905 onward. The government was modernized by creating 10 ministries, and the administration of education was left in the hands of the church, which satisfied its leaders. Secular curriculums included the study of French, English, Arabic, Italian, Amharic, Ge'ez, mathematics, physical training, and sports. Tuition, as well as room and board, were paid for by the emperor. From 1905 on, Ethiopians began to associate secular education with national progress. The elite began to discuss the need for universal education and literacy. Empress Zewditu Menelik declared in 1921: Every parent is hereby required to teach his child reading and writing through which the child may learn the difference between good and evil. . . . Any parent refusing to do so will be fined 50 dollars. . . . Those of you who are leaders of parishes in rural as well as urban areas, in addition to your regular responsibilities in the churches, teach the children of your respective communities how to read and write. . . . If you fail to teach, you will be deprived of your positions entrusted to you. . . . Every parent, after you have taught your child how to read and write, make him attend your choice of any of the local trade schools, lest your child will be faced with difficulty earning a livelihood. If you fail to do so, you will be considered as one who has deprived another of limbs, and accordingly you will be fined 50 dollars, which money will be used for the education of the poor. This proclamation applies to those between the ages of 7 and 21 years. A parent will not be held responsible for any child of his who is over 21 years old. In effect, Ethiopia declared war against ignorance and illiteracy with the aim of transforming the country into a literate industrial society. The evolution of education in Ethiopia can be logically divided into five periods. The first is the Pre-European traditional educational system, which was followed by the initial period of Secular education from 1900-1936, during which Ethiopian monarchs attempted to modernize education. The Italian Colonial educational system began in 1936 and lasted until 1941. The Independence era, which lasted from 1941 to 1974, was characterized by the efforts of a restored Emperor, Haile Selassie , to revive and develop Ethiopia's educational system. Finally, there was the post-Selassie Afro-Marxist and post-Marxist modern educational reform period which continues into 2001. Educational System—Overview Education between the ages of 7 to 13 is free and compulsory. Jobs in Ethiopia's growing industrial sector require command of English in many cases, especially in the computer-related high-tech sector. Illiteracy rates are very high in farming communities where farming techniques have changed little over the centuries. Agriculture employs most Ethiopians, but industrial employment is increasing rapidly as emerging industries create new jobs. Calligraphy was at one time a valued skill. It took one year to copy a book by hand. Books were treasured. A good scribe could support himself reproducing books. Scribes learned to illustrate their books with beautiful art depicting selected topics. They made leather covers and bound their books. Each page was made from either goat or sheep skin. Because of the time involved, and materials needed, the cost of book production was high. Great artists were granted the title Aleqa. Carried in special leather cases on the back under one's shawl, these priceless treasures were read each morning after rising and each night before sleeping. The art of making reed pens, ink, and parchment were also learned skills, and a master scribe was a valued member of a community. Ethiopian calligraphy reached its peak of perfection between A.D. 1400 and 1500. The adviser to the Ministry of Education, Ernest Work, argued for the creation of a uniquely Ethiopian system of education. Work recommended that Amharic be the language of instruction. He argued that, "Ethiopian boys and girls should be educated in their own languages, learn about their own country and men and interesting things, as well as the world in general." He drew up a plan that mandated six years of elementary education for all. Industrial and trade school, agricultural schools, and homemaking courses followed elementary school. Five or six years of additional education was recommended for students who wanted to go into business. The final piece of Work's plan called for an Ethiopian university. He felt it should be established with foreign, private aid. It should foster a college of education for teacher training as well. A resident of Addis Abba commented on general literacy in 1935, saying, "It was remarkable to the resident of many year's standing that whereas in 1920 the boy of his household staff who could read and write was notable, in 1935 among the same society there were few young men and boys who had not mastered the elementary processes of reading and writing the Amharic script." Some teachers still teach Amharic using the fidel (Ethiopian alphabet) with 231 characters, but rather than make students memorize these they use Laubach, which are representations that are easier for students to grasp. They call this their "global approach." After mastering this, many students go on to learn the derse (how to write) or 12 types of essays. Sawasiw (grammar), is also learned by these leed (scholars). This honor is no longer restricted to the privileged. There were 21 government schools and many more religious schools in 1935. The enrollment in just the government schools was 4,200 students, which excluded students studying abroad and in religious schools. The language of instruction officially changed from Amharic to English after 1944. All books and materials were printed in English. This placed a heavy burden on learners for whom this was a second or third language. The British Council helped to ease the burden of this change by setting up libraries with books, pamphlets, and periodicals in English for Ethiopians. After 1954, Amharic was used from kindergarten to second grade, with English studied as a foreign language. English was the medium of instruction for third grade through the university. The first evidence of radical educational reform was the post-revolution (1975-76) literacy campaign or Zemecha. More than half a million students with some high school education or more, as well as their teachers and professors, were pressed into service in an effort at development through cooperation. Their goal was to teach peasants to read and write in a year and a half. Each literate teacher was assigned 40 illiterate students. This army of literacy teachers was trained for 5 to 10 days in psychology, teaching methods, techniques for creating order in class, and the use of educational materials and teaching aids. The books they used also taught practical skills such as how to count money in a market place when selling crops, hygiene, childcare, and terracing land to prevent soil erosion. The Empress Menen Girls' School originally opened in 1931 to educate Ethiopian girls and played an important role in educating Ethiopian women in the first decade following restored independence. By the early 1950s it had become one of the top four general secondary schools. The school sought to give girls a technical education, but it also tried to preserve traditional female occupations. Gradually, the school expanded to include a one-year teacher training course and a three-year diploma course. Girls participated in traditional education far less than boys. Ethiopians believe that a woman's place is in the home or working in the farm fields with her husband. The art of homemaking was paramount. Attention was given to learning to bow low when greeting elders and strangers, as well as the custom of women receiving articles with both hands. These were the hallmarks of well-trained, traditional Ethiopian women. However, post-war Ethiopia declared that both boys and girls should be afforded equal opportunities. The number of female students between 1944 and 1951 averaged 19.5 percent. This was a problem. Many girls either stayed home or dropped out. In addition to traditional classes and schooling, there were other educational opportunities as well. Technical schools were rebuilt and expanded. The language of instruction changed from French to English. Mechanics, electrical engineering, carpentry, and other practical subjects were offered along with mathematics, chemistry, physics, and history. The aim was to produce technicians, technical supervisors, and foremen. Agricultural schools, such as the Ambo Agricultural School, were created to teach scientific commercial farming. The idea was to develop such schools into colleges of agricultural science. They were located near fertile farmland with ample rainfall and possible irrigation and hydroelectric sources. The United States provided a complete agricultural laboratory. Schools were well equipped with farm tools and machines. Graduates earned certificates that allowed them to work as agricultural technicians or to teach agricultural science in elementary schools. Some worked as farm managers, agricultural advisers, or as assistants on experimental stations. Modern farming techniques and practices thus entered Ethiopian society. Traditional Ethiopian education was private and stressed the centrality of religion, the needs of the soul over those of the human body, modesty, humility, and dedication to persistent pursuit of thoroughness. Nobles prided themselves on being patrons of education, the arts, and literature. Many sponsored the creation of books and works of art. Elite parents hired resident scholars to teach their children. They gave generously to church sponsored schools, and the Orthodox Coptic Church jealously guarded its dominant role in education. Isolated cases of Roman Catholic, Lutheran, Greek Orthodox, Swedish Evangelical, and Hebrew schools could be found, and some noble children studied abroad at great expense. Students returning from overseas study often met with cool or even hostile receptions. Suspicion of things foreign was understandable given Ethiopia's history of defending itself against foreign forces that attempted to destroy it. Decades ago, in principle, schools were open to girls and boys, but in practice, only boys whose parents were members of Orthodox churches were admitted. Traditional church schools were not impartial, nor were they democratic. No pretense of serving all citizens of Ethiopia was claimed or practiced. Most students lived at school, and the teacher served also as a parental figure. There were no classes on holidays or Sundays. Senior students assisted the priest in church services as a form of in-service training. Preprimary schools remain the monopoly of church schools that teach writing and reading skills before children enter public, government-run schools. For tradition-bound conservative Ethiopians, such education is still important. Ethiopia has more than a quarter of a million trained priests educated within this traditional system. More than 20,000 churches and monasteries have schools attached which offer traditional education. In areas where the Ethiopian Orthodox Coptic Monophysite faith is practiced, other religions can set up schools, but they cannot recruit converts to their religion. Despite revolutionary change, such schools provide one type of literacy and training to large numbers of Ethiopians. Curriculum under the Italians changed from how it was conducted under Ethiopian control; invading Italian forces changed the Ethiopian educational system in 1936. In the process of this change, thousands of educated Ethiopians were killed, and the survivors became exiles in England , France, and the United States. Italy created a dual system of education. European children were given sound academic training and prepared to lead, whereas Ethiopian children were educated for servitude. Their education was inferior in quality, thus preventing them from ever competing against Italians or challenging their authority or right to rule. Missionary schools complied with Italian educational regulations. Coptic, Catholic, Protestant, Muslim, and state schools were encouraged as a form of divide and rule tactic. Beyond basic literacy, Italian colonial education for Ethiopians was designed merely to buy their loyalty. African schools were limited to teaching in Ge'ez, Tigranya, and Amharic. Religion, not science, was stressed for Africans, while just the reverse was true for Italian children. Italian scholars felt that ancient Rome made a mistake when it educated the native chiefs of Britain . Therefore, the Italians were advised not to educate Ethiopians beyond elementary school and not to teach them the Italian language. Before the Italian invasion Ethiopia had over 4,000 students in schools, but after the invasion that number dropped sharply to 1,400 students. Inferior instruction for Ethiopians magnified the tragedy. Textbook printers were ordered to exclude all reference to Italy in 1848 and to the Italian revolution. Preprimary & Primary Education In the pre-European traditional educational system, children in primary schools, learned to read and write Ge'ez's 265 characters. Emphasis was placed on rote memorization. Admitted between the ages of 7 and 12, the time required for graduation depended on intelligence, health, and motivation. Elementary pupils had to learn to read, write, and recite the Dawit Medgem ( Psalms of David). There are 15 sections, called negus (kings), which normally took two years to master. Next they learned to sing kum zema (church hymns), which took four years, and msaewait zema (advanced singing), which took an additional year to learn. Liturgical dancing and systrum holding required three years. Qine (poetry) and law required five years to learn. The interpretation of the Old and New Testaments, as well as the Apostles' Creed, took four years on average, while the interpretation of the works of learned monks and priests took three years. When a student knew the psalms by heart, he had mastered the "house of reading" and was now considered an elementary school graduate. His family gave a lavish feast to celebrate this achievement. If they could afford it, they gave his teacher property, money, clothes, or other gifts. Many subjects were learned simultaneously as in middle school. Orthodox Coptic Church schools provided much needed training in reading and writing in preprimary schools. Thus, many children already had basic literacy skills by age six upon starting primary school. The first postwar formal curriculum was a 6-6 structure: six years of elementary school followed by six years of secondary school. During the early 1930s, 18 percent of primary school age children were in school. By contrast, beginning in the early 1970s and continuing on into 2001, more than 50 percent of primary school age children attended school. The absolute number of primary school students increased from 859,000 to over 2 million. The number of primary school teachers rose from 18,642 to more than 35,000 during this period, but the teacher student ratio rose to 1 teacher for every 90 students. Overcrowding has also led the government to create a three-shift system, to extend the academic year by two months, and to stagger starting dates to accommodate rising demand. Nevertheless, the gains in education are impressive and substantial. Revolutionaries increased primary schools from 2,754 to 5,800 between 1974 and 1984. They concentrated on building new primary schools in rural areas to end the placement of schools in privileged urban communities. Most new schools were built in under-privileged urban and rural areas. Formally neglected students had opportunities to learn, which were reinforced by quota systems that guaranteed them seats in secondary schools and universities as an additional incentive to learn. Revolutionary curriculums stress vocational studies over academic subjects. Gardening is introduced in the fourth grade. Polytechnic training begins in fifth grade, along with political education and history. The teacher pupil ratio increased from 1 teacher for every 44 students in 1974, to 1 teacher for every 64 students after the revolution because access to educational opportunities expanded. Secondary Education Middle school involved learning the Merha Euoor (Book of the Blind), which took six months, and history, which took one year. Mathematics, astronomy, canon and civil law, Christian ethics, world history, and the Amharic language were also studied in middle school. Amharic is considered the language of national unification and literature. Many subjects could be learned simultaneously if the student had the aptitude. Completion of middle school qualified a student to serve as a deacon in the Ethiopian Orthodox Coptic Church. Many schools were boarding schools to accommodate the large number of war orphans who were homeless. This led to marked attrition at the secondary school level, except for bright students. Secondary school students who wanted to attend universities had to take the London Matriculation Examination, the General Certificate Examination, or the Ethiopian Secondary School Certificate Examination. Students headed for the United States took the College Entrance Examination set by the Board of Regents of New York State. These examinations measured Ethiopian secondary school graduates against international competitors for university seats globally. In 1948 two years of junior high school were added, and secondary education was reduced to a four year curriculum. From 1954 on, primary school consisted of the first four grades, and junior high school started at the fifth grade and ended with the eighth grade. Efforts were made to create a uniform curriculum to facilitate transfers between schools. By 1943 the Haile Selassie Secondary School opened its doors and began training students. This school offered a full four-year secondary program. Most of the teachers were foreign. The school had two tracks. The first track prepared students for university entrance, while the second track prepared students for further technical training in vocations. The British assisted by opening the General Wingate Secondary School. This school had science laboratories, and offered classes in science, art, music, and handicrafts. Both secondary schools were boarding schools. Competitive examination at the end of sixth grade determines which students can advance to junior high, high school, vocational training, and ultimately, the university. Elementary school students who fail the tests set by the Ministry of Education are not allowed to repeat a class. Failed students are not prepared for jobs, but neither can they go on to high school. Junior high schools increased from 420 in 1973 to over 800 in 2001. Students attending junior high school rose from 101,800 to more than 215,000. The number of junior high school teachers rose from 3,226 to over 4,800. Polytechnic education is being expanded to include all children between the ages of 7 to 14 years of age. The goal is to stream junior high graduates into vocational training and productive work in line with Ethiopia's demands for industrial, health care, and service industry workers. High school construction rose from 113 to an excess of 190 and is still rising rapidly. The secondary school population expanded from 82,300 to over 220,000 students. The high school teacher population rose from 2,955 to more than 5,500. The teacher pupil ratio rose from 1 teacher for every 10 students in 1962 to 1 teacher for every 30 students in 1970 and 1 teacher for every 44 students in 1984. In one sense this illustrates more open access to education; however, quality of education becomes a concern. Before 1974 approximately 91 percent of high school students entered the academic stream, 7 percent went into vocational subjects, and 2 percent studied education as part of teacher training. Higher Education Originally, the equivalent of higher education was reserved for students who intended to become debtera or leed themselves. This was a very small elite group of scholars. Advanced courses were only offered at special centers located in Gondar, Gojam, Tigre, and Wollo. Students had to memorize each lesson without flaw to advance. Three areas of specialization were studied. A student attended academies of music, poetry, and written texts. Life in the academy was severe, simple, and demanding. Students awoke at dawn each morning to prepare for the religious service. The master sat on an elevated platform, surrounded by admiring students. They recited the previous day's lesson and then began memorizing the new lesson for that day. Classes ended by late afternoon. They ate a modest dinner and then went out collecting firewood. The day's lessons were reinforced until midnight when they slept. Advanced students began their training at the academy of music. These academies were attached to designated churches or monasteries. Works composed by Yared, a great composer and lyricist of the sixth century, were studied. He created a system of musical notation still widely used. Written in Ge'ez, it has dots, lines, and directional signs that tell the student how to sing a verse. Academy graduates can read these symbols and sing correctly. Ezel (low-voiced and dignified singing) was reserved for funerals, fasts, and vigils. Arary (light and happy singing) was reserved for great festivals and weddings. The Degwa (essential collection of ecclesiastical music) was mastered. Liturgical chants were accompanied by religious dancing, kabaro (drumming), and tsentsil (systrum) playing. It typically took eight years to complete the advanced courses in Ethiopian Church music. Ethiopian secular music, known as azmari (wandering minstrel), could also be studied. This music dealt with love, death, marriage, harvesting, and the like. An azmari, or minstrel, traveled widely, performing at weddings and joyous celebrations. He flattered, cajoled, and goaded people into dancing, laughing, and giving away money. He could use poetry and songs to insult anyone, even nobles. The academy of poetry was the next challenge for advanced students. Students learned to translate Amharic into Ge'ez and enlarged their vocabularies in both languages. They studied Ethiopian culture, its traditions, folkways, values, and customs, as well as its rules and regulations. Comprehension of texts in Ge'ez was essential for students. They spent time in isolated solitude to compose original poems in Ge'ez. Though critiqued by the professors, originality was encouraged. Ge'ez grammar and philology and 12 styles of poetic composition form the curriculum of the poetry academy, which took 13 years to complete. Passages from famous philosophers, such as Plato , Aristotle , Zara Yacob, and Wolde Hiywet, were also studied. The literary academy was the third academy of higher education. This school of literary texts required scholars to properly interpret stories and passages from the Old and New Testaments, together with literature, fiction, and books on the monastic life. Texts such as the Laws of Kings, the foundation of Ethiopian law for centuries, were also studied. Global history was taught from an Ethiopian perspective. Ten years were required to graduate from the literary academy. The development of local schools in each province that sent their better students for education in the capital or abroad was encouraged. These local schools stressed knowledge of Ethiopia. Ethiopia's most promising scholars were given scholarships to study in Europe, the Middle East , other African nations, and North America . The largest number went to France, where most studied law, politics, economics, and science. French was Ethiopia's leading foreign language, thus many students felt comfortable in French universities. A university college in Ethiopia was created in 1931 to reduce the expense and training of administrators. In 1941, old blueprints for this college were reactivated, and the emperor approved a plan. A Canadian Jesuit priest, Dr. Lucien Matte, was selected to head the college. By 1954 a civil charter was granted, and Haile Selassie University became a reality in 1961. Thus, following World War II , Ethiopia had built an educational system that covered a wide range of learning needs from kindergarten to the university level. In 1965 the Ethiopian University Service was created (EUS). This program required university students to serve as teachers in rural Ethiopia for one academic year, between their third and forth years of study. Entrance examinations to universities have been extremely competitive. They were inequitable and favored children of the elite from the best schools, usually from major urban areas. The twelfth grade school leaving examination alone screened out 80 percent of university applicants. From 1940 to 1960 those who failed to enter college were given government jobs. By 1970, there were few government jobs to dole out. Even the Armed Forces were full to capacity with high school graduates who had failed the university entrance exam. In the early 1970s, a program was instituted to make a quota system for university student selection. Students from each region were assigned seats based upon the percentage of their ethnic group in Ethiopia's total population. The idea was to be fair to all groups. To achieve this goal, admission standards were lowered. Many students admitted had never seen a science laboratory in their rural homeland schools. They often knew neither English nor Amharic and found it difficult to follow lectures. The urban terrain was unfamiliar and frightening, and many dropped out and retreated to their mountain homes. Quotas proved a failure and the old selection system was quietly put back in place. Another program also tried to shorten the time needed to complete a degree from four years to three. Given the low quality of education in the high schools, this experiment also failed and had to be phased out. Students simply needed more time to master English and gain scientific knowledge. A small number of students who complete high school enter universities, despite the explosion of education at the primary and secondary levels. In 1981, approximately 75,000 students took the university entrance examination (ESLCE), but only 3,000 were admitted to four-year colleges, while another 2,000 were admitted into institutes of technology and training schools. The number of students seeking university education is increasing rapidly, but Ethiopia's institutions of higher education do not yet have the capacity to absorb them. Administration, Finance, & Educational Research Originally, the Ethiopian government alone could not finance universal education, so missionaries of all denominations were allowed to build schools. This further broadened the base of education, but Ethiopians viewed non-Coptic religious education as unpatriotic. To them, learning from Catholics was a betrayal of the nation. Any education outside of Orthodox Coptic Church schools was tantamount to being anti-Ethiopian. They felt that learning in a Catholic school amounted to accepting Catholicism and represented a betrayal of national honor and the native religion. Such persons were willing instruments in the hands of alien powers. The Ethiopian Orthodox Coptic Church encouraged such attitudes toward both secular and non-Coptic schools, which hampered the spread of education nationally. Despite this, French Catholics opened the Ecole Francaise, which by 1921 had graduated 1,400 students. Education was free. The old Coptic Church monopoly on education was giving way to a diverse array of other schools, which complimented traditional religious education, which continues to flourish. To meet the rising cost of education a special education tax of 6 percent was levied on all imports and exports. After his official coronation as emperor in 1930, Haile Selassie put all education under the control of the Ministry of Education and Fine Arts. The education tax generated revenue, and the new emperor added 2 percent of the treasury's national revenue to support education. Finance for postwar secular education came from two sources. Approximately 3 percent of export taxes financed education. This was supplemented by dedicating 30 percent of the land tax to education. After 1948, elementary schools in rural areas were financed by a special rural land tax. Only church land was exempt. All other education was financed by the national treasury, which devoted 20 percent of its total income to education. This set a pattern followed later by Kenya's Jomo Kenyatta, who dedicated 30 percent of Kenya's budget to education. Afro-Marxists have mobilized ordinary citizens in rural and urban areas to form associations. These committees furnish labor and building materials, and the government furnishes blueprints for school buildings. These citizen brigades are expected to build 16,000 learning centers throughout Ethiopia. Materials and tools are donated by the government if a community can not afford them. During the same period, the government committed itself to building 1,800 new primary schools. The new regime is promoting the idea of self-help and self-taxation to meet its educational targets. Nonformal Education Restoration of Ethiopia's education system was an impressive feat which included adult education. As early as 1948, the emperor opened the Berhanih Zare New (Your Light Is Today), a school and cultural institute whose ultimate purpose was to branch out into the field of mass education so that every person in the Empire would become literate in a prescribed period. Plans were made to adopt a simplification of the Amharic alphabet as a vehicle for achieving this end. Nevertheless, the goal of universal literacy remained elusive. The adult literacy rate in 2001 remains at 35 percent. The main beneficiaries of adult literacy have been women who traditionally were less likely to be educated then men. Female enrollment in most schools is less than 34 percent, but in adult literacy classes it exceeds 50 percent in rural areas and 74 percent in cities. Distance learning, via radio and television, beams 1,200 lessons per year in 10 languages to millions of Ethiopians in remote regions. Impressive gains by the Zemecha suggest that if they could agree to stop fighting one another, Ethiopia could eliminate illiteracy. Teaching Profession With few educated Ethiopians to teach the children and educated foreigners still fully committed to successfully defeating the Axis Powers and ending World War II, it was difficult for Ethiopia to rebuild its education system. Few Ethiopians remained who were either qualified to teach or had teaching experience. At all levels Ethiopians had to rely on foreign teachers to reopen their schools. For this reason, the courses taught and the methods of instruction were not uniform. These varied from one school to the next. The English, Swedes, Americans, and other nationalities conducted classes as they would at home. In 1962, after several decades of rebuilding and training teachers, the Bureau of Educational Research and Statistics reported that 62 percent of Ethiopia's teachers had only elementary education or lower, 13 percent had 3 to 4 years, 16 percent had 1 year of teacher training, and 9 percent had some teacher training at the community level. Under colonial rule, the best teachers taught at the university level and the worst at the primary school level. Primary school teacher salaries were so low that it was difficult to recruit and retain teachers with even a modest primary education. Ethiopia put the most money into the lower grades because it was believed that only a broadly educated mass could earn enough disposable income to support a small elite of doctors, lawyers, bureaucrats, artists, and administrators. Without such a semi-educated mass, the elite could not flourish. Ethiopia needed many teachers to reach this goal and to train them required constructing teachers' colleges. A joint UNESCO- and USAID-funded and equipped teacher training program at Debre Berhan Community Teacher Training School failed because it required students to learn how to operate brick making equipment, build milking sheds for dairy cattle, make butter and cheese, and grow the vegetables that they ate at school. Parents objected that they wanted students to study academic subjects because the parents could teach them how to farm at home. Their attitude toward manual labor was negative. Many graduates were not accepted as agricultural experts when they returned home because elders culturally refused to accept orders or instruction from youth. Mothers pulled daughters out of the school complaining that they could learn hygiene, child-care, cooking, and handicrafts at home. They argued that their daughters did not have to go to school to learn such subjects. More than 42 percent of graduates dropped out of teaching after 5 years of service. More than money or materials, the limited number of teachers slowed the expansion of mass education. This teacher training college was abandoned after many parents transferred their children to other schools more academically oriented. Attitudes and culture held education back in postwar Ethiopia. Social Impact Assessments that predict the social response to development became mandatory by the 1970s to help avoid such costly cultural mistakes. Summary Ethiopia is an old and proud African nation with a long tradition of education. With each era new forms of education were added to previous forms, which continue to function and provide literacy in Ge'ez, Amharic, and Arabic. The old religious schools still can be relied on to provide basic literacy in remote regions. Secular schools now build on this foundation and extend it. Emperors Menelik II and Haile Selassie added a secular layer of educational institutions on top of the existing religious schools. Literacy and education were offered to many who could not have dreamed of this privilege in the past. Prosecuting two costly wars led to the slow growth of secondary education and the virtual stagnation of university level opportunities, despite tremendous pent-up demand. This may lead to social volatility, tensions, and turmoil in the future unless it is resolved. Bibliography Balsvik, Randi Ronning. Haile Selassie's Students: The Intellectual and Social Background to Revolution, 1952-1977. Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1985. Bartels, Lambert. Oromo Religion. Berlin: Dietrich Reimer Verlag, 1983. Dalin, Per, et al. How Schools Improve: An International Report. London: Cassell Publishers, 1994. Feurer, L.S. The Conflict of Generations. New York: Delacorte Press, 1968. Hallpike, C.R. The Konso of Ethiopia: A Study of the Values of a Cushitic People. Oxford: Claredon Press, 1972. Hansberry, William Leo. Pillars of Ethiopian History, Volumes 1 and 2. Washington: Howard University Press, 1981. Heldman, Marilyn E. and Getatchew Haile. "Who is Who in Ethiopia's Past, Part III: Founders of Ethiopia's Solomonic Dynasty." Northeast African Studies 9(1) (1987): 1-11. Hoben, Susan J. "Literacy Campaigns in Ethiopia and Somalia: A Comparison." Northeast African Studies 10(2) (1988):111-125. Kalewold, I. Traditional Ethiopian Church Education. New York: Columbia Teachers College Press, 1970. Kapeliuk, Olga. "A New Generation of Ethiopian Students." Northeast African Studies 10(2) (1988): 105-110. Kapuscinski, Ryszard. The Emperor: Downfall of an Autocrat. New York: Vintage Books, 1984. Keller, Edmund J. Revolutionary Ethiopia: From Empire to People's Republic. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1988. Kessler, David. The Falashas: The Forgotten Jews of Ethiopia. New York: Shocken Books, 1985. Legume, Colin. Ethiopia: The Fall of Haile Selassie's Empire. New York: Africana Publishing Company, 1975. Levine, Donald. Wax and Gold: Tradition and Innovation in Ethiopian Culture. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965. Levine, Donald N. Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1974. Pankhurst, Richard. "'Fear God, Honor the King': The Use of Biblical Allusion in Ethiopian Historical Literature, Part II." Northeast African Studies 9(1) (1987): 25-88. ——The Ethiopians. London: Blackwell Publishers, 1998. Prouty, Chris. Empress Taytu and Menelik II: Ethiopia 1883-1910. Trenton: Red Sea Press, 1986. Quirin, James. "The Beta Esrael (Falasha) and Ayhud in Fifteenth-Century Ethiopia: Oral and Written Traditions." Northeast African Studies 10(2) (1988): 89-103. Rose, Pauline and Mercy Tembon. "Girls and Schooling in Ethiopia." In Gender, Education and Development: Beyond Access to Empower Men, ed. Christine Heward and Sheil Bunwaree. London: Zed Books, 1999. Shack, William A. The Gurage: A People of the Ensete Culture. Oxford: International African Institute, 1966. Vella, Jane. Learning to Listen, Learning to Teach: The Power of Dialogue in Educating Adults. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1994. Wagaw, Teshome G. The Development of Higher Education and Social Change: An Ethiopian Experience. East Lansing: Michigan University Press, 1990. ——Education in Ethiopia: Prospect and Retrospect. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1979. —Dallas L. Browne Background & General Characteristics The Ethiopian context Political context Virtually all observers of Ethiopian history and politics agree that current political events cannot be isolated from past history. The multiplicity of the Ethiopian people, and its links to ancient history and culture are reflected in traditions still very much alive today. However, Ethiopia today is said to be a "new" Ethiopia in the making. After decades of resistance and war against different totalitarian regimes within, a new model of state governance is being implemented. According to the authorities an ethnic federal state, with ethnically defined regions and democratic standards, has been introduced in the country. During the 1990s, many observers viewed Ethiopia's experiment in government as a bold attempt at African nation building, while others worried about what will become of the traditional "Ethiopian entity" after ethnic division. To attempt to describe the ongoing political changes in Ethiopia in an introductory paragraph would be overly ambitious. However, a key concern of this study is to relate the professionalism of Ethiopia's news media to human rights and democracy in the nation—to participation and pluralism. The redefinition of the Ethiopian state on a new basis is underway, but the very foundation of that project remains controversial. In conducting our research, we have received the general impression that history is being repeated in Ethiopia. One could still say that a top-down authority is imposed on the people, this time draped in the ideological rhetoric of democracy, and again with external support, now from the West. After decades of failed political experiments, several key issues in Ethiopian politics remain to be solved. In many situations it would be gravely misleading to analyze African democracy in terms of Western concepts. Ethiopia might and should develop democratic institutions well suited for its own society, and such institutions may differ from Western models. However, there are also certain principles fundamental to democratic modes of governance which are universal. These include open and equal opportunity for all to participate in politics, and freedom of speech and organization. Independent of local history and cultural context, these standards must be respected in a democratic society. Professionalism in a country's media allows for a constructive use of the freedom of speech, one that offers truthful, useful criticism of a country's institutions. Ethiopia has chosen to enact a specific press bill, rather than to rely on the common law approach used in the United States and other Western democracies. These provisions would seem to create a liberal press environment. However, the absence of a free media tradition in Ethiopia has resulted in lack of adequate provisions for developing independent, professional journalism. Also lacking is a professional board or other mechanism to determine whether press content fits the press bill's criteria for press responsibility and for the taking of lawful measures. Thus most press offenses are considered by authorities as criminal, and not civic in nature. To develop media as a viable source of information is to enable and support democracy in Ethiopia by strengthening human rights and democratic institutions. The promotion of human rights depends, among other factors, on the active involvement of the media. On the other hand, the effective operation of the media depends on a government that respects human rights and the freedom "to seek, receive, and impart information and ideas through media and regardless of frontiers" (The Press Freedom Bill). The freedom of expression may be ushered in and cultivated through professional, independent journalism. Polarization Public debate in Ethiopia seems polarized to a first time visitor. Events and statements are easily interpreted to fit into the patterns of old conflict, and few people seem willing to engage in constructive dialogue with their adversaries. One also notices deep mistrust regarding an opponent's motives. Ethiopians who reflect on their own traditions often say "we sit on our own chairs and do not meet in the middle." Regarding the media, this means that the independent press easily interprets all the stories in the government papers as propaganda, while the government media looks at the independent press with great skepticism, to the point of calling it an enemy of the people. One of the causes for this polarization is the absence of a tradition of dialogue among adversaries. Some Western nations have long venerated the idea of discussion between competing parties, while physical force or other forms of intimidation have been practiced and encouraged in Ethiopia. The country's democratic movement during the 1990s has so far been neither strong enough, nor has it lasted long enough to alleviate some peoples' fears that it will backfire. Another reason for polarization is ethnic practices. The country contains more than 80 smaller or larger ethnic groups with different languages that have played an important role in defining ethnicity in Ethiopia. The former regime called itself Marxist, but the fact that certain ethnic groups dominated it was to many Ethiopians far more important. And today the same people are far more preoccupied with the fact that the present government has its power base related to ethnicity, than that it calls itself democratic. It is our impression that the Ethiopians have developed a sophisticated ability to interpret anything that emerges from the government quarters. Their basic assumption is that what they hear is not true. On the other hand, the polarization of the Ethiopian debate results in an added sense of personal engagement on the part of journalists, which is of vital importance to the Ethiopian press. Because of the tense ethnic situation as well as the government's softness on the enforcement of human rights, journalists take personal risks in pursuing certain stories. These risks add a dimension of reality to the debate and inspire journalists to a true devotion to their jobs. The challenge to the press is to communicate this engagement and devotion through stories and articles of high journalistic quality. When political distrust and allegations are part of an ongoing process, one should be wary of taking any absolute stand for either side. Ethiopian political positions have become so entrenched, so defensive, that political arguments have to a large degree lost their value. Since the adversary is suspected of hidden motives, every group believes it is the only truly democratic one. Groups practice a total and unyielding criticism of each other, a moral exclusiveness, which does not allow them to expect anything but disruption and destruction from the other groups. Consequently political positions become self assertive and absolute: every new revelation of the adversary, every new suspicion instantly adds credibility to one's own position. To get the political process on track towards an incorporating, broad based, participatory democracy, a constructive dialogue between the different actors must be established. The Ethiopian political environment seems to lack tradition for agreeing to disagree. Disagreement seems often to result in enmity and polarization. An important step towards broad and mutual participation in the country's decisions will thus be to nurture a less-biased, truth-searching media, one capable of bringing about dialogue between the different actors in the Ethiopian community. This dialogue should not seek consensus for its own sake, but in order to avoid polarization, which blocks communication and cements enmity. Historic Development of the Media in Ethiopia Dictators have been common throughout Ethiopian history. Whatever press existed during the reign of Emperor Haile Selassie I (1930-74) and the following dictatorship behaved, with a few exceptions, like willing mouthpieces for the rulers. Only during the 1990s have signs of a free and independent press emerged. During that decade a plethora of new magazines and papers appeared on Ethiopian stands. In a country with more than 80 languages, it is difficult to establish national newspapers and nationwide radio/TV programming. Traditionally a rather high percent of the urban population understand Amharic, and most newspapers, radio and TV programs are available in that language. Only a few programs in radio and television are produced in other major languages, such as Tigrinya and Oromiffa. Even though many newspapers are published in Ethiopia, journalism as many Western nations practice (or at least believe in practicing) it—as an independent, critical, theoretically objective enterprise—has never really developed, and only sporadically have high-profile Ethiopians objected to the country's lack of an independent "fourth estate." Western journalists learn early on that reporting must be separated from commentary, but Ethiopian journalists routinely conflate the two, to name just one example. Until the passage of the Press Freedom Bill in 1992, the printed press was limited. The first newspaper in Ethiopia and a few other publications emerged under Emperor Haile Selassie I. However, modern mass media was introduced in Ethiopia a century ago, during the reign of Menelik II (who ruled from 1889-1913). The first medium to be introduced was a weekly newspaper (La Se-maine d'Ethiopie, 1890), published in French by a Franciscan missionary living in Harar. In 1905 the name of the publication changed to Le Semeur d'Ethiopie. The first Amharic newspaper was issued in 1895—a four page weekly newspaper named Aemero. The first issues were hand written. Between 1912 and 1915 weekly newspapers like Melekete Selam, Yetor Wore ("War News"), and many others emerged. For the most part, these print media were controlled by the country's government, subject to official censorship and string-pulling. In 1965 Berhanena Selam Printing Press, a modern, almost monopoly instituition run by the government, was established. The Printing Press played a role in the publication of two national weekly newspapers, Addis Zemen (New Era), in Amharic (1941) and its English counterpart the Ethiopian Herald, in 1943. These two served as the main official press organs of the state and as the main source of information for literate people. A military group called the Derg wrested power from Selassie in September 1974 and arrested him, citing his incompetence in domestic affairs (particularly in dealing with an early-1970s famine that ravaged parts of the country). Derg member Major Mengistu Haile Mariam established his own leadership within that organization in February 1977 via a shootout between his followers and those of his main rival, Tafari Banti, who died in the fighting; following this, Mengistu declared himself chairman and began his military rule over the country by 1977. During the 17 years of Mengistu's rule, the government-and party-owned publications Meskerem ("September"), Serto Ader ("Worker"), and the pre-Derg Yezareyitu Ethiopia ("Ethiopia Today") were published in addition to the previously mentioned Addis Zemen and the Ethiopian Herald. In October 1992, as previously mentioned, came the proclamation of the Press Freedom Bill by the Ethiopian Transitional Government. The document states in Paragraph 3 that "1. Freedom of the press is recognized and respected in Ethiopia. 2. Censorship of the press and any restriction of a similar nature are hereby prohibited." Part Three further guaranteed the right of access to information: "Any press and its agents shall, without prejudice to rights conformed by other laws, have the right to seek, obtain and report news and information from any government source of news and information." After the proclamation of the Press Freedom Bill, new, independent newspapers and magazines developed, especially in Addis Ababa . These offer the minority points of view often left out of government-owned publications, but suffer from inadequate fact-checking and occasional censorship, as well as the government's refusal to allow representatives from non-official papers at its press conferences. News agencies, often government-owned, were also introduced to the country during the previous century, including the Ethiopian News Agency (ENA), begun in 1942 as "Agenze Direczion" and renamed in 1968. Walta Information Service, a more recently established news agency, is associated with EPRDF, the party in power, and is housed in the same complex as Radio Fana. Brief Presentation of the Present Media The Ethiopian publishing industry mushroomed after the Press Bill of 1992. Figures differ, but according to the Government, 385 publications were registered between October 1992 and July 1997, of which 265 were newspapers and 120 magazines. At any one time, there are probably about 20 different newspapers for sale in Addis Ababa. More than half of the total number of papers were closed down during the same five-year period, often because of limited resources. The "independent papers" are owned by private share companies (business.communities, political parties or just individual business entrepreneurs). Because of a very limited middle-class, the income on advertising is also very limited. The government papers are subsidized by government funds, and partly financed by advertisements and subscribers. Access to publications outside the capital is limited. Given Ethiopia's low literacy rate, and the relative high cost of newspapers, regular readership may be as low as one percent of the population. The Addis Ababa public consumes most of the country's newspapers (which, in total, number no more than 500,000 out of a population of 60 million, or less than one in a thousand). As for the demand side, illiteracy, weak economy and the near non-existence of infrastructure prevent newspapers from reaching a mass readership, especially in rural areas, where newspapers (as previously noted) cannot even be distributed. In this kind of situation, it is self-evident that radio and TV are important media. Radio is important because it is inexpensive and available for group listening. TV is important for the same reasons, and both broadcast mediums are especially useful because they don't require literacy. TV sets are scarce in the rural cities and almost absent in the villages and in the remote parts of the country. Radio sets are better distributed, but are still a luxury commodity for large segments of the Ethiopian population. Even batteries for the radio sets are far too expensive in areas defined as non-monetary communities. Broadcast media may be able to fill in some of the educational gaps created by illiteracy and language difference. Press Laws Following the proclamation of the Press Bill, many private and party newspapers began to appear. In addition the Ethiopian Press agency now publishes four newspapers, one each in Amharic, English, Oromiffa and Arabic—respectively, Addis Zemen and Ethiopian Herald, both dailies, and Berissa and Al-alem, both weeklies.Addis Zemen has a circulation of 19,000, the Ethiopian Herald 10,000, Berissa 3,000 and Al-alem 2,500. The Press Agency lacks both the manpower and the transportation capacities to effectively deliver these papers to Addis, the regions and areas outside Ethiopia; for this and other reasons, the papers face major distribution problems. Censorship Ethiopia's Constitution grants basic civil liberties to its citizens, including freedom of speech and freedom of the press. However, the legislation governing the press is viewed by many as a hindrance to the development of a free press in Ethiopia. Historically, the Ethiopian government will tolerate freedom of speech to a certain point. But opposition newspapers regularly report dramatic instances of censorship: stories of journalists harassed and imprisoned for reporting truth, etc. The appearance of such stories may, in some cases, have more to do with anti-government hostility on the part of opposition newspapers than with fact—much of these papers' content is based on rumors. A critical use of sources is a rare virtue in Ethiopian journalism of any kind, even though this is basic for developing a trustworthy journalism, and even promoters of human rights in Ethiopia are of the opinion that some journalists are asking for trouble. Journalists have a tendency to distrust open sources, and are more willing to trust what is whispered in the coffee houses. However, these points granted, one must still admit that government oppression of journalists is a reality in Ethiopia as it is throughout the world in fact, Ethiopia once imprisoned more journalists than almost any other country. Privately operating journalists are also hampered by the fact that they are cut off from part of the governmental flow of information. Direct censorship against independent newspapers is rare, but the government, on the other hand, claims that the independent press is irresponsible and un-trustworthy. This is the official reason why journalists from the independent press are denied access to the government press conferences. Thus the situation is aggravated by both sides in the conflict. The recently proclaimed Bill of Broadcasting makes independent FM radio stations legally possible in the country. Such stations could make an important contribution to Ethiopian freedom of speech, but certain civic groups expressed skepticism upon hearing the proclamation draft, citing limitations in the new law. As drafted, the bill does not allow religious organizations and political parties to run their own radio stations. Such prohibitions are regarded by some as a breach of freedom of expression. The Ethiopian Human Rights Council (EHRC) has issued a report on journalists, documenting the arrests and imprisonment of journalists from the independent press. Lately the pressure against journalists seems to have eased a little. There are now fewer arrests, even if journalists still are brought before the courts every now and then. The new tolerance is probably connected to the country's conflict with Eritrea, a conflict on which the government press and the independent press, in general, have had similar views. The question is, will this alliance remain when the conflict is over? State-Press Relations It is fair to say that while the makeup of Ethiopia's government has frequently changed during the twentieth century, the printing press's function, as well as that of radio, television, and news agencies, has remained the same: to serve the government in power. Media have consistently and primarily promoted government policy and activities. Consequently, Ethiopia has little or no indigenous tradition of thinking about the press as a free commercial enterprise, or as a watchdog or critic of the government. Because of the continued government control of the broadcast media, the non-government media have been limited to print, but the 1999 proclamation of a new Bill of Broadcasting in the House of Representatives may challenge this government stranglehold. The largest newspapers and the only Ethiopian broadcasting corporation are owned by the government. If one looks at the circulation of the newspapers, the government papers hold the largest share. Non-government papers are hampered by the government's refusal to allow them to send reporters to its press conferences, as well as by an overly suspicious attitude toward the government that sometimes leads to an equally uncritical acceptance of sources critical toward it. To illustrate how strong the tradition of control is, Government radio rarely airs a live interview. Any live interview is considered an advance for free speech. News Agencies There are disturbingly close relations between the official Ethiopia Journalist Association and the government. This is emphasized by the fact that the head of the association also heads up Ethiopian Broadcasting and the country's official news bureau. There is also an independent journalist association, the Ethiopian Free Press Journalist Association (EFJA). This association is not a legal body in Ethiopia. Apart from these, there are no press institutions/associations in Ethiopia. This lack provides yet another illustration of the two main problems in Ethiopian journalism: its low level of development, and its dominance by the government. At the same time the Ethiopian people show a growing awareness of the importance of the media. Lobbying has increased, and various groups have introduced initiatives to improve Ethiopian media. On September 24th -25th, 1999, the International Press Institute organized a seminar under the theme "Ethiopian Media in Development." "Independent" and "government" journalists gathered under one roof for discussions about the state of their joint enterprise. For one and a half days ethical and other problems afflicting the Ethiopian media were raised and solutions suggested. The seminar was sponsored by the Austrian, British and Norwegian embassies in Addis Ababa. Broadcast Media Radio The government views radio as the most important mass medium in a large country like Ethiopia. The leadership in the country's only official school of journalism consider radio and TV to be important assets in promoting democracy in the rural and remote areas of the country. Radio's strategic importance is also, some suspect, the reason behind the government's reluctance to allow private radio stations. Broadcasting, primarily the radio, reaches a much larger part of the population than does print, though Ethiopian radio is limited. Radio Voice of the Gospel , owned by the Lutheran World Federation, operated prior to the overthrow of the Emperor in 1974. Their facilities were seized under the Derg, and today there are only two radio broadcasters in Addis Ababa: Radio Ethiopia and Radio Fana. The latter is associated with EPRDF, but is not directly government owned. There is only one regional radio station in Bahir Dahr, which is associated with the regional government. The other radio station is TPLF radio in Mekele, broadcasting only in Tigrigna. There are some regional broadcasting initiatives surfacing, of which Bahir Dahr probably is the most developed. The regional radio in Bahir Dahr, a major town in the Amhara region, is run by the Department of Culture, Tourism and Information. This region is said to have 15 million inhabitants. The regional broadcast is transmitted one hour per day, seven days a week. In addition, the studios also produce material for national television and publish a weekly newspaper and a quarterly magazine. According to this regional broadcast center, the station covers 90 percent of the region. Nobody knows the actual number of listeners. The first audience research will be conducted next year. As previously noted, the vast majority of newspaper readers live in Ethiopia's capital, and Addis Ababa uses much of the country's other media as well. The numbers are less certain for radio than for print media, but it is believed that a similarly large difference exists between the number of urban radio listeners and rural ones, though this difference is less pronounced than the difference in the corresponding numbers for print media. Radio Ethiopia claims to have reached 50 percent of the landmass and 75 percent of the population with a good signal, making it the most influential news source in the country. However, frequency coverage does not reflect the station's actual availability to listeners, due to a lack of radio receivers. Ordinary audience research is not conducted in Ethiopia. It is too costly and too complicated. But in connection with the field work for this article, a limited audience research was conducted in Addis Ababa (count 1,200), Ambo (count 200), Awassa (count 301), Debre Zeit (count 200) and Nazareth (count 299). The data has to be further analyzed, but it reveals the great potential radio broadcasting holds for Ethiopia. With these facts in mind, the recent proclamation of a Broadcasting Bill by the Ethiopian House of Representatives seems an interesting and perhaps hopeful sign. Part Three of this Proclamation sets out a legal basis on which private commercial radio and television can be licensed. The Bill of Broadcasting may bring the introduction of FM radio closer to reality. This will be an enormous challenge for the media development in Ethiopia. Television Those few Ethiopians who can watch TV, most of whom live in Addis Ababa, have only one channel's worth of state-controlled programming to watch during their evenings and weekends; during the day only the Educational Mass Media Agency broadcasts. Education & TRAINING The mushrooming of "independent" papers and the lack of professionalism in the field make it important that basic journalistic education in Ethiopia be improved, both in the long and short terms. Ethiopian media professionals at this point lack some of the basic skills necessary for the press to play a significant role in any democratization process in Ethiopia. From a quick survey of the Ethiopian press, one may safely conclude that the country badly needs education in journalism. Few Ethiopian journalists have professional education in the field. Only a couple of people in all of Ethiopia hold advanced degrees in journalism. Many reporters operate as spokespeople for particular political views, rather than as journalists. Self-censorship is also a big problem, because some journalists would rather maintain peace between themselves and the state and thus avoid reporting any facts that may force ugly confrontations. Among the independent papers, which are under less pressure to show deference to government accounts of events, an equally unprofessional skepticism about the government pervades political reporting. The Mass Media Training Institute (MMTI) in Addis Ababa is the only officially funded institution providing journalism education in Ethiopia. MMTI started in 1996 and runs a two-year program for approximately 100 students. Eighty percent of the students enter the school on recommendation from the government. In principle, the rest of the places are open for all. In year 2000, applicants contested these 20 openings. Most of the teachers have journalistic experience, but not all have a formal education in journalism. Addis Ababa University also offered minor-level courses in journalism. However, plans are underway to establish a School of Journalism at Addis Ababa University. There are also independent institutions in Addis Ababa offering shorter courses in journalism, and a private college (Unity College) is giving courses in journalism. Summary Ethiopia is emerging nearly finished with its first full decade of democracy. Freedom for journalists has not been the normal practice, but signs are hopeful. Recent legislation paves the way for democratic reforms, though these are sure to take on an African frame. Bibliography Aadland, Öyvind. "Ethiopia Research Report." Gimlekolen Mediasenter, 2001. Azzeze, Keffeyalew, General Manager of Ethiopian Press Agency, Ethiopian Television, Radio Ethiopia and Ethiopian Herald and Chairman of the Ethiopian Journalist Association interview by Öyvind Aadland. Addis Ababa, June 16, 1999. Bisarit Gashawtena, Vice Minister of Information and Culture, interview by Öyvind Aadland. Addis Ababa: Friday, June 18, 1999. Bishaw, Dr. Mekonnen, Secretary General Ethiopian Human Rights Council (EHRC), interview by Öyvind Aadland. Addis Ababa, June 16, 1999. Chemu, Ato Woldemichael, Minister of Information and Culture interview by Öyvind Aadland. Addis Ababa, June 11, 1999. Debelko, Ato Tzehaye, Head of MMTI interview by Öyvind Aadland. Addis Ababa, June 16, 1999. Galla, Shibberu, Director of EECMY, Communication Services, interview by Öyvind Aadland. Hiwot, Alemayhu Gebre, Bureau Head Culture, Tourism and Information Bureau, interview by Öyvind Aadland. Bahir Dahr, June 14, 1999. Negga, Berhanu, General Manager, EMAISC, President of Ethiopian Economic Association and Professor in Economics at Addis Ababa University, interview by Öyvind Aadland. Addis Ababa: June 10, 1999. Öyvind Aadland Aterkek Alecha (Vegetable Stew) ............................... 148 1 GEOGRAPHIC SETTING AND ENVIRONMENT Situated in eastern Africa, Ethiopia (formerly called Abyssinia) has an area of approximately 1,127,127 square kilometers (435,186 square miles). Comparatively, the area occupied by Ethiopia is slightly less than twice the size of the state of Texas . Ethiopia is a country of geographic contrasts, varying from as much as 125 meters (410 feet) below sea level in the Denakil depression to more than 4,600 meters (15,000 feet) above sea level in the mountainous regions. It contains a variety of distinct topographical zones: the Great Rift Valley runs the entire length of the country northeast-southwest; the Ethiopian Highlands are marked by mountain ranges; the Somali Plateau (Ogaden) covers the entire southeastern section of the country; and the Denakil Desert reaches to the Red Sea and the coastal foothills of Eritrea. Ethiopia's largest lake, Lake T'ana, is the source of the Blue Nile River. The central plateau has a moderate climate with minimal seasonal temperature variation. The mean minimum during the coldest season is 6°c (43°f), while the mean maximum rarely exceeds 26°c (79°f). Temperature variations in the lowlands are much greater, and the heat in the desert and Red Sea coastal areas is extreme, with occasional highs of 60°c (140°f). 2 HISTORY AND FOOD Ethiopia was under Italian military control for a period (1935–46) when Benito Mussolini (1883–1945) was in power. Except for that time, Ethiopian culture has been influenced very little by other countries. Ethiopia's mountainous terrain prevented its neighbors from exercising much influence over the country and its customs. Exotic spices were introduced to Ethiopian cooking by traders traveling the trade routes between Europe and the Far East. Ethiopia went through a period of recurring drought and civil war during 1974–91. In 1991 a new government took over, and civil tensions were relieved somewhat because the coastal territory seceded from the inland government, creating the new nation of Eritrea. Ethiopian cooking is very spicy. In addition to flavoring the food, the spices also help to preserve meat in a country where refrigeration is rare. Berbere (pronounced bare-BARE-ee) is the name of the special spicy paste that Ethiopians use to preserve and flavor foods. According to Ethiopian culture, the woman with the best berbere has the best chance to win a good husband. Kategna 2 Tablespoons vegetable oil Procedure Measure the ginger, cardamom, coriander, fenugreek seeds, nutmeg, cloves, cinnamon, and allspice into a large frying pan. Toast the spices over medium-high heat for 1 minute, shaking the pan or stirring with a wooden spoon constantly. Let cool for 10 minutes. Put the spices, onions, garlic, salt, and vinegar in a blender and mix at high speed until the spices form a paste. Toast the paprika, red pepper flakes, and black pepper in the large frying pan for 1 minute, stirring constantly. Add the water slowly to the pan, then add the vegetable oil. Put the blender mixture into the pan as well, and cook everything together for 15 minutes stirring constantly. Place the paste in a jar and refrigerate. Makes 2 cups. Niter Kebbeh or Kibe (Spiced Butter) Ingredients 1 small yellow onion, peeled and coarsely chopped 3 Tablespoons garlic, peeled and finely chopped Ingredients Melt the butter in a heavy saucepan over moderate heat. Bring the butter up to a light boil. When the surface is covered with a white foam, stir in the remaining ingredients, including the onion and garlic. Reduce the heat to low and cook uncovered for about 45 minutes. Do not stir again. Milk solids will form in the bottom of the pan and they should cook until they are golden brown. The butter will be clear. Strain the mixture through several layers of cheesecloth placed in a strainer. Discard the milk solids left in the cheesecloth. Serve on toast, crackers, or use in cooking. Store the spiced butter in a jar, covered, in the refrigerator (where it can keep up to 3 months). 3 FOODS OF THE ETHIOPIANS The national dish of Ethiopia is wot, a spicy stew. Wot may be made from beef, lamb, chicken, goat, or even lentils or chickpeas, but it always contains spicy berbere. Alecha is a less-spicy stew seasoned with green ginger. For most Ethiopians, who are either Orthodox Christian or Muslim , eating pork is forbidden. Ethiopian food is eaten with the hands, using pieces of a type of flat bread called injera. Diners tear off a piece of injera, and then use it to scoop up or pinch off mouthfuls of food from a large shared platter. A soft white cheese called lab is popular. Although Ethiopians rarely use sugar in their cooking, honey is occasionally used as a sweetener. An Ethiopian treat is injera wrapped around a slab of fresh honeycomb with young honeybee grubs still inside. Injera is usually made from teff, a kind of grain grown in Ethiopia. The bread dough is fermented for several days in a process similar to that used to make sourdough bread. Usually enough bread is made at one time for three days. Little fried snacks called dabo kolo are also popular. Injera (Ethiopian Bread) Procedure Combine all the ingredients in a bowl. Place a clean piece of cheesecloth (or a very clean dishtowel) in a colander and pour mixture into the colander to drain off extra liquid. Gather the cheesecloth to make a sack and tie it with clean string or thread. Suspend from the faucet over the sink. (Another option is to suspend the sack over a bowl by tying the string to the knob of a cupboard door.) Allow to drain for several hours until the mixture has the consistency of soft cream cheese. Serve with crackers or injera. Kitfo (Spiced Raw Beef) Mix all the ingredients together in a bowl. Add water slowly to create a stiff dough. Knead on a lightly floured board for about 5 minutes. (To knead, flatten the dough, fold in half. Then turn the dough about one-quarter turn, and fold again. Keep turning and folding the dough.) Pull off pieces of dough to fit on the palm of the hand. Press or roll out (using a rolling pin) into a strip about ½-inch thick on a floured countertop. Cut the strip into squares ½-inch by ½-inch. Cook in a frying pan on medium heat until light brown in color on all sides. 4 FOOD FOR RELIGIOUS AND HOLIDAY CELEBRATIONS About half of the Ethiopian population is Orthodox Christian. During Lent, the forty days preceding the Christian holiday of Easter , Orthodox Christians are prohibited from eating any animal products (no meat, cheese, milk, or butter). Instead they eat dishes made from beans, lentils, and chick peas called mitin shiro that is a mixture of beans and berbere. This is made with lentils, peas, field peas, chick peas, and peanuts. The beans are boiled, roasted, ground, and combined with berbere. This mixture is made into a vegetarian wot by adding vegetable oil and then is shaped like a fish or an egg; it is eaten cold. A vegetable alecha may also be eaten during Lent. During festive times such as marriage feasts, kwalima, a kind of beef sausage, is eaten. This sausage is made with beef, onions, pepper, ginger, cumin, basil, cardamom, cinnamon, cloves, and tumeric. It is smoked and dried. Aterkek Alecha (Vegetable Stew) Pour ¼ cup oil into a large pot and place over medium heat. Add onion and cook, stirring often, until the onion is golden brown. Add ¾ cup oil and add all other ingredients. Cook over medium heat until the vegetables are tender. Serve with injera made with vegetable oil instead of butter. Some food words from Ethiopia: berbere. A paste, composed of hot spices, used to season many foods. injera. Spongy, fermented bread that tastes similar to sourdough bread and resembles a large flour torilla or large, thin pancakes kitfo. Raw beef dish. teff. A grain used to make teff flour, the basis for the national bread, injera tib. Generic name for cooked meat dishes wot. Spicy stews. If a dish has "wot" in its name, it will be hot, while "alecha" means mild. 5 MEALTIME CUSTOMS Before eating a meal Ethiopians wash their hands under water poured from a pitcher into a basin. Then a prayer or grace is said. An appetizer of a bowl of curds and whey may be served. At the start of the meal, injera is layered directly on a round, woven basket table called a mesob. Different kinds of stews such as wot (spicy) and alecha (mild) are arranged on top of the injera. Sometimes the meal will not begin until the head of the household or guest of honor tears off a piece of bread for each person at the table. The right hand is used to pick up a piece of injera, wrap some meat and vegetables inside, and eat. As a sign of respect, an Ethiopian may find the best piece of food on the table and put it in their guest's mouth. Ethiopians drink tej (a honey wine) and tella (beer) with their meals. Coffee, however, the most popular beverage in the country, is usually drunk at the end of a meal. Ethiopia is considered the birthplace of coffee. Coffee is a principal export. The coffee, or buna, ceremony begins by throwing some freshly cut grasses in one corner of the room. Incense is lit in this corner next to a charcoal burner, where charcoal is glowing and ready to roast the coffee. All the guests watch while the raw green coffee beans are roasted. The host shakes the roasting pan to keep the beans from scorching and to release the wonderful aroma of the beans. The beans are then ground with a mortar and pestle (a bowl and pounding tool). A pot is filled with water, the fresh ground coffee is added, and the pot is placed on the charcoal burner until the water boils. The coffee is then served, often with a sprig of rue (a bitter-tasting herb with a small yellow flower). The same grounds may be used for two more rounds of coffee. 6 POLITICS, ECONOMICS, AND NUTRITION Approximately half of the population of Ethiopia is classified as undernourished by the World Bank. This means they do not receive adequate nutrition in their diet. Of children under the age of five, about 48 percent are underweight, and nearly 64 percent are stunted (short for their age). Wars, drought, political unrest, and population pressures of the 1970s and early 1980s have left their mark on the health of Ethiopians. Hundreds of thousands of people died during a famine (widespread food shortage) in 1973, and as many as one million may have died between 1983 and 1985. Ethiopia's coffee farmers produce one of the largest coffee crops in Africa; however, food crops are mainly produced by small farmers, known as subsistence farmers, who attempt to grow just enough food to feed their family. These farmers are not as successful. Ethiopians continues to suffer from malnutrition and a general lack of food. Sanitation (toilets and sewers to carry away human waste) is a problem as well, with only one-fifth of the population having access to adequate sanitation. Between 1994 and 1995, a little over one-quarter had access to safe drinking water. 7 FURTHER STUDY Amin, Mohamed. Spectrum Guide to Ethiopia. New York : Interlink Publishing Group, Inc., 2000. Harris, Jessica B. The Africa Cookbook: Tastes of a Continent. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1998. Merson, Annette. African Cookery. Nashville , TN: Winston-Derek Publishers, Inc., 1987. Sandler, Bea. The African Cookbook. New York: First Carol Publishing Group, 1983. Web Sites Ethiopian Resources. [Online] Available http://www.ethiopianresources.com (accessed February 28, 2001). IWon. [Online] Available http://advertise.iwon.com/home/food_n_drink/globaldest_overview/0,15463,250,00.html (accessed March 23, 2001). Lonely Planet. [Online] Available http://www.lonelyplanet.com/destinations/africa/ethiopia/culture.htm (accessed March 23, 2001). Spiced Butter Recipe. [Online] Available http://www.wube.net/butter.html (accessed June 13, 2001). World Gourmet. [Online] Available http://www.globalgourmet.com/destinations/ethiopia/ethiback.html (accessed March 23, 2001). Cite this article Official name : Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Area: 1,127,127 square kilometers (435,186 square miles) Highest point on mainland: Ras Deshen (4,620 meters/15,157 feet) Lowest point on land: Danakil Depression (125 meters/410 feet below sea level) Hemispheres: Northern and Eastern Time zone: 3 p.m. = noon GMT Longest distances: 1,639 kilometers (1,018 miles) from east to west; 1,577 kilometers (980 miles) from north to south Land boundaries: 5,311 kilometers (3,300 miles) total boundary length; Djibouti 337 kilometers (209 miles); Eritrea 912 kilometers (567 miles); Kenya 830 kilometers (516 miles); Somalia 1,626 kilometers (1,010 miles); Sudan 1,606 kilometers (998 miles). Coastline: None Territorial sea limits: None 1 LOCATION AND SIZE Ethiopia is located in eastern Africa in the area known as the Horn of Africa: the northeastern extension of the continent. The country lies west of Somalia, north of Kenya, east of Sudan, and south of Eritrea and Djibouti. With an area of about 1,127,127 square kilometers (435,186 square miles), the country is slightly less than twice the size of the state of Texas . Ethiopia is divided into nine states and two self-governing administrations. 2 TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES The territory of Eritrea was once a part of Ethiopia. Eritrea became an independent nation in 1993, however, after a long and bloody war fought over several decades. As of 2002, the governments of both nations were in dispute concerning the official boundaries between the countries. 3 CLIMATE Ethiopia has three main climatic zones: the dega, or cool zone; the weina dega, or temperate zone; and the kolla, or hot zone. In the highlands above 2,400 meters (7,800 feet) in elevation, daily temperatures range from near freezing to 16° C (61° F), with March, April, and May the warmest months. Nights are usually cold throughout the year, and it is not uncommon to greet the day with light frost. Snow is found at the highest elevations. Daily temperatures at lower elevations—from 1,500 meters to 2,400 meters (4,875 feet to 7,800 feet)—range from 16°C (61°F) to 30°C (86°F). Below 1,500 meters (4,875 feet) is the kolla zone, with daytime temperatures averaging 27°C (81°F), but soaring to 40°C (104°F) in the Ogaden region during midyear. Ethiopia is affected by the seasonal monsoon trade winds from the Atlantic Ocean that cross the African continent. The country receives most of its rain from mid-June to mid-September, with the high plateau experiencing a second and light rainy season from December to February. Converging winds in April and May bring lighter rains known as the balg. Annual precipitation is heaviest in the southwest, reaching up to 200 centimeters (80 inches). Up to 122 centimeters (48 inches) of rain falls annually in the highlands. The Ogaden in the east receives as little as 10 centimeters (4 inches), and precipitation in the Great Rift Valley and the Danakil Depression is negligible. 4 TOPOGRAPHIC REGIONS Ethiopia has some of the most spectacular scenery in Africa. Much of the country is set on a high plateau, with a massive central highland complex of mountains divided by the deep Great Rift Valley and a series of lowlands along the periphery (edges) of the higher elevations. The wide diversity of terrain produces regional variations in climate, natural vegetation, soil composition, and settlement patterns. In the northwest, Simien Mountains National Park provides a habitat for such native animals as baboons, ibex, Simien fox, and birds of prey including a large vulture species, the bearded vulture or lammergeyer. Most of Ethiopia is seismically active. There are hot springs that bubble up from deep below the earth 's crust in Addis Ababa and elsewhere. There is potential for serious and damaging earthquakes in the area surrounding the Great Rift Valley. Ethiopia is located on the African Tectonic Plate, with the Arabian Tectonic Plate somewhat further to the north, beyond Eritrea. The Great Rift Valley extends across the country from the southwest to the northeast. Neighboring Somalia claims the Ogaden border region in the southeast, but an exact border between the two countries has never been determined. 5 OCEANS AND SEAS Ethiopia is a landlocked country. 6 INLAND LAKES A chain of large lakes dots the southern half of the Ethiopian area of the Great Rift Valley. Some are freshwater lakes, fed by small streams from the east; others contain various salts and minerals. Lake Turkana (also called Lake Rudolf), fed by the Omo River, is the largest lake in the country, with an area of about 6,405 square kilometers (2,473 square miles). However, most of Lake Turkana is situated in Kenya; only the northernmost portion extends into Ethiopia. Other lakes in the southern Rift Valley are Ch'ew Bahir, Chamo, and Abaya. Lake Abe, fed by the Awash River, is located in the northern part of the Rift Valley, on the border with Djibouti. Lake Tana is located in the northwest, on the Ethiopian Plateau. It is the largest lake located entirely within Ethiopia, with an area of about 2,849 square kilometers (1,110 square miles), and it is the source of the Blue Nile. 7 RIVERS AND WATERFALLS Most of the northern and western rivers are a part of the vast Nile River system. Most notable of these is the Blue Nile (Abay), which flows out of Lake Tana towards the center of the country before curving northwest into Sudan. In the center of Sudan, the Blue Nile meets the White Nile to form the Nile River. The Atbara River and its tributary, the Tekeze River, both begin in Ethiopia and also flow into the Nile in Sudan. Together, the Blue Nile and the Atbara provide about 70 percent of the water volume in the Nile River. The Baro River in southwestern Ethiopia is another Nile tributary. Taken together, these four Nile tributaries account for about half of the outflow of water from the country. Near Bahir Dar, the Blue Nile Falls (Tsisat Falls) are known as a site where many rainbows appear. In the northern half of the Great Rift Valley, the Awash River flows between steep cliffs. Originating some 80 kilometers (50 miles) west of Addis Ababa, it courses northward and descends several thousand feet to the valley floor. There it is joined by several tributaries until it becomes a river of major importance, only to disappear into the saline lakes of the Danakil Depression, most notably Lake Abe. The Omo River rises near the source of the Awash, but flows south into Lake Turkana at the other end of Ethiopia's portion of the Great Rift Valley. In the southeast regions of the Somali Plateau, seasonally torrential rivers provide drainage toward the southeast. Chief of these is the Shabeelle, which has its source in several smaller rivers in the south and flows into Somalia. While it does not carry as much water as the Blue Nile, the Shabeelle is the longest river to flow through Ethiopia, with a total length of about 2,011 kilometers (1,250 miles). It is a tributary of the Gestro (Jubba), which also has its source in Ethiopia and flows into Somalia. The Gestro generally flows year-round into the Indian Ocean , thanks in part to its northern tributary, the Dawa. In contrast, the Shabeelle can dry up in the deserts of Somalia before ever reaching the Gestro. 8 DESERTS The Danakil Depression is a sunken desert region in the northeast that stretches between the Red Sea to the Great Rift Valley. It is a large, triangular-shaped basin that in some places is as low as 125 meters (410 feet) below sea level. The lowest elevation in the country, it is also said to be one of the hottest places on Earth . 9 FLAT AND ROLLING TERRAIN Sections of marshy lowlands exist along the Sudanese border in the west and southwest. The Borena and Ogaden plains in the south are characterized by grassy ranges and are highly vulnerable to drought and erosion, especially from overgrazing. DID YOU KNOW? The Blue Nile, one of the tributary streams that eventually flow into the Nile River, has its source in Ethiopia. With a total length of 6,693 kilometers (4,160 miles), the Nile is the longest river in the world. Its main headstream rises from Lake Victoria of Tanzania and Uganda . These rivers meet in Sudan and flow into Egypt . Throughout its length in Egypt, no other tributary streams enter the Nile before it empties into the Mediterranean Sea through a large delta. Highlands in remote areas above 1,800 meters (5,850 feet) are covered with a varied as-sortment of evergreens and conifers, especially zigba and tid. Due to population pressures, however, many forests' borders have shrunk into relatively inaccessible areas. High mountain elevations above the tree line along the Sudanese border are under intensive agricultural development. Even steep slopes and marginal areas are being cultivated for crop production. 10 MOUNTAINS AND VOLCANOES The highest point in Ethiopia is a volcanic cone in the northeast, Ras Deshen (Mount Rasdajan). With an elevation of about 4,620 meters (15,157 feet), Ras Deshen is Africa's fourth-highest mountain. There are sixty-seven volcanoes in Ethiopia, more than any other country in Africa; yet many are rather small. The most famous of these is Erta Ale, which has a relatively low peak at only 613 meters (2,011 feet). It has been erupting almost continuously since 1967 and has an active lava lake in its summit crater. The existence of these small volcanoes, hot springs, and many deep gorges indicates that large segments of the land mass are still geologically unstable. Despite the line of seismic belts that extends along the length of the Eritrean border and the Danakil Depression, no serious earthquakes were recorded in the area during the twentieth century. 11 CANYONS AND CAVES Some geographers, especially Ethiopians, consider the Great Rift Valley a distinct region. It is the most extensive fault on Earth's surface, extending from the Jordan River Valley in the Middle East to the Shire tributary of the Zambezi River in Mozambique . The vast segment that runs through the center of Ethiopia is marked in the north by the Danakil Depression. To the south, the rift becomes a deep trench slicing through the high plateau from north to south, with an average width of 48 kilometers (30 miles). The Awash River courses through the northern section of the trench. While the Great Rift Valley is by far the most impressive of Ethiopia canyons, millennia of erosion have produced other steep-sided valleys throughout the country; in some areas, these have been measured at about 1.6 kilometers (1 mile) deep and several kilometers wide. The Blue Nile winds in a great arc starting at Lake Tana and courses in an arc through canyons more than 1,200 meters (4,000 feet) in depth before flowing into Sudan. The Sof Omar caves are located about 450 kilometers (280 miles) southeast of Addis Ababa. They consist of a series of tunnels and chambers carved into limestone and chalk by the Web River. The caves are considered to be a sacred place by some Muslims. Legend tells that Sheik Sof Omar was seeking refuge in the area when Allah opened the mouth of the cave for him. Omar was said to have used the caves as a mosque for his entire life. In the northwest, the Simien Mountains National Park features a rocky massif, with deep gorges cut into it by streams. 12 PLATEAUS AND MONOLITHS The highland that comprises much of the country consists of two regions: the Ethiopian Plateau in the west, which is bisected by the Great Rift Valley, and the Somali Plateau in the east. The higher Ethiopian Plateau is rugged and mountainous, while the Somali Plateau is sparsely populated, arid, and rocky. Northward from Addis Ababa, the Ethiopian Plateau inclines slightly toward the west and northwest, then abruptly descends near the boundary with Sudan. Given the rugged nature of these massifs and the surrounding tableland, this region's name is somewhat misleading. Little of the Ethiopian Plateau is actually flat, except for a scattering of level-topped mountains known to Ethiopians as ambas. South of Addis Ababa, the plateau is also rugged, but its elevation is slightly lower than in its northwestern section. The eastern segment beyond the Great Rift Valley exhibits characteristics almost identical to those of its western counterpart. DID YOU KNOW? The Horn of Africa is a peninsula that juts out from the northeast of the African continent, just below the Red Sea. It separates the Gulf of Aden from the Indian Ocean. Because the two main countries on the Horn of Africa are Ethiopia and Somalia, it is sometimes called the Somali Peninsula. 13 MAN-MADE FEATURES The Churches of Lalibela are located in that town in the central highland region of Ethiopia. At least eleven monolithic cave churches were carved into the rocks here in the thirteenth century. People come to Lalibela to see these rock churches, hewn out of the bedrock. The churches have been maintained by generations of priests who guard their treasures of ornamented crosses, illuminated Bibles, and illustrated manuscripts. The site has been named a World Heritage Site of the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). 14 FURTHER READING Africa South of the Sahara , 2002. "Ethiopia." London: Europa Publishers, 2001. Fradin, D. Ethiopia. Chicago : Children's Press, 1994. Schemenauer, Elma. Ethiopia. Chanhassen, MN: Child's World, 2001. Web Sites Embassy of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, United Kingdom . http://www.ethioembassy.org.uk/tourism/tourism.htm (accessed June 2, 2003). Historical Sites in Africa: Ethiopia. http://www.newafrica.com/archaeology/historicalsites (accessed June 2, 2003). Cite this article Ethiopian Orientation Identification. The name "Ethiopia" derives from the Greek ethio, meaning "burned" and pia, meaning "face": the land of burned-faced peoples. Aeschylus described Ethiopia as a "land far off, a nation of black men." Homer depicted Ethiopians as pious and favored by the gods. These conceptions of Ethiopia were geographically vague. In the late nineteenth century, Emperor Menelik II expanded the country's borders to their present configuration. In March 1896, Italian troops attempted to enter Ethiopia forcibly and were routed by Emperor Menelik and his army. The battle of Adwa was the only victory of an African army over a European army during the partitioning of Africa which preserved the country's independence. Ethiopia is the only African country never to have been colonized, although an Italian occupation occurred from 1936 to 1941. In addition to the monarchy, whose imperial line can be traced to King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba , the Ethiopian Orthodox Church was a major force in that, in combination with the political system, it fostered nationalism with its geographic center in the highlands. The combination of church and state was an indissoluble alliance that controlled the nation from King 'Ēzānā's adoption of Christianity in 333 until the overthrow of Haile Selassie in 1974. A socialist government (the Derge) known for its brutality governed the nation until 1991. The Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) defeated the Derge, established democratic rule, and currently governs Ethiopia. The last twenty-five years of the twentieth century have been a time of revolt and political unrest but represent only a small portion of the time during which Ethiopia has been a politically active entity. Unfortunately, however, the country's international standing has declined since the reign of Emperor Selassie, when it was the only African member of the League of Nations and its capital, Addis Ababa , was home to a substantial international community. War, drought, and health problems have left the nation one of the poorest African countries economically, but the people's fierce independence and historical pride account for a people rich in self-determination. Location and Geography. Ethiopia is the tenth largest country in Africa, covering 439,580 square miles (1,138,512 square kilometers) and is the major constituent of the landmass known as the Horn of Africa. It is bordered on the north and northeast by Eritrea, on the east by Djibouti and Somalia , on the south by Kenya , and on the west and southwest by Sudan . The central plateau, known as the highlands, is surrounded on three sides by desert with a significantly lower elevation. The plateau is between six thousand and ten thousand feet above sea level, with the highest peak being Ras Deshan, the fourth-tallest mountain in Africa. Addis Ababa is the third-highest capital city in the world. The Great Rift Valley (known for discoveries of early hominids such as Lucy, whose bones reside in the Ethiopian National Museum) bisects the central plateau. The valley extends southwest through the country and includes the Danakil Depression, a desert containing the lowest dry point on the earth. In the highlands is Lake Tana, the source of the Blue Nile, which supplies the great majority of water to the Nile River Valley in Egypt . Variation in altitude results in dramatic climatic variation. Some peaks in the Simyen Mountains receive periodic snowfall, while the average temperature of the Danakil is 120 degrees Fahrenheit in the day time. The high central plateau is mild, with a mean average temperature of 62 degrees Fahrenheit. The bulk of the rain in the highlands falls in the major rainy season from mid-June to mid-September, with an average of forty inches of rain during that season. A minor rainy season occurs from February to April. The northeastern provinces of Tigre and Welo are prone to drought, which tends to occur about once every ten years. The remainder of the year is generally dry. Demography. In the year 2000, the population was approximately 61 million, with over eighty different ethnic groups. The Oromo, Amhara, and Tigreans account for more than 75 percent of the population, or 35 percent, 30 percent, and 10 percent respectively. Smaller ethnic groups include the Somali, Gurage, Afar, Awi, Welamo, Sidamo, and Beja. The urban population is estimated to be 11 percent of the total population. The rural lowland population is composed of many nomadic and seminomadic peoples. The nomadic peoples seasonally graze livestock, while the seminomadic peoples are subsistence farmers. The rural highlands economy is based on agriculture and livestock raising. Linguistic Affiliation. There are eighty-six known indigenous languages in Ethiopia: eighty-two spoken and four extinct. The vast majority of the languages spoken in the country can be classified within three families of the Afro-Asiatic super language family: the Semitic, Cushitic, and Omotic. Semitic-language speakers predominantly live in the highlands in the center and north. Cushitic-language speakers live in the highlands and lowlands of the south-central region as well as in the north-central area. Omotic speakers live predominantly in the south. The Nilo-Saharan super language family accounts for about 2 percent of the population, and these languages are spoken near the Sudanese border. Amharic has been the dominant and official language for the last 150 years as a result of the political power of the Amhara ethnic group. The spread of Amharic has been strongly linked to Ethiopian nationalism. Today, many Oromo write their language, Oromoic, using the Roman alphabet as a political protest against their history of domination by the Amhara, who account for significantly less of the population. English is the most widely spoken foreign language and the language in which secondary school and university classes are taught. French is heard occasionally in parts of the country near Djibouti, formerly French Somaliland. Italian can be heard on occasion, particularly among the elderly in the Tigre region. Remnants of the Italian occupation during World War II exist in the capital, such as the use of ciao to say "good-bye." Symbolism. The monarchy, known as the Solomonic dynasty, has been a prominent national symbol. The imperial flag consists of horizontal stripes of green, gold, and red with a lion in the foreground holding a staff. On the head of the staff is an Ethiopian Orthodox cross with the imperial flag waving from it. The lion is the Lion of Judah, one of the many imperial titles signifying descent from King Solomon. The cross symbolizes the strength and reliance of the monarchy on the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, the dominant religion for the last sixteen hundred years. Today, twenty-five years after the last emperor was dethroned, the flag consists of the traditional green, gold, and red horizontal stripes with a five-pointed star and rays emitting from its points in the foreground over a light blue circular background. The star represents the unity and equity of the various ethnic groups, a symbol of a federalist government based on ethnic states. Sovereignty and freedom are characteristics and thus symbols of Ethiopia both internally and externally. Many African nation-states, such as Ghana , Benin, Senegal , Cameroon , and the Congo adopted Ethiopia's colors for their flags when they gained independence from colonial rule. Some Africans in the diaspora established a religious and political tradition deemed Ethiopianism. Proponents of this movement, which predates pan-Africanism, appropriated the symbol of Ethiopia to liberate themselves from oppression. Ethiopia was an independent, black nation with an ancient Christian Church that was not a colonial biproduct. Marcus Garvey spoke of viewing God through the spectacles of Ethiopia and often quoted Psalm 68:31, "Ethiopia shall stretch her hands unto God." From Garvey's teachings, the Rastafarian movement emerged in Jamaica in the 1930s. The name "Rastafari" is derived from Emperor Haile Selassie, whose precoronation name was Ras Tafari Makonnen. "Ras" is both a princely and a military title meaning "head" in Amharic. There is a population of Rastafarians living in the town of Shashamane, which was part of a land grant given to the Ethiopian World Federation by Emperor Haile Selassie in return for support during the Italian occupation during World War II. History and Ethnic Relations Emergence of the Nation. Ethiopia was home to some of the earliest hominid populations and possibly the region where Homo erectus evolved and expanded out of Africa to populate Eurasia 1.8 million years ago. The most notable paleoanthropological find in the country was "Lucy," a female Australopithicus afarensis discovered in 1974 and referred to as Dinqnesh ("you are marvelous") by Ethiopians. The rise of sizable populations with a writing system dates back to at least 800 b.c.e. Proto-Ethiopian script inlaid on stone tablets has been found in the highlands, notably in the town of Yeha. The origin of this civilization is a point of contention. The traditional theory states that immigrants from the Arabian peninsula settled in northern Ethiopia, bringing with them their language, proto-Ethiopian (or Sabean), which has also been discovered on the eastern side of the Red Sea . This theory of the origin of Ethiopian civilization is being challenged. A new theory states that both sides of the Red Sea were a single cultural unit and that the rise of civilization in the Ethiopian highlands was not a product of diffusion and colonization from southern Arabia but a cultural exchange in which the people of Ethiopia played a vital and active role. During this time period, waterways such as the Red Sea were virtual highways, resulting in cultural and economic exchange. The Red Sea connected people on both coasts and produced a single cultural unit that included Ethiopia and Yemen , which over time diverged into different cultures. It is only in Ethiopia that proto-Ethiopian script developed and survives today in Ge'ez, Tigrean, and Amharic. In the first century c.e., the ancient city of Axum became a political, economic, and cultural center in the region. The Axumites dominated the Red Sea trade by the third century. By the fourth century they were one of only four nations in the world, along with Rome , Persia , and the Kushan Kingdom in northern India , to issue gold coinage. In 333, Emperor 'Ēzānā and his court adopted Christianity; this was the same year the Roman Emperor Constantine converted. The Axumites and the Romans became economic partners who controlled the Red Sea and Mediterranean Sea trades, respectively. Axum flourished through the sixth century, when Emperor Caleb conquered much of the Arabian peninsula. However, the Axumite Empire eventually declined as a result of the spread of Islam , resulting in a loss of control over the Red Sea as well as a depletion of natural resources in the region that left the environment unable to support the population. The political center shifted southward to the mountains of Lasta (now Lalibela). Around 1150, a new dynasty arose in the mountains of Lasta. This dynasty was called the Zagwe and controlled much of northern Ethiopia from 1150 until 1270. The Zagwe claimed descendency from Moses , using genealogy to establish their legitimacy, a characteristic of traditional Ethiopian politics. The Zagwe were unable to forge national unity, and squabbling over political power led to a decline in the dynasty's authority. A small Christian kingdom in northern Shewa challenged the Zagwe politically and economically in the thirteenth century. The Shewans were led by Yekunno Amlak, who killed the Zagwe king and proclaimed himself emperor. It was Yekunno Amlak who forged national unity and began constructing the nation. National Identity. Most historians regard Yekunno Amlak as the founder of the Solomonic dynasty. In the process of legitimizing his rule, the emperor reproduced and possibly created the Kebra Nagast (Glory of the Kings), which is regarded as the national epic. The Glory of the Kings is a blend of local and oral traditions, Old and New Testament themes, apocryphal text, and Jewish and Muslim commentaries. The epic was compiled by six Tigrean scribes, who claimed to have translated the text from Arabic into Ge'ez. Contained within its central narrative is the account of Solomon and Sheba, an elaborate version of the story found in I Kings of the Bible . In the Ethiopian version, King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba have a child named Menelik (whose name is derived from the Hebrew ben-melech meaning "son of the king"), who establishes a duplicate Jewish empire in Ethiopia. In establishing this empire, Menelik I brings the Ark of the Covenant with him, along with the eldest sons of the Israeli nobles. He is crowned the first emperor of Ethiopia, the founder of the Solomonic dynasty. From this epic, a national identity emerged as God's new chosen people, heir to the Jews . The Solomonic emperors are descended from Solomon, and the Ethiopian people are the descendants of the sons of the Israeli nobles. The descent from Solomon was so essential to the nationalistic tradition and monarchical domination that Haile Selassie incorporated it into the country's first constitution in 1931, exempting the emperor from state law by virtue of his "divine" genealogy. Both the Orthodox Church and the monarchy fostered nationalism. In the epilogue of the Glory of the Kings, Christianity is brought to Ethiopia and adopted as the "rightful" religion. Thus, the empire was genealogically descended from the great Hebrew kings but "righteous" in its acceptance of the word of Jesus Christ. The Solomonic monarchy had a variable degree of political control over Ethiopia from the time of Yekunno Amlak in 1270 until Haile Selassie's dethroning in 1974. At times the monarchy was centrally strong, but during other periods regional kings held a greater amount of power. Menelik II played a vital role in maintaining a sense of pride in Ethiopia as an independent nation. On 1 March 1896, Menelik II and his army defeated the Italians at Adwa. The independence that emerged from that battle has contributed greatly to the Ethiopian sense of nationalistic pride in self-rule, and many perceive Adwa as a victory for all of Africa and the African diaspora. Ethnic Relations. Traditionally, the Amhara have been the dominant ethnic group, with the Tigreans as secondary partners. The other ethnic groups have responded differently to that situation. Resistance to Amhara dominance resulted in various separatist movements, particularly in Eritrea and among the Oromo. Eritrea was culturally and politically part of highland Ethiopia since before Axum's achievement of political dominance; Eritreans claim Axumite descendency as much as Ethiopians do. However, in 1889, Emperor Menelik II signed the Treaty of Wichale, leasing Eritrea to the Italians in exchange for weapons. Eritrea was an Italian colony until the end of World War II. In 1947, Italy signed the Treaty of Paris , renouncing all its colonial claims. The United Nations passed a resolution in 1950 establishing Eritrea as a federation under the Ethiopian crown. By 1961, Eritrean rebels had begun fighting for independence in the bush. In November 1962, Haile Selassie abolished the federation and sent his army to quell any resistance, forcefully subordinating Eritrea against the will of its people. African leaders passed the Cairo Resolution in 1964, which recognized the old colonial borders as the basis for nation-statehood. Under this treaty, Eritrea should have gained independence, but because of Haile Selassie's international political savvy and military strength, Ethiopia retained control. The Eritrean rebels fought the emperor until his deposition in 1974. When the Derge government was armed by the Soviets, the Eritreans still refused to accept external subjugation. The Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF) fought side by side with the EPRDF and ousted the Derge in 1991, at which time Eritrea became an independent nation-state. Political confrontation has continued, and Ethiopia and Eritrea fought from June 1998 to June 2000 over the border between the two countries, with each accusing the other of infringing on its sovereignty. The "Oromo problem" continues to trouble Ethiopia. Although the Oromo are the largest ethnic group in Ethiopia, never in their history have they maintained political power. During the period of European colonialism in Africa, the Ethiopian highlanders undertook an intra-African colonial enterprise. Many ethnic groups in the present state of Ethiopia, such as the Oromo, were subjected to that colonialization. Conquered ethnic groups were expected to adopt the identity of the dominant Amhara-Tigrean ethnic groups (the national culture). It was illegal to publish, teach, or broadcast in any Oromo dialect until the early 1970s, which marked the end of Haile Selassie's reign. Even today, after an ethnic federalist government has been established, the Oromo lack appropriate political representation. Urbanism, Architecture, and the Use of Space Traditional houses are round dwellings with cylindrical walls made of wattle and daub. The roofs are conical and made of thatch, and the center pole has sacred significance in most ethnic groups, including the Oromo, Gurage, Amhara, and Tigreans. Variations on this design occur. In the town of Lalibella the walls of many houses are made of stone and are two-storied, while in parts of Tigre, houses are traditionally rectangular. In more urban areas, a mixture of tradition and modernity is reflected in the architecture. The thatched roofs often are replaced with tin or steel roofing. The wealthier suburbs of Addis Ababa have multistory residences made of concrete and tile that are very western in form. Addis Ababa, which became the capital in 1887, has a variety of architectural styles. The city was not planned, resulting in a mixture of housing styles. Communities of wattle-and-daub tin-roofed houses often lie next to neighborhoods of one- and two-story gated concrete buildings. Many churches and monasteries in the northern region are carved out of solid rock, including the twelve rock-hewn monolithic churches of Lalibela. The town is named after the thirteenth-century king who supervised its construction. The construction of the churches is shrouded in mystery, and several are over thirty-five feet high. The most famous, Beta Giorgis, is carved in the shape of a cross. Each church is unique in shape and size. The churches are not solely remnants of the past but are an active eight-hundred-year-old Christian sanctuary. Food and Economy Food in Daily Life. Injera, a spongy unleavened bread made from teff grain, is the staple of every meal. All food is eaten with the hands, and pieces of injera are ripped into bite-sized pieces and used to dip and grab stews (wat ) made of vegetables such as carrots and cabbage, spinach, potatoes, and lentils. The most common spice is berberey, which has a red pepper base. The food taboos found in the Old Testament are observed by most people as the Ethiopian Orthodox Church prescribes them. The flesh of animals with uncloven hoofs and those that do not chew their cud are avoided as unclean. It is nearly impossible to get pork. Animals used for food must be slaughtered with the head turned toward the east while the throat is cut "In the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost" if the slaughterer is Christian or "In the name of Allah the Merciful" if the slaughterer is Muslim. Food Customs at Ceremonial Occasions. The coffee ceremony is a common ritual. The server starts a fire and roasts green coffee beans while burning frankincense. Once roasted, the coffee beans are ground with a mortar and pestle, and the powder is placed in a traditional black pot called a jebena. Water is then added. The jebena is removed from the fire, and coffee is served after brewing for the proper length of time. Often, kolo (cooked whole-grain barley) is served with the coffee. Meat, specifically beef, chicken, and lamb, is eaten with injera on special occasions. Beef is sometimes eaten raw or slightly cooked in a dish called kitfo. Traditionally, this was a staple of the diet, but in the modern era, many of the elite have shunned it in favor of cooked beef. During Christian fasting periods, no animal products can be eaten and no food or drink can be consumed from midnight until 3 p.m. This is the standard way of fasting during the week, and on Saturday and Sunday no animal products may be consumed, although there is no time restriction on the fast. Honey wine, called tej, is a drink reserved for special occasions. Tej is a mixture of honey and water flavored with gesho plant twigs and leaves and is traditionally drunk in tube-shaped flasks. High-quality tej has become a commodity of the upper class, which has the resources to brew and purchase it. Basic Economy. The economy is based on agriculture, in which 85 percent of the population participates. Ecological problems such as periodic drought, soil degradation, deforestation, and a high population density negatively affect the agricultural industry. Most agricultural producers are subsistence farmers living in the highlands, while the population in the lowland peripheries is nomadic and engages in livestock raising. Gold, marble, limestone, and small amounts of tantalum are mined. Land Tenure and Property. The monarchy and the Orthodox Church traditionally controlled and owned most of the land. Until the overthrow of the monarchy in 1974, there was a complex land tenure system; for example, there were over 111 different types of tenure in Welo Province. Two major types of traditional land ownership that are no longer in existence were rist (a type of communal land ownership that was hereditary) and gult (ownership acquired from the monarch or provincial ruler). The EPRDF instituted a policy of public land use. In rural areas, peasants have land use rights, and every five years there is a reallotment of land among farmers to adapt to the changing social structures of their communities. There are several reasons for the nonexistence of individual land ownership in rural areas. If private ownership were legislated, the government believes that rural class divisions would increase as a result of a large number of peasants selling their land. Commercial Activities. Agriculture is the major commercial activity. The chief staple crops include a variety of grains, such as teff, wheat, barley, corn, sorghum, and millet; coffee; pulses; and oilseed. Grains are the primary staples of the diet and are thus the most important field crops. Pulses are a principal source of protein in the diet. Oilseed consumption is widespread because the Ethiopian Orthodox Church prohibits the usage of animal fats on many days during the year. Major Industries. After nationalization of the private sector before the 1974 revolution, an exodus of foreign-owned and foreign-operated industry ensued. The growth rate of the manufacturing sector declined. Over 90 percent of large scale industries are state-run, as opposed to less than 10 percent of agriculture. Under the EPRDF administration, there is both public and private industry. Public industries include the garment, steel, and textile industries, while much of the pharmaceuticals industry is owned by shareholders. Industry accounts for almost 14 percent of the gross domestic product, with textiles, construction, cement, and hydroelectric power constituting the majority of production. Trade. The most important export crop is coffee, which provides 65 to 75 percent of foreign exchange earnings. Ethiopia has vast agricultural potential because of its large areas of fertile land, a diverse climate, and generally adequate rainfall. Hides and skins are the second largest export, followed by pulses, oilseed, gold, and chat, a quasi-legal plant whose leaves possess psychotropic qualities, that is chewed in social groups. The agricultural sector is subject to periodic drought, and poor infrastructure constrains the production and marketing of Ethiopia's products. Only 15 percent of the roads are paved; this is a problem particularly in the highlands, where there are two rainy seasons causing many roads to be unusable for weeks at a time. The two biggest imports are live animals and petroleum. The majority of Ethiopia's exports are sent to Germany , Japan , Italy and the United Kingdom , while imports are primarily brought in from Italy, the United States , Germany, and Saudi Arabia . Division of Labor. Men do the most physically taxing activities outside the house, while women are in charge of the domestic sphere. Young children, especially on farms, get involved in household labor at an early age. Girls usually have a greater amount of work to do than boys. Ethnicity is another axis of labor stratification. Ethiopia is a multi-ethnic state with a history of ethnic division. Currently, the Tigrean ethnic group controls the government and holds the core positions of power in the federal government. Ethnicity is not the sole basis for employment in the government; political ideology also plays an important role. Social Stratification Classes and Castes. There are four major social groups. At the top are high-ranking lineages, followed by low-ranking lineages. Caste groups, which are endogamous, with group membership ascribed by birth and membership associated with concepts of pollution, constitute the third social stratum. Slaves and the descendants of slaves are the lowest social group. This four-tier system is traditional; the contemporary social organization is dynamic, especially in urban areas. In urban society, the division of labor determines social class. Some jobs are esteemed more than others, such as lawyers and federal government employees. Many professions carry negative associations, such as metal workers, leather workers, and potters, who are considered of low status and frequently are isolated from mainstream society. Symbols of Social Stratification. Symbols of social stratification in rural areas include the amount of grain and cattle a person possesses. While the symbols of wealth in urban areas are different, it is still these symbols which index high social status. Wealth is the chief criterion for social stratification, but the amount of education, the neighborhood in which one lives, and the job one holds are also symbols of high or low status. Automobiles are difficult to obtain, and the ownership of a car is a symbol of wealth and high status. Political Life Government. For almost sixteen hundred years, the nation was ruled by a monarchy with close ties to the Orthodox Church. In 1974, Haile Selassie, the last monarch, was overthrown by a communist military regime known as the Derge. In 1991, the Derge was deposed by the EPRDF (internally composed of the Tigrean People's Liberation Front, the Oromo People's Democratic Organization, and the Amhara National Democratic movement), which established a "democratic" government. Ethiopia is currently an ethnic federation composed of eleven states that are largely ethnically based. This type of organization is intended to minimize ethnic strife. The highest official is the prime minister, and the president is a figurehead with no real power. The legislative branch consists of a bicameral legislation in which all people and ethnicities can be represented. Ethiopia has not achieved political equality. The EPRDF is an extension of the military organization that deposed the former military dictatorship, and the government is controlled by the Tigrean People's Liberation Front. Since the government is ethnically and militarily based, it is plagued by all the problems of the previous regimes. Leadership and Political Officials. Emperor Haile Selassie ruled from 1930 until 1974. During his lifetime, Selassie built massive infrastructure and created the first constitution (1931). Haile Selassie led Ethiopia to become the only African member of the League of Nations and was the first president of the Organization of African Unity, which is based in Addis Ababa. Micromanaging a nation caught up with the emperor in old age, and he was deposed by the communist Derge regime led by Lieutenant Colonel Mengistu Haile Mariam. Mengistu assumed power as head of state after having his two predecessors killed. Ethiopia then became a totalitarian state financed by the Soviet Union and assisted by Cuba . Between 1977 and 1978, thousands of suspected Derge oppositionists were killed. In May 1991, the EPRDF forcefully took Addis Ababa, forcing Mengistu into asylum in Zimbabwe. Leader of the EPRDF and current prime minister Meles Zenawi pledged to oversee the formation of a multiparty democracy. The election of a 547-member constituent assembly was held in June 1994, and the adoption of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia's constitution ensued. Elections for the national parliament and regional legislatures were held in May and June of 1995, although most opposition parties boycotted the elections. A landslide victory was achieved by the EPRDF. The EPRDF, along with 50 other registered political parties (most of which are small and ethnically based), comprise Ethiopia's political parties. The EPRDF is dominated by the Tigrean People's Liberation Front (TPLF). Because of that, after independence in 1991, other ethnically-based political organizations withdrew from the national government. One example is the Oromo Liberation Front (OLF), which withdrew in June of 1992. Social Problems and Control. Ethiopia is safer than the neighboring countries, particularly in urban areas. Ethnic issues play a role in political life, but this does not usually result in violence. Christians and Muslims live together peacefully. Theft occurs infrequently in Addis Ababa and almost never involves weapons. Robbers tend to work in groups, and pickpocketing is the usual form of theft. Homelessness in the capital is a serious social problem, especially among the youth. Many street children resort to theft to feed themselves. Police officers usually apprehend thieves but rarely prosecute and often work with them, splitting the bounty. Military Activity. The Ethiopian military is called the Ethiopian National Defence Force (ENDF) and is comprised of approximately 100,000 personnel, making it one of the largest military forces in Africa. During the Derge regime, troups numbered around one-quarter of a million. Since the early 1990s, when the Derge was overthrown, the ENDF has been in transition from a rebel force to a professional military organization trained in demining, humanitarian and peacekeeping operations, and military justice. From June 1998 until the summer of 2000, Ethiopia was involved in the largest war on the African continent with its northern neighbor, Eritrea. The war was essentially a border conflict. Eritrea was occupying the towns of Badme and Zalambasa, which Ethiopia claimed was sovereign territory. The conflict can be traced to Emperor Menelik, who sold Eritrea to the Italians in the late nineteenth century. Large-scale fighting occurred in 1998 and 1999 with no change in the combatants' positions. During the winter months, fighting was minimal because of the rains, which make it difficult to move armaments. In the summer of 2000, Ethiopia achieved large-scale victories and marched through the contested border area into Eritrean territory. After these victories, both nations signed a peace treaty, which called for United Nations peacekeeping troops to monitor the contested area and professional cartographers to demarcate the border. Ethiopian troops withdrew from undisputed Eritrean territory after the treaty was signed. Social Welfare and Change Programs Traditional associations are the major sources of social welfare. There are many different types of social welfare programs in different parts of the country; these programs have religious, political, familial, or other bases for their formation. Two of the most prevalent are the iddir and debo systems. An iddir is an association that provides financial assistance and other forms of aid for people in the same neighborhood or occupation and between friends or kin. This institution became prevalent with the formation of urban society. The main objective of an iddir is to assist families financially during times of stress, such as illness, death, and property losses from fire or theft. Recently, iddirs have been involved in community development, including the construction of schools and roads. The head of a family who belongs to an iddir contributes a certain amount of money every month to benefit individuals in times of emergency. The most widespread social welfare association in rural areas is the debo. If a farmer is having difficulty tending his fields, he may invite his neighbors to help on a specific date. In return, the farmer must provide food and drink for the day and contribute his labor when others in the same debo require help. The debo is not restricted to agriculture but is also prevalent in housing construction. Nongovernmental Organizations and Other Associations Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) are the main sources of aid to alleviate rural poverty. The Swedish International Development Agency was the first NGO in Ethiopia in the 1960s, focusing on rural development. Drought and war have been the two biggest problems in recent years. NGOs played a crucial role in famine relief in Welo and Tigre during the 1973–1974 and 1983–1984 famines through the coordination of the Christian Relief and Development Association. In 1985, the Churches Drought Action Africa/Ethiopia formed a joint relief partnership to distribute emergency food relief to areas controlled by rebel forces. When the EPRDF took power in 1991, a large number of donor organizations supported and funded rehabilitation and development activities. Environmental protection and food-based programs take precedence today, although development and preventive health care are also activities on which NGO focuses. Gender Roles and Statuses Division of Labor by Gender. Traditionally, labor has been divided by gender, with authority given to the senior male in a household. Men are responsible for plowing, harvesting, the trading of goods, the slaughtering of animals, herding, the building of houses, and the cutting of wood. Women are responsible for the domestic sphere and help the men with some activities on the farm. Women are in charge of cooking, brewing beer, cutting hops, buying and selling spices, making butter, collecting and carrying wood, and carrying water. The gender division in urban areas is less pronounced than it is in the countryside. Many women work outside of the home, and there tends to be a greater awareness of gender inequality. Women in urban areas are still responsible, with or without a career, for the domestic space. Employment at a baseline level is fairly equivalent, but men tend to be promoted much faster and more often. The Relative Status of Women and Men. Gender inequality is still prevalent. Men often spend their free time socializing outside the home, while women take care of the household. If a man participates in domestic activities such as cooking and child rearing, he may become a social outcast. The education of boys is stressed more than that of girls, who are supposed to help with household work. Girls are restricted from leaving the home and engaging in social activities with friends much more than boys are. Marriage, Family, and Kinship Marriage. Traditional marriage customs vary by ethnic group, although many customs are transethnic. Arranged marriages are the norm, although this practice is becoming much less common, especially in urban areas. The presentation of a dowry from the male's family to the female's family is common. The amount is not fixed and varies with the wealth of the families. The dowry may include livestock, money, or other socially valued items. The proposal usually involves elders, who travel from the groom's house to the parents of the bride to ask for the marriage. The elders are traditionally the individuals who decide when and where the ceremony takes place. Both the bride's and groom's families prepare food and drink for the ceremony by brewing wine and beer and cooking food. A great deal of food is prepared for the occasion, especially meat dishes. Christians often wed in Orthodox churches, and a variety of wedding types exist. In the takelil type, the bride and groom participate in a special ceremony and agree never to divorce. This type of commitment has become rare in recent years. Wedding garb in the cities is very western: suits and tuxedos for the men and a white wedding gown for the bride. Domestic Unit. The basic family structure is much larger than the typical Western nuclear unit. The oldest male is usually the head of the household and is in charge of decision making. Men, usually having the primary income, control the family economically and distribute money. Women are in charge of domestic life and have significantly more contact with the children. The father is seen as an authority figure. Children are socially required to care for their parents, and so there are often three to four generations in a household. With the advent of urban living, however, this pattern is changing, and children often live far from their families and have a much harder time supporting them. Urbanites have a responsibility to send money to their families in rural areas and often try their best to relocate their families to the cities. Inheritance. Inheritance laws follow a fairly regular pattern. Before an elder passes away he or she orally states his or her wishes for the disposal of possessions. Children and living spouses are typically the inheritors, but if an individual dies without a will, property is allotted by the court system to the closest living relatives and friends. Land, although not officially owned by individuals, is inheritable. Men are more privileged then females and usually receive the most prized properties and equipment, while women tend to inherit items associated with the domestic sphere. Kin Groups. Descent is traced through both the mother's and father's families, but the male line is more valued than the female. It is customary for a child to take the father's first name as his or her last name. In rural areas, villages are often composed of kin groups that offer support during difficult times. The kin group in which one participates tends to be in the male line. Elders are respected, especially men, and are regarded as the source of a lineage. In general, an elder or groups of elders are responsible for settling disputes within a kin group or clan. Socialization Infant Care. Children are raised by the extended family and community. It is the primary duty of the mother to care for the children as part of her domestic duties. If the mother is not available, the responsibility falls to the older female children as well as the grandmothers. In urban society, where both parents often work, babysitters are employed and the father takes a more active role in child care. If a child is born out of wedlock, whoever the women claims is the father is required by law to support the child economically. If parents get divorced, a child five years old or older is asked with whom he or she wants to live. Child Rearing and Education. During early childhood, children have the greatest exposure to their mothers and female relatives. At around the age of five, especially in urban areas, children start attending school if their families can afford the fees. In rural areas, schools are few and children do farm work. This means a very low percentage of rural youth attend school. The government is trying to alleviate this problem by building accessible schools in rural areas. The patriarchal structure of society is reflected in the stress on education for boys over girls. Women face discrimination problems as well as physical abuse in school. Also, the belief still exists that females are less competent then males and that education is wasted on them. Higher Education. Children who do well in elementary school go on to secondary school. It is felt that missionary schools are superior to government schools. Fees are required for missionary schools, although they are reduced considerably for religious adherents. University is free, but admission is extremely competitive. Every secondary student takes a standardized examination to get into college. The acceptance rate is approximately 20 percent of all the individuals who take the tests. There is a quota for the various departments, and only a certain number of individuals are enrolled in their desired majors. The criterion is the grades of first-year students; those with the highest marks get the first choice. In 1999, enrollment at Addis Ababa University was approximately 21,000 students. Etiquette Greeting takes the form of multiple kisses on both cheeks and a plethora of exchanged pleasantries. Any hint of superiority is treated with contempt. Age is a factor in social behavior, and the elderly are treated with the utmost respect. When an elderly person or guest enters a room, it is customary to stand until that person is seated. Dining etiquette is also important. One must always wash the hands before a meal, since all food is eaten with the hands from a communal dish. It is customary for the guest to initiate eating. During a meal, it is proper form to pull injera only from the space directly in front of oneself. Depleted portions are replaced quickly. During meals, participation in conversation is considered polite; complete attention to the meal is thought to be impolite. Religion Religious Beliefs. There has been religious freedom for centuries in Ethiopia. The Ethiopian Orthodox Church is the oldest sub-Saharan African church, and the first mosque in Africa was built in the Tigre province. Christianity and Islam have coexisted peacefully for hundreds of years, and the Christian kings of Ethiopia gave Muhammad refuge during his persecution in southern Arabia, causing the Prophet to declare Ethiopia exempt from Muslim holy wars. It is not uncommon for Christians and Muslims to visit each other's house of worship to seek health or prosperity. The dominant religion has been Orthodox Christianity since King 'Ēzānā of Axum adopted Christianity in 333. It was the official religion during the reign of the monarchy and is currently the unofficial religion. Because of the spread of Islam in Africa, Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity was severed from the Christian world. This has led to many unique characteristics of the church, which is considered the most Judaic formal Christian church. The Ethiopian Orthodox Church lays claim to the original Ark of the Covenant, and replicas (called tabotat ) are housed in a central sanctuary in all churches; it is the tabot that consecrates a church. The Ethiopian Orthodox Church is the only established church that has rejected the doctrine of Pauline Christianity, which states that the Old Testament lost its binding force after the coming of Jesus. The Old Testament focus of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church includes dietary laws similar to the kosher tradition, circumcision after the eighth day of birth, and a Saturday sabbath. Judaism historically was a major religion, although the vast majority of Ethiopian Jews (called Beta Israel) reside in Israel today. The Beta Israel were politically powerful at certain times. Ethiopian Jews often were persecuted during the last few hundred years; that resulted in massive secret airlifts in 1984 and 1991 by the Israeli military. Islam has been a significant religion in Ethiopia since the eighth century but has been viewed as the religion of the "outside" by many Christians and scholars. Non-Muslims traditionally have interpreted Ethiopian Islam as hostile. This prejudice is a result of the dominance of Christianity. Polytheistic religions are found in the lowlands, which also have received Protestant missionaries. These Evangelical churches are fast growing, but Orthodox Christianity and Islam claim the adherence of 85 to 90 percent of the population. Religious Practitioners. The leader of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church is often referred to as the Patriarch or the Pope by Ethiopians. The Patriarch, a Copt himself, was traditionally sent from Egypt to lead the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. This tradition was abandoned in the 1950s when the Patriarch was chosen by Emperor Haile Selassie from within the Ethiopian Church. The tradition of the Patriarch being sent from Egypt began in the fourth century. The conversion of Emperor 'Ēzānā of Axum to Christianity was facilitated by a Syrian boy named Frumentious, who worked in the emperor's court. After Emperor 'Ēzānā's conversion, Frumentious traveled to Egypt to consult the Coptic authorities about sending a Patriarch to head the Church. They concluded that Frumentious would best serve in that role and he was anointed 'Abba Salama (father of Peace) and became the first Patriarch of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. Within the Orthodox Church there are several categories of clergy, including priests, deacons, monks, and lay-priests. It was estimated in the 1960s that between 10 and 20 percent of all adult Amhara and Tigrean men were priests. These figures are much less extraordinary when one considers that at that time there were 17,000 to 18,000 churches in the Amhara and Tigrean regions in the north-central highlands. Rituals and Holy Places. The majority of celebrations are religious in nature. The major Christian holidays include Christmas on 7 January, Epiphany (celebrating the baptism of Jesus) on 19 January, Good Friday and Easter (in late April), and Meskel (the finding of the true cross) on 17 September. Muslim holidays include Ramadan, Id Al Adha (Arafa) on 15 March, and the birthday of Muhammad on 14 June. During all religious holidays, adherents go to their respective places of worship. Many Christian holidays are also state holidays. Death and the Afterlife. Death is a part of daily life as famine, AIDS , and malaria take many lives. Three days of mourning for the dead is the norm. The dead are buried the day they die, and special food is eaten that is provided by family and friends. Christians bury their dead on the grounds of the church, and Muslims do the same at the mosque. Muslims read from religious texts, while Christians tend to cry for their dead during the mourning period. Medicine and Health Care Communicable diseases are the primary illnesses. Acute respiratory infections such as tuberculosis, upper respiratory infections, and malaria are the Ministry of Health's priority health problems. These afflictions accounted for 17 percent of deaths and 24 percent of hospital admissions in 1994 and 1995. Poor sanitation, malnutrition, and a shortage of health facilities are some of the causes of communicable diseases. AIDS has been a serious health problem in recent years. AIDS awareness and condom usage are increasing, however, especially among the urban and educated populations. In 1988 the AIDS Control and Prevention Office conducted a study in which 17 percent of the sample population tested positive for HIV . A total of 57,000 AIDS cases were reported up to April 1998, almost 60 percent of which were in Addis Ababa. This places the HIV-infected population in 1998 at approximately three million. The urban HIV-positive population is drastically higher than the rural at 21 percent versus under 5 percent, respectively, as of 1998. Eighty-eight percent of all infections result from heterosexual transmission, mainly from prostitution and multiple sex partners. The federal government has created a National AIDS Control Program (NACP) to prevent the transmission of HIV and reduce the associated morbidity and mortality. The goals are to inform and educate the general population and increase awareness about AIDS. Prevention of transmission through safer sexual practices, condom usage, and appropriate screening for blood transfusion are goals of the NACP. Government health spending has risen. The absolute level of health expenditure, however, remains far below the average for other sub-Saharan African countries. The health system is primarily curative despite the fact that most health problems are amenable to preventive action. In 1995-1996, Ethiopia had 1,433 physicians, 174 pharmacists, 3,697 nurses, and one hospital for every 659,175 people. The physician-to-population ratio was 1:38,365. These ratios are very low in comparison to other sub-Saharan developing countries, although the distribution is highly unbalanced in favor of urban centers. For example, 62 percent of the doctors and 46 percent of the nurses were found in Addis Ababa, where 5 percent of the population resides. Secular Celebrations The major state holidays are New Year's Day on 11 September, Victory Day of Adwa on 2 March, Ethiopian Patriots Victory Day on 6 April, Labor Day on 1 May, and the Downfall of the Derge, 28 May. The Arts and Humanities Literature. The classical language of Ge'ez, which has evolved into Amharic and Tigrean, is one of the four extinct languages but is the only indigenous writing system in Africa that is still in use. Ge'ez is still spoken in Orthodox Church services. The development of Ge'ez literature began with translations of the Old and New Testaments from Greek and Hebrew. Ge'ez was also the first Semitic language to employ a vowel system. Many apocryphal texts such as the Book of Enoch, the Book of Jubilees, and the Ascension of Isaiah have been preserved in their entirety only in Ge'ez. Even though these texts were not included in the Biblical canon, among Biblical scholars (and Ethiopian Christians) they are regarded as significant to an understanding of the origin and development of Christianity. Graphic Arts. Religious art, especially Orthodox Christian, has been a significant part of the national culture for hundreds of years. Illuminated Bibles and manuscripts have been dated to the twelfth century, and the eight-hundred-year-old churches in Lalibela contain Christian paintings, manuscripts, and stone relief. Wood carving and sculpture are very common in the southern lowlands, especially among the Konso. A fine arts school has been established in Addis Ababa that teaches painting, sculpture, etching, and lettering. Performance Arts. Christian music is believed to have been established by Saint Yared in the sixth century and is sung in Ge'ez, the liturgical language. Both Orthodox and Protestant music is popular and is sung in Amharic, Tigrean, and Oromo. The traditional dance, eskesta, consists of rhythmic shoulder movements and usually is accompanied by the kabaro, a drum made from wood and animal skin, and the masinqo, a single-stringed violin with an A-shaped bridge that is played with a small bow. Foreign influences exist in the form of Afro-pop, reggae, and hip-hop. The State of the Physical and Social Sciences The university system fosters academic research in cultural and physical anthropology, archaeology, history, political science, linguistics, and theology. A large percentage of the leading scholars in these fields went to the University of Addis Ababa. A lack of funding and resources has constrained the development of the university system. The library system is inferior, and computers and Internet access are not available at the university. Bibliography Addis Ababa University. Addis Ababa University: A Brief Profile 2000, 2000. Ahmed, Hussein. "The Historiography of Islam in Ethiopia." Journal of Islamic Studies 3 (1): 15–46, 1992. Akilu, Amsalu. A Glimpse of Ethiopia, 1997. Briggs, Philip. Guide to Ethiopia, 1998. Brooks, Miguel F. Kebra Nagast [The Glory of Kings], 1995. Budge, Sir. E. A. Wallis. The Queen of Sheba and Her Only Son Menyelek, 1932. Cassenelli, Lee. "Qat: Changes in the Production and Consumption of a Quasilegal Commodity in Northeast Africa." In The Social Life of Things: Commodities in Cultural Perspectives, Arjun Appadurai, ed., 1999. Clapham, Christopher. Haile-Selassie's Government, 1969. Connah, Graham. African Civilizations: Precolonial Cities and States in Tropical Africa: An Archaeological Perspective, 1987. Donham, Donald, and Wendy James, eds. The Southern Marches of Imperial Ethiopia, 1986. Haile, Getatchew. "Ethiopic Literature." In African Zion: The Sacred Art of Ethiopia, Roderick Grierson, ed.,1993. Hastings, Adrian. The Construction of Nationhood: Ethnicity, Religion and Nationalism, 1995. Hausman, Gerald. The Kebra Nagast: The Lost Bible of Rastafarian Wisdom and Faith from Ethiopia and Jamaica, 1995. Heldman, Marilyn. "Maryam Seyon: Mary of Zion." In African Zion: The Sacred Art of Ethiopia, Roderick Grierson, ed., 1993. Isaac, Ephraim. "An Obscure Component in Ethiopian Church History." Le Museon, 85: 225–258, 1971. ——. "Social Structure of the Ethiopian Church." Ethiopian Observer, XIV (4): 240–288, 1971. —— and Cain Felder. "Reflections on the Origins of Ethiopian Civilization." In Proceedings of the Eighth International Conference of Ethiopian Studies, 1988. Jalata, Asafa. "The Struggle For Knowledge: The Case of Emergent Oromo Studies." African Studies Review, 39(2): 95–123. Joireman, Sandra Fullerton. "Contracting for Land: Lessons from Litigation in a Communal Tenure Area of Ethiopia." Canadian Journal of African Studies, 30 (2): 214–232. Kalayu, Fitsum. "The Role of NGOs in Poverty Alleviation in Rural Ethiopia: The Case of Actionaid Ethiopia." Master's thesis. School of Developmental Studies, University of Anglia, Norway. Kaplan, Steven. The Beta Israel (Falasha) in Ethiopia, 1992. Kessler, David. The Falashas: A Short History of the Ethiopian Jews, 1982. Levine, Donald Nathan. Wax and Gold: Tradition and Innovation in Ethiopian Culture, 1965. ——. Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society, 1974. Library of Congress. Ethiopia: A Country Study, 1991, http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/ettoc.html . Marcus, Harold. A History of Ethiopia, 1994. Mengisteab, Kidane. "New Approaches to State Building in Africa: The Case of Ethiopia's Based Federalism." African Studies Review, 40 (3): 11–132. Mequanent, Getachew. "Community Development and the Role of Community Organizations: A Study in Northern Ethiopia." Canadian Journal of African Studies, 32 (3): 494–520, 1998. Ministry of Health of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. National AIDS Control Program: Regional Multisectoral HIV/AIDS Strategic Plan 2000–2004, 1999. ——. Health and Health Related Indicators: 1991, 2000. Munro-Hay, Stuart C. "Aksumite Coinage." In African Zion: The Sacred Art of Ethiopia, Roderick Grierson, ed., 1993. Pankhurst, Richard. A Social History of Ethiopia, 1990. Rahmato, Dessalegn. "Land Tenure and Land Policy in Ethiopia after the Derg." In Papers of the 12th International Conference of Ethiopian Studies, Harold Marcus, ed., 1994. Ullendorff, Edward. The Ethiopians: An Introduction to Country and People, 1965. ——. Ethiopia and the Bible, 1968. United Nations Development Program. Health Indicators in Ethiopia, Human Development Report, 1998. Web Sites Central Intelligence Agency. World Factbook 1999: Ethiopia, 1999, http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/et.html Ethnologue. Ethiopia (Catalogue of Languages), 2000 http://www.sil.org/ethnologue/countries/Ethi.html United States Department of State. Background Notes: Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, 1998, http://www.state.gov/www/background_notes/ethiopia_0398_bgn.html —Adam Mohr	i don't know
Which bowler took the final wicket when England won the Ashes in the fourth test at Trent Bridge this month?	Ashes 2015: England bowler Mark Wood 'may need ankle operation' - BBC Sport BBC Sport Ashes 2015: England bowler Mark Wood 'may need ankle operation' 18 Aug 2015 Mark Wood took the wicket that regained the Ashes for England at the end of the fourth Test at Trent Bridge Ashes 2015: England v Australia, fifth Test Venue: The Oval, London Dates: 20-24 August Coverage: Ball-by-ball Test Match Special commentary on BBC Radio 5 live sports extra, Radio 4 LW, online, tablets, mobiles and BBC Sport app. Live text commentary on the BBC Sport website. England bowler Mark Wood says he may need to have an operation to resolve his ankle problems. The Durham seamer, 25, missed the third Test at Edgbaston with the injury after a laboured display in the second Test, and has never played three consecutive first-class matches in his career. "Long-term, I think the ankle problem that I've got may need some work done to it," Wood said. "I've never had an operation yet but that might be the case." He added: "Everyone saw that [in the second Test] at Lord's I struggled a bit so I might have to have that operation done." Wood is in the squad for the fifth Test against Australia at Lord's, which starts on Thursday, but could miss out if James Anderson is passed fit, despite taking the wicket that won the Ashes for England in the fourth Test at Trent Bridge. He finished with match figures of 1-13 in the first innings and 3-69 in the second innings. "Jimmy's got 400 wickets and he's England's lead bowler," Wood added. "He had a bowl yesterday and he seemed fine, and if he's fit and ready to go it looks like he would get the nod. "It's out of my hands but I'm going to prepare how I've prepared for every other game." Share this page	Mark Wood
Dennis Waterman, the final member of the original cast of BBC TV show New Tricks left after episode 2 of the current, and final, series to be replaced by which actor playing retired detective Ted Case?	Stuart Broad says eight for 15 against Australia was a once in a lifetime spell \| Sport \| The Guardian Stuart Broad says eight for 15 against Australia was a once in a lifetime spell • Broad: ‘I’m sure I’ll never better that, it was a special morning’ • Joe Root now No1 in the world Test batting rankings Stuart Broad celebrates dismissing Australia’s Steve Smith in the fourth Test at Trent Bridge. Photograph: Tom Jenkins for the Guardian Saturday 8 August 2015 14.38 EDT Last modified on Monday 10 October 2016 21.48 EDT Close This article is 1 year old Stuart Broad said the chances of him bettering his historic eight-wicket burst at Trent Bridge are slim, describing his man-of-the-match performance on the first morning of the fourth Test as a once in a lifetime spell. Broad’s eight for 15, the best figures from a fast bowler in an Ashes Test, effectively sealed the series win inside 93 minutes as Australia’s batsmen folded in 111 balls – the shortest first innings of all time. “That the best spell I’ve bowled,” Broad said. “Our bowling coach, Ottis Gibson, said to me those spells come once in a lifetime. Sometimes you do it for your school, sometimes you do it for your club. But to do it for England against Australia, I couldn’t have dreamt it. 'The final low', pronounce Australia's media after tourists' Ashes fate is sealed Read more “Our catching was spectacular that morning. It summed up all the hard work we’ve been putting in, that hour and a half. It was a reward. I’m sure I’ll never better that eight for 15 as a bowler. It was a special morning.” Broad picked up a ninth wicket for the Test in Australia’s second innings but had to take a backseat on Saturday morning, watching as the Durham pair, Ben Stokes and Mark Wood, wrapped up the innings victory. Wood claimed the final scalp of Nathan Lyon and took to his imaginary horse in the celebrations, topping off a breakthrough summer with the ball for the 25-year-old from Ashington, who has 18 wickets in his first five Tests. “I can’t quite believe it. The summer couldn’t have gone any better for me,” Wood told BBC’s Test Match Special. “To miss out at Edgbaston and then to be back here and take the winning wicket is an incredible feeling, one I’ll never forget. I was still shaking in the dressing room half an hour later. I haven’t played a lot because of my injury record but I don’t really care, I’ve won the Ashes. “I don’t remember much of taking that last wicket. That feeling when we were in the group … I think I got stood on about five times. I still have some ear ache from the shouting. It is not great being teetotal as there is champagne everywhere. “I never thought a year ago I would be in the side, let alone taking the final wicket to win it. I wanted to be myself and prove I was good enough. I think there is more to come.” Joe Root’s first innings 130 set up his side’s 391 for nine declared and took him to No1 in the world Test batting rankings – the first England player since Michael Vaughan in 2003. Root has scored 443 runs in the series, with two centuries and two half-centuries, at an average of 71.79. He told Sky Sports: “It’s hard to put it into words – the way that this squad of players has come together and not relied on one or two individuals. “We bowled them out for 60 when I was wearing the sweater and a few of the other lads are superstitious so I had to keep it on. “The credit goes to the bowlers – 20 wickets wins you Test matches, and fingers crossed our good catching can continue, because the fewer chances you need to create the better.”	i don't know
An anti-emetic is a drug that is effective against what?	Antiemetic Medicines: OTC Relief for Nausea and Vomiting - familydoctor.org Antiemetic Medicines: OTC Relief for Nausea and Vomiting Antiemetic Medicines: OTC Relief for Nausea and Vomiting Antiemetic Medicines: OTC Relief for Nausea and Vomiting Antiemetic Medicines: OTC Relief for Nausea and Vomiting What types of OTC medicines treat nausea and vomiting? Over-the-counter (OTC) medicines are medicines you can buy without a prescription from your doctor. Medicines for nausea are called antiemetics. They can help relieve nausea and vomiting. Several OTC medicines are used as antiemetics. Bismuth subsalicylate (some brand names: Kaopectate, Pepto-Bismol) may help treat some types of nausea and vomiting, such as from gastroenteritis (also called “stomach flu”). It’s also used for upset stomach and as an antidiarrheal (medicine to treat diarrhea). Certain antihistamines may help prevent nausea and vomiting caused by motion sickness. These include dimenhydrinate (brand name: Dramamine) and meclizine hydrochloride (brand name: Dramamine Less Drowsy). How do antiemetic medicines work? Bismuth subsalicylate works by protecting the stomach lining. Antihistamines appear to dull the inner ear’s ability to sense motion. They “block” messages to the part of the brain that controls nausea and vomiting. This is why they work best if you take them before you think you might have a problem with motion sickness. How do I safely take OTC antiemetic medicines? Read the directions on the drug facts label to learn how much medicine to take and how often to take it. If you have any questions about how much medicine to take, call your family doctor or pharmacist. Keep a record (1-page PDF) of the OTC medicines you are using and when you take them. If you need to go to the doctor, take this list with you. Follow these tips to make sure you are taking the right amount of medicine: Take only the amount recommended on the medicine’s label. Don’t assume that more medicine will work better or quicker. Taking more than the recommended amount can be dangerous. If you are taking a prescription medicine, ask your doctor if it’s okay to also take an OTC antiemetic medicine. Don’t use more than 1 kind of OTC antiemetic medicine at a time unless your doctor says it’s okay. They may have similar active ingredients that add up to be too much medicine. How can I safely store OTC antiemetic medicines? Store all medicines up and away, out of reach and sight of young children. Keeping medicines in a cool, dry place will help prevent them from becoming less effective before their expiration dates. Do not store medicines in bathrooms or bathroom cabinets, which are often hot and humid. What are some common side effects of antiemetic medicines? Healthy adults usually don’t experience side effects from antiemetic medicines. Side effects can be a concern for older adults or people who have health problems. The most common side effects of bismuth subsalicylate are darkened stools or tongue, constipation, and a ringing sound in the ears (tinnitus). These are short-term side effects. Antihistamines may make you feel sleepy. This can affect your ability to drive or operate machines, and it may be hard for you to think clearly. Alcohol can increase the drowsiness caused by antihistamines. Antihistamines may also cause your mouth and eyes to feel dry. Who shouldn’t take OTC antiemetic medicines? People who are allergic to aspirin or other salicylate medicines should not take bismuth subsalicylate. Don’t give bismuth subsalicylate to children 12 years of age or younger. Don’t give bismuth subsalicylate to children or teenagers 12 to 18 years of age who may have the flu or chickenpox. This increases their risk for Reye syndrome, which is a serious illness that can lead to death. Can OTC antiemetic medicines cause problems with any other medicines I take? Bismuth subsalicylate may affect some medicines so that they don’t work as well. It also may cause side effects if combined with other medicines. Ask your doctor before taking bismuth subsalicylate if you also take: Ask your doctor before taking bismuth subsalicylate if you take pain relievers or cold medicines. These medicines may contain aspirin, which is a salicylate. You may get too much salicylate if you take more than 1 of these medicines at a time. Talk to your doctor before taking an antihistamine if you take sleeping pills, sedatives, or muscle relaxants. Many OTC cold and allergy medicines contain antihistamines. If you take more than 1 of these medicines, you may take more antihistamine than you intend. Some prescription medicines have side effects similar to the side effects of antihistamines (including dry mouth and drowsiness), so you should also talk with your doctor before taking these medicines at the same time. Blood-thinning medicines Medicines for arthritis Medicines for diabetes Should I talk to my doctor for any other reason before taking an OTC antiemetic medicine? Before taking an antihistamine, talk to your doctor if you have any of the following problems: Glaucoma Trouble urinating (from an enlarged prostate gland) Breathing problems, such as asthma, emphysema, or chronic bronchitis Thyroid disease	Vomiting
After whom was the tower block in Peckham, the home to the Trotters, in Only Fools and Horses named?	Common Antiemetic Drugs \| LIVESTRONG.COM Common Antiemetic Drugs Last Updated: Apr 22, 2016 Chidambaram Sunder Valliappan Chidambaram Sunder Valliappan is pursuing his master's degree in Internal Medicine in Michigan. He also holds a double bachelor's degree in medicine and surgery from Meenakshi Medical College in India, and has five years of professional experience. His interests include hospital quality initiatives, healthcare personnel education and acute-care medicine. A woman is receiving medication from the pharmacist. Photo Credit vizualni/iStock/Getty Images Medicines called antiemetics are sometimes needed to ward off nausea and vomiting from anesthesia, chemotherapy, motion sickness or something else. Doctors choose from several categories, including drugs that work primarily through the chemical messengers serotonin, dopamine, acetylcholine and histamine. Each family of drugs has its own set of potential benefits and side effects such that drug use may be tailored to a particular kind of nausea and vomiting. Serotonin Receptor Blockers, Like Ondansetron Some examples are ondansetron (Zofran), granisetron (Granisol), palonosetron (Aloxi) and dolasetron (Anzemet). Drugs in this family work to suppress signals from one of the special areas of the brain responsible for causing nausea and vomiting. These drugs are effective even for severe types of nausea such as that triggered by some types of cancer chemotherapy. Common side effects include headaches, drowsiness, dizziness and constipation. When used with other drugs that promote serotonin in the body, there is a potential risk of something called serotonin syndrome from too much serotonin. Drugs in this family may be used in pregnancy if clearly needed. Dopamine Receptor Blockers, Like Metoclopramide The dopamine receptor blocker family is a large, diverse group of drugs. They include metoclopramide (Reglan), droperidol (Inapsine) and prochlorperazine (Procomp). These drugs work both by facilitating stomach movements and emptying -- such as in people with diabetes whose stomachs are slow to empty -- and by reducing nausea and vomiting signals from the nervous system. They are also used for vomiting caused by chemotherapy and anesthesia, but this group has more side effects and potential interactions than the serotonin receptor blockers. Adverse reactions include movement problems, such as slowing down of body movements or tremors, or behavioral changes such as drowsiness, restlessness or agitation. Cholinergic Receptor Blockers, Like Scopolamine Scopolamine (Transderm Scop) is the major drug in this class that is used for nausea and vomiting, especially in the prevention of motion sickness. Scopolamine is available as a skin patch that is best applied 12 hours before the anticipated need, but it may be effective when applied up to 2 to 3 hours before travel, and a single patch can last for up to 3 days. Common side effects from this patch are dry mouth, drowsiness and blurred vision. Histamine Receptor Blockers, Like Promethazine Some examples of drugs in this family are promethazine (Phenergan), diphenhydramine (Benadryl), dimenhydrinate (Dramamine) and meclizine (Dramamine Non Drowsy). Although these drugs are commonly used for allergies, they are also effective for nausea and vomiting, especially after surgery or due to motion sickness. They work similarly to cholinergic receptor blockers by reducing the intensity of nausea signals to the brain. Side effects for this group of medications include sleepiness, confusion, dry mouth and -- infrequently -- blurry vision. Other Drugs and Drug Combinations Some other drugs are dronabinol (Marinol) and aprepitant (Emend). Dronabinol increases appetite and controls nausea, but its side effects include mood changes, behavior changes, racing of the heart and withdrawal syndromes. Aprepitant is a new drug that blocks neurokinin receptors. It is usually combined with a serotonin receptor blocker and steroids like dexamethasone for severe vomiting that occurs with certain cancer chemotherapies and after surgeries and general anesthesia. After surgery, the serotonin receptor blockers, either alone or in combination with a histamine or cholinergic receptor blocker, are useful to control nausea and vomiting. Occasionally, sedatives like lorazepam are also used for nausea and vomiting. Related Searches THE LIVESTRONG.COM MyPlate Nutrition, Workouts & Tips GOAL Gain 2 pounds per week Gain 1.5 pounds per week Gain 1 pound per week Gain 0.5 pound per week Maintain my current weight Lose 0.5 pound per week Lose 1 pound per week Lose 1.5 pounds per week Lose 2 pounds per week GENDER	i don't know
In which Shakespeare play does Dogberry, a constable, manage to uncover Don John’s plot to discredit Hero?	William Shakespeare Biography WRITINGS BY THE AUTHOR: Play Productions: Henry VI, part 1, London, unknown theater (perhaps by a branch of the Queen's Men), circa 1589-1592. Henry VI, part 2, London, unknown theater (perhaps by a branch of the Queen's Men), circa 1590-1592. Henry VI, part 3, London, unknown theater (perhaps by a branch of the Queen's Men), circa 1590-1592. Richard III, London, unknown theater (perhaps by a branch of the Queen's Men), circa 1591-1592. The Comedy of Errors, London, unknown theater (probably by Lord Strange's Men), circa 1592-1594; London, Gray's Inn, 28 December 1594. Titus Andronicus, London, Rose or Newington Butts theater, 24 January 1594. The Taming of the Shrew, London, Newington Butts theater, 11 June 1594. The Two Gentlemen of Verona, London, Newington Butts theater or the Theatre, 1594. Love's Labor's Lost, perhaps at the country house of a great lord, such as the Earl of Southampton, circa 1594-1595; London, at Court, Christmas 1597. Sir Thomas More, probably by Anthony Munday, revised by Thomas Dekker, Henry Chettle, Shakespeare, and possibly Thomas Heywood, evidently never produced, circa 1594-1595. King John, London, the Theatre, circa 1594-1596. Richard II, London, the Theatre, circa 1595. Romeo and Juliet, London, the Theatre, circa 1595-1596. A Midsummer Night's Dream, London, the Theatre, circa 1595-1596. The Merchant of Venice, London, the Theatre, circa 1596-1597. Henry IV, part 1, London, the Theatre, circa 1596-1597. Henry IV, part 2, London, the Theatre, circa 1597. The Merry Wives of Windsor, Windsor, Windsor Castle, 23 April 1597. Much Ado About Nothing, London, the Theatre, circa 1598-1599. Henry V, London, Globe theater(?), between March and September 1599(?). Julius Caesar, London, Globe theater, 21 September 1599. As You Like It, London, Globe theater, circa 1599-1600. Hamlet, London, Globe theater, circa 1600-1601. Twelfth Night, London, at Court(?), no earlier than 6 January 1601(?); London, Globe theater(?), circa 1601-1602(?); London, Middle Temple, 2 February 1602. Troilus and Cressida, London, Globe theater(?), circa 1601-1602(?). All's Well That Ends Well, London, Globe theater, circa 1602-1603. Measure for Measure, London, Globe theater(?), 1604(?); London, at Court, 26 December 1604. Othello, London, Globe theater(?), 1604(?); Westminster, Whitehall, 1 November 1604. King Lear, London, Globe theater(?), by late 1605 or early 1606; London, at Court, 26 December 1606. Timon of Athens (possibly unperformed during Shakespeare's lifetime); possibly London, Globe theater, circa 1605-1608. Macbeth, London, Globe theater(?), 1606(?); London, at Court, probably 7 August 1606. Antony and Cleopatra, London, Globe theater, circa 1606-1607. Pericles, possibly by Shakespeare and George Wilkins, London, at Court, between January 1606 and November 1608; London, Globe theater, probably circa 1607-1608. Coriolanus, London, Globe theater, circa 1607-1608. Cymbeline, London, Blackfriars theater or Globe theater, 1609. The Winter's Tale, London, Globe theater, 15 May 1611. The Tempest, London, at Court, 1 November 1611. Cardenio, probably by Shakespeare and Fletcher, London, Globe theater(?), circa 1612-1613. Henry VIII, possibly by Shakespeare and John Fletcher, London, Globe theater, 29 June 1613. The Two Noble Kinsmen, by Shakespeare and Fletcher, London, probably Blackfriars theater (possibly Globe theater), 1613. Books: Venus and Adonis (London: Printed by Richard Field, sold by J. Harrison I, 1593). The First Part of the Contention betwixt the two famous Houses of Yorke and Lancaster [abridged and corrupt text of Henry VI, part 2] (London: Printed by Thomas Creede for Thomas Millington, 1594). Lucrece (London: Printed by Richard Field for John Harrison, 1594); republished as The Rape of Lucrece. Newly Revised (London: Printed by T. Snodham for R. Jackson, 1616). The Most Lamentable Romaine Tragedie of Titus Andronicus (London: Printed by John Danter, sold by Edward White & Thomas Middleton, 1594). A Pleasant Conceited Historie, Called The Taming of a Shrew [corrupt text] (London: Printed by Peter Short, sold by Cuthbert Burbie, 1594). The True Tragedie of Richard Duke of Yorke, and the death of good King Henrie the Sixt [abridged and corrupt text of Henry VI, part 3] (London: Printed by Peter Short for Thomas Millington, 1595). The Tragedy of King Richard the Third (London: Printed by Valentine Simmes & Peter Short for Andrew Wise, 1597). The Tragedie of King Richard the second (London: Printed by Valentine Simmes for Andrew Wise, 1597). An Excellent conceited Tragedie of Romeo and Juliet [corrupt text] (London: Printed by John Danter [& E. Allde?], 1597); The Most Excellent and lamentable Tragedie of Romeo and Juliet. Newly Corrected, Augmented, and Amended (London: Printed by Thomas Creede for Cuthbert Burby, 1599). A Pleasant Conceited Comedie Called, Loues Labors Lost (London: Printed by William White for Cuthbert Burby, 1598). The History of Henrie the Fourth [part 1] (London: Printed by Peter Short for Andrew Wise, 1598). A midsommer nights dreame (London: Printed by R. Bradock for Thomas Fisher, 1600). The most excellent Historie of the Merchant of Venice (London: Printed by James Roberts for Thomas Heyes, 1600). The Second part of Henrie the fourth, continuing to his death, and coronation of Henrie the fift (London: Printed by Valentine Simmes for Andrew Wise & William Aspley, 1600). Much adoe about Nothing (London: Printed by Valentine Simmes for Andrew Wise & William Aspley, 1600). The Cronicle History of Henry the fift [corrupt text] (London: Printed by Thomas Creede for Thomas Mullington & John Busby, 1600). The Phoenix and Turtle, appended to Loves Martyr: or, Rosalins Complaint, by Robert Chester (London: Printed by Richard Field for E. Blount, 1601). A Most pleasaunt and excellent conceited Comedie, of Syr John Falstaffe, and the merrie Wives of Windsor [corrupt text] (London: Printed by Thomas Creede for Arthur Johnson, 1602). The Tragicall Historie of Hamlet Prince of Denmark [abridged and corrupt text] (London: Printed by Valentine Simmes for Nicholas Ling & John Trundell, 1603); The Tragicall Historie of Hamlet, Prince of Denmarke. Newly Imprinted and Enlarged to Almost as Much Againe as It Was, According to the True and Perfect Coppie (London: Printed by James Roberts for Nicholas Ling, 1604). M. William Shak-speare: His True Chronicle Historie of the life and death of King Lear and his three daughters (London: Printed by N. Okes for Nathaniel Butter, 1608). The Historie of Troylus and Cresseida (London: Printed by G. Eld for R. Bonian & H. Walley, 1609). Shake-speares Sonnets (London: Printed by G. Eld for Thomas Thorpe, sold by W. Aspley, 1609). The Late, and Much Admired Play, Called Pericles, Prince of Tyre (London: Printed by W. White for Henry Gosson, 1609). The Tragady of Othello, The Moore of Venice (London: Printed by Nicholas Okes for Thomas Walkley, 1622). Mr. William Shakespeares Comedies, Histories, & Tragedies. Published according to the True Originall Copies (London: Printed by Isaac Jaggard & Edward Blount, 1623)--comprises The Tempest; The Two Gentlemen of Verona; The Merry Wives of Windsor; Measure for Measure; The Comedy of Errors; Much Ado About Nothing; Love's Labor's Lost; A Midsummer Night's Dream; The Merchant of Venice; As You Like It; The Taming of the Shrew; All's Well That Ends Well; Twelfth Night; The Winter's Tale; King John; Richard II; Henry IV, parts 1 and 2; Henry V; Henry VI, parts 1-3; Richard III; Henry VIII; Troilus and Cressida; Coriolanus; Titus Andronicus; Romeo and Juliet; Timon of Athens; Julius Caesar; Macbeth; Hamlet; King Lear; Othello; Antony and Cleopatra; Cymbeline; The Two Noble Kinsmen, by Shakespeare and John Fletcher (London: Printed by Thomas Cotes for John Waterson, 1634). Editions: A New Variorum Edition of Shakespeare, 29 volumes to date, volumes 1-15, 18, edited by Horace Howard Furness; volumes 16-17, 19-20, edited by Horace Howard Furness, Jr. (Philadelphia & London: Lippincott, 1871-1928); volumes 1-25, general editor Joseph Quincey Adams; volumes 26-27, general editor Hyder Edward Rollins (Philadelphia & London: Lippincott for the Modern Language Association of America, 1936-1955); volumes 28- , general editors Robert K. Turner, Jr., and Richard Knowles (New York: Modern Language Association of America, 1977- ). The Works of Shakespeare, The New Cambridge Shakespeare, edited by J. Dover Wilson, Arthur Quiller-Couch, and others, 39 volumes (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1921-1967). The Complete Works of Shakespeare, edited by George Lyman Kittredge (Boston: Ginn, 1936); revised by Irving Ribner (Waltham, Mass.: Ginn, 1971). Shakespeare Quarto Facsimiles, edited by W. W. Greg and Charlton Hinman, 14 volumes (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1939-1966). William Shakespeare: The Complete Works, edited by Peter Alexander (London & Glasgow: Collins, 1951; New York: Random House, 1952). The Arden Shakespeare, general editors Harold F. Brooks and Harold Jenkins, 38 volumes to date (London: Methuen, 1951- ). The Complete Works of Shakespeare, edited by Hardin Craig (Chicago: Scott Foresman, 1961); revised by Craig and David Bevington (Glenview, Ill.: Scott Foresman, 1973); revised again by Bevington (Glenview, Ill.: Scott Foresman, 1980). The New Penguin Shakespeare, general editor T. J. B. Spencer, 33 volumes to date (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1967- ). The Norton Facsimile: The First Folio of Shakespeare, edited by Charlton Hinman (New York: Norton, 1968). William Shakespeare: The Complete Works, The Complete Pelican Shakespeare, general editor Alfred Harbage (Baltimore: Penguin, 1969). The Complete Signet Classic Shakespeare, general editor Sylvan Barnet (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1972). The Riverside Shakespeare, general editor G. Blakemore Evans (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1974). Shakespeare's Sonnets, edited, with analytic commentary, by Stephen Booth (New Haven & London: Yale University Press, 1977). Shakespeare's Plays in Quarto: A Facsimile Edition of Copies Primarily from the Henry E. Huntington Library, edited by Michael J. B. Allen and Kenneth Muir (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982). The Complete Works, general editors Stanley Wells and Gary Taylor (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986). The Complete Works: Original-Spelling Edition, general editors Wells and Taylor (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986). "He was not of an age, but for all time." So wrote Ben Jonson in his dedicatory verses to the memory of William Shakespeare in 1623, and so we continue to affirm today. No other writer, in English or in any other language, can rival the appeal that Shakespeare has enjoyed. And no one else in any artistic endeavor has projected a cultural influence as broad or as deep. Shakespeare's words and phrases have become so familiar to us that it is sometimes with a start that we realize we have been speaking Shakespeare when we utter a cliché such as "one fell swoop" or "not a mouse stirring." Never mind that many of the expressions we hear most often--"to the manner born," or (from the same speech in Hamlet) "more honored in the breach than the observance"--are misapplied at least as frequently as they are employed with any awareness of their original context and implication. The fact remains that Shakespeare's vocabulary and Shakespeare's cadences are even more pervasive in our ordinary discourse today than the idiom of the King James Bible, which Bartlett lists as only the second most plentiful source of Familiar Quotations. And much the same could be said of those mirrors of our nature, Shakespeare's characters. From small delights like Juliet's Nurse, or Bottom the Weaver, or the Gravedigger, to such incomparable creations as Falstaff, King Lear, and Lady Macbeth, Shakespeare has enlarged our world by imitating it. It should not surprise us, therefore, that personalities as vivid as these have gone on, as it were, to lives of their own outside the dramatic settings in which they first thought and spoke and moved. In opera alone there are enough different renderings of characters and scenes from Shakespeare's plays to assure that the devotee of Charles-François Gounod or Giuseppe Verdi, Richard Wagner or Benjamin Britten, could attend a different performance every evening for six months and never see the same work twice. Which is not to suggest, of course, that the composers of other musical forms have been remiss: Franz Schubert, Felix Mendelssohn, Robert Schumann, Franz Liszt, Hector Berlioz, Pyotr Tchaikovsky, Claude Debussy, Jean Sibelius, Sergey Prokofiev, and Aaron Copland are but a few of the major figures who have given us songs, tone poems, ballets, symphonic scores, or other compositions based on Shakespeare. Cole Porter might well have been addressing his fellow composers when he punctuated Kiss Me Kate with the advice to "Brush Up Your Shakespeare." Certainly the painters have never needed such reminders. Artists of the stature of George Romney, William Blake , Henry Fuseli, Eugene Delacroix, John Constable, J. M. W. Turner, and Dante Gabriel Rossetti have drawn inspiration from Shakespeare's dramatis personae; and, thanks to such impresarios as the eighteenth-century dealer John Boydell, the rendering of scenes from Shakespeare has long been a significant subgenre of pictorial art. Illustrators of Shakespeare editions have often been notable figures in their own right: George Cruikshank, Arthur Rackham , Rockwell Kent, and Salvador Dali. Meanwhile, the decorative arts have had their Wedgwood platters with pictures from the plays, their Shakespeare portraits carved on scrimshaw, their Anne Hathaway's Cottage tea cozies, their mulberry-wood jewelry boxes, and their Superbard T-shirts. Every nation that has a theatrical tradition is indebted to Shakespeare, and in language after language Shakespeare remains the greatest living playwright. Not merely in terms of the hundreds of productions of Shakespeare's own plays to be blazoned on the marquees in any given year, either: no, one must also bear in mind the dozens of film and television versions of the plays, and the countless adaptations, parodies, and spinoffs that accent the repertory--from musicals such as The Boys from Syracuse (based on The Comedy of Errors) and West Side Story (Leonard Bernstein's New York ghetto version of the gang wars in Romeo and Juliet), to political lampoons like Macbird (contra LBJ) and Dick Deterred (the doubly punning anti-Nixon polemic), not to mention more reflective dramatic treatments such as Edward Bond 's Bingo (a "biographical drama" about Shakespeare the man) and Tom Stoppard 's Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead (an absurdist re-enactment of Hamlet from the perspective of two innocents as bewildered by the court of Renaissance Elsinore as their twentieth-century counterparts would be in a play such as Samuel Beckett 's Waiting for Godot). When we broaden our survey to include the hundreds of novels, short stories, poems, critical appreciations, and other works of serious literature that derive in one way or another from Shakespeare, we partake of an even grander view of the playwright's literary and cultural primacy. Here in America, for example, we can recall Ralph Waldo Emerson 's awestruck response to the Stratford seer, his exclamation that Shakespeare was "inconcievably wise," all other great writers only "conceivably." On the other side of the coin, we can indulge in the speculation that Shakespeare may have constituted an aspect of the behemoth that obsessed Herman Melville 's imagination, thus accounting for some of the echoes of Shakespearean tragedy in the form and rhetoric of Moby-Dick. In a lighter vein, we can chuckle at the frontier Bardolatry so hilariously exploited by the Duke and the King in Mark Twain 's Huckleberry Finn. Or, moving to our own century, we can contemplate William Faulkner 's The Sound and the Fury as an extended allusion to Macbeth's "tomorrow and tomorrow and tomorrow" soliloquy. Should we be disposed to look elsewhere, we can puzzle over "the riddle of Shakespeare" in the meditations of the Argentine novelist and essayist Jorge Luis Borges . Or smile (with perhaps but an incomplete suspension of disbelief) as the Nobel Prize-winning African poet and dramatist Wole Soyinka quips that "Sheikh Zpeir" must have had some Arabic blood in him, so faithfully did he capture the local color of Egypt in Antony and Cleopatra . Implicit in all of these manifestations of Shakespeare worship is a perception best summed up, perhaps, in James Joyce 's rendering of the charismatic name: "Shapesphere." For in showing "the very age and body of the time his form and pressure" (as Hamlet would put it), Shakespeare proved himself to be both the "soul of the age" his works reflected and adorned and the consummate symbol of the artist whose poetic visions transcend their local habitation and become, in some mysterious way, contemporaneous with "all time" (to return once more to Jonson's eulogy). If Jan Kott, a twentieth-century existentialist from eastern Europe, can marvel that Shakespeare is "our contemporary," then, his testimony is but one more instance of the tendency of every age to claim Shakespeare as its own. Whatever else we say about Shakespeare, in other words, we are impelled to acknowledge the incontrovertible fact that, preeminent above all others, he has long stood and will no doubt long remain atop a pedestal (to recall a recent New Yorker cartoon) as "a very very very very very very important writer." So important, indeed, that some of his most zealous admirers have paid him the backhand compliment of doubting that works of such surpassing genius could have been written by the same William Shakespeare who lies buried and memorialized in Stratford-upon-Avon. Plays such as the English histories would suggest in the writer an easy familiarity with the ways of kings, queens, and courtiers; hence their author must have been a member of the nobility, someone like Edward de Vere , the seventeenth Earl of Oxford. Plays such as Julius Caesar , with their impressive display of classical learning, would indicate an author with more than the "small Latin and less Greek" that Ben Jonson attributes to Shakespeare; hence the need to seek for their true begetter in the form of a university-trained scholar such as Francis Bacon. Or so would urge those skeptics (whose numbers have included such redoubtable personages as Henry James and Sigmund Freud) who find themselves in sympathy with the "anti-Stratfordians." Their ranks have never been particularly numerous or disciplined, since they have often quarreled among themselves about which of the various "claimants"--the Earl of Derby, Christopher Marlowe, even Queen Elizabeth herself--should be upheld as the "true Shakespeare." And because many of their arguments are methodologically unsophisticated, they have never attracted adherents from scholars with academic credentials in the study of English Renaissance history and dramatic literature. But, whatever their limitations, the anti-Stratfordians have at least helped keep us mindful of how frustratingly little we can say for certain about the life of the man whose works have so enriched the lives of succeeding generations. One thing we do know is that if Shakespeare was a man for all time, he was also very much a man of his own age. Christened at Holy Trinity Church in Stratford-upon-Avon on 26 April 1564, he grew up as the eldest of five children reared by John Shakespeare, a tradesman who played an increasingly active role in the town's civic affairs as his business prospered, and Mary Arden Shakespeare, the daughter of a gentleman farmer from nearby Wilmcote. Whether Shakespeare was born on 23 April, as tradition holds, is not known; but a birth date only a few days prior to the recorded baptism seems eminently probable, particularly in view of the fear his parents must have had that William, like two sisters who had preceded him and one who followed, might die in infancy. By the time young William was old enough to begin attending school, he had a younger brother (Gilbert, born in 1566) and a baby sister (Joan, born in 1569). As he attained his youth, he found himself with two more brothers to help look after (Richard, born in 1574, and Edmund, born in 1580), the younger of whom eventually followed his by-then-prominent eldest brother to London and the theater, where he had a brief career as an actor before his untimely death at twenty-seven. The house where Shakespeare spent his childhood stood adjacent to he wool shop in which his father plied a successful trade as a glover and dealer in leather goods and other commodities. Before moving to Stratford sometime prior to 1552 (when the records show that he was fined for failing to remove a dunghill from outside his house to the location where refuse was normally to be deposited), John Shakespeare had been a farmer in the neighboring village of Snitterfield. Whether he was able to read and write is uncertain. He executed official documents, not with his name, but with a cross signifying his glover's compasses. Some scholars interpret this as a "signature" that might have been considered more "authentic" than a full autograph; others have taken it to be an indication of illiteracy. But even if John Shakespeare was not one of the "learned," he was certainly a man of what a later age would call upward mobility. By marrying Mary Arden, the daughter of his father's landlord, he acquired the benefits of a better social standing and a lucrative inheritance, much of which he invested in property (he bought several houses). And by involving himself in public service, he rose by sure degrees to the highest municipal positions Stratford had to offer: chamberlain (1561), alderman (1565), and bailiff (or mayor) and justice of the peace (1568). A few years after his elevation to the office of bailiff, probably around 1576, John Shakespeare approached the College of Heralds for armorial bearings and the right to call himself a gentleman. Before his application was acted upon, however, his fortunes took a sudden turn for the worse, and it was not until 1596, when his eldest son had attained some status and renewed the petition, that a Shakespeare coat of arms was finally granted. This must have been a comfort to John Shakespeare in his declining years (he died in 1601), because by then he had borrowed money, disposed of property out of necessity, ceased to attend meetings of the town council, become involved in litigation and been assessed fines, and even stopped attending church services, for fear, it was said, "of process for debt." Just what happened to alter John Shakespeare's financial and social position after the mid 1570s is not clear. Some have seen his nonattendance at church as a sign that he had become a recusant, unwilling to conform to the practices of the newly established Church of England (his wife's family had remained loyal to Roman Catholicism despite the fact that the old faith was under vigorous attack in Warwickshire after 1577), but the scant surviving evidence is anything but definitive. The records we do have suggest that during young William's formative years he enjoyed the advantages that would have accrued to him as the son of one of the most influential citizens of a bustling market town in the fertile Midlands. When he was taken to services at Holy Trinity Church, he would have sat with his family in the front pew, in accordance with his father's civic rank. There he would have heard and felt the words and rhythms of the Bible, the sonorous phrases of the 1559 Book of Common Prayer, the exhortations of the Homilies. In all likelihood, after spending a year or two at a "petty school" to learn the rudiments of reading and writing, he would have proceeded, at the age of seven, to "grammar school." Given his father's social position, young William would have been eligible to attend the King's New School, located above the Guild Hall and adjacent to the Guild Chapel (institutions that would both have been quite familiar to a man with the elder Shakespeare's municipal duties), no more than a five-minute walk from the Shakespeare house on Henley Street. Though no records survive to tell us who attended the Stratford grammar school during this period, we do know that it had well-qualified and comparatively well-paid masters; and, through the painstaking research of such scholars as T. W. Baldwin, we now recognize that a curriculum such as the one offered at the King's New School would have equipped its pupils with what by modern standards would be a rather formidable classical education. During his many long school days there, young Shakespeare would have become thoroughly grounded in Latin, acquired some background in Greek, and developed enough linguistic facility to pick up whatever he may have wanted later from such modern languages as Italian and French. Along the way he would have become familiar with such authors as Aesop, Caesar, Cicero, Sallust, Livy, Virgil, Horace, Ovid, and Seneca. He would have studied logic and rhetoric as well as grammar, and he would have been taught the principles of composition and oratory from the writings of such masters as Quintilian and Erasmus . In all probability, he would even have received some training in speech and drama through the performance of plays by Plautus and Terence. If Shakespeare's references to schooling and schoolmasters in the plays are a reliable index of how he viewed his own years as a student, we must conclude that the experience was more tedious than pleasurable. But it is difficult to imagine a more suitable mode of instruction for the formation of a Renaissance poet's intellectual and artistic sensibility. Meanwhile, of course, young Shakespeare would have learned a great deal from merely being alert to all that went on around him. He would have paid attention to the plant and animal life in the local woods that he would later immortalize, in As You Like It, as the Forest of Arden. He may have hunted from time to time; one legend, almost certainly apocryphal, has it that he eventually left Stratford because he had been caught poaching deer from the estate of a powerful squire, Sir Thomas Lucy, four miles up-stream. He probably learned to swim as a youth, skinny-dipping in the river Avon. He may have participated in some of the athletic pursuits that were the basis of competition in the Elizabethan equivalent of the Olympics, the nearby Cotswold Games. He would undoubtedly have been adept at indoor recreations such as hazard (a popular dice game), or chess, or any of a number of card games. As he grew older, he would have become accustomed to such vocations as farming, sheep-herding, tailoring, and shopkeeping. He would have acquired skills such as fishing, gardening, and cooking. And he would have gathered information about the various professions: law, medicine, religion, and teaching. Judging from the astonishing range of daily life and human endeavor reflected in his poems and plays, we can only infer that Shakespeare was both a voracious reader and a keen observer, the sort of polymath Henry James might have been describing when he referred to a character in one of his novels as "a man on whom nothing was lost." Once his school years ended, Shakespeare married, at eighteen, a woman who was eight years his senior. We know that Anne Hathaway was pregnant when the marriage license was issued by the Bishop of Worcester on 27 November 1582, because a daughter, Susanna, was baptized in Holy Trinity six months later on 26 May 1583. We have good reason to believe that the marriage was hastily arranged: there was only one reading of the banns (a church announcement preceding a wedding that allowed time for any legal impediments against it to be brought forward before the ceremony took place), an indication of unusual haste. But whether the marriage was in any way "forced" is impossible to determine. Some biographers (most notably Anthony Burgess ) have made much of an apparent clerical error whereby the bride's name was entered as Anne Whateley of Temple Grafton in the Worcester court records; these writers speculate that Shakespeare was originally planning to marry another Anne until Anne Hathaway of Shottery (a village a mile or so from Shakespeare's home in Stratford) produced her embarrassing evidence of a prior claim. To most scholars, including our foremost authority on Shakespeare's life, S. Schoenbaum, this explanation of the Anne Whateley court entry seems farfetched. Such hypotheses are inevitable, however, in the absence of fuller information about the married life of William and Anne Hathaway Shakespeare. What we do have to go on is certainly compatible with the suspicion that William and Anne were somewhat less than ardent lovers. They had only two more children--the twins, Hamnet and Judith, baptized on 2 February 1585--and they lived more than a hundred miles apart, so far as we can tell, for the better part of the twenty-year period during which Shakespeare was employed in the London theater. If we can give any credence to an amusing anecdote recorded in the 1602-1603 diary of a law student named John Manningham, there was at least one occasion during those years when Shakespeare, overhearing the actor Richard Burbage make an assignation, "went before, was entertained, and at his game before Burbage came; then, message being brought that Richard the Third was at the door, Shakespeare caused return to be made that William the Conqueror was before Richard the Third." If we read the sonnets as in any way autobiographical, moreover, we are shown a poet with at least one other significant liaison: a "Dark Lady" to whom Will's lust impels him despite the self-disgust the affair arouses in him (and despite her infidelity with the fair "Young Man" to whom many of the poems are addressed and for whom the poet reserves his deepest feelings). But even if there is reason to speculate that Shakespeare may not have always been faithful to the marriage bed, there is much to suggest that he remained attached to Anne as a husband. In 1597 he purchased one of the most imposing houses in Stratford--New Place, across the street from the Guild Chapel--presumably settling his wife and children there as soon as the title to the property was clear. He himself retired to that Stratford home, so far as we can determine, sometime between 1611 and 1613. And of course he remembered Anne in his will, bequeathing her the notorious "second-best bed"--which most modern biographers regard as a generous afterthought (since a third of his estate would have gone to the wife by law even if her name never occurred in the document) rather than the slight that earlier interpreters had read into the phrasing. Naturally we would like to know more about what Shakespeare was like as a husband and family man. But most of us would give just as much to know what took place in his life between 1585 (when the parish register shows him to have become the father of twins) and 1592 (when we find the earliest surviving reference to him as a rising star in the London theater). What did he do during these so-called "dark years"? Did he study law, as some have suspected? Did he travel on the Continent? Did he become an apprentice to a butcher, as one late-seventeenth-century account had it? Or--most plausibly, in the view of many modern biographers--did he teach school for a while? All we can say for certain is that by the time his children were making their own way to school in rural Stratford, William Shakespeare had become an actor and writer in what was already the largest city in Europe. Shakespeare probably traveled the hundred miles to London by way of the spires of Oxford, as do most visitors returning from Stratford to London today. But why he went, or when, history does not tell us. It has been plausibly suggested that he joined an acting troupe (the Queen's Men) that was one player short when it toured Stratford in 1587. If so, he may have migrated by way of one or two intermediary companies to a position with the troupe that became the Lord Chamberlain's Men in 1594. The only thing we can assert with any assurance is that by 1592 Shakespeare had established himself as an actor and had written at least three plays. One of these--the third part of Henry VI--was alluded to in that year in a posthumously published testament by a once-prominent poet and playwright named Robert Greene , one of the "University Wits" who had dominated the London theater in the late 1580s. Dissipated and on his deathbed, Greene warned his fellow playwrights to beware of an "upstart crow" who, not content with being a mere player, was aspiring to a share of the livelihood that had previously been the exclusive province of professional writers such as himself. Whether Greene's Groatsworth of Wit accuses Shakespeare of plagiarism when it describes him as "beautified with our feathers" is not clear; some scholars have interpreted the phrase as a complaint that Shakespeare has borrowed freely from the scripts of others (or has merely revised existing plays, a practice quite common in the Elizabethan theater). But there can be no doubt that Greene's anxieties signal the end of one era and the beginning of another: a golden age, spanning two full decades, during which the dominant force on the London stage would be, not Greene or Kyd or Marlowe or even (in the later years of that period) Jonson, but Shakespeare. If we look at what Shakespeare had written by the early 1590s, we see that he had already become thoroughly familiar with the daily round of one of the great capitals of Europe. Shakespeare knew St. Paul's Cathedral, famous not only as a house of worship but also as the marketplace where books were bought and sold. He knew the Inns of Court, where aspiring young lawyers studied for the bar. He knew the river Thames, spanned by the ever-busy, ever-fascinating London Bridge. He knew the Tower, where so many of the characters he would depict in his history plays had met their deaths, and where in his own lifetime such prominent noblemen as the Earl of Essex and Sir Walter Raleigh would be imprisoned prior to their executions. He knew Westminster, where Parliament met when summoned by the Queen, and where the Queen herself held court at Whitehall Palace. He knew the harbor, where English ships, having won control of the seas by defeating the "invincible" Spanish Armada in 1588, had begun in earnest to explore the New World. In Shakespeare's day London was a vigorous city of somewhere between 150,000 and 200,000 inhabitants. If in its more majestic aspects it was dominated by the court of Queen Elizabeth, in its everyday affairs it was accented by the hustle and bustle of getting and spending. Its Royal Exchange was one of the forerunners of today's stock exchanges. Its many market-places offered a variety of goods for a variety of tastes. Its crowded streets presented a colorful pageant of Elizabethan modes of transport and dress, ranging from countrywomen in homespun to elegant ladies in apparel as decorative as their husbands' wealth--and the Queen's edicts on clothing--would allow. Its inns and taverns afforded a rich diversity of vivid personalities--eating, tippling, chatting, and enjoying games and pleasures of all kinds. It was, in short, an immensely stimulating social and cultural environment, and we can be sure that Shakespeare took full advantage of the opportunity it gave him to observe humanity in all its facets. Like Prince Hal, he must have learned "to drink with any tinker in his own language," and it was this as much as anything he was taught at school (or might have acquired by attendance at university) that equipped him to create such vibrant characters as Mistress Quickly, proud Hotspur, and the imperturbable Bottom. Not that all was always well. Like any major city, London also had its problems. Preachers and moralists were constantly denouncing the excessive use of cosmetics. Thus, when Hamlet speaks out against "your paintings," telling Ophelia that "God hath given you one face, and you make yourselves another," he would have been sounding a note familiar to everyone in Shakespeare's audience. So also with the "furred gowns" so roundly cursed by Lear: courtiers and their ladies were accustomed to lavishing as much "pride" on a single article of bejeweled finery as a modern man or woman might pay for a very expensive automobile. But luxury was only one of the evils of the age. London's Puritan authorities, regarding the theaters as dens of iniquity, closed them down on any available pretext, particularly when the plague was rampant. Meanwhile, even without the plague or the theaters to concern them (and one gathers that some of the authorities were anything but sure about which was the greater peril), the city fathers had to contend with gambling, drunkenness, prostitution, and other vices, especially in the Bankside district south of the Thames and in the other "liberties" outside the city walls to the west, east, and north (such as Shoreditch, where James Burbage had erected the first permanent commercial play-house, the Theatre, when Shakespeare was only twelve, and where many of Shakespeare's plays prior to 1599 were first performed). Here most blatantly, but elsewhere as well, pickpockets, vagabonds, and other members of the fraternity of urban lowlife lay in wait for "conies," as they called their unsuspecting victims. Given so many "notorious villainies" for spokesmen like Thomas Dekker 's "Belman of London" to bring to light, it is hardly surprising that among the most prolific literary genres of the period were the scores of books and tracts that spewed forth from reformers incensed by the decadence of the Renaissance metropolis. In such a setting did Shakespeare write and help perform the greatest theatrical works the world has ever experienced. And he did so in suburbs known primarily for entertainments that we would regard as totally alien from the sweet Swan of Avon's poetic grace. For if Shoreditch and, later, Bankside were to blossom into the finest theatrical centers of that or any other age, they were also, for better or worse, the seedbeds for such brutal spectator sports as bearbaiting, bullbaiting, and cockfighting. This may help account for the blood and violence so frequently displayed on the Elizabethan stage, most notably in such early Shakespearean experiments as the Henry VI trilogy and Titus Andronicus, but also in mature works such as Julius Caesar and King Lear. But of course there was a good deal more than murder and mayhem in the "wooden O" that served as amphitheatre for most of Shakespeare's dramatic productions. On a stage largely devoid of scenery but by no means lacking in spectacle, the playwright and his actors made efficient use of language, properties, and gesture to establish time, locale, situation, and atmosphere. In the process, through all the resources of rhetoric, symbolism, and what Hamlet in his advice to the players calls "action," the "artificial persons" of the drama (its dramatis personae) imitated humanity in such a way as to convey whatever "matter" an author and his company envisaged for a scene, an act, or a full dramatic sequence. By twentieth-century standards, the means they used were relatively primitive--no spotlights, too few furnishings to achieve verisimilitude through setting and dress, only the crudest of "special effects," no curtains to raise and lower as a way of signaling the beginning and end of a scene or act--but by any standards, the results they achieved were brilliant. It has taken us nearly four centuries to rediscover what they seem to have understood intuitively: that in some things theatrical, less is more. Our best estimate is that approximately 3,000 spectators could be crammed into a ninety-nine-foot-wide, polygonal structure such as the Theatre (which opened in 1576 and was dismantled in 1598, after the owner of the land on which it stood refused to negotiate a lease acceptable to Shakespeare's acting company) or its successor the Globe (which opened in 1599, after the company transported the lumber from the Theatre across the Thames and used it as the scaffolding for an even more handsome playhouse on the Bankside). More than half of the audience stood in the yard (which measured about fifty-five feet in diameter); the remainder sat in the three galleries that encircled the yard and rose to a thatched roof some thirty-six feet above the ground. The stage was probably about forty-three feet wide, and it thrust some twenty-seven feet into the yard from the "tiring house" at the rear of the building. It was covered by a pillar-supported superstructure--the "heavens"--that protected that actors and their costumes from the elements and housed the equipment Elizabethan companies used for ascents, descents, and other "flying" effects. In the floor of the stage platform (about five feet above the surrounding yard) was a trapdoor that could be opened for visitations from below or for access into what, depending on the context, might represent a grave or a pit or even hell itself. At the back of the stage in all likelihood, concealing the tiring house where the actors effected their costume changes and awaited their cues to enter, were three doors. The two at the corners were probably used for most of the entrances and exits of the actors; the large middle one was capable of being employed as a shallow, draped "discovery space" that might be drawn open for tableaux (as when Ferdinand and Miranda are disclosed playing chess in The Tempest) or adapted to represent small enclosures such as closets, studies, bedrooms, or shops like the Apothecary's cell in Romeo and Juliet. On the level above the tiring house, probably divided into five bays, was a balcony that accommodated a select number of the theater's highest-paying customers and functioned in many of the plays as the "upper stage" where brief scenes requiring a higher vantage point could be enacted. Sentinels on watch, lovers at a second-story bedroom window, seamen crying out from a ship's crow's nest: these and other situations called for the use of one or more of the upper-level bays (probably the central one in most instances) for characters to speak their lines and render the movements called for in the script. Because the main playing area was surrounded on all four sides by spectators, the poet and the performer benefited from a more intimate relationship with the audience than is customary in present-day theaters fitted with a curtain and a proscenium arch. For Shakespeare, this meant that he could allow a character to confide in a nearby playgoer through asides, as does Iago in Othello, or to be overheard while he meditates in solitude, as does Brutus in the soliloquy in which he talks himself into joining the plot to assassinate Caesar. Such devices may strike a modern viewer as less sophisticated than, say, the cinematic voice-over, but they proved eminently acceptable to an audience that was willing to "piece out" a performance's "imperfections with [its] thoughts." And it says a great deal about the intelligence and sensitivity of Elizabethan theatergoers that they attended and were capable of appreciating dramatic works which, in many respects, were both responses to and sublimations of the coarser activities that competed for attention (and people's entertainment budgets) only a short distance away from the magic circle defined by the walls of a Theatre or a Globe. Just who composed the audiences of these public playhouses is still a matter of debate, but recent research by Ann Jennalie Cook and Andrew Gurr suggest that they were a more affluent cross-section of Elizabethan society than earlier writings by such scholars as Alfred Harbage would have led us to believe. An examination of wages and prices during the period indicates, for example, that those who attended performances on weekday afternoons would have had to have more leisure, and more disposable income, than seems compatible with the view that even the groundlings (who paid the lowest admission, a penny to stand in the yard and risk getting soaked in the event of rain) were predominantly working-class people and illiterate apprentices. Because their position in the yard put their eyes on a level with the feet of the players, the groundlings were sometimes derided as "understanders"; it now begins to appear that a substantial percentage of these theatergoers were "understanders" in a more favorable sense. To be sure, some of them may at times have been a bit obstreperous, and their number may well have included an assortment of men and women (including prostitutes) preoccupied with extra-theatrical pursuits. It may be, too, that the groundlings were more susceptible than other members of the audience (if merely because of their greater proximity to the stage) to manipulation by what we now call "naughty" actors, the overweening "clowns" whom Hamlet rebukes for their tendency to ply the crowd for inappropriate laughter, interrupting the flow of the action and causing spectators to miss "some necessary question of the play." But even if the groundlings were not quite as cultivated, on the average, as those members of the audience who could afford to sit while they watched a play, it is difficult to reconcile the subtlety and indirection of Shakespeare's plotting and characterization, not to mention the complexity of his language and the incomparable music of his verse, with the assumption that the majority of an average house at the public theaters was unable to respond to anything more elevated than the broad humor of a Launce or a Dogberry. Even if we still find it valuable, then, to preserve something of the traditional distinction between the groundlings and the more "privileged" spectators who sat in the three-tiered galleries encircling the yard, we should now open our minds to the possibility that there were more of what Hamlet would call "judicious" viewers in every segment of the Elizabethan audience, including those who stood in the yard, than we have tended to assume until very recently in our analyses of Shakespearean drama. Which is not to say, of course, that Shakespeare and his fellow dramatists were completely satisfied with any of their audiences (but then what writer ever is?). Hamlet bestows high praise on a play that he says "was never acted, or if it was, not above once," for "it pleased not the million, 'twas caviary to the general." He then exhorts the players to disregard "a whole theatre of others," if necessary, in order to please "those with judgments in such matters." Whether Hamlet's creator would himself have endorsed such extreme elitism is difficult to determine, but such a view is certainly consonant with the epistle to the reader that prefaced the revised 1609 first quarto edition of Troilus and Cressida. Here we are assured that we have "a new play, never staled with the stage, never clapper-clawed with the palms of the vulgar, and yet passing full of the palm comical"; and we are given to believe that it is to the credit rather than the discredit of the work that it has never been "sullied with the smoky breath of the multitude." Inasmuch as this preface and the title page preceding it replaced an earlier title page advertising Troilus and Cressida "as it was acted by the King's Majesty's servants at the Globe," we are probably correct to assume that whoever wrote it had in mind the kind of vulgar "multitude" who would have seen the play at one of the outdoor public theaters. All of which is to acknowledge that even if the audiences that attended the public theaters were sophisticated enough to support the vast majority of Shakespeare's dramatic efforts, they may nevertheless have proven deficient in their response to some of the extraordinary challenges he placed before them after he arrived at his artistic maturity. This should not surprise us, given Shakespeare's continual experimentation with inherited generic forms and his ever-more-complex approaches to traditional material. Nor should we assume that by terms such as "the million" and "the general" he and his fellow playwrights referred only to the groundlings. Writers of the period were equally acidulous in their criticism of the gallants who attended the theater to be "the observed of all observers"--the ostentatiously attired young men who sat not only in the galleries near the stage (where the admission price was thrice as much as for the places in the yard) and in the balconies above and behind the stage (which cost six times as much as the places in the yard), but even on the stage itself at some performances in the indoor "private" theaters (where the least expensive seat cost six times the price of general admission to the Theatre or the Globe, and where some of the seats cost a full thirty times as much). It is difficult to believe that Shakespeare any more than Dekker (who satirized such gallants in The Gull's Hornbook) would have considered these foppish Osrics even slightly more "judicious" than their fellow spectators at the lower end of the economic scale. And one can easily imagine that after 1609, when his company began using the Blackfriars theater as its primary venue during the colder months (the London authorities having finally dropped the restrictions that had prevented James Burbage from operating a commercial adult theater in the old monastery he had purchased and adapted in 1596), Shakespeare felt that he had simply exchanged one kind of less-than-perfect audience for another. One gathers, nevertheless, that, like other playwrights of the period, Shakespeare was careful not to refer too overtly to deficiencies in the well-to-do members of his audiences, especially when such members might include the nobility or persons close to them. After all, an acting company's livelihood depended upon its securing and retaining favor at Court--not only because of the extra income and prestige that accrued from periodic Court performances commissioned by the Master of the Revels, but even more fundamentally because a company could perform in or near London only if it were licensed to do so by the Crown and enjoyed the protection of a noble or royal patron. A prudent playwright would not wish to jeopardize his company's standing with the monarch. And Shakespeare and his colleagues--the other "sharers" who owned stock in the company that was known as the Lord Chamberlain's Men from 1594 until 1603 (when Queen Elizabeth died and was succeeded by King James I ) and the King's Men thereafter (having received a patent as the new monarch's own players)--must have been prudent, because theirs was by far the most prosperous and the most frequently "preferred" theatrical organization in the land, from its inception in the early 1590s until the triumph of Puritanism finally brought about the closing of the theaters half a century later in 1642. Shakespeare's position with the Lord Chamberlain's Men was a source of professional stability that probably had a great deal to do with his growth and maturation as a writer. For one thing, it freed him from some of the uncertainties and frustrations that must have been the lot of other playwrights, virtually all of whom operated as free-lancers selling their wares to impresarios such as Philip Henslowe (often for as little as five pounds), and most of whom thus forfeited any real say about how their plays were to be produced and, in time (if a given acting company so wished or if chance provided), published. From at least 1594 on Shakespeare was a stockholder of the theatrical organization for which he wrote his plays. After 1598 (when the sons of the recently deceased James Burbage, Cuthbert and Richard, invited four of the principal actors in the Lord Chamberlain's Men to become their partners and put up half the capital needed to rebuild the Theatre across the Thames as the Globe), Shakespeare was also a co-owner of the playhouse in which that company performed the plays. As such, he shared in all the profits the Lord Chamberlain's Men took in at the gate, and he was undoubtedly a participant in most, if not all, of the major decisions affecting the company's welfare. We know from the surviving legal records of the playwright's various business transactions that he prospered financially by this arrangement: like his father, Shakespeare invested wisely in real estate, purchasing properties in both Stratford and London. And we can infer from the evidence of his rapidly developing sophistication as a dramatist that Shakespeare's membership in a close-knit group of theatrical entrepreneurs also helped him flourish artistically. It meant, for example, that he could envisage and write his plays with particular performers in mind: Richard Burbage for leading roles such as Richard III, Othello, and King Lear; Will Kempe for clowning parts such as Launce or Dogberry in the early years of the company, and thereafter (following Kempe's departure from the Lord Chamberlain's Men around 1599) Robert Armin, who seems to have specialized in "wise fools" such as Touchstone, Feste, and Lear's Fool; Shakespeare himself, perhaps, for "old men" such as Adam in As You Like It; "hired men" (adult actors who, not being shareholders in the company, were simply paid a sum of money for each job of work) for most of the lesser roles; and apprentice boy-actors for the youthful parts and many, if not all, of the female roles (there being no actresses on the English stage until the theaters reopened after the Restoration). Working as the resident playwright for a company in which he was both an actor and a business partner meant that Shakespeare could revise and rewrite his scripts in rehearsal prior to a given play's first performance, and that he could adapt and further revise them later as differing circumstances required: such as performances commissioned at Court during holiday seasons or on ceremonial occasions, or performances solicited by the great houses of the nobility, or (during sieges of plague when the London theaters were closed) performances on tour in the provinces, during which, in all likelihood, the troupe was reduced to entertaining with fewer actors and was required to make do with provisional playing areas in guild halls, inn yards, and other less-than-ideal theatrical spaces. Because the conditions under which Shakespeare worked required him, above all, to be pragmatic and flexible, we would probably be correct to infer that as he composed his plays he thought of his scripts, not as fixed "literary" texts, but as provisional production notes--susceptible of lengthening or shortening or other modes of alteration as determined by the constraints of particular venues and performance situations. He would have had to prepare each script with an eye to the number of actors available for speaking parts (one recent scholar has concluded that most of Shakespeare's plays were composed with a cast of thirteen performers in mind), and he probably planned each scene with a view to the possibilities for "doubling" (a principle of theatrical economy whereby a given actor would alternate among two or more roles in the same play). It may well be that, in the absence of anyone else in the organization designated to function in that capacity, Shakespeare was the first "director" his plays had. If so, we can be sure that he approached the task with an awareness that the devising of a production was a collaborative process and that the playscript, though normative, was never to be revered as a monument carved in stone. Shakespeare was, after all, a play wright (that is, a "maker" rather than merely a writer of plays), and he would have been the first to recognize that the final purpose of a dramatic text was a fully realized performance rather than a piece of literature to be read in the privacy of a patron's parlor or pondered in the lamplight of a scholar's study. If in his capacity as theater professional Shakespeare conceived of himself, then, as a maker of "plays" (by definition ephemeral and "insubstantial" pageants, as Prospero observes in The Tempest) rather than as an author of literary "works" (the term that earned Ben Jonson the derision of his fellow playwrights when he came out with a pretentiously titled folio volume of his collected plays in 1616), it is hardly surprising that he appears to have had little or nothing to do with the publication of any of his own dramatic scripts. Nor is it surprising that several of the texts that were published in Shakespeare's lifetime or shortly thereafter have come down to us in forms that vary from one printing to another. Some of these variations probably result from authorial revisions or from theatrical adaptations of one kind or another. Others undoubtedly derive from the vicissitudes of textual transmission, with the extant state of a given text or passage dependent on whether it was printed from the author's own manuscript (either in draft form or in a more finished version) or from a manuscript prepared by someone else (a scribe's "fair copy" of a manuscript owned by the author or the company, for example, or a rough compilation by one or more actors relying on faulty memories to pull together an abridged script for a reduced cast touring the provinces)--quite apart from any further complications that may have occurred in the printing house itself (where one copy editor, one compositor, or one proofreader differed from another in the accuracy with which he reproduced the manuscript before him). Whatever their origins, these variations are eloquent testimony to the difficulty--if not indeed the impossibility--of our ever arriving at an absolutely "final" version of a Shakespearean play. For if the conditions under which plays were written, performed, and preserved make it clear that a "definitive" playtext was rare, if not unknown, in Shakespeare's own time, we must recognize that any effort to produce an authoritative edition for our own time can aspire, at best, to reconstitute as accurately as possible the closest surviving approximation to a given script at some point in its compositional or theatrical history. And even this kind of edition will remain stubbornly "incomplete," for the simple reason that a Shakespearean script was originally intended for the use, not of a reading audience, but of a small company of theater professionals who would employ it as a "score" from which to orchestrate a complex, multidimensional performance. The texts that do survive are mostly dialogue, and a sensitive analysis of them can tell us a great deal about how the words were meant to be spoken, where the emphases were to be placed, and what character motivations were to be indicated at specific points in the action. But because we can no longer recover the context in which these scripts were first realized--a context that would have included a good deal of oral communication about gesture, movement, blocking, and other stage business--we must content ourselves with editions that will always be to some degree indeterminate. Perhaps this is just as well: it teases the critic and the director with enough interpretive liberty to ensure that we will never be faced with a dearth of innovation in Shakespearean commentary and production. We should bear in mind, of course, that a considerable investment of additional work would have been required to transform a production script into a reading text for the public--not altogether unlike what is required nowadays to turn a screenplay into a coherent piece of narrative fiction--and that Shakespeare may never have had the time (even if we assume that he ever had the inclination) to effect such a generic adaptation. Still, those of us who would not object to a little more detail about some of the "matter" of Shakespeare's plays may perhaps be pardoned for wishing that the playwright had been able to spare more thought for the morrow--for the afterlife that most (though who is to say all?) of his plays were eventually to have as a consequence of publication. Our sentiments are echoed in the 1623 address "To the Great Variety of Readers" at the beginning of that posthumous edition of Shakespeare's works known as the First Folio: "It had been a thing, we confess, worthy to have been wished, that the author himself had lived to have set forth and overseen his own writings." He did set forth and oversee some of his own writings, of course. But, significantly, these were not dramatic scripts. In 1593 Shakespeare published an 1194-line narrative poem that appears to have been intended as his opening bid for serious attention as an author of "literary works." Based on Ovid's Metamorphoses and capitalizing on a fashion for elegant romances that was being catered to by such writers as Thomas Lodge (whose Scilla's Metamorphoses had been published in 1589) and Christopher Marlowe (whose Hero and Leander may well have circulated in manuscript prior to his death in 1593 and certainly before it appeared in print in 1598), Shakespeare's Venus and Adonis was an erotic mythological poem printed by fellow Stratfordian Richard Field and bearing a florid dedication to "the Right Honorable Henry Wriothesley, Earl of Southampton." Its six-line stanzas employed an ababcc rhyming scheme whose authority had been established by such contemporary Renaissance poets as Edmund Spenser , and its ornamented, "artificial" style solicited a favorable reception from the "wiser sort" of readers to be found in the Inns of Courts, at the universities, and at Court. Although Shakespeare decorously apologized for the poem as "the first heir of my invention," he must have done so in full confidence that Venus and Adonis was an achievement worthy of his talent. And it proved to be an immediate and sustained success, with nine reprints by 1616 and six more by 1640. The large number of references to it during the late 1590s and early 1600s suggest that it was the work for which Shakespeare was most widely recognized during his own lifetime. Within a year of the publication of Venus and Adonis , Shakespeare was back to press with another long narrative poem. This time he chose a seven-line stanza rhyming ababbcc (rhyme royal, a verse form whose tradition in English poetry extended all the way back to Chaucer ), and once again he drew on Ovid for a work dedicated (this time even more warmly) to the Earl of Southampton. If Venus and Adonis is most aptly approached as a quasi-comic treatment of love (depicting the frustrations of an insatiate goddess who falls all over herself as she fumbles to seduce an unresponsive youth), despite the fact that it ends with the death of the innocent young mortal, Lucrece is more properly described as a tragic "complaint," a moving exploration of the personal and social consequences of a noble Roman's surrender to lust, against his better nature and at the cost, ultimately, of both his victim's life and his own. In his foreword to Venus and Adonis, Shakespeare had promised the dedicatee "a graver labor" if his first offering pleased its would-be patron; in all likelihood, then, Lucrece was under way as a companion piece to Venus and Adonis at least a year before its eventual publication in 1594. It may be, as some have suggested, that Shakespeare's narrative of Tarquin's rape of Lucrece and her suicide was motivated by a desire to persuade anyone who might have considered the earlier work frivolous that the poet's muse was equally capable of a more serious subject. In any case it is clear that once again he struck a responsive chord: Lucrece went through eight editions prior to 1640, and it seems to have been exceeded in popularity only by Venus and Adonis. Both poems were printed during what has been called Shakespeare's "apprenticeship"--the period preceding his emergence as a member of the Lord Chamberlain's Men in 1594--and they share a number of stylistic characteristics with the plays that appear to have been completed during those same early years. As with such youthful dramatic efforts as the three parts of Henry VI,Titus Andronicus,The Two Gentlemen of Verona,The Comedy of Errors, and The Taming of the Shrew, the writing in Venus and Adonis and Lucrece is generically imitative (closely adhering to received poetic and dramatic forms), structurally and verbally derivative (echoing the poet's sources almost slavishly at times), and rhetorically formal (with a rigidly patterned verse containing far more rhymes, end-stopped lines, syntactic balances, and allusions to the classics than are to be observed in Shakespeare's writing after the mid 1590s). One feels immediately that Venus and Adonis and Lucrece are artistically of a piece with Shakespeare's first tentative experiments as a dramatist. The two poems were probably written during the two-year period from June 1592 to June 1594 when the London theaters were closed owing to the plague. But whether they indicate an inclination to leave the theater altogether and essay a career as a traditional poet (as Shakespeare's quest for the patronage of the young Earl of Southampton would seem to imply), or merely demonstrate that Shakespeare was resourceful enough to turn his pen to other uses while he waited for the theaters to reopen, is more than we can say. The only thing that seems beyond doubt is that Shakespeare regarded what he was doing when he wrote Venus and Adonis and Lucrece as something fundamentally different from what he was doing, prior to that and subsequent to it, in his capacity as a playwright and theater professional. Like his fellow playwrights when they donned personae as men of letters, Shakespeare was addressing his efforts, first of all, to a noble patron and, second, to a cultivated readership. He was therefore concerned that his compositions be published as he had written them, and he took pains to assure that they were accompanied by a graceful appeal for the approval of an audience presumed to embody the highest standards of literary taste and judgment. It may be that during the same period when he was seeing Venus and Adonis and Lucrece through the press in carefully proofed editions he was also writing other nondramatic poetry. Many scholars believe that this was when he composed most if not all of the 154 sonnets that bear his name. And if he was in fact the author of A Lover's Complaint (a narrative poem in rhyme royal that was attributed to Shakespeare when it was published, along with the Sonnets , in an unauthorized edition in 1609), he probably wrote that labored lyric during his years "in the workshop" too. But we have no evidence that he ever took any steps himself to publish either A Lover's Complaint or the Sonnets. Apart from Venus and Adonis and Lucrece, the only other literary work that Shakespeare may have had anything to do with publishing on his own behalf was a curious poem called The Phoenix and Turtle , which appeared in 1601 as part of a collection "Shadowing the Truth of Love" and appended to Robert Chester's Love's Martyr.The Phoenix and Turtle is a sixty-seven-line lyric, probably allegorical, about one bird (the phoenix) legendary for its rarity and beauty and another (the turtledove) proverbial for its constancy. Its scholastic imagery--reminiscent in some ways of the highly technical language to be found in writing of the same literary climate by such "metaphysical" poets as John Donne --suggests that, if indeed it is by Shakespeare (which many have questioned), it was probably written expressly for the Chester volume at about the time that Shakespeare was at work on such "philosophical" plays as Hamlet and Troilus and Cressida . If we except The Phoenix and Turtle, then, and assume that the Sonnets and A Lover's Complaint were published without Shakespeare's active participation, we are left with the conclusion that Shakespeare's "literary career," narrowly defined, was more or less limited to the two-year interruption in his activities as a theater professional when the London playhouses were closed because of the plague. This does not require us to presume, of course, that he ceased to have literary aspirations after 1594. He may have allowed his "sugared sonnets" to circulate in manuscript "among his private friends" (as Francis Meres asserted in Palladis Tamia in 1598, a year prior to William Jaggard 's surreptitious printing of two of the sonnets in a volume called The Passionate Pilgrim) while he continued to revise and augment them in the expectation that he would publish an anthology at a later time. And it is not inconceivable that he would have published a collected edition of his plays had he lived (Jonson having braved the critical tempest that such audacity was bound to generate when he came out with his works in 1616, the year of Shakespeare's death). But the fact is that Shakespeare did not himself publish any of the compositions we now value the most, and we can only infer that doing so was of less importance to him than what he did choose to devote his professional life to: the "wrighting" of plays. If so, he must at times have had his doubts about the choice he made. In Sonnet 110 (if we may be permitted to assume that the poet was either speaking in his own voice or echoing sentiments that he himself had felt), he allows that he has made himself "a motley to the view" and "sold cheap what is most dear." He then goes on in Sonnet 111 to lament that he "did not better for [his] life provide/Than public means which public manners breeds." Thence comes it that my name receives a brand, And almost thence my nature is subdu'd To what it works in, like the dyer's hand. Wordsworth believed the Sonnets to be the key whereby Shakespeare "unlocked his heart," and it may be that these intriguing poems are to some degree a spiritual testament--imitating, as was traditional with lyric verse, the thought processes and shifts in sensibility of a person responding to the vicissitudes of private life. That granted, we may be correct to interpret Sonnets 110 and 111 as expressions of Shakespeare's own dissatisfaction with the lot of an actor and playwright. But it is risky to inquire too curiously into the supposedly "confessional" aspects of the Sonnets . Like Shakespeare's other writings, they employ the artifice of "fictions," and they may have been but another form of story telling--different in kind from the plays and narrative poems, to be sure, but similar to them in being "about" something quite other than (or in addition to) the poet's own experience. If we examine them in the context of earlier sonnet sequences--Petrarch's lyrics of Laura in fifteenth-century Italy, for instance, or such late-sixteenth-century English sequences as those by Philip Sidney , Edmund Spenser , Samuel Daniel , and Michael Drayton--we discover that they are quite "conventional" in many respects. They display the speaker's wit and attest to his originality; they imply a deeply felt personal situation and hint at a coherent narrative, but they usually stop short of connecting their emotional peaks and valleys into a fully textured autobiographical landscape; they assert the immortality of verse and claim its sovereignty over the ravages of time and change; and usually they deal with themes of truth and beauty in the context of love and friendship and all the circumstances that life arrays in opposition to such values. To a far greater degree than with most sonnet sequences, Shakespeare's Sonnets have "the ring of truth." This is partly because, like all his works (from his earliest plays onward), they portray humanity so convincingly. But it is also a consequence of the extent to which they seem to go beyond, or even to disregard, convention. Thus, instead of praising a lady by cataloging all the attributes that make her lovely, Shakespeare turns Petrarchan tradition on its head by denying his "dark lady" any of the expected beauties and virtues. "My mistress' eyes are nothing like the sun," he says in Sonnet 130; and far from being ethereal and inaccessible in her idealized spirituality, the woman described in Shakespeare's Sonnets is sensual, coarse, and promiscuous. Petrarch's Laura may have inspired that earlier poet to Platonic transcendence, but Shakespeare's mistress leaves only the bitter aftertaste of "Th' expense of spirit in a waste of shame," "A bliss in proof, and prov'd, a very woe" (Sonnet 129). And what is more, she alienates the affection of the fair young man to whom most of the first 127 sonnets in the sequence are addressed: the friend who occasions some of the deepest verses in English on such themes as fidelity, stewardship (Shakespeare seems to have been preoccupied with the Parable of the Talents, as rendered in Matthew 25: 14-30), and man's struggle against "never-resting time." As one reads the sonnets directed to the young man, one detects a descent from unquestioned devotion ("This thou perceiv'st, which makes thy love more strong,/To love that well, which thou must leave ere long"--Sonnet 73) to a fear that the older man's love may be unrequited or at least taken for granted by the young friend to whom he has given so much of himself ("For sweetest things turn sourest by their deeds;/Lilies that fester smell far worse than weeds"--Sonnet 94) to a courageous but probably quixotic determination to remain true to his convictions despite his doubts about the young man's worthiness of such absolute faith ("love is not love/Which alters when it alteration finds/Or bends with the remover to remove"--Sonnet 116). The intensity of feeling expressed in these sonnets has led many interpreters to infer that they must have been based on a homoerotic passion. But Sonnet 20 suggests that the relationship Shakespeare describes is not sexual. Nature, he says, has given the young man "one thing to my purpose nothing." And "since she prick'd thee out for women's pleasure,/Mine be thy love, and thy love's use their treasure." Several of the sonnets addressed to the friend refer to a "rival poet" who is also bidding for his favors and affection (Sonnets 79, 80, 83, and 86, for example), and others (Sonnets 78, 82, 84, and 85) imply that the young aristocrat is the subject of praise by a great many poetic suitors. As he reflects upon his own position vis-à-vis his many competitors for the friend's love, the speaker in Shakespeare's sonnets is subject to a depth of insecurity that sometimes borders on despair: "Wishing me like to one more rich in hope,/Featur'd like him, like him with friends possess'd,/Desiring this man's art, and that man's scope" (Sonnet 29). And many of the greatest sonnets in the sequence derive their peculiar power from what Robert Frost has termed a "sense of difficulty overcome"--the poet working through the tensions and conflicts described in the first three quatrains (linked by an abab cdcd efef rhyme scheme) to some kind of hard-won (though perhaps not completely convincing) resolution in the concluding couplet (rhymed gg): "For thy sweet love rememb'red such wealth brings,/That then I scorn to change my state with kings" (again Sonnet 29). Because the other personalities who figure in the psychodrama of the Sonnets seem so vivid, at least as they impinge upon the personality of the speaker, interpreters of the sequence have been inexorably drawn toward speculation about real-life identities for the Dark Lady, the Young Man, and the Rival Poet. Some commentators (such as Oxford historian A. L. Rowse) have persuaded themselves, if not everyone else, that these characters can be positively linked with such contemporaries of Shakespeare as Emilia Lanier, the Earl of Southampton (or, alternatively, the Earl of Pembroke), and Christopher Marlowe (or possibly George Chapman ). Unless further information should come to light, however, we are probably best advised to content ourselves with a position of agnosticism on such questions. Until we can be sure about how the Sonnets came to be published, and just what kind of debt the publisher Thomas Thorpe refers to when he dedicates the 1609 quarto to the "only begetter" of these poems "Never before Imprinted"--the mysterious "Mr. W. H."--we are unlikely to be able to pin down the "real names" of any of the persons who inhabit the world of the Sonnets. Until then, indeed, we cannot even be certain that the Sonnets have any autobiographical basis in the first place. Turning from Shakespeare's nondramatic poetry to the fruits of his two decades as a playwright, we should probably begin where scholars now think he himself began: as the principal practitioner, if not in many ways the originator, of a new kind of drama that sprang from native patriotism. The most immediate "source" of the English history play appears to have been the heightened sense of national destiny that came in the wake of the royal navy's seemingly providential victory over the Spanish Armada in 1588. Proud of the new eminence their nation had achieved, and immensely relieved that the threat of invasion by a Catholic power had been averted, many of Shakespeare's contemporaries were disposed to view England's deliverance as a sign of heaven's favor. As such, it seemed to be a vindication of the reign of Queen Elizabeth and a substantiation of the Tudor order's claim to divine sanction--a claim that had been asserted by a succession of Renaissance chroniclers from Polydore Vergil (circa 1470-1555) through Edward Hall (circa 1498-1547) to Raphael Holinshed (circa 1529-1580), and a claim that was implicit in such government documents as the "Exhortation concerning Good Order and Obedience to Rulers and Magistrates," a 1547 homily read in churches throughout England. Given this context, it must have seemed entirely fitting that sometime in the late 1580s or early 1590s an enterprising young playwright began dramatizing a sequence of historical developments that were almost universally regarded as the "roots" of England's current greatness. Most of the material for the four history plays with which Shakespeare began his career as playwright he drew from Edward Hall 's Union of the Two Noble and Illustre Families of Lancaster and York (1548) and Raphael Holinshed 's Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland (1587 edition). Here he found narratives of late-medieval English history that began with the reign of King Richard II (1377-1399), focused on Richard's deposition and execution by Henry Bolingbroke (Henry IV), described the Wars of the Roses (1455-1485) that were the eventual consequence of Bolingbroke's usurpation, and concluded with the restoration of right rule when Henry Richmond defeated the tyrannical Richard III (1483-1485) and acceded to the crown as Henry VII, inaugurating a Tudor dynasty that was to last until the death of Queen Elizabeth in 1603. Here he also found a theological reading of political history that treated England as a collective Everyman--falling into sin, undergoing a terrifyingly bloody punishment for its disobedience, and eventually finding its way back to redemption through the emergence of Henry VII. The chances are that as Shakespeare matured in his craft he came to view the "Tudor myth" (as E. M. W. Tillyard has termed this official dogma) with a degree of skeptical detachment; but even so, he seems to have found in its clear, broad sweep a pattern that served quite well as a way of organizing the disparate materials he chose to dramatize. It gave him a theme of epic proportions, not altogether unlike the "matter" of Greece and Rome that had inspired such classical authors as Homer and Virgil in narrative genres and Aeschylus , Sophocles , Euripides , and Seneca in dramatic genres. It accorded with the biblical treatment of human destiny that Shakespeare's age had inherited from earlier generations, an approach to historical interpretation that had been embedded in such didactic entertainments as the Morality Play (allegorizing the sin, suffering, repentance, and salvation of a typical member of mankind) and the Mystery Play (broadening the cycle to a dramatization of the whole of human history, from man's fall in the Garden of Eden to man's redemption in the Garden of Gethsemane to man's bliss in the Paradise of the New Jerusalem). And it provided a rationale for Shakespeare's use of such powerful dramatic devices as the riddling prophecy and the curse--projecting retribution for present crimes, as the Old Testament would put it, to the third and fourth generations. When we approach the four plays known as Shakespeare's "first tetralogy" (the three parts of Henry VI and Richard III, all written, so far as we can tell, by 1592) from the perspective of his "second tetralogy" (Richard II , Henry IV, parts 1 and 2, and Henry V, all of which appear to have been written between 1595 and 1597), the earlier plays seem comparatively crude. Like their sources, they place more emphasis on providential design and less on human agency. Their verse is more declamatory and less supple. And they provide less individuation of character. Still, they have their virtues, and successful recent productions by the Royal Shakespeare Company and the British Broadcasting Corporation have proven that they can be surprisingly effective in performance. Henry VI , part 1 did not achieve print until the 1623 First Folio, but it is now generally thought to have been written prior to parts 2 and 3, which first appeared in bad texts, respectively, in a 1594 quarto edition titled The First Part of the Contention betwixt the two famous Houses of Yorke and Lancaster and in a 1595 octavo entitled The True Tragedie of Richard Duke of Yorke. Henry VI, part 1, begins with the funeral of King Henry V (which occurred in 1422), details the dissension at home and the loss of life and territory abroad that result from the accession of a new monarch too young and weak to rule, and concludes with King Henry VI's foolish decision to marry Margaret of Anjou--a step that places the saintly King in the very unsaintly hands of an ambitious woman and a lustful nobleman (the Earl of Suffolk, who plans to enjoy Margaret as his own mistress and thereby "rule both her, the King, and realm") and virtually assures the further degradation of a kingdom that has been in decline since the death of Henry VI's famous warrior-king father. Henry VI, part 2, covers a ten-year span from Margaret of Anjou's arrival in England (1445) to the Duke of York's victory over his Lancastrian enemies at St. Albans in the first major battle of the Wars of the Roses (1455). The same kind of internecine strife that has left the noble Talbot exposed to the forces of the strumpet-witch Joan of Arc in Henry VI, part 1, works here to undo Henry VI's protector, Duke Humphrey of Gloucester, topple two of the good Duke's enemies (Cardinal Beaufort and Suffolk), unleash the anarchic rebellion of the peasant Jack Cade, and further divide the warring factions (the Yorkists, who have chosen the red rose as their symbol in the famous Temple Garden scene, II.iv, of part 1, and the Lancastrians, who have rallied behind the white rose) that seem hell-bent to tear the kingdom asunder. In Henry VI, part 3, the war is at full pitch. As the feeble Henry VI withdraws into a private realm of pastoral longing, his brutal Queen and her allies exchange outrages with one Yorkist enemy after another, father killing son and son killing father in a nightmarish world that has degenerated into a spectacle of unmitigated cruelty. By the time the dust settles, Henry VI and a number of other would-be claimants to the throne are dead or on their way to the grave, and the ominously crookbacked figure of Richard, Duke of Gloucester is slouching his rough way to the crown he will don in the blood-drenched final movement of this hitherto unprecedented cycle of historical tragedies. Richard III was first published in a 1597 quarto edition that many scholars believe to have been reconstructed from memory by actors plagued out of London theaters between July and October of that year. The play was evidently quite popular, because it went through at least five more printings before it appeared in the 1623 First Folio edition based largely on the third and sixth quartos. And it has remained popular ever since, with a stage tradition highlighted by Richard Burbage in Shakespeare's own theater, David Garrick in the eighteenth century, Edmund Kean in the nineteenth, and Laurence Olivier in the twentieth. Nor is the reason hard to find. For despite the bold strokes with which he is portrayed, Richard III is a character of sufficient complexity to sustain a great deal of dramatic interest. However much we find ourselves repelled by his ruthless treachery, we cannot help admiring the eloquence, resourcefulness, and virtuosity with which he confides and then proceeds to execute his wicked intentions. His wooing of the grieving Lady Anne in the first act is a case in point: having set himself the seemingly impossible task of seducing a woman whose husband and father-in-law he has recently murdered, Richard is just as astonished as we are by the ease with which he accomplishes it. In many ways Richard seems, and would have seemed to Shakespeare's first audiences, a conventional, even old-fashioned stage villain: the quick-witted, clever, self-disclosing Vice of the late-medieval Morality Play, the dissimulating Devil familiar from the scriptures. In other, more important, ways he seems, and would have seemed, disturbingly modern: the Machiavellian politician who acknowledges no law, human or divine, in restraint of his foxlike cunning and leonine rapacity; the totalitarian dictator who subverts every social and religious institution in pursuit of his psychopathic grand designs; the existentialist cosmic rebel whose radical alienation is a challenge to every form of order. But if Richard seems in many ways a relentlessly twentieth-century figure, we learn by the end of the play that his "vaulting ambition" (so proleptic of Macbeth's) is ultimately but an instrument of the same providential scheme that he scorns and seeks to circumvent. Richard may be a "dreadful minister of hell," as Lady Anne calls him, but members of Shakespeare's audience (familiar with the story through such earlier renderings of it as the portrait painted by Thomas More ) would have seen him simultaneously as a "scourge of God," unleashed to punish England for her sins of the past. Prophetic Margaret reminds us over and over that had there not been strife in the kingdom prior to the advent of Richard, there would have been no ripe occasion for "this poisonous bunch-backed toad" to ascend the throne in the first instance. And as the play ends, an action that has drawn our attention again and again to the past looks optimistically to the future. "By God's fair ordinance," the "bloody dog is dead," and Richmond and Elizabeth (the forebears of Shakespeare's sovereign Elizabeth) are ushering in "smooth-faced peace,/With smiling plenty, and fair prosperous days." One other English history play is now commonly believed to have been written during Shakespeare's apprenticeship, though scholars differ about whether to date it in the early 1590s or (more probably, in the opinion of most) in the transition years 1594-1595. The earliest surviving text of King John is the version printed in the 1623 First Folio, and it offers a drama about a king of doubtful title whose reign (1199-1216) had been viewed in widely divergent ways. Medieval Catholics, focusing on King John's presumed complicity in the death of his nephew Arthur (whose claim to the throne was stronger than John's) and on his feud with Pope Innocent III (which had resulted in the King's excommunication before he finally capitulated five years later and "returned" his kingdom to the Church), had seen him as a usurper, a murderer, and a heretic. Sixteenth-century Protestants, on the other hand, had rehabilitated him as a proto-Tudor martyr and champion of English nationalism. In many respects, Shakespeare's own portrayal is closer to the medieval view of King John: he does away with any ambiguity about John's role in the removal of Arthur, for example, presents the saintlike Arthur and his impassioned mother, Constance, as thoroughly engaging characters, and endows John with few if any sympathetic traits. At the same time, however, Shakespeare's King John continues to receive the loyalty of characters who are portrayed sympathetically--most notably the bastard son of Richard the Lion-hearted, Philip Faulconbridge--and by the end of the play it seems evident that a higher cause, the good of England, is to take precedence over such lesser concerns as John's weak title, his execution of a potential rival, and his inadequacies as a leader. The Bastard, a political realist who seems quite Machiavellian at first--particularly in his analysis of the all-pervasiveness of "commodity" (self-interest) in human affairs--eventually becomes a virtual emblem of patriotism. To him is given the concluding speech of King John, and it is frequently cited as Shakespeare's most eloquent summary of the moral implicit in all his early history plays: This England never did, nor never shall, Lie at the proud foot of a conqueror But when it first did help to wound itself. .................................................................... ... Naught shall make us rue If England to itself do rest but true. If Shakespeare's earliest efforts in the dramatization of history derived from his response to the political climate of his day, his first experiments in comedy seem to have evolved from his reading in school and from his familiarity with the plays of such predecessors on the English stage as John Lyly , George Peele , Robert Greene , and Thomas Nashe . Shakespeare's apprentice comedies are quite "inventive" in many respects, particularly in the degree to which they "overgo" the conventions and devices the young playwright drew upon. But because they have more precedent behind them than the English history plays, they strike us now as less stunningly "original"--though arguably more successfully executed--than the tetralogy on the Wars of the Roses. Which of them came first we do not know, but most scholars incline toward The Comedy of Errors , a play so openly scaffolded upon Plautus's Menaechmi and Amphitruo (two farces that Shakespeare probably knew in Latin from his days in grammar school) that one modern critic has summed it up as "a kind of diploma piece." Set, ostensibly, in the Mediterranean city familiar from St. Paul's Epistle to the Ephesians, the play begins with a sentence on the life of a luckless Syracusan merchant, Aegeon, who has stumbled into Ephesus in search of his son Antipholus. After narrating a tale of woe that wins the sympathy of the Duke of Ephesus, Aegeon is given till five in the afternoon to come up with a seemingly impossible ransom for his breach of an arbitrary law against Syracusans. Meanwhile, unknown to Aegeon, the object of his search is in Ephesus too, having arrived only hours before him; Antipholus had set out some two years earlier to find a twin brother by the same name who was separated from the rest of the family in a stormy shipwreck more than twenty years in the past. By happy coincidence, the other Antipholus has long since settled in Ephesus, and so (without either's knowledge) has their mother, Aegeon's long-lost wife, Aemilia, who is now an abbess. To complicate matters further, both Antipholuses have slaves named Dromio, also twins long separated, and of course both sets of twins are indistinguishably appareled. Into this mix Shakespeare throws a goldsmith, a set of merchants, a courtesan, a wife and a sister-in-law for the Ephesian Antipholus, and a conjuring schoolmaster. The result is a swirling brew of misunderstandings, accusations, and identity crises--all leading, finally, to a series of revelations that reunite a family, save Aegeon's life, and bring order to a city that had begun to seem bewitched by sorcerers. The Comedy of Errors reached print for the first time in the 1623 First Folio. We know that it was written prior to 28 December 1594, however, because there is record of a performance on that date at one of the four Inns of Court. Some scholars believe that the play was written for that holiday Gray's Inn presentation, but most tend to the view that it had been performed previously, possibly as early as 1589 but more likely in the years 1592-1594. Most critics now seem agreed, moreover, that for all its farcical elements, the play is a comedy of some sophistication and depth, with a sensitivity to love that anticipates Shakespeare's great comedies later in the decade: when Luciana advises her sister Adriana about how she should treat her husband Antipholus, for example, she echoes Paul's exhortations on Christian marriage in Ephesians. And with its use of the devices of literary romance (the frame story of Aegeon comes from Apollonius of Tyre), The Comedy of Errors also looks forward to the wanderings, confusions of identity, and miraculous reunions so fundamental to the structure of "late plays" such as Pericles and The Tempest. What may have been Shakespeare's next comedy has also been deprecated as farce, and it is frequently produced today with staging techniques that link it with the commedia del l'arte popular in Renaissance Italy. But for all its knockabout slapstick, The Taming of the Shrew is too penetrating in its psychology and too subtle in its handling of the nuances of courtship to be dismissed as a play deficient in feeling. Its main event is a battle of the sexes in which Petruchio, who has "come to wive it wealthily in Padua," takes on a dare no other potential suitor would even consider: to win both dowry and docility from a sharp-tongued shrew avoided as "Katherine the curst." Apparently recognizing that Katherine's willfulness is a product of the favoritism her father has long bestowed upon her younger sister, and having the further good sense to realize that the fiery Kate is capable of becoming a much more attractive wife than the much-sought-after but rather devious Bianca, Petruchio mounts a brilliant campaign to gain Kate's love and make her his. First, he insists that Kate is fair and gentle, notwithstanding all her efforts to disabuse him of that notion. Second, he "kills her in her own humour," with a display of arbitrary behavior--tantrums, scoldings, peremptory refusals--that both wears her down and shows her how unpleasant shrewishness can be. At the end of the play Petruchio shocks his skeptical fellow husbands by wagering that his bride will prove more obedient than theirs. When Kate not only heeds his commands but reproaches her sister and the other wives for "sullen, sour" rebellion against their husbands, it becomes manifest that Petruchio has succeeded in his quest: Kate freely and joyfully acknowledges him to be her "loving lord." If we have doubts about whether Kate's transformation can be accepted as a "happy ending" today--and alterations of the final scene in many recent productions would suggest that it may be too offensive to current sensibilities to be played straight--we should perhaps ask ourselves whether the Kate who seems to wink conspiratorially at Petruchio as she puts her hands beneath his foot to win a marital wager is any less spirited or fulfilled a woman than the Kate who drives all her wouldbe wooers away in the play's opening scene. Whether or not The Taming of the Shrew is the mysterious Love's Labor's Won referred to by Francis Meres in 1598, it seems to have been written in the early 1590s, because what is now generally believed to be a bad quarto of it appeared in 1594. The Taming of a Shrew differs significantly from the version of Shakespeare's play that was first published in the 1623 Folio--most notably in the fact that the drunken tinker Christopher Sly, who appears only in the induction to the later printing of the play, remains on stage throughout The Taming of a Shrew, repeatedly interrupting the action of what is presented as a play for his entertainment and resolving at the end to go off and try Petruchio's wife-taming techniques on his own recalcitrant woman. Some directors retain the later Sly scenes, but no one seriously questions that the Folio text is in general the more authoritative of the two versions of the play. The Folio provides the only surviving text of The Two Gentlemen of Verona , a comedy so tentative in its dramaturgy (for example, its ineptitude in the few scenes where the playwright attempts to manage more than two characters on the stage at once), and so awkward in its efforts to pit the claims of love and friendship against each other, that many scholars now think it to be the first play Shakespeare ever wrote. Based largely on a 1542 chivalric romance (Diana Enamorada) by Portuguese writer Jorge de Montemayor, The Two Gentlemen of Verona depicts a potential rivalry between two friends--Valentine and Proteus--who fall in love with the same Milanese woman (Silvia) despite the fact that Proteus has vowed his devotion to a woman (Julia) back home in Verona. Proteus engineers Valentine's banishment from Milan so that he can woo Silvia away from him. But Silvia remains faithful to Valentine, just as Julia (who has followed her loved one disguised as his page) holds true to Proteus, notwithstanding the character he discloses as a man who lives up to his name. In the concluding forest scene Valentine intervenes to save Silvia from being raped by Proteus; but, when Proteus exhibits remorse, Valentine offers him Silvia anyway, as a token of friendship restored. Fortunately, circumstances conspire to forestall such an unhappy consummation, and the play ends with the two couples properly reunited. Unlike The Comedy of Errors and The Taming of the Shrew, The Two Gentlemen of Verona has never been popular in the theater, even though it offers two resourceful women (whose promise will be fulfilled more amply in such later heroines as Rosalind and Viola), a pair of amusing clowns (Launce and Speed), and one of the most engaging dogs (Crab) who ever stole a stage. In its mixture of prose and verse, nevertheless, and in its suggestion that the "green world" of the woods is where pretensions fall and would be evildoers find their truer selves, The Two Gentlemen of Verona looks forward to the first fruits of Shakespeare's maturity: the "romantic comedies" of which it proves to be a prototype. The one remaining play that most critics now locate in the period known as Shakespeare's apprenticeship is a Grand Guignol melodrama that seems to have been the young playwright's attempt to outdo Thomas Kyd 's Spanish Tragedy (produced circa 1589) in its exploitation of the horrors of madness and revenge. The composition of Titus Andronicus is usually dated 1590-1592, and it seems to have been drawn from a ballad and History of Titus Andronicus that only survives today in an eighteenth-century reprint now deposited in the Folger Shakespeare Library. (The Folger also holds the sole extant copy of the 1594 first quarto of Shakespeare's play, the authoritative text for all but the one scene, III.ii, that first appeared in the 1623 Folio.) If Shakespeare did take most of his plot from the History of Titus Andronicus, it is clear that he also went to Ovid's Metamorphoses (for the account of Tereus's rape of Philomena, to which the tongueless Lavinia points to explain what has been done to her) and to Seneca's Thyestes (for Titus's fiendish revenge on Tamora and her sons at the end of the play). Although Titus Andronicus is not a "history play," it does make an effort to evoke the social and political climate of fourth-century Rome; and in its depiction of a stern general who has just sacrificed more than twenty of his own sons to conquer the Goths, it anticipates certain characteristics of Shakespeare's later "Roman plays": Julius Caesar,Antony and Cleopatra, and Coriolanus. But it is primarily as an antecedent of Hamlet (influenced, perhaps, by the so-called lost Ur-Hamlet) that Titus holds interest for us today. Because whatever else it is, Titus Andronicus is Shakespeare's first experiment with revenge tragedy. Its primary focus is the title character, whose political misjudgments and fiery temper put him at the mercy of the Queen of the Goths, Tamora, and her two sons (Demetrius and Chiron). They ravish and mutilate Titus's daughter Lavinia, manipulate the Emperor into executing two of Titus's sons (Martius and Quintus) as perpetrators of the crime, and get Titus's third son (Lucius) banished for trying to rescue his brothers. Along the way, Tamora's Moorish lover Aaron tricks Titus into having his right hand chopped off in a futile gesture to save Martius and Lucius. After Lavinia writes the names of her assailants in the sand with her grotesque stumps, Titus works out a plan for revenge: he slits the throats of Demetrius and Chiron, invites Tamora to a banquet, and serves her the flesh of her sons baked in a pie. He then kills Tamora and dies at the hands of Emperor Saturninus. At this point Lucius returns heading a Gothic army and takes over as the new Emperor, condemning Aaron to be half-buried and left to starve and throwing Tamora's corpse to the scavenging birds and beasts. As Fredson Bowers has pointed out, Titus Andronicus incorporates a number of devices characteristic of other revenge tragedies: the protagonist's feigned madness, his delay in the execution of his purpose, his awareness that in seeking vengeance he is taking on a judicial function that properly rests in God's hands, and his death at the end in a bloody holocaust that leaves the throne open for seizure by the first opportunist to arrive upon the scene. Revenge is also a significant motif in Shakespeare's other early tragedy, Romeo and Juliet , usually dated around 1595-1596. It is a blood feud between their two Veronan families that forces the lovers to woo and wed in secret, thereby creating the misunderstanding that leads Mercutio to defend Romeo's "honor" in act three when the just-married protagonist declines his new kinsman Tybalt's challenge to duel. And it is both to avenge Mercutio's death and to restore his own now-sullied name that Romeo then slays Tybalt and becomes "fortune's fool"--initiating a falling action that leads eventually to a pair of suicides and a belated recognition by the Capulets and the Montagues that their children have become "poor sacrifices of our enmity." But it is not for its revenge elements that most of us remember Romeo and Juliet. No, it is for the lyricism with which Shakespeare portrays the beauty and idealism of love at first sight--all the more transcendent for the ways in which the playwright sets it off from the calculations of Juliet's parents (intent on arranging their daughter's marriage to advance their own status) or contrasts it with the earthy bawdiness of Juliet's Nurse or the worldly-wise cynicism of Romeo's friend Mercutio. The spontaneous sonnet of Romeo and Juliet's initial meeting at Capulet's ball, their betrothal vows in the balcony scene later that evening, the ominous parting that concludes their one night together and foreshadows their final meeting in the Capulet tomb--these are the moments we carry with us from a performance or a reading of what may well be history's most famous love story. Romeo and Juliet may strike us as an "early" tragedy in its formal versification and in its patterned structure. It has been faulted for its dependence on coincidence and on causes external to the protagonists for the conditions that bring about the tragic outcome--an emphasis implicit in the play's repeated references to Fortune and the stars. And critics have encountered difficulty in their attempts to reconcile the purity of Romeo and Juliet's devotion to each other ("for earth too dear") with the play's equal insistence that their relationship is a form of idolatry--ultimately leading both lovers to acts of desperation that audiences in Shakespeare's time would have considered far more consequential than do most modern audiences. But whatever its supposed limitations and interpretive problems, Romeo and Juliet seems likely to hold its position as one of the classics of the dramatic repertory. Romeo and Juliet first appeared in a 1597 quarto edition that most scholars believe to be a memorial reconstruction, though one with isolated passages (such as Mercutio's celebrated Queen Mab speech) printed in a form that some scholars believe superior to their rendering in the text today's editors accept as the best authority: the 1599 second quarto, "newly corrected, augmented, and amended," and apparently derived primarily from Shakespeare's own "foul papers." Two more printings appeared before the 1623 Folio, whose text--essentially a reprint of the third quarto edition (1609)--has no independent authority. The principal source for the play was a 1562 narrative, The Tragical History of Romeus and Juliet, by Arthur Brooke, a didactic poem urging children to be obedient to their parents. By telescoping three months into four days and by dramatizing the story in a manner more sympathetic to the young lovers, Shakespeare transformed a sermon into a tragedy whose urgency must have been just as moving in the Elizabethan theater as we know it to be in our own. If Romeo and Juliet is a play that has lost none of its freshness in the four centuries since its first appearance, Love's Labor's Lost now strikes us as so thoroughly "Elizabethan" in its rhetoric and topicality as to be nearly inaccessible to modern audiences. Evidently another product of the "transition years" when Shakespeare was working his way back into the theater after a two-year hiatus due to the plague, Love's Labor's Lost appears to have been written in 1594-1595 for private performance and may well have been revised in 1597 for a performance before the Queen during the Christmas revels. Its earliest known printing was a 1598 quarto announcing itself as "newly corrected and augmented" and probably set from Shakespeare's "foul papers." The Folio text was essentially a reprint of this first quarto, which has the distinction of being the first play to bear Shakespeare's name on its title page. Until recently no literary source had been found for the plot of Love's Labor's Lost, but Glynne Wickham has now turned up a 1581 analogue, The Four Foster Children of Desire, that helps account for much of the play's structure and several of its themes. What emerges for a theatergoer or reader of the play today is a highly "artificial" comedy about a company of men whose well-intended but ill-conceived attempt to outwit nature makes them all look foolish and lands them in a pickle. No sooner have King Ferdinand of Navarre and his friends Longaville, Dumaine, and Berowne--hoping to conquer the frailties of the flesh and find an antidote to "cormorant devouring time"--forsworn the company of women and withdrawn to their quasi-monastic Academe than they find their fortress besieged by four beautiful ladies--the Princess of France and her attendants Maria, Katherine, and Rosaline--who camp in the park outside and watch with amusement as each of the "scholars" falls in love, forsakes his vows, and gets caught by the others. Eventually the men surrender and propose marriage, but by this time it has become clear that they are so far gone in artifice that they need at least a year of penance--and time in real-world settings such as the hospital to which Berowne is consigned--before their protestations of devotion can be given any credit. Love's labor is "lost," then, in the sense that this is a comedy without the traditional happy consummation in wedding, feasting, and dancing. Its concluding lyrics move from spring ("When daisies pied") to winter ("When icicles hang"), and the year of penance to come is one that requires all of the men to reevaluate their aspirations with a renewed awareness of the omnipresence of disease and the inevitability of death. Love's Labor's Lost is one of Shakespeare's most self-conscious plays generically, and it is also one of his most demanding plays linguistically. Much is made of the "literary" artifice of the four men's rhetoric, and it is shown to be detrimental to normal human feeling. It is also shown to be an infection that touches such lesser characters as the bombastic braggart soldier Don Adriano de Armado, the pedant schoolmaster Holofernes, and the clown Costard, all of whom, like the poor curate Nathaniel in the Pageant of the Nine Worthies, prove "a little o'erparted." It is one of the ironies of the play that the four major male characters, who laugh so cruelly at the participants in the pageant, also prove "o'erparted" in the end. Such are the wages of affectation. Affectation of another kind is depicted in a delightful scene from what many regard as Shakespeare's most charming comedy, A Midsummer Night's Dream . As the Athenian courtiers are quick to observe in their critiques of the "tragical mirth" of Pyramus and Thisby in V.i, the "mechanicals" who display their dramatic wares at the nuptial feast of Theseus and Hippolyta are even more fundamentally "o'erparted" than the hapless supernumeraries of Love's Labor's Lost. But there is something deeply affectionate about Shakespeare's portrayal of the affectations of Bottom and his earnest company of "hempen home-spuns," and the "simpleness and duty" with which they tender their devotion is the playwright's way of reminding us that out of the mouths of babes and fools can sometimes issue a loving wisdom that "hath no bottom." Like "Bottom's Dream," the playlet brings a refreshingly naive perspective to issues addressed more seriously elsewhere. And, by burlesquing the struggles and conflicts through which the lovers in the woods circumvent the arbitrariness of their elders, "Pyramus and Thisby" comments not only upon the fortunes of Demetrius and Helena, Lysander and Hermia, but also upon the misfortunes of Romeo and Juliet. After all, both stories derive ultimately from the same source in Ovid's Metamorphoses, and Shakespeare's parallel renderings of the "course of true love" in Romeo and Juliet and A Midsummer Night's Dream are so closely linked in time and treatment that it is tempting to regard the two plays as companion pieces--tragic and comic masks, as it were, for the same phase (1595-1596) of Shakespearean dramaturgy. Whether or not A Midsummer Night's Dream was commissioned for a wedding ceremony at Whitehall, as some scholars have speculated, the play is in fact a remarkable welding of disparate materials: the fairy lore of Oberon and Titania and their impish minister Puck, the classical narrative of Theseus's conquest of the Amazons and their queen Hippolyta, the confused comings and goings of the young Athenian lovers who must flee to the woods to evade their tyrannical parents, and the rehearsals for a crude craft play by a band of well-meaning peasants. It is in some ways the most original work in the entire Shakespearean canon, and one is anything but surprised that its "something of great constancy" has inspired the best efforts of such later artists as composer Felix Mendelssohn, painters Henry Fuseli and William Blake , director Peter Brook, and filmmakers Max Reinhardt and Woody Allen . A Midsummer Night's Dream is in many respects the epitome of "festive comedy," an evocation of the folk rituals associated with such occasions as May Day and Midsummer Eve, and its final mood is one of unalloyed romantic fulfillment. Romance is also a key ingredient in the concluding arias of Shakespeare's next comedy, The Merchant of Venice, where Bassanio and Portia, Lorenzo and Jessica, and Gratiano and Nerissa celebrate the happy consummation of three love quests and contemplate the music of the spheres from a magical estate known symbolically as Belmont. But the "sweet harmony" the lovers have achieved by the end of The Merchant of Venice has been purchased very dearly, and it is hard for a modern audience to accept the serenity of Belmont without at least a twinge of guilt over what has happened in far-off Venice to bring it about. Whether The Merchant of Venice is best categorized as an anti-Semitic play (capitalizing on prejudices that contemporaries such as Marlowe had catered to in plays like The Jew of Malta) or as a play about the evils of anti-Semitism (as critical of the Christian society that has persecuted the Jew as it is of the vengeance he vents in response), its central trial scene is profoundly disturbing for an audience that has difficulty viewing Shylock's forced conversion as a manifestation of mercy. Shylock's "hath not a Jew eyes" speech impels us to see him as a fellow human being--notwithstanding the rapacious demand for "justice" that all but yields him Antonio's life before Portia's clever manipulations of the law strip the usurer of his own life's fortune--so that even if we feel that the Jew's punishment is less severe than what strict "justice" might have meted out to him, his grim exit nevertheless casts a pall over the festivities of the final act in Belmont. By contrast with A Midsummer Night's Dream, a play in which the disparate components of the action are resolved in a brilliantly satisfying synthesis, The Merchant of Venice remains, for many of us, a prototype of those later Shakespearean works that twentieth-century critics have labeled "problem comedies." Even its fairy-tale elements, such as the casket scenes in which three would-be husbands try to divine the "will" of Portia's father, seem discordant to a modern audience that is asked to admire a heroine who dismisses one of her suitors with a slur on his Moroccan "complexion." Though it seems to have been written in late 1596 or early 1597 and, like A Midsummer Night's Dream, was first published in a good quarto in 1600, The Merchant of Venice feels closer in mood to Measure for Measure--which also pivots on a conflict between justice and mercy--than to most of the other "romantic comedies" of the mid to late 1590s. But if The Merchant of Venice strikes us now as a play that looks forward to a later phase of Shakespearean dramaturgy, the plays he worked on next were a return to his beginnings. Possibly as early as 1595, and certainly no later than 1597, Shakespeare began a fresh exploration of the "matter" of English history with a play focusing on the events that precipitated the Wars of the Roses. It is impossible to say whether Shakespeare knew, when he began composing Richard II, that he would go on to write the two parts of Henry IV and the drama on Henry V that would furnish the link between Richard II and the Henry VI trilogy with which he had begun his career as a playwright. But complete the cycle he did, and the four English history plays Shakespeare wrote between 1595 and 1599 were even more impressive in their epic sweep than the four plays he had completed prior to the theatrical hiatus of 1593-1594. Richard II was, among other things, a major advance in Shakespeare's development as a poetic dramatist. Not only does the play contain the dying John of Gaunt's paean to "This royal throne of kings, this sceptred isle, ... This other Eden, demi-paradise," it also affords us a telling contrast between the laconic bluntness of Henry Bolingbroke, a man of action who is not quick to speak, and the self-indulgent lyricism of Richard II, a man of words who is, finally and fatally, not quick to act. At the beginning of the play Richard's security in his presumption that God's deputy is above the law leads him to disregard the principles of primogeniture that are the basis of the King's own position as head of state. He disregards the counsel of his elders, seizes the estates of John of Gaunt and other nobles, banishes in Bolingbroke a former ally who has maintained a discreet silence about crimes that would taint the monarch himself, and sets in motion the rebellion that will eventually render his throne untenable. By the climax of the play Richard is forced to surrender his crown in a deposition scene that neatly counterpoises the declining King's complicity for his own downfall with the rising King's usurpation of a throne to which he has no legitimate title. And by the end of the play Richard's pastoral musings in the Tower transform him into a quasi-martyr whose meditations on "the death of kings" are as deeply moving as anything that Shakespeare had written up to this point in his career. As Richard prophesies, his murder at the hands of Henry IV's henchmen releases a tide of bloodshed that will not be stemmed until another legitimate monarch ascends the throne nearly a century in the future. When Richard II was published in a good quarto in 1597 it lacked the crucial deposition scene, owing almost certainly to the censor's awareness that it would seem threatening to the aging Queen Elizabeth. That such apprehensions were justified was borne out four years later when the play was performed on the eve of the abortive rebellion of the Earl of Essex. The deposition scene's first appearance in print was in the fourth quarto of 1608. As with the earlier English history plays, Richard II and the three Henry plays that followed derived in large measure from the 1587 second edition of Holinshed 's Chronicles. But in all probability, they were also influenced by, and possibly even inspired by, the 1595 publication of Samuel Daniel 's Civil Wars. In any event, it seems more likely that within a year of the completion of Richard II Shakespeare began work on its sequel, the first part of Henry IV . Taken together, parts 1 and 2 of Henry IV focus our attention on the immediate consequences of Henry Bolingbroke's usurpation of the crown. The first consequence is signaled by the opening lines of the first part, where the new King, "shaken" and "wan with care," announces his desire to lead a crusade to the Holy Land, both as a means of expiating his guilt and as a means of unifying a "giddy-minded" nation that is now divided into warring factions. Unfortunately, rest is not to be attained by this tainted monarch. His claim to the throne is immediately challenged by his former allies, the Percies, and thereafter his reign is disturbed by one threat after another. The King does eventually arrive at "Jerusalem" near the end of Henry IV, part 2, but ironically this destination turns out to be a room in the castle, and the setting for his deathbed scene, rather than the city he had hoped to wrest from pagan occupation at the birthplace of Christendom. The price that Henry IV pays for his usurpation turns out to be a nagging consciousness that "uneasy lies the head that wears the crown." And as significant as any other cause of the King's uneasiness is his fear that God has chosen to punish him with a wayward son whose "loose behavior" will forfeit the throne his father has expended so much anguish to mount and maintain. For all the King and his rivals can tell, the "nimble-footed madcap Prince of Wales" is squandering his royal inheritance in the dissolute company of "that villainous abominable misleader of youth, Falstaff," and a low-life lot of tavern keepers, thieves, and prostitutes. But as we learn early in Henry IV, part 1, Prince Hal is actually "redeeming time" in ways that surpass the political sagacity of even so Machiavellian a ruler as his father. Hal is acquiring firsthand knowledge of his nation's ordinary citizens, and the benefit he anticipates is that once he is King of England he will be able to "command all the good lads in Eastcheap." As he prepares himself for the military trials with which he must be tested, moreover, he does so in the awareness that once he throws off the "base contagious clouds" that "smother up his beauty from the world," he will emerge as England's true "sun," rather than the flawed monarch he knows his father to be. And so he does. In the battle of Shrewsbury at the end of Henry IV, part 1, the valiant Hal defeats the fiery warrior the King would have preferred for a son. By winning Hotspur's honors, Hal finally earns, at least for a moment, the respect and gratitude of a father whose life and kingdom he has saved. But it is not enough for Hal to have demonstrated the courage and prudence required of an heir apparent. In part 2 Shakespeare has him back at the Boar's Head tavern once again, and it is only after he has demonstrated the remaining kingly virtues of temperance and justice--by casting off the influence of Falstaff and claiming as his second surrogate father the Lord Chief Justice--that Hal is finally granted the crown for which he has been so thoroughly educated. His epic reaches its apogee in Henry V , a play described by its Chorus as a pageant in honor of "the mirror of all Christian kings." Whether or not we are to feel that the new King has dismissed some of his humanity in his rejection of the "old fat man" at his coronation, and whether or not we are to regard with suspicion the ambiguous "Salic Law" that the Bishops invoke to justify the King's invasion of France, and whether or not we are to see the King as cruel in his threat to allow the maidens and children of Harfleur to be raped and slaughtered if the town refuses to surrender, the dominant impression that Henry V has made on most readers and producers is one of heroic celebration. The King proves firm and resourceful in battle, mingling with his men in disguise on the eve of the engagement and exhorting them to noble valor in his famous St. Crispin's Day address. And once his "happy few," his "band of brothers," have triumphed against all odds and won the day, the King gives the glory to God. He thus illustrates those qualities of the nurturing mother pelican--piety, self-sacrifice, humility, and magnanimity--that "Christian kings" were to display in addition to the monarchial attributes that Machiavelli and other political theorists had long associated with the lion and the fox. And in his wooing of his French bride, Katherine, at the end of the play, the King also exhibits the wit and charm that had endeared the historical Henry V to his admiring countrymen. It is possible that the "wooden O" referred to in the Chorus's opening prologue was the Globe, newly opened on Bankside in 1599, and hence that Henry V was one of the first, if not the first, of Shakespeare's plays to be performed in that now-famous playhouse. Be that as it may, the play was probably completed in 1599, a year after Henry IV, part 2, and two years after Henry IV, part 1. All three plays had made their first appearances in print by 1600, the two parts of Henry IV in good quartos and Henry V in a bad quarto. The first reliable text of Henry V was that published in the First Folio in 1623. The first good text of a related play, The Merry Wives of Windsor , also appeared in the Folio, but it too was initially published in a bad quarto, this one a memorial reconstruction dated 1602. Just when Merry Wives was written, and why, has been vigorously debated for decades. According to one legend, no doubt apocryphal but not totally lacking in plausibility, Shakespeare was commissioned to write the play because the Queen wanted to see Falstaff in love. If so, it seems likely that the play was also produced as an occasional piece in honor of the award of the Order of the Garter to Lord Hunsdon, the patron of the Lord Chamberlain's Men, on 23 April 1597. There are references to a Garter ceremony at Windsor Castle in act five of The Merry Wives of Windsor, and Leslie Hotson has argued that even though the play may well have been performed later at the Globe, its first presentation was before Queen Elizabeth and Lord Hunsdon at Windsor on St. George's Day 1597. The Merry Wives of Windsor is unique among Shakespeare's comedies in having an English town for its setting. Its bourgeois characters have delighted audiences not only in the playhouse but also on the operatic stage, in what many critics consider the most successful of Verdi's numerous achievements in Shakespearean opera. Despite its obvious charms, however, the play has never been a favorite among Shakespeare's readers and literary interpreters. The reason is that the Falstaff we see in The Merry Wives of Windsor is a Falstaff largely lacking in the vitality and appeal of the character we come to love in the first part of Henry IV. Without Prince Hal and the wit combats afforded by his jokes at Falstaff's expense, the Falstaff of Merry Wives is merely conniving and crude. We may laugh at the comeuppances he receives at the hands of the merry wives he tries to seduce--the buck-basket baptism he gets as his reward for the first encounter, the beatings and pinchings he suffers in his later encounters--but we see nothing of the inventiveness that makes Falstaff such a supreme escape artist in part 1 of Henry IV. So attenuated is the Falstaff of The Merry Wives of Windsor that many interpreters have argued that it is simply a mistake to approach him as the same character. In any case, we never see him in love. His is a profit motive without honor, and it is much more difficult for us to feel any pity for his plight in Merry Wives than it is in the three Henry plays that depict the pratfalls and decline of the young heir-apparent's genial lord of misrule. The play does have the clever Mistress Ford and Mistress Page. And in the jealous Master Ford and the tyrannical Master Page it also has a pair of comic gulls whose sufferings can be amusing in the theater. But it is doubtful that The Merry Wives of Windsor will ever be among our favorite Shakespearean comedies, particularly when we examine it alongside such contemporary achievements as Much Ado About Nothing and As You Like It. Much Ado About Nothing and As You Like It were probably written in late 1598 and 1599, respectively, with the former first published in a good quarto in 1600 and the later making its initial appearance in the 1623 First Folio. Both are mature romantic comedies, and both have enjoyed considerable success in the theater. "Nothing" is a word of potent ambiguity in Shakespeare (the playwright was later to explore its potential most profoundly in the "nothing will come of nothing" that constitutes the essence of King Lear), and in Much Ado About Nothing its implications include the possibilities inherent in the wordplay on the Elizabethan homonym "noting." Through the machinations of the surly Don John, who gulls the superficial Claudio into believing that he "notes" his betrothed Hero in the act of giving herself to another lover, an innocent girl is rejected at the altar by a young man who believes himself to have been dishonored. Fortunately, Don John and his companions have themselves been noted by the most incompetent watch who ever policed a city; and, despite their asinine constable, Dogberry, these well-meaning but clownish servants of the Governor of Messina succeed in bringing the crafty villains to justice. In doing so, they set in motion a process whereby Hero's chastity is eventually vindicated and she reappears as if resurrected from the grave. Meanwhile, another pair of "notings" have been staged by the friends of Benedick and Beatrice, with the result that these two sarcastic enemies to love and to each other are each tricked into believing that the other is secretly in love. At least as much ado is made of Benedick and Beatrice's notings as of the others, and by the time the play ends these acerbic critics of amorous folly, grudgingly acknowledging that "the world must be peopled," have been brought to the altar with Claudio and Hero for a double wedding that concludes the play with feasting and merriment. Shakespeare could have drawn from a number of antecedents for the story of Hero and Claudio, among them cantos from Ariosto's Orlando Furioso and Spenser's Faerie Queene. But the nearest thing to a "source" for Beatrice and Benedick may well have been his own The Taming of the Shrew , whether another pair of unconventional would-be lovers struggle their way to a relationship that is all the more vital for the aggressive resistance that has to be channeled into harmony to bring it about. In any event, if there is some doubt about where Benedick and Beatrice came from, there is no doubt about the direction in which they point--to such gallant and witty Restoration lovers as Mirabell and Millamant in William Congreve 's The Way of the World. With As You Like It Shakespeare achieved what many commentators consider to be the finest exemplar of a mode of romantic comedy based on escape to and return from what Northrop Frye has termed the "green world." As in A Midsummer Night's Dream (where the young lovers flee to the woods to evade an Athens ruled by the edicts of tyrannical fathers) and The Merchant of Venice (where Belmont serves as the antidote to all the venom that threatens life in Venice), in As You Like It the well-disposed characters who find themselves in the Forest of Arden think of it as an environment where even "adversity" is "sweet" and restorative. Duke Senior has been banished from his dukedom by a usurping younger brother, Duke Frederick. As the play opens, Duke Senior and his party are joined by Orlando and his aged servant Adam (who are running away from Orlando's cruel older brother Oliver), and later they in turn are joined by Duke Senior's daughter Rosalind and her cousin Celia (who have come to the forest, disguised as men, because the wicked Duke Frederick can no longer bear to have Rosalind in his daughter's company at court). The scenes in the forest are punctuated by a number of reflections on the relative merits of courtly pomp and pastoral simplicity, with the cynical Touchstone and the melancholy Jaques countering any sentimental suggestion that the Forest of Arden is a "golden world" of Edenic perfection, and her sojourn in the forest allows the wise and witty Rosalind to use male disguise as a means of testing the affections of her lovesick wooer Orlando. Eventually Orlando proves a worthy match for Rosalind, in large measure because he shows himself to be his brother's keeper. By driving off a lioness poised to devour the sleeping Oliver, Orlando incurs a wound that prevents him from appearing for an appointment with the disguised Rosalind; but his act of unmerited self-sacrifice transforms his brother into a "new man" who arrives on the scene in Orlando's stead and eventually proves a suitable match for Celia. Meanwhile, as the play nears its end, we learn that a visit to the forest has had a similarly regenerative effect on Duke Frederick, who enters a monastery and returns the dukedom to its rightful ruler, Duke Senior. As You Like It derives in large measure from Thomas Lodge 's romance Rosalynde or Euphues' Golden Legacy, a prose classic dating from 1590. But in his treatment of the "strange events" that draw the play to a conclusion presided over by Hymen, the god of marriage, Shakespeare hints at the kind of miraculous transformation that will be given major emphasis in the late romances. The last of the great romantic comedies of Shakespeare's mid career, probably composed and performed in 1601 though not published until the 1623 First Folio, was Twelfth Night . Possibly based, in part, on an Italian comedy of the 1530s called Gl'Ingannati , Twelfth Night is another play with implicit theological overtones. Its title comes from the name traditionally associated with the Feast of Epiphany (6 January, the twelfth day of the Christmas season), and much of its roistering would have seemed appropriate to an occasion when Folly was allowed to reign supreme under the guise of a Feast of Fools presided over by a Lord of Misrule. In Shakespeare's play, the character who represents Misrule is Sir Toby Belch, the carousing uncle of a humorless countess named Olivia. Together with such companions as Sir Andrew Aguecheek, the jester Feste, and a clever gentlewoman named Maria, Sir Toby makes life difficult not only for Olivia but also for her puritan steward Malvolio, whose name means "bad will" and whose function in the play, ultimately, is to be ostracized so that "good will" may prevail. In what many consider to be the most hilarious gulling scene in all of Shakespeare, Malvolio is tricked into thinking that his Lady is in love with him and persuaded to wear cross-gartered yellow stockings in her presence--attire that he believes will allure her, but attire that persuades her instead that he is deranged. The "treatment" that follows is a mock exercise in exorcism, and when Malvolio is finally released from his tormentors at the end of the play, he exits vowing revenge "on the whole pack" of them. As with the dismissal of Shylock in The Merchant of Venice, the punishment of Malvolio's presumption in Twelfth Night has seemed too harsh to many modern viewers and readers. But that should not prevent us from seeing that Twelfth Night is also a play about other forms of self-indulgence (Count Orsino's infatuation with the pose of a courtly lover, and Olivia's excessively long period of mourning for her deceased brother) and the means by which characters "sick of self-love" or self-deception are eventually restored to mental and emotional sanity. Through the ministrations of the wise fool, Feste, and the providential Viola, who arrives in Illyria after a shipwreck in which she mistakenly believes her brother Sebastian to have died, we witness a sequence of coincidences and interventions that seems too nearly miraculous to have been brought about by blind chance. By taking another series of potentially tragic situations and turning them to comic ends, Shakespeare reminds us once again that harmony and romantic fulfillment are at the root of what Northrop Frye calls the "argument of comedy." If Shakespeare's middle years are notable for sophisticated achievements in the genre we now refer to as romantic comedy, they are equally notable for the playwright's unprecedented strides in the development of two other genres: tragedy and tragicomedy. In 1599, probably at the Globe, the Lord Chamberlain's Men offered the earliest recorded performance of Julius Caesar (the first of three mature tragedies, now grouped as "the Roman Plays," which all saw print for the first time in the 1623 Folio). Two years later, in late 1600 or early 1601, the company probably added to its repertory Hamlet (a play whose immediate and sustained popularity was attested to by its 1603 publication in an unauthorized bad quarto, succeeded a year later by a good quarto that most textual scholars still rely upon for all but a few passages, in preference to the slightly revised text in the 1623 Folio, which was set principally from a copy of the prompt-book). Then in late 1601 or early 1602--once again drawing on the "classical" matter that had been the basis for the action of Julius Caesar and for many of the allusions in Hamlet --Shakespeare completed Troilus and Cressida, a play so uncompromisingly "intellectual" in its insistence that the audience "by indirections find directions out" that critics from the seventeenth century to the present have found it all but impossible to classify. If Troilus and Cressida is a comedy, as the epistle prefacing the 1609 First Quarto would indicate, it is at best a specimen of black humor very different in tone and treatment from Shakespeare's other efforts in tragicomedy. If it is a tragedy, as its equivocal placement (occupying a no-man's-land between the Histories and the Tragedies) in the First Folio has led some scholars to argue, it is unique to the genre in the way its language and action undercut the dignity of its heroic protagonists. Troilus and Cressida was followed, in 1602-1603 and 1604 respectively, by two other plays, again ambiguous in tone, that are also frequently discussed today as "problem plays." All's Well That Ends Well and Measure for Measure (both of which made their initial appearances in print in the First Folio) are tragicomedies that turn on "bed tricks," and in their preoccupation with the seamier aspects of sexuality they can be viewed as links between Hamlet, the first of Shakespeare's "great tragedies," and Othello, the second (which seems to have been composed in 1604, when there is a record of performance at Court). Julius Caesar --a play that may owe something to sources as seemingly remote as St. Augustine's City of God and Erasmus 's Praise of Folly in addition to such obvious classical antecedents as Plutarch's Lives and Tacitus's Annals--is now regarded as a dramatic work of considerable complexity. On the one hand, the play captures with remarkable fidelity the ethos and rhetorical style of late-republican Rome--so much so, indeed, that it may be said that Shakespeare's portraits of Caesar and his contemporaries have largely formed our own impressions of how the ancient Romans thought and talked and conducted their civic affairs. Recent studies of the play's references to "philosophy" indicate, moreover, that Shakespeare knew a good deal about Roman Stoicism and perceived it as one of the characterizing traits that differentiated Brutus from Cassius, an Epicurean continually nonplussed by his companion's mental rigidity and emotional aloofness. But if Shakespeare brought to his dramatic art a historical imagination capable of reconstructing a self-consistent Roman world--and one that was distinct in significant ways from his own Elizabethan England--he was also capable of embodying in his representation of that world a perspective that amounted, in effect, to a Renaissance humanist critique of pre-Christian civilization. Thus it was quite possible for Shakespeare to portray the conspirators and their cause, as it were, "sympathetically"--so much so, indeed, that a twentieth-century audience, unwittingly misreading the play, finds it almost impossible not to hear in such exclamations as "peace, freedom, and liberty!" the precursors of America's own founding fathers. At the same time, however, Shakespeare would have known that he could rely on his Elizabethan contemporaries to regard as foredoomed any attempt to achieve social harmony through what they would have seen on the stage as bloody butchery and regicide. By the same token, of course, Shakespeare could encourage his audience to "identify" with Brutus through participation in his soliloquies, while simultaneously assuming that alert members of that audience would recognize that Brutus's thought processes are often misguided and self-deceptive. In the late 1930s Mark Van Doren observed that, whatever Brutus's positive qualities as a high-minded patriot, he tends to come across in the play as a self-righteous, almost pharisaical prig, particularly in the quarrel scene with Cassius. In recent years a number of scholars have confirmed the validity of Van Doren's perception by showing that it is consistent with the hypothesis that in his portrayal of Brutus Shakespeare was drawing on a widely held Christian tradition that regarded Stoicism as a philosophy that rendered its adherents hard-hearted, arrogant, and so assured of their own virtue as to be largely incapable of recognizing or repenting of their faults. If this reading of Brutus is closer to Shakespeare's intention than the more sentimental view that approaches everything in the play from the retrospective vantage-point of Mark Antony's eulogy for "the noblest Roman of them all," it tends to cast much of Julius Caesar in an ironic light--and by implication to require an audience alert to clues that are not always so self-evident as a twentieth-century reader or viewer might expect. Such an audience seems called for by Hamlet as well, at least if we are going to take seriously Hamlet's admonition that the players address their performance to "the judicious," to those who are capable of viewing all the action, including that involving the most engaging of protagonists, with a critical eye. This is difficult for us, because we have long been accustomed to thinking of Hamlet as the "sweet prince" who epitomizes the ideal Renaissance courtier. There is no danger, to be sure, that Hamlet will ever lose his appeal as an articulate and ardent existentialist--as the prototype of modern man in spiritual crisis. But recent critical studies and productions of the play have raised questions about the "matter" of Hamlet in Elizabethan terms that suggest a somewhat less admirable protagonist than most of us would like to believe the play presents. It is no longer universally assumed, for example, that the play within the play, by proving the Ghost "honest" in his testimony about Claudius's guilt, is sufficient to prove the Ghost "honest" in Hamlet's more fundamental sense. Enough evidence remains in the play to suggest that the Ghost may yet be a "devil" intent on "abusing" the melancholic Hamlet by exhorting him to the kind of vengeance that Elizabethan Christians believed to belong only to God or to his deputed magistrates. And Hamlet's disinclination to "try" the spirit earlier in the play is but one of many indications in the text that he fails to put to proper use what he elsewhere describes as "godlike reason." A close examination of many of Hamlet's reflective speeches, including his celebrated "To be nor not to be" soliloquy, will show that they serve functions similar to those of Brutus in Julius Caesar. By bringing the audience into the protragonist's confidence, they endear him to us and incline us to see everything and everyone else in the action through his eyes. But if we pay careful attention to the nuances of thought in these reflections, we will notice that many of them tend to be irrational--peppered with non sequiturs and disclosing the kind of emotional stress that renders a man prone to error. A dispassionate scrutiny of the roles of Rosencrantz and Guildenstern will reveal that, however conventionally ambitious these young courtiers may be, they mean Hamlet well and are anything but the "adders fanged" that Hamlet regards them as having become. The play provides no evidence that they deserve the "sudden death, not shriving time allowed" that Hamlet gleefully bequeaths them; and it is arguable that Shakespeare expected his audience to feel that they should be "near Hamlet's conscience" when he assures Horatio that they are not. And near the end of the play, when Hamlet disregards the "gaingiving" that warns him not to accept the "wager" proffered by the treacherous Claudius--when he dismisses Horatio's prudence and disdains the kind of premonition that "would perhaps trouble a woman"--he allows himself to be seduced (and in a way that parallels Julius Caesar's being led to the Capitol) into a trap that means certain death. Far from being guided by providence, as his New Testament allusions would suggest at this point in the action, Hamlet is being lured by pride into an ambush that he might have avoided by heeding his "godlike reason." As Claudius had predicted, Hamlet shows himself to be "remiss." None of which in any way diminishes the attractiveness of Hamlet's wit and fervor, or suggests that he is not infinitely to be preferred to the "mighty opposite" whose regicide and usurpation he puts to scourge. No, there is no doubt that Hamlet uncovers and "sets right" much that is "rotten in the state of Denmark." The only question is whether the play invites us to consider a set of "might have beens" that would have permitted us to approve of the protagonist even more unreservedly than we do. If the findings of recent commentators are to be credited, it would seem likely that our identification with Hamlet's cause should be qualified by an awareness that he did not completely find the way "rightly to be great." "The whole argument is a whore and a cuckold." So the acid-tongued Thersites sums up the "matter of Troy" and the occasion of Troilus and Cressida . We may not wish to see our legendary forebears reduced so unceremoniously to the base matter of lust and dishonor, but there is little in the plot or dialogue of Shakespeare's play to cite in refutation. The Trojan War is in fact a conflict over the ravishingly beautiful but thoughtless Helen (the "whore" whom Paris has stolen away from the "cuckold" Menelaus), and one would have to search hard to find anything to admire in most of the principals who figure in the inconsequential council scenes, squalid intrigues, and interrupted combats that dominate the action. Because what Troilus and Cressida is largely "about" is a ludicrously unheroic siege to determine whether the Trojans return Helen to the Greeks or see their city fall in defense of a cause that even the greatest Trojan warrior considers unworthy of their "several honors." As Hector points out, the Trojans can appeal to neither justice nor reason in support of their determination to keep Helen; the best that anyone can say of her is that, quite apart from what she may be in and of herself, "she is a theme of honor and renown,/A spur to valiant and magnanimous deeds." But when we look for such deeds in the play, what we find on both sides are acts of questionable valor at best (as when Hector, having challenged the Greeks to find a combatant to uphold their honor as lovers, breaks off a hand-to-hand duel with Ajax on the grounds that they are cousins) and downright cowardice at worst (as when Achilles, having come upon Hector at a moment when he has removed his armor to rest, merely summons his Myrmidons to slaughter the champion of the Trojans). In the meantime we are treated to the voyeurism of Pandarus, an impotent and diseased bawd whose only pleasure in life is to serve as go-between for Troilus and Cressida, and the homoerotic indulgence of Achilles and Patroclus, who have withdrawn from combat because of a slight the prima donna Achilles thinks he has suffered at the hands of the Greek general, Agamemnon. Small wonder that Ulysses should observe that "degree is shak'd." And little wonder that director Jonathan Miller, in his 1982 BBC television production of Troilus and Cressida, hit upon MAS*H as the most apt twentieth-century analogue for a satiric seventeenth-century depiction of war as the triumph of unreason, ennui, and depravity. There is, to be sure, some momentary relief in the scenes depicting the wooing of Troilus and Cressida. And when Cressida is eventually delivered back to the Greek camp at the request of her father, one feels that her surrender to Diomede is more a result of her feminine helplessness in a male-controlled world than a manifestation of some prior proclivity to infidelity. But despite the lyricism of Troilus and Cressida's lovemaking, and the agony both lovers feel upon parting, one emerges from this play moved less by the pathos of the love story than by Shakespeare's presentation of what T. S. Eliot , writing three centuries later about another literary work deriving ultimately from Homer , praised as a reflection of "the immense panorama of futility and anarchy which is contemporary history." It may well be that Troilus and Cressida seemed just as "modern" and puzzling in the early seventeenth century as Joyce's Ulysses seemed when it appeared in the early twentieth. Modern in another sense may be a good way to describe All's Well That Ends Well . After a long history of neglect, this tragicomedy has recently enjoyed a good deal of success in the theater and on television, and one of the explanations that have been given is that it features a heroine who, refusing to accept a preordained place in a hierarchical man's world, does what she has to do to win her own way. Orphaned at an early age and reared as a waiting-gentlewoman to the elegant and sensitive Countess of Rossillion, Helena presumes to fall in love with the Countess's snobbish son Bertram. Using a cure she learned from her dead father, who had been a prominent physician, Helena saves the life of the ailing King of France, whereupon she is rewarded with marriage to the man of her choice among all the eligible bachelors in the land. She astonishes Bertram by selecting him. Reluctantly, Bertram consents to matrimony, but before the marriage can be consummated he leaves the country with his disreputable friend Parolles, telling Helena in a note that he will be hers only when she has fulfilled two presumably impossible conditions: won back the ring from his finger and borne a childe to him. Disguised as a pilgrim, Helena follows Bertram to Florence. There she substitutes herself for a woman named Diana, with whom Bertram has made an assignation, and satisfies the despicable Bertram's demands. One of the "problems" that have troubled critics of All's Well That Ends Well is the device of the "bed trick." But we now know that Shakespeare had biblical precedent for such a plot (Genesis 35) and that it was associated in the Old Testament with providential intervention. Which may be of some value to us in dealing with the other major issues: why should Helena want so vain and selfish a man as Bertram in the first place, and how can we accept at face value his reformation at the end? If we suspend our disbelief enough to grant the fairy-tale premises of the plot (which derived from a story in Boccaccio's Decameron,) we should be able to grant as well that in a providentially ordered world, the end may not only justify the means but sanctify them. And if the end that Helena has in view is not only to win Bertram but to make him "love her dearly ever, ever dearly," we must grant the playwright the final miracle of a Bertram who can be brought to see his evil ways for what they are and repent of them. A similar miracle would seem to be the final cause of Measure for Measure . At the beginning of the play, Duke Vincentio, noting that he has been too lenient in his administration of the laws of Venice, appoints as deputy an icy-veined puritan named Angelo, whom he expects to be more severe for a season of much-needed civic discipline. Almost immediately upon the Duke's departure, Angelo finds himself confronted with a novitiate, Isabella, who, in pleading for the life of a brother condemned for fornification, unwittingly arouses the new deputy's lust. Angelo offers her an exchange: her brother's life for her chastity. Astonished by the deputy's disregard for both God's laws and man's, Isabella refuses. Later, as she tries to prepare Claudio for his execution and discovers that he is less shocked by the deputy's offer than his sister had been, Isabella upbraids him, too, as a reprobate. At this point the Duke, who has been disguised as a friar, persuades Isabella to "accept" Angelo's offer on the understanding that his former betrothed, Mariana, will sleep with him instead. Once again the bed trick proves effectual and "providential." In the "trial" that takes place at the entrance to the city upon the Duke's return, Isabella accuses Angelo of having corrupted his office and executed her brother despite an agreement to spare him (an order of the deputy's that, unknown to Isabella, has been forestalled by the "friar"). But then, in response to Mariana's pleas for her assistance, she decides not to press her claim for justice and instead kneels before the Duke to beg that Angelo's life be spared. The Duke grants her request, and Angelo--illustrating Mariana's statement that "best men are molded out of faults"--repents and accepts the Duke's mercy. Measure for Measure qualifies as a tragicomedy because the questions it raises are serious (how to balance law and grace, justice and mercy, in human society) and the issue (whether or not Angelo will be executed for his evil intentions with respect to Claudio) is in doubt until the moment when, by kneeling beside Mariana, Isabella prevents what might have been a kind of revenge tragedy. (The Duke tells Mariana, "Against all sense you do importune her./Should she kneel down in mercy of this fact,/Her brother's ghost his paved bed would break,/And take her hence in horror.") In Shakespearean comedy, of course, all's well that ends well. Revenge gives way to forgiveness or repentance, and characters who might have died in self-deception or guilt are given a second chance. As for Isabella, she too gains insight and sensitivity as a consequence of her trials, and at the conclusion of the play she finds herself the recipient of a marriage proposal from her previously disguised counselor, the Duke. Whether she accepts it, and if so how, has become one of the chief "problems" to be solved by directors and actors in modern productions. After Measure for Measure, so far as we can tell, Shakespeare turned his attention entirely to tragedy for three or four years. By 1604, apparently, he completed Othello, the second of the four major tragedies. By 1605 he seems to have completed King Lear, the third and, in the estimation of many, the greatest of the tragedies. And by 1606 he had evidently written the last of the "big four," Macbeth. During the next two to three years Shakespeare turned once more to classical sources, completing Antony and Cleopatra and Coriolanus, respectively, in 1606-1607 and 1607-1608, and abandoning Timon of Athens (if we are correct in thinking that it was left unfinished and unacted) sometime around 1607 or 1608. Only two of these plays appeared in quarto printings, King Lear in 1608 in what many scholars now regard as a memorial reconstruction of an early version of the play, and Othello in 1622 in a text of uncertain provenance. Most modern editions of King Lear and Othello follow the First Folio texts as their prime authorities, supplementing those texts where appropriate with readings or passages from the quartos (although, particularly with King Lear, where the two printings of the play are thought by some to derive from discrete and self-consistent earlier and later scripts of the play, there is now a school of thought that opposes conflating the Folio and quarto versions). The other three tragedies all appeared for the first time in the 1623 Folio. When we come to Othello fresh from a reading of either Hamlet or Measure for Measure, we can see links with the earlier plays in Othello's treatment of sexual love and in the play's preoccupation with ethical questions that turn, ultimately, on revenge versus forgiveness. For whatever else Othello is, it is a species of revenge tragedy. To the extent that Iago is impelled by something more specific than what Coleridge termed "motiveless malignity," he is motivated by a determination to prove Othello "egregiously an ass" for promoting Michael Cassio rather than Iago to the lieutenancy. And Iago's vengeance extends to Cassio as well as to Othello. But more to the point, once Iago convinces Othello that Desdemona has slept with Cassio, he transforms Othello into the principal tool as well as the prime object of his revenge. Iago's "poison" is administered in two doses. First he provides enough circumstantial "proof" to make plausible his insinuation that Desdemona has been unfaithful to Othello. But second and far more crucial, he works Othello into such a frenzy that he is unable to give serious consideration to any response to his "knowledge" other than revenge. Once Othello becomes persuaded that Desdemona is indeed guilty of infidelity, his instinctive reaction is to exclaim "But yet the pity of it, Iago! O Iago, the pity of it, Iago!" To which Iago replies "If you are so fond over her iniquity, give her patent to offend, for if it touch not you, it comes near nobody." Here as elsewhere Iago's method is to get Othello to focus, not on Desdemona, but on himself. By constantly reiterating such terms as "reputation," "good name," and "honor," Iago plays upon Othello's insecurity as a Moorish alien and implies that his wife's behavior will make him the laughingstock of Venetian society. It is a mark of his worthiness as a tragic hero that, to the end, Othello retains the "free and open nature" that made him vulnerable to Iago in the beginning. Iago may manipulate Othello into committing a rash and terrible murder, but he cannot reduce Othello entirely to a blunt instrument of the ensign's vengeance. Before Othello can bring himself to suffocate Desdemona, he must first delude himself into believing that he is an agent of divine justice. And even in that role his innate compassion leads him to offer his wife a moment to prepare her soul for heaven. It is true that Othello becomes angry again when Desdemona fails to confess to a crime that would have been inconceivable to her, but one of the things that makes his act pathetic rather than malicious is the fact that he continues to express his devotion for Desdemona even as he forces himself to snuff out her life. In that sense as well as in Iago's more cynical sense, then, Othello becomes "an honorable murderer." And no matter how we judge Othello's final speech and "bloody period," we have to agree with Cassio's assessment that "he was great of heart." With King Lear we come to a tragedy whose pattern is without parallel in the Shakespearean canon. In all the other tragedies, despite the beauty of the benedictions that convey the protagonists to their eternal destinies, we are left at the end with a nagging sense of "purposes mistook" that might have been averted or deflected. The basic movement of the plot has been downward, and we come away feeling that we as audience have perceived something that the tragic protagonists themselves have been unable or unwilling to see. In those tragedies in which the protagonists have committed suicide, we are shown that in so doing they are wittingly or unwittingly admitting failure or surrendering to despair, notwithstanding their best efforts to keep their spirits up and evade the full consequences of the choices that have brought them to their present pass. But this is not the pattern we find in King Lear. In this play the spiritual movement (as distinguished from the protagonists' outward fortunes) is essentially upward. To be sure, there are terrible errors and terrifying consequences; in this play, however, we are led to believe that at least some of the pain is cathartic. There can be little doubt that both Lear and Gloucester are in some sense "better" men at the end of their lives than they were at the beginning of the action. And if the play is performed in such a way as to emphasize the degree to which the protagonists have been able to learn and grow through the endurance of tragic suffering, the audience is likely to emerge with a sense of uplift rather than with the weight of unmitigated pity and fear. This is not to suggest, of course, that there is any less agony and tragic loss in King Lear than in Shakespeare's other works in the same genre. Indeed, given the play's cosmic resonance--the honored place it now holds in the tradition represented by such theodicies as the Book of Job--King Lear has been thought by many to evoke more existential terror than all of Shakespeare's other tragedies combined. Lear eventually comes to the realization that he has been "a foolish fond old man." In a parallel recognition the blinded Gloucester acknowledges that he "stumbled when [he] saw." But first both fathers must feel the brunt of the savagery their earlier misdeeds have unleashed upon the world. Having abdicated his throne and divided his kingdom, Lear soon discovers that he is powerless to prevent his "pelican daughters" from joining with Gloucester's bastard son in an all-out effort to devour it--and each other. Lear's faithful Fool wastes away. The loyal Kent and Edgar are reduced to "wretches." And, most insupportable of all, at the end of the play the innocent Cordelia is hanged. For Lear as he enters cradling his beloved daughter in his arms, this is the ultimate punishment for the arrogance and folly that had led him, at the beginning, to spurn and disinherit her. But as heartrending as this concluding pietà is for any of the play's audiences, it can represent "a chance which does redeem all sorrows" if it is staged in harmony with the psychological and spiritual undulations of Lear's dying moments. Just before he says "Pray you undo this button," Lear believes that, as Kent puts it, "all's cheerless, dark, and deadly." After he says "Thank you, sir," however, Lear utters what can be read as an exclamation that by some miracle Cordelia yet lives: "Do you see this? Look on her! Look, her lips,/Look there, look there!" In our time these words have most often been interpreted as expressions of bleak despair. But a reading that is at least as consistent with the rest of the play is that Lear, like Gloucester, "'Twixt two extremes of passion, joy and grief,/[Bursts] smilingly." We know, of course, that Cordelia is "dead as earth." But it seems fitting that as he dies Lear should see her as alive. If so, it may be nothing more than a merciful hallucination. It may be a desperate man's last grasp at something to sustain a flicker of faith. But it may also register an experience comparable to that of another long-suffering king, the protagonist in Sophocles ' Oedipus at Colonus. In short, it may be that Lear is here granted a last epiphany that takes him out of this "tough world" to a glimpse of something better beyond: because by the end of his long pilgrimage, in the words of T. S. Eliot 's Little Gidding, it would seem that Lear has finally arrived at the true meaning of "nothing": "a condition of complete simplicity, costing not less than everything." Near the end of Macbeth's bloody reign, as he braces for the closing in of his adversaries, he too would like to achieve a kind of simplicity: "I gin to be aweary of the sun,/And wish th' estate o' th' world were now undone." But in Macbeth's case the goal to be obtained is "mere oblivion," not the brief but beatific vision of a broken old man for whom at last something has come of nothing. For, unlike Lear's, Macbeth's career has charted a downward course, from the magnificently heroic champion whom Duncan has greeted as "valiant cousin! worthy gentleman!" to the desperate tyrant whose acts of regicide and wanton slaughter have "tied [him] to a stake" as the "fiend" who must be executed to set the time "free." As a tragic action, Macbeth is almost the polar opposite of King Lear. Whereas in Lear we may be inclined to feel that "death is swallowed up in victory," in Macbeth we feel that the protagonist's defeat is merely the prelude to final judgment and damnation. Lear's is the kind of "fortunate fall" that results from a miscalculation born of habitual self-indulgence; it forces the King to contemplate "unaccommodated man" in all his vulnerability, and it subjects him to a refining "wheel of fire" that purifies him spiritually. Macbeth's, on the other hand, is the kind of fall that results from premeditated murder in the service of "vaulting ambition." As he himself acknowledges, there are no extenuating circumstances behind which he can shield his crime, and the only change it brings about in Macbeth is temporarily to rob him of sleep and security until, "supp'd full with horrors," he eventually loses all capacity for "the taste of fears" or any other humanizing emotion or sensation. By the final act, life for Macbeth is "but a walking shadow," "a tale/ Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury,/Signifying nothing." And yet, despite his infamy, we still find it possible to participate in, and even in some fashion to identify with, Macbeth's descent into hell. In part this results from our awareness of his auspicious beginnings--our recollection of that period at the outset when we see Macbeth tempted but nevertheless resisting the promptings of the Witches and Lady Macbeth. Because Macbeth himself is aware of the heinousness of the deed he is on the verge of committing, we can sympathize with him as a man like one of us. And then, once he has taken the fatal plunge, we become parties to his inner turmoil. By means of the soliloquies and meditations that Shakespeare allows us to "overhear," we share Macbeth's torment and anxiety, his feverish desire to put out of mind that which he cannot bear to dwell upon. And thus, even though what he and Lady Macbeth do is beyond the pale of thinkable human behavior, we can still bring pity and fear to both their stories--recalling, in the words of a famous prayer, that "there, but for the grace of God, go I." Moving from Macbeth's Scotland to the Mediterranean ambience of Antony and Cleopatra is a culture shock so disorienting as almost to make us lose our bearings. Can the same author who gave us Macbeth and Lady Macbeth, two potent personalities who seize power and then degenerate into tremulous tyrants, so soon thereafter have created Antony and Cleopatra, two mercurial rulers who seem, at least in their grandiloquent gestures, to become increasingly engaging as their fortunes wane and they almost willfully throw their power away? And how do we graph the movement of the action in a play where at least part of the problem is to assess the relative merits of a "Roman" way of looking at things (which judges both lovers as failures because they have declined to elevate civic and military duty above all other human concerns) as opposed to an "Egyptian" way of looking at things (which is based on the premise that one should be willing, in Dryden 's later phrase, to sacrifice "all for love")? Is it likely that Shakespeare expected his audience to bring a coherent "Elizabethan" perspective to bear on both ancient cultures? And if so, what would an audience viewing the play from that perspective have thought about Antony and Cleopatra? These are the kinds of question a reading of Antony and Cleopatra elicits, and the majority of its interpreters during the last three centuries have answered them in such a way as to place this second "Roman play" in a category largely its own. Noting that the "Roman" characters are bloodless and coldly calculating--particularly Octavius and his sister Octavia, whose hand Octavius gives to Antony in an effort to resolve the political differences he has been having with his slothful counterpart in Egypt--most critics and theater professionals have found them much less appealing than they do the two lovers. The consequence has been that readers and viewers have tended to see Antony and Cleopatra as the characters see themselves and thus to regard the play primarily as a dramatization of what John Donne termed "the canonization of love." The main problem with this interpretation of the action is that it requires us to ignore the many indications, throughout the play, that both lovers are impulsive and escapist. A sentimental approach to Antony and Cleopatra blinds us to clues that the "new heaven and new earth" to which the lovers direct their suicides is little more than a fantasyland that they have created as a way of palliating their defeat and impending capture. We may be stirred by the magic of Enobarbus's descriptions of Cleopatra's transcendent charms, and we cannot help but admire the eloquence with which Antony and Cleopatra prepare themselves for death. But we should remember at the same time that it is relatively simple to count the world well lost if through neglect one has already handed it over to one's enemies. An apt Elizabethan gloss on Antony and Cleopatra might well be borrowed from Shakespeare's Sonnet 129: "All this the world well knows, yet none knows well/To shun the heaven that leads men to this hell." Because of the vividness of its central figures and the exoticism and luxuriousness of its language, Antony and Cleopatra has long been one of Shakespeare's most popular plays. But nothing could be farther from the case with its successor. Coriolanus the third and last of Shakespeare's mature "Roman plays," is sparing and harsh in its diction and spartan in its spectacle. And only rarely--but usually with distinction--has it been performed, even in our own production-rich century. The hero of the play is one of the least endearing of Shakespeare's major characters. Godlike in battle, where his feats of valor and leadership are so extraordinary as to seem Herculean, Coriolanus becomes a veritable beast when called upon to participate in the civic affairs of early republican Rome. His contempt for the moblike plebeians is exceeded only by his hatred of the tribunes and senators who play the soldier-general and the common people off against one another. Coriolanus refuses to flatter anyone for any reason, and he lashes out at the hypocrisy required of him when he is told that he must bare his wounds and beg for the "voices" of the citizens in order to be elected tribune, an office he has not sought and a responsibility he makes clear he does not want. Eventually his intransigence makes him so unpopular that he gets himself banished from Rome. To which he offers an arch retort that is perfectly in character: "I banish you!" Confident that "there is a world elsewhere," Coriolanus departs from the city as "a lonely dragon." But soon, to the astonishment and terror of his former fellows, he joins forces with Rome's arch-enemies, the Volscians. In the final movement of the play we see him lead an army to the gates of Rome that threatens to destroy the Empire in its infancy. But at this point Coriolanus's mother, Volumnia, intervenes and pleads with the hero to spare his native city for her sake. Reluctantly, and with a premonition that his decision will prove fatal to him, Coriolanus accedes to his mother's request. Then, cunningly provoked to one last intemperate outburst by the foxlike Volscian general Aufidius, who calls him a "boy of tears," Coriolanus brings down upon himself the wrathful hordes of the Volscians he has just betrayed. Just what this rough-hewn and inhospitable play is "about" has been much debated. But critics as varied as T. S. Eliot and Frank Kermode, and actors as distinguished as Laurence Olivier and Alan Howard, have shown that it can be a challenging and at times a thrilling dramatic achievement. In all likelihood it will receive more attention--and admiration--in the future than it has tended to receive in the past. Whether this will be true of Shakespeare's final experiment in tragedy, Timon of Athens is less certain. Derived, like the three major Roman plays, primarily from Plutarch's Lives,Timon of Athens is generally regarded as a play that the author left unfinished. There is no record of its having been performed in Shakespeare's lifetime, and it has only appeared sporadically (and seldom notably) in the centuries since. As a character, Timon has affinities with Lear and Coriolanus. Like Lear, he comes to think of himself as a victim of ingratitude, a man "more sinned against than sinning." And, like Coriolanus, he responds to his mistreatment by "banishing" all society from his presence. Unlike either character, however, Timon is incapable of growth or compromise. Once he has spurned the "friends" who have refused to help him with the creditors his excessive generosity has brought to the door, Timon retreats to a cave and disregards every entreaty to concern himself with his fellow man. His foil, Alcibiades, can forgive Athens its injustices and return to save the city from ruin. But Timon elects to spend the rest of his life in solitude, cursing all of humanity with an invective that eventually becomes tedious in the extreme. Critics such as G. Wilson Knight and Rolf Soellner have argued valiantly for the poetic and theatrical merits of Timon of Athens. But thus far their adherents have proven only slightly more numerous than the followers of Timon himself. Original the play may be; but few have come to praise it as a fully realized work of dramatic art. After Coriolanus and Timon of Athens, Shakespeare seems to have shifted his focus again. He wrote no more tragedies, so far as we know, and the single "history play" that appeared was so different from his previous efforts in that genre that it seems to belong to the realm of romance rather than to the world of ordinary political and social interaction. And indeed "romance" is now the generic term most frequently applied to the mature tragicomedies that critics once referred to somewhat loosely as "the Late Plays." If we include Henry VIII in their number, there are six surviving works that qualify as late romances. One of them, The Two Noble Kinsmen, we know to have been written by Shakespeare in collaboration with his fellow dramatist John Fletcher . Two others, Pericles and Henry VIII, are also regarded by many scholars as likely to have resulted from joint authorship--as was evidently the case, too, with the lost Cardenio , attributed to Shakespeare and Fletcher in a Stationers' Register entry of 1753. Which leaves us with three plays--Cymbeline,The Winter's Tale, and The Tempest--that are unanimously accepted as works entirely by Shakespeare. Since all but one of the Late Plays ( Pericles , which seems to have been completed in 1606-1608) appeared after Shakespeare's company added the Blackfriars as a venue for performance--and since even that work may have been written with indoor staging in view (we know that Pericles was presented at Court sometime between January 1606 and November 1608)--it seems eminently possible, as Gerald Eades Bentley has suggested, that Shakespeare's modifications in dramaturigcal style resulted, at least in part, from changes in emphasis by the King's Men. If Shakespeare and his colleagues were easing away from total dependence on the comparatively broad-based audiences they had long attracted to the Globe and were beginning to cast their fortunes more confidently with the aristocratic clientele they served at Court or would be able to cultivate at the private Blackfriars theater, they may well have begun to rethink their dramatic repertory. Under these circumstances, Shakespeare and his fellow shareholders could readily have arrived at a determination to concentrate on offerings such as their more well-to-do audiences had grown accustomed to seeing: masquelike entertainments of the sort that Court patronage encouraged, and mythological and fanciful diversions of the type that the children's companies had made their specialty in indoor halls like the Blackfriars. In any event, the sequence of dramatic works initiated by Pericles is strikingly different in many respects from the sequence that preceded it. Relying as many of them do on such devices as a choral "presenter" (Gower in Pericles, or Time in The Winter's Tale) to narrate background incidents, the romances tend to be rambling and panoramic by comparison with the earlier plays (the salient exception being The Tempest, which is unusually focused in time, place, and action). Frequently, they contain incidents that are wildly implausible (as when Antigonus exits "pursued by a bear" in The Winter's Tale), and most of them draw heavily on storms, shipwrecks, and other violently disruptive "acts of God" to move the action forward. Families are separated at sea, left to wander for years in adversity, and then miraculously reunited at the close. Symbolically named children (Marina in Pericles, Perdita in The Winter's Tale, Miranda in The Tempest) function dramatically as instruments of special grace, restoring faith and vision to parents who have temporarily lost their way. Terrible calamities are but narrowly averted, and then only because of sudden reversals that depend either upon some character's astonishing change of heart or upon an inexplicable visitation from above. Rather than conceal their artifice, the romances tend to display it openly, on the one hand reminding the audience that what it is witnessing is only make-believe, on the other hand manipulating viewers' responses so as to prepare the audience for some climactic "wonder" toward which the entire sequence has been directed. The first three acts of Pericles seem so naive dramaturgically that many scholars consider them to be by a playwright other than Shakespeare. Among the contemporaries whose names have been proposed for the dubious honor of collaborator in accordance with this hypothesis is George Wilkins, whose novel The Painful Adventures of Pericles Prince of Tyre appeared in the same year (1608) as the entry for Pericles in the Stationers' Register. All we know for certain is that the play was first published in 1609 in a relatively crude quarto that was reprinted several times before Pericles made its initial folio entry when it was added to the second issue of the Third Folio in 1664. Just why Pericles was not included in the First Folio has never been determined. Its omission may have had something to do with the poor condition of the only available text. Or it may have stemmed from the assumption that the play was not completely by Shakespeare. The second of these hypotheses would also explain the exclusion of The Two Noble Kinsmen (though of course it would not explain the inclusion of Henry VIII if, as many scholars believe, that too was a play that Shakespeare wrote in collaboration with another playwright). Whatever the case, Pericles is immediately recognizable as a point of departure. Drawing from a fifth-century romantic narrative by Apollonius of Tyre as retold in the Confessio Amantis of the fourteenth-century English poet John Gower , the play is studiously "antique" in its apparently unsophisticated presentational style. Old Gower himself is resurrected to serve as the barnacled chorus, and the singsong tetrameters that serve as the metrical vehicle for his medieval diction remove the play's events from the present to a dreamlike past more suited to fairy lore than to realistic fiction. In such an atmosphere the audience is more readily induced to suspend its disbelief--with the consequence that we become vicarious participants in episode after episode as the hero's adventures convey him from youth (when he solves the riddle of Antiochus and is immediately forced to flee for his life upon disclosing his knowledge of the wicked King's incestuous relationship with his daughter) through old age (when, having been reduced almost to despair by decades of wandering and loss, Pericles is miraculously rejoined with his radiant daughter, Marina). As we allow ourselves to be hypnotized into accepting the premises of such a providential universe, we fall under the spell of a "moldy tale" peopled by such characters as a wicked stepmother (Dionyza), a Bawd, and a Governor (Lysimachus) who becomes so enraptured by Marina's innocence that he forswears a life bedimmed by vice. Pericles' final "awakening" has often been compared to Lear's reunion with Cordelia. And a lovely lyric ("Marina") by T. S. Eliot is eloquent in its testimony that twentieth-century audiences can still be moved by a beloved child's power to regenerate her father and renew his faith in life. Until recently Pericles has rarely been performed, but as the magic of its marvels becomes more widely appreciated it may one day find its way to a more secure footing in the repertory. Such may also be the case with Cymbeline . First printed in the 1623 Folio, it probably enjoyed its initial performances in 1609-1610, either at Blackfriars or at the Globe (where the physician Dr. Simon Forman saw it, probably in 1611). Its historical frame, featuring a pre-Christian monarch from approximately the same era as King Lear, Shakespeare derived primarily from Holinshed 's Chronicles. In this portion of the play, wherein Cymbeline at first refuses and then later volunteers Britain's annual tribute to Emperor Augustus Caesar, Shakespeare adumbrates the commingling of British and Roman traits that Renaissance Englishmen believed to be at the root of their nation's greatness. Shakespeare combined with this theme a number of other romantic motifs, his sources varying from Boccaccio's Decameron to a pair of anonymous plays of the 1580s, The Rare Triumphs of Love and Fortune and Sir Clyomon and Sir Clamydes. The result is a romantic tragicomedy unusually episodic in structure and so bewildering in the rapidity and complexity of its concluding disclosures as to leave an audience wondering how any agency other than providence could possibly have untangled the various strands of the plot. At the heart of the play is Imogen, a woman of exemplary chastity whose foolhardy husband Posthumus allows himself to be tricked into thinking that she has been seduced by a braggart named Iachimo. Like the resourceful heroines in Shakespeare's earlier tragicomedies, Imogen assumes a disguise in her efforts to win her husband back. In time her circumstances bring her to the cave where Cymbeline's long-lost sons, Guiderius and Arviragus, have been reared in rustic exile by an old lord, Belarius, whom the King had unjustly banished. She casts her lot with them and becomes a participant in Britain's war against Rome. Once the conflict is over, the King and his sons are reunited in the same denouement in which Posthumus recognizes Imogen as his "most constant wife." And in a reconciliation scene that carries overtones of the Augustan "pax Romana" under which Christ was born, Cymbeline announces that "Pardon's the word to all." Evil has been exorcised (Cymbeline's "bad angels," his wicked Queen and her doltish son Cloten, have died), and the way-ward characters who survive have all experienced enlightenment and contrition. Enlightenment and contrition are prerequisite to the happy ending of The Winter's Tale , too. Here again a husband falls victim to vengeful jealousy, and here again the plot builds up to the moment when he can be forgiven the folly that, so far as he knows, has brought about his innocent wife's death. Based primarily on Robert Greene 's Pandosto: The Triumph of Time, a prose romance first published in 1588 and reprinted under a new title in 1607, The Winter's Tale was probably completed in 1610 or 1611. Its initial appearance in print was in the 1623 Folio. The action begins when Leontes, King of Sicilia, is seized with the "humour" that his wife Hermione has committed adultery with his childhood friend Polixenes. It is abundantly clear to everyone else, most notably Hermione's lady-in-waiting Paulina, that Leontes' suspicions are irrational. But he refuses to listen either to the counsel of his advisers or to the oracle at Delphi--persisting with this "trial" of Hermione until he has completely devastated his court. He drives Polixenes away with the faithful Sicilian lord Camillo; he frightens to death his son Mamilius; and he pursues Hermione so unrelentingly that she finally wilts into what Paulina declares to be a fatal swoon. At this point, suddenly recognizing that he has been acting like a madman, Leontes vows to do penance for the remainder of his life. Years later, after Perdita (the "lost" child whom the raging Leontes has instructed Paulina's husband Antigonus to expose to the elements) has grown up and fallen in love with Florizel, the heir to Polixenes' throne in Bohemia, the major characters are providentially regathered in Leontes' court. Leontes is reunited with his daughter. And then, in one of the most stirring and unexpected moments in all of Shakespeare's works, a statue of Hermione that Paulina unveils turns out to be the living--and forgiving--Queen whom Leontes had "killed" some sixteen years previously. In a speech that might well serve to epitomize the import of all the late romances, Paulina tells the King "It is requir'd/You do awake your faith." The regenerated Leontes embraces his long-lamented wife, bestows the widowed Paulina on the newly returned Camillo, and blesses the forthcoming marriage of Perdita to the son of his old friend Polixenes, the object of the jealousy with which the whole agonizing story has begun. The circle that is completed in The Winter's Tale has its counterpart in The Tempest, which concludes with the marriage of Prospero's daughter Miranda to Ferdinand, the son of the Neapolitan king who had helped Prospero's wicked brother Antonio remove Prospero from his dukedom in Milan a dozen years previously. Like The Winter's Tale, The Tempest was completed by 1611 and printed for the first time in the 1623 Folio. Because it refers to the "still-vext Bermoothes" and derives in part from three accounts of the 1609 wreck of a Virginia-bound ship called the Sea Adventure, the play has long been scrutinized for its supposed commentary on the colonial exploitation of the New World. But if the brute Caliban is not the noble savage of Montaigne's essay on cannibals, he is probably not intended to be an instance of Third World victimization by European imperalism either. And Prospero's island is at least as Mediterranean as it is Caribbean. More plausible, but also too speculative for uncritical acceptance, is the time-honored supposition that the magician's staff with which Prospero wields his power is meant to be interpreted as an analogy for Shakespeare's own magical gifts--with the corollary that the protagonist's abjuration of his "potent art" is the dramatist's own way of saying farewell to the theater. Were it not that at least two plays were almost certainly completed later than The Tempest, this latter hypothesis might win more credence. But be that as it may, there can be no doubt that Prospero cuts a magnificent figure on the Shakespearean stage. At times, when he is recalling the usurpation that has placed him and his daughter on the island they have shared with Caliban for a dozen lonely years, Prospero is reminiscent of Lear, another angry ruler who, despite his earlier indiscretions, has cause to feel more sinned against than sinning. At other times, when Prospero is using the spirit Ariel to manipulate the comings and goings of the enemies whose ship he has brought aground in a tempest, the once and future Duke of Milan reminds us of the Duke of Vienna in Measure for Measure. But though his influence on the lives of others turns out in the end to have been "providential," Prospero arrives at that beneficent consummation only through a psychological and spiritual process that turns on his forswearing "vengeance" in favor of the "rarer action" of forgiveness. Such dramatic tension as the play possesses is to be found in the audience's suspense over whether the protagonist will use his Neoplatonic magic for good or for ill. And when in fact Prospero has brought the "men of sin" to a point where they must confront themselves as they are and beg forgiveness for their crimes, it is paradoxically Ariel who reminds his master that to be truly human is finally to be humane. Uniquely among the late tragicomic romances, The Tempest has long been a favorite with both readers and audiences. Its ardent young lovers have always held their charm, as has the effervescent Ariel, and its treatment of the temptations afforded by access to transcendent power gives it a political and religious resonance commensurate with the profundity of its exploration of the depths of poetic and dramatic art. In the end its burden seems to be that an acknowledgment of the limits imposed by the human condition is the beginning of wisdom. The last of the plays attributed wholly to Shakespeare by its inclusion in the First Folio, where it first achieved print, is Henry VIII . Modern stylistic analyses have called Shakespeare's sole authorship into question, of course, but since the case for collaboration has never been definitively proven we may do just as well to proceed on the assumption that Henry VIII was mostly if not entirely a play for which the playwright was responsible. Its theatrical history has had more ups and downs than is true of many of Shakespeare's other dramatic works (the most notable occurrence on the down side being the accident during its earliest recorded performance, on 29 June 1613, that burned the Globe to the ground), and its critical reception, like that of Troilus and Cressida, has been complicated by debates about the play's genre. In many respects Henry VIII seems to be the capstone to Shakespeare's nine earlier English history plays. It focuses on kingship as the key to a nation's political and social stability, and it glorifies the Tudor dynasty as God's means of bringing peace, prosperity, and empire to an England whose greatness had reached new heights during the reigns of the two monarchs under whom Shakespeare had served. Fittingly, the play's "final cause" is the birth of Elizabeth, the "royal infant" whose advent, according to the prophecy uttered by Archbishop Cranmer at the end of the play, "promises/Upon this land a thousand thousand blessings." But, as is so often true in Shakespeare, it also offers the audience a topical glance at an event of contemporary significance, the February 1613 wedding of Princess Elizabeth, daughter of King James I and his Queen, to Frederick, the Elector of Palatine. Like the earlier English history plays, Henry VIII is epic in its scope and in its patriotic impulse. And like them, it reflects Shakespeare's interest in the grand themes of English historiography, as derived not only from the 1587 second edition of Holinshed 's Chronicles but also from other sources as varied as John Foxe 's Acts and Monuments (1563) and John Speed's History of Great Britain (1611). In its earliest performances the play even seems to have had an alternate title, All is True, to assert its fidelity to the essence of its historical subject matter. But a close examination of its way of treating that matter will indicate that Henry VIII is more "cosmic" than the history plays that preceded it--a play that presents the events it dramatizes almost solely in the light of eternity. Though the King is not without his faults, he is portrayed more positively in Shakespeare than he had usually been depicted by historians prior to Henry VIII. During the first half of the play the bluff Henry may be misled by his "bad angel" Cardinal Wolsey; but the King's intentions are noble, and after Wolsey's discomfiture he evolves into a creditable exemplar of God's deputy. Meanwhile, there is an unmistakable emphasis on providential design throughout the play. The action is structured around a succession of "trials," each of which serves to test a character's mettle and to induce in him or her a new degree of self-knowledge, humility, faith, and compassion. Buckingham is framed by Wolsey's machinations, but as he proceeds to his execution he forgives his enemies and blesses the King who has condemned him. Katherine, another of Wolsey's victims, pleads eloquently and forcibly in her own defense; but once her fate is settled, she resigns herself with patience to the destiny prepared for her and goes so far as to express pity for her archenemy Wolsey. And once he recognizes that there is no escape from the noose he has unwittingly prepared for himself, Wolsey himself dies penitent and "never so happy." In each instance death is swallowed up in a victory of sorts, and the sequence as a whole reinforces the audience's sense that even in the often-brutal arena of English history all's well that ends well. Perhaps the best way to describe Henry VIII is to call it a tragicomic historical romance. But whatever it is generically, it is a play that offers a plenitude of majestic pageantry. As the 1979 BBC television production reminded us, it is Shakespeare's version of Masterpiece Theatre. Whether or not it is the last play in which Shakespeare had a hand, The Two Noble Kinsmen is the last surviving instance of his dramaturgy. With but a handful of exceptions, modern scholars regard the play as a collaborative effort in which the guiding hand may have been John Fletcher 's rather than William Shakespeare's. It was probably completed in 1613, and its first appearance in print was in a quarto edition of 1634 that attributed it to both playwrights. It was reprinted in the Beaumont and Fletcher second folio of 1679, but it never appeared in any of the seventeenth-century folios of Shakespeare's dramatic works. The play is a dramatization of Geoffrey Chaucer 's "Knight's Tale" about two cousins, Palamon and Arcite, who come to blows as a consequence of their both having fallen in love with the same damsel, Emilia. Like the other late romances of Shakespeare, it has a remote Mediterranean setting (ancient Thebes and Athens), it invokes the gods for intervention in human affairs, and it depends for its effects on scenes of grand pageantry such as the wedding procession of Theseus and Hippolyta. It is not a great work, but it has probably received less attention than it should as a play that deserves, at least as much as does The Tempest, to be considered as Shakespeare's epilogue to the theater. Tradition holds that Shakespeare returned to Stratford for his declining years, and three years after the burning of the Globe his own flame went out. Following his death on 23 April 1616, he was laid to rest where fifty-two years earlier he had been christened. Shortly thereafter, a monument to his memory was erected above the tomb in Holy Trinity, and that monument is still in place for Shakespeare admirers to see today. But an even greater monument to his memory appeared seven years later, when his theatrical colleagues, John Heminge and Henry Condell (both of whom had been mentioned in the playwright's will) assembled a large volume of his collected plays. The 1623 First Folio was a labor of love, compiled as "an office to the dead, to procure his orphans guardians" and "to keep the memory of so worthy a friend and fellow alive as was our Shakespeare." Our Shakespeare. It is not without exaggeration that the book that preserves what is probably his most reliable portrait and the most authoritative versions of the majority of his dramatic texts (indeed the only surviving versions of half of them) has been called "incomparably the most important work in the English language." In the words and actions that fill his poems and plays, in the performances that enrich our theaters and silver screens, in the countless off-shoots to be found in other works of art, and in the influence the playwright continues to have on virtually every aspect of popular culture throughout the world, now as much as in the age of Elizabeth and James, Shakespeare lives. FURTHER READINGS ABOUT THE AUTHOR William Jaggard, Shakespeare Bibliography: A Dictionary of Every Known Issue of the Writings of Our National Poet and of Recorded Opinion Thereon in the English Language (Stratford-upon-Avon: Shakespeare Press, 1911). Walter Ebish and Levin L. Schucking, A Shakespeare Bibliography (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1931). Gordon Ross Smith, A Classified Shakespeare Bibliography, 1936-1958 (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1963). Ronald Berman, A Reader's Guide to Shakespeare's Plays, revised edition (Glenview, Ill.: Scott Foresman, 1973). David Bevington, Shakespeare (Arlington Heights, Ill.: AHM Publishing, 1978). Larry S. Champion, The Essential Shakespeare: An Annotated Bibliography of Major Modern Studies (Boston: G. K. Hall, 1986). Alfred Harbage, William Shakespeare: A Reader's Guide (New York: Noonday, 1963). F. E. Halliday, A Shakespeare Companion, 1564-1964 (London: Duckworth/Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1964). O. J. Campbell and Edward G. Quinn, The Reader's Encyclopedia of Shakespeare (New York: Crowell, 1966). John W. Velz, Shakespeare and the Classical Tradition: A Critical Guide to Commentary, 1660-1960 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1968). Kenneth Muir and S. Schoenbaum, eds., A New Companion to Shakespeare Studies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971). David M. Bergeron, Shakespeare: A Study and Research Guide (New York: St. Martin's, 1975). David M. Zesmer, Guide to Shakespeare (New York: Barnes & Noble, 1976). Stanley Wells and Gary Taylor, William Shakespeare: A Textual Companion [to the Complete Oxford Shakespeare] (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987). E. K. Chambers, William Shakespeare: A Study of Facts and Problems, 2 volumes (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1930). M. M. Reese, Shakespeare: His World and His Work (London: Arnold, 1953). Gerald Eades Bentley, Shakespeare: A Biographical Handbook (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1961). A. L. Rowse, William Shakespeare: A Biography (London: Macmillan, 1963). Anthony Burgess, Shakespeare (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1970). S. Schoenbaum, Shakespeare's Lives (New York: Oxford University Press, 1970). Schoenbaum, William Shakespeare: A Documentary Life (London: Oxford University Press/Scolar Press, 1975). Schoenbaum, William Shakespeare: Records and Images (London: Oxford University Press/Scolar Press, 1981). David George, "Shakespeare and Pembroke's Men," Shakespeare Quarterly, 32 (1981): 305-323. 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Edward I. Berry, Patterns of Decay: Shakespeare's Early Histories(Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1975). Lily B. Campbell, Shakespeare's "Histories": Mirrors of Elizabethan Policy(San Marino, Cal.: Huntington Library, 1947). Larry S. Champion, "The Function of Mowbray: Shakespeare's Maturing Artistry in Richard II," Shakespeare Quarterly,26 (Winter 1975): 3-7. Alan C. Dessen, "The Intemperate Knight and the Politic Prince: Late Morality Structure in 1 Henry IV," Shakespeare Studies,7 (1974): 147-171. Donna B. Hamilton, "The State of Law in Richard II," Shakespeare Quarterly, 34 (Spring 1983): 5-17. Sherman H. Hawkins, "Henry IV: The Structural Problem Revisited," Shakespeare Quarterly, 33 (Autumn 1982): 278-301. Hawkins, "Virtue and Kingship in Shakespeare's Henry IV," English Literary Renaissance, 5 (Autumn 1975): 313-343. G. K. Hunter, "Shakespeare's Politics and the Rejection of Falstaff," Critical Quarterly, 1 (Autumn 1959): 229-236. Harold Jenkins, The Structural Problem in Shakespeare's "Henry the Fourth"(London: Methuen, 1956). Ernst H. Kantorowicz, The King's Two Bodies: A Study in Mediaeval Political Theology (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1957). Robert Ornstein, A Kingdom for a Stage: The Achievement of Shakespeare's History Plays (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972). Robert B. Pierce, Shakespeare's History Plays: The Family and the State(Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1971). Moody E. Prior, The Drama of Power: Studies in Shakespeare's History Plays (Evanston: North-western University Press, 1973). M. M. Reese, The Cease of Majesty: A Study of Shakespeare's History Plays(London: Arnold, 1961). Irving Ribner, The English History Play in the Age of Shakespeare(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1965). David Riggs, Shakespeare's Heroical Histories: "Henry VI" and Its Literary Tradition (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1971). Peter Saccio, Shakespeare's English Kings: History, Chronicle, and Drama(New York: Oxford University Press, 1977). E. M. W. Tillyard, Shakespeare's History Plays (London: Chatto & Windus, 1944). Harold E. Toliver, "Falstaff, the Prince, and the History Play," Shakespeare Quarterly, 16 (Winter 1965): 63-80. Eugene M. Waith, ed., Shakespeare, The Histories: A Collection of Critical Essays (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1965). Karl P. Wentersdorf, "The Conspiracy of Silence in Henry V," Shakespeare Quarterly, 27 (Summer 1976): 264-287. Richard P. Wheeler, Shakespeare's Development and the Problem Comedies(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979). J. Dover Wilson, The Fortunes of Falstaff (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1943). Janet Adelman, The Common Liar: An Essay on "Antony and Cleopatra" (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1973). John F. Andrews, "The Catharsis of Romeo and Juliet," in Contributi dell' Istituto di filologia moderna,Serie inglesi, 1, edited by Sergio Rossi (Milan: Unversita Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 1974), pp. 142-175. Andrews, "'Dearly Bought Revenge,': Hamlet, Samson Agonistes, and Elizabethan Revenge Tragedy," Milton Studies, 13 (1979): 81-108. John S. Anson, "Julius Caesar: The Politics of the Hardened Heart," Shakespeare Studies, 2 (1966): 11-33. Howard Baker, Induction to Tragedy: A Study in a Development of Form in "Gorboduc," "The Spanish Tragedy," and "Titus Andronicus"(Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1939). J. Leeds Barroll, Artificial Persons: The Formation of Character in the Tragedies of Shakespeare (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1974). Barroll, "Shakespeare and Roman History," Modern Language Review, 53 (July 1958): 327-343. Roy W. Battenhouse, Shakespearean Tragedy: Its Art and Its Christian Premises (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1969). Adrien Bonjour, The Structure of "Julius Caesar"(Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1958). Stephen Booth, "King Lear," "Macbeth," Indefinition, and Tragedy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1983). Fredson Bowers, Elizabethan Revenge Tragedy, 1587-1642 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1940). Bowers, "Hamlet as Minister and Scourge," PMLA,70 (September 1955): 740-749. M. C. Bradbrook, Themes and Conventions of Elizabethan Tragedy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1935). A. C. Bradley, Shakespearean Tragedy: Lectures on "Hamlet," "Othello," "King Lear," and "Macbeth" (London: Macmillan, 1904). Nicholas Brooke, Shakespeare's Early Tragedies(London: Methuen, 1968). Cleanth Brooks, "The Naked Babe and the Cloak of Manliness," in his The Well-Wrought Urn (New York: Reynal & Hitchcock, 1947), pp. 21-46. Reuben A. Brower, Hero and Saint: Shakespeare and the Graeco-Roman Heroic Tradition (New York: Oxford University Press, 1971). Lily B. Campbell, Shakespeare's Tragic Heroes: Slaves of Passion (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1930). Paul A. Cantor, Shakespeare's Rome: Republic and Empire (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1976). Larry S. Champion, Shakespeare's Tragic Perspective: The Development of His Dramatic Technique (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1976). H. B. Charlton, Shakespearian Tragedy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1948). Maurice Charney, Shakespeare's Roman Plays: The Function of Imagery in the Drama (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1961). Charney, Style in "Hamlet" (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1969). Dolora G. Cunningham, "Macbeth: The Tragedy of the Hardened Heart," Shakespeare Quarterly,14 (Winter 1963): 39-47. J. V. Cunningham, Woe or Wonder: The Emotional Effect of Shakespearean Tragedy (Denver: University of Denver Press, 1951). John F. Danby, Shakespeare's Doctrine of Nature: A Study of "King Lear" (London: Faber & Faber, 1949). Alan C. Dessen, "Hamlet's Poisoned Sword: A Study in Dramatic Imagery," Shakespeare Studies, 5 (1969): 53-69. Franklin M. Dickey, Not Wisely But Too Well: Shakespeare's Love Tragedies (San Marino, Cal.: Huntington Library, 1957). T. S. Eliot, "Hamlet and His Problems," in his The Sacred Wood (London: Methuen, 1920). William R. Elton, <"King Lear" and the Gods(San Marino, Cal.: Huntington Library, 1966). Willard Farnham, The Medieval Heritage of Elizabethan Tragedy (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1936). Farnham, Shakespeare's Tragic Frontier: The World of His Final Tragedies (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1950). Francis Fergusson, "Macbeth as the Imitation of an Action," in English Institute Essays 1951,edited by A. S. Downer (New York: Columbia University Press, 1952), pp. 31-43. Northrop Frye, Fools of Time: Studies in Shakespearean Tragedy(Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1967). S. L. Goldberg, An Essay on "King Lear"(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1974). O. B. Hardison, Jr., "Myth and History in King Lear," Shakespeare Quarterly, 26 (Summer 1975): 227-242. Robert B. Heilman, Magic in the Web: Action and Language in "Othello"(Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1956). Heilman, This Great Stage: Image and Structure in "King Lear"(Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1948). Heilman, "'Twere Best Not Know Myself: Othello, Lear, Macbeth," Shakespeare Quarterly, 15 (Spring 1964): 89-98. John Holloway, The Story of the Night: Studies in Shakespeare's Major Tragedies (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1961). David L. Jeffrey and Patrick Grant, "Reputation in Othello, Shakespeare Studies, 6 (1970): 197-208. Paul A. Jorgensen, Lear's Self-Discovery(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967). Jorgensen, Our Naked Frailties: Sensational Art and Meaning in "Macbeth" (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971). G. Wilson Knight, The Wheel of Fire: Interpretation of Shakespeare's Tragedy (London: Methuen, 1949). L. C. Knights, "How Many Children Had Lady Macbeth?," in his Explorations: Essays in Criticism (London: Chatto & Windus, 1946). Clifford Leech, ed., Shakespeare, The Tragedies: A Collection of Critical Essays (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965). Harry Levin, The Question of "Hamlet" (New York: Oxford University Press, 1959). Maynard Mack, "The Jacobean Shakespeare: Some Observations on the Construction of the Tragedies," in Jacobean Theatre, edited by John Russell Brown and Bernard Harris, Stratford-upon-Avon Studies, 1 (London: Arnold, 1960). Mack, "King Lear" in Our Time (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1965). Mack, "The World of Hamlet," Yale Review, 41 (June 1952): 502-523. J. M. R. Margeson, The Origins of English Tragedy (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1967). Bernard McElroy, Shakespeare's Mature Tragedies (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1973). Kenneth Muir, Shakespeare's Tragic Sequence (London: Hutchinson, 1972). Matthew N. Proser, The Heroic Image in Five Shakespearean Tragedies (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1965). Eleanor Prosser, Hamlet and Revenge, revised edition (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1971). William Rosen, Shakespeare and the Craft of Tragedy (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1960). Marvin Rosenberg, The Masks of "King Lear" (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972). J. L. Simmons, Shakespeare's Pagan World: The Roman Tragedies(Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1973). Susan Snyder, The Comic Matrix of Shakespeare's Tragedies (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1979). Snyder, "King Lear and the Psychology of Dying," Shakespeare Quarterly, 33 (Winter 1982): 449-460. Rolf Soellner, "Timon of Athens," Shakespeare's Pessimistic Tragedy, With a Stage History by Gary Jay Williams (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1979). Robert Speaight, Nature in Shakespearian Tragedy (London: Hollis & Carter, 1955). Bernard Spivack, Shakespeare and the Allegory of Evil: The History of a Metaphor in Relation to His Major Villains (New York: Columbia University Press, 1958). Brents Stirling, Unity in Shakespearian Tragedy: The Interplay of Theme and Character (New York: Columbia University Press, 1956). Elmer E. Stoll, Art and Artifice in Shakespeare (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1933). Gary Taylor and Michael Warren, The Division of the Kingdoms: Shakespeare's Two Versions of "King Lear" (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1983). Marvin L. Vawter, "'Division 'tween Our Souls': Shakespeare's Stoic Brutus," Shakespeare Studies, 7 (1974): 173-195. Eugene M. Waith, The Herculean Hero in Marlowe, Chapman, Shakespeare, and Dryden (New York: Columbia University Press, 1962). Waith, "The Metamorphosis of Violence in Titus Andronicus," Shakespeare Survey, 10 (1957): 39-49. Virgil K. Whitaker, The Mirror up to Nature: The Technique of Shakespeare's Tragedies (San Marino, Cal.: Huntington Library, 1965). Harold S. Wilson, On the Design of Shakespearian Tragedy (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1957). Papers: The Booke of Sir Thomas More (a play probably written principally by Anthony Munday , with revisions by Thomas Dekker , Henry Chettle , William Shakespeare, and possibly Thomas Heywood ) survives in a manuscript now at the British Library (Harleian MS. 7368). Most scholars now believe that two brief passages are Shakespeare's work, circa 1594-1595, and that one of them represents the only surviving example of a literary or dramatic manuscript in Shakespeare's own hand. For a convenient summary of Sir Thomas More and the evidence linking it with Shakespeare, see G. Blakemore Evans's discussion of the play in The Riverside Shakespeare (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1974), pp. 1683-1700; and Scott McMillin's The Elizabethan Theatre &The Book of Sir Thomas More . Written by: John F. Andrews, National Endowment for the Humanities Source: Dictionary of Literary Biography, Volume 62: Elizabethan Dramatists. A Bruccoli Clark Layman Book. Edited by Fredson Bowers, University of Virginia. Gale Research, 1987. pp. 267-353. Source Database: Dictionary of Literary Biography	Much Ado About Nothing
Which constellation features on the flag of Papua New Guinea?	A dancing of attitudes : Burke’s rhetoric on Shakespeare - UBC Library Open Collections A dancing of attitudes : Burke’s rhetoric on Shakespeare A dancing of attitudes : Burke’s rhetoric on Shakespeare Rowan, Stephen Charles 1985-06-23 pdf A dancing of attitudes : Burke’s rhetoric on Shakespeare Creator 1985 Description Since F.S. Boas coined the term in 1896, All's Well That Ends Well, Troilus and Cressida, and Measure For Measure have been generally accepted as "problem plays," and many critics have offered biographical, thematic, and formal explanations of why these plays are so "dark." In this thesis, I accept that these plays are "problems" and I propose a rhetorical explanation for dissatisfaction with them, especially with their endings. Drawing on Kenneth Burke's philosophy of literary form and his anthropology of man as the symbol-using animal, I show that in these plays Shakespeare frustrates the expectations of an audience for a definite ending through death or marriage which would define the "terms" characterized in each play; secondly, he provides no scapegoat whose victimage would allow the audience to recognize an order clearly proposed for its acceptance; finally, he supplies no symbol of order which credibly demonstrates its power to establish a renewed society. As rhetoric, these plays show an intense "dancing of attitudes" toward symbols of order and toward conventional forms which would provide a clear sense of an ending. As such, they show what Burke calls "self-interference" on the part of the playwright — a deliberate balancing of arguments for the sake of "quizzicality" toward language as symbolic action. According to this analysis, the problem plays remain problems for an audience which seeks identification with symbols of order; they are, however, a tribute to the agile mind of a master rhetorician. Subject Vancouver : University of British Columbia Library Rights For non-commercial purposes only, such as research, private study and education. Additional conditions apply, see Terms of Use https://open.library.ubc.ca/terms_of_use . DOI 831-1.0096746.ris Full Text A DANCING OF ATTITUDES: BURKE'S RHETORIC ON SHAKESPEARE By STEPHEN CHARLES ROWAN M.A., The University of British Columbia, 1975 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF ' THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH We accept this thesis as conforming tA> the required^-s^tandard. THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA September, 1985 © Stephen C. Rowan, 1985. In presenting this thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for an advanced degree at the University of British Columbia, I agree that the Library shall make it freely available for reference and study. I further agree that permission for extensive copying of this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the head of my department or by his or her representatives. It is understood that copying or publication of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. English Department of The University of British Columbia 1956 Main Mall Vancouver, Canada V6T 1Y3 September 18, 1985 ABSTRACT Since F.S. Boas coined the term in 1896, All's Well That Ends Well, Troilus and Cressida, and Measure For Measure have been generally accepted as "problem plays," and many critics have offered biographical, thematic, and formal explanations of why these plays are so "dark." In this thesis, I accept that these plays are "problems" and I propose a rhetorical explanation for dissatisfaction with them, especially with their endings. Drawing on Kenneth Burke's philosophy of literary form and his anthropology of man as the symbol-using animal, I show that in these plays Shakespeare frustrates the expectations of an audience for a definite ending through death or marriage which would define the "terms" characterized in each play; secondly, he provides no scapegoat whose victimage would allow the audience to recognize an order clearly proposed for its acceptance; finally, he supplies no symbol of order which credibly demonstrates its power to establish a renewed society. As rhetoric, these plays show an intense "dancing of attitudes" toward symbols of order and toward conventional forms which would provide a clear sense of an ending. As such, they show what Burke calls "self-interference" on the part of the playwright — a deliberate balancing of arguments for the sake of "quizzicality" toward language as symbolic action. According to this analysis, the problem plays remain problems for an audience which seeks identification with symbols of order; they are, however, a tribute to the agile mind of a master rhetorician. - ii -TABLE OF CONTENTS I. INTRODUCTION 1 SMALL LATINE, LESSE GREEKE, BUT MUCH RHETORIC 7 II. BURKE'S RHETORIC: LANGUAGE AS SYMBOLIC ACTION 17 LITERATURE AS A DEFINITION OF TERMS 23 CRITICISM AS CONVERSATION: TWO REJOINDERS TO BURKE 30 FORM AND MEANING 37 A RHETORICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 43 SHAKESPEARE AS RHETORICIAN 6 III. ALL'S WELL THAT ENDS WELL 54 THE AMBIGUOUS VALUE OF HONOR IN WAR 56 THE AMBIGUOUS VALUE OF HELENA 62 THE ATTEMPT TO ESTABLISH CERTAIN VALUE 75 THE CLOWN'S PERSPECTIVE 82 THE AMBIGUITY OF THE ENDING OR ALL SEEMS WELL 85 IV. TROILUS AND CRESSIDA 97 "WHAT A PAIR OF SPECTACLES IS HERE!" 99 THE GREEKS IN COUNCIL: THE FACTION OF FOOLS 107 THERSITES: A PRIVILEGED MAN 112 HELEN: A THEME OF HONOR AND RENOWN? 119 A GORY EMULATION . 123 V. MEASURE FOR MEASURE 8 ANGELO AND ISABELLA: A FIERCE DISPUTE ..129 THE FRAILTY OF OUR POWERS 134 THE COMIC SUB-PLOT: I HOPE HERE BE TRUTHS 142 HIS GRACE THE DUKE: LIKE PROVIDENCE DIVINE? 147 - iii -LUCIO: AN "INWARD" OF THE DUKE 153 THE CONCLUSION: THIS LOOKS NOT LIKE A NUPTIAL 157 VI. LOOKING BEFORE AND AFTER 163 THIS, THEN, IS THE PRAISE OF SHAKESPEARE 171 IS THIS THE PROMISED END? 178 IMAGINARY GARDENS AND REAL TOADS ..183 VII. ENDNOTES 189 VIII. BIBLIOGRAPHY 205 - iv -ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS As I conclude this thesis, I find that "I count myself in nothing else so happy/ As in a soul remembering my good friends" (Richard II II.iii.46-47). My thanks especially to my readers, Nan Johnson, Joel Kaplan, and my adviser, Tony Dawson, all of whose careful readings and constant encouragement contributed many improvements of substance and style; to John Hulcoop and the Graduate Committee of The University of British Columbia who helped provide financial assistance and guidance; to the Basilian community of St. Mark's College whose gracious hospitality I enjoyed for three years; to my family and friends who supported me with their interest and understood my absence, especially my father, Charles Rowan, my sister, Eileen Walton, and Frs. Lawrence Reilly and Paul Magnano; to Don Beach, who patiently initiated me into the mysteries of the word processor and to his family who made room for me in their home; finally, to Raymond E. Brown, S.S., whose example of scholarship, clear writing, and dedicated teaching have been effective even at a distance. - v -I.INTRODUCTION Most critics have sensed some kinship among the plays of Shakespeare's "middle period" (from approximately 1600-1604) and have tried to define their distinguishing quality in order to appreciate better the nature of Shakespeare's style, ways of thinking, and craftsmanship. Since Frederick Boas first coined the term "problem play" in 1896, and included Hamlet, All's Well, Measure for Measure, and Troilus and Cressida in the grouping, the term has been applied to various plays. Most critics include All's Well, Measure for Measure, and Troilus and Cressida in the category, while either retaining Hamlet (Tillyard), omitting it (Lawrence, Rossiter) or replacing it with another candidate (Doran). It seems, then, that a consensus exists concerning at least three plays to be retained from Boas's list and to be included in the "problem" grouping. The criteria for determining a "problem play" or "dark comedy" (E.K.Chambers) were enunciated by Boas and may be distinguished as moral or thematic and structural. For Boas, the moral concern in these plays is with unbridled passions erupting in societies "ripe unto rottenness" and with cases of conscience solved by "unprecedented" methods; the structural awkwardness is related to the "unprecedented" methods: the massive weight of issues, according to Boas, is not sustained by the framework of the plot, and therefore a satisfactory ending is precluded.^ Succeeding critics have not improved much on Boas's definition. The criteria for this grouping remain moral or thematic and structural difficulties. So, for example, W.W. Lawrence (who argues, in fact, against these plays as problems) points initially to their exploration of the darker complexities of human nature which is too analytic for comedy and too light - 1 -for tragedy; Tillyard notes that dogma and abstract speculation are seriously treated but are not absorbed well into the action; and Rossiter suggests that generalizations on the theme of man's tragi-comic "shiftingness" are treated with a seriousness that is unexpected in comedy and may even be incongruous with it.^ Structurally, the problems are likewise viewed as Boas saw them and mostly concern a putative mismanagement of effect toward the ending of the plays. So, for example, the tragic mood is without tragic issue (Lawrence); a "grand finale" of forgiveness is "engineered" after time is merely filled in between a dramatic climax at mid-play and the conclusion (Tillyard); the problems are realistically viewed, but the endings are not; that is, they neither issue in tragedy where expected (as in Troilus and Cressida) nor in the conventionally happy ending of comedy (Doran). The structure of the plays is also confused throughout by a mingling or even clashing of conventions, as when romance conventions are examined with unsparing realism (Lawrence).3 For some critics, two of these plays at least are not a problem at all. Morally or thematically they may be interpreted as allegories of mankind's moral education or redemption (for example, G.Wilson Knight and R.W.Chambers on Measure and G.K.Hunter on All's Well); structurally, they can be defended as comic because they employ conventions of fairy tale and folklore that would be well understood as "pointers" to an Elizabethan audience (Lawrence) or because they exhibit the comic framework and are therefore to be taken as such (Frye).4 Ernest Schanzer is an exception to the foregoing discussion because he argues for a different definition of a problem play. Dissatisfied with the critical thinking on these plays which does not, he believes, distinguish them sufficiently from the theme and mood of other plays in the canon, and looking - 2 -for a grouping that will offer clearer insight by suggesting unique affinities among the plays included, Schanzer offers his own definition. A problem play is one "in which we find a concern with a moral problem which is central to it, presented in such a manner that we are unsure of our moral bearings, so that uncertain and divided responses to it in the minds of the audience are possible or even probable."5 Using these criteria, Schanzer suggests that only Julius Caesar, Measure for Measure, and Antony and Cleopatra qualify as problem plays. Schanzer's criteria are not entirely satisfactory, however. They do not, for example, create a unique grouping after all, as can be seen when ^ Patrick Murray, who accepts Schanzer's definition, proceeds to extend the list of Schanzer's candidates for the grouping to include Hamlet, Troilus and Cressida, and All's Well.6 Besides, why should the "problem" with a play be limited to a moral one? What about the "existential" problem of how to respond to Lear's death, the attractiveness of Macbeth's evil, or the fate of Coriolanus? More to the point, how brush aside the many structural difficulties with Troilus, All's Well, and Measure which have troubled many critics? Most critics, it seems, have not accepted Schanzer's definition or revised grouping, nor have they been persuaded by those for whom the usual problem plays are not, for some reason, a problem. In much the same way that Boas delineated the problems, recent critics continue to point to the thematic and structural difficulties which make some kind of grouping out of the plays analyzed in this thesis. For example, Philip Edwards, echoing Ellis-Fermor, calls Troilus and Cressida "anti-art" and suggests that it may be Shakespeare's expression of doubt about the power of form to shape experience. Since incoherence is the "matter" of the play, form is refused. Likewise, in All's Well and Measure for Measure Shakespeare attempts to deepen comedy by giving it real wounds to heal, but he discovers that the form of comedy cannot be made to manipulate some materials into a redemptive conclusion.^ Like Edwards, other critics suggest that the problem lies with Shakespeare's ambivalence about romance conventions which he had always found congenial. For Howard Felperin, Troilus, All's Well, and Measure show a new ambivalence toward the romance mode, also evident in Hamlet, Julius Caesar, and Henry V. On all sides, the romantic imagination is "subjected...to unprecedented stresses" as Shakespeare faces up to the recalcitrance of humanity in the face of easy solutions.^ According to E.C. Pettet, Shakespeare abandons romance in All's Well, recoils from it in Troilus, and shows cynicism about it in Measure. His mind, it seems, is drawn to evil in preparation for the writing of the tragedies, while his artistic habits draw him back to the conventional romance ending. The vehicle cannot contain the tenor of "the sensibility, thought, and vision that were soon to be expressed in the great tragedies."9 Finally, R.S. White, commenting only on All's Well and Measure, also argues a problem. For him, they mark a temporary withdrawal from romance as Shakespeare experiments with the potentially endless ending of that mode. Knowing that in "naive romance" such as Sidney's New Arcadia one adventure follows as soon as another finishes, Shakespeare, it seems, is struggling with how to end in a way that explicitly acknowledges the oscillating rhythms of romance. He continues in the problem plays the "disquieting hint" at the end of Twelfth Night, that as much is excluded from the festive spirit of a comic ending as is included in it, and he presents the action in such a way that we become conscious of the elements of manipulation, and even a hint of tyranny, in the _ 4 _ imposition of the comic ending upon a potentially endless presentation of people's fictional lives...The plays would be more conventional, less worrying, if the author did not seem so clearly aware of the nature of such manipulation. His somewhat frustrating sense that the potentially endless narrative must somehow be formally concluded reveals itself in different ways in each play, and implies a more transparently sceptical attitude towards the happy ending.^ Echoing the thoughts of Frank Kermode on Shakespeare's Sense of an Ending (that he sensed it as an arbitrary interruption of a continuum of experience) this analysis also reflects the artist's struggle as Paul deMan has articulated it in Blindness and Insight: how to communicate "the experience of time." Through irony (a synchronic structure), a writer will portray the "differences" or conflicting claims and disjunctions of the moment; through allegory (a successive mode), a writer will spread out those differences through "an ideal time that is never here and now but always a past or an endless future." In both modes, the writer is aware of qualifications to full knowledge or to a never-ending duration of experience which arise because of living in time. Shakespeare's struggle, then, is the struggle of every writer: how to formulate attitudes toward experience in such a way that he preserves the sense of the "authentic experience of temporality," "the predicament of the conscious subject," and "the unwillingness of the mind to accept any stage in its progression as definitive, since this would stop...its 'infinite agility'."^ The problem plays are especially deliberate experiments, I suggest, with how to incorporate "recalcitrant," potentially tragic, developments into a form which presents either a stalemate or an ostensibly happy ending, along with the conviction that the ending has concluded nothing. In these plays there are no satisfactory marriages or worthy deaths; rhetorically, there is no merger or division of terms with which an audience can identify. Shakespeare's plays usually provide one or the other, taking a comic or tragic - 5 -route to a definition of terms. However, in the problem plays, there is an unrelieved presentation of serious issues, resulting in neither of the conventional kinds of transformation a playwright usually provides through death or marriage. Shakespeare seems to be deliberately frustrating his audience's expectations of a conventional ending, perhaps to make it aware of the ambiguities of the issues presented and to make it question its yearning for decisive solutions. Of course, Shakespeare has qualified his issues earlier: contrasting Jaques with Arden, for example, Malvolio with Illyria, Shylock with Belmont, and Falstaff with heroic kingship. But the problem plays appear at the "bottleneck" of Shakespeare's dramatic development and seem to mark some kind of intense experiment with themes and forms he has used earlier while working his way into the tragedies and romances. His arguing is more even-handed, allowing neither an easy acceptance of a final order nor even a clear indication that the order presented is intended to be acceptable. For reasons that will be obvious both at the end of this introduction and in the course of the next chapter, I believe that the rhetorical criticism of Kenneth Burke will prove especially helpful for understanding the problem of the problem plays. Both his philosophy of literary form and his rhetoric of identification between author and audience provide a means to analyze how ambiguities are presented in plays, how the audience expects to overcome "ironic impasse" by the presentation of some motive for action, and how it is bound to be frustrated when no such convincing motive or symbol of order is provided. Before attending to Burke's rhetoric, however, a brief survey of rhetorical theory in the Renaissance will clarify some assumptions about meaning and communication commonly held by rhetoricians now and then and will - 6 -show how Burke's philosophy of literary form differs, as a rhetorical theory of literature, from more narrow definitions of the province and methods of rhetoric. SMALL LATINE, LESSE GREEKE, BUT MUCH RHETORIC In his classic study of William Shakespeare's Small Latine and Lesse Greeke (1944), T.W.Baldwin reconstructs the curriculum of studies Shakespeare would probably have undergone if he did, in fact, attend the Edward VI Grammar School in Stratford-Upon-Avon. Baldwin argues that numerous correspondences can be found between authors Shakespeare would have studied (Ovid, for example) and references in the plays; likewise, he shows how a training in rhetoric would have made Shakespeare familiar not only with a disputatious style of arguing opinions (guided by Erasmus's De Copia) but also with • numerous tropes and figures which would help him to present these arguments effectively. Even if Shakespeare had never attended Stratford's Grammar school, Baldwin's study documents the pervasive training in rhetoric to which every school boy was submitted in order to prepare him for public life. Since Shakespeare's plays show close familiarity with this training, it is reasonable to assume that he acquired knowledge of it somehow, either directly or through conversation with those who had it. Shakespeare's "exposure" to rhetoric, then, is not in question. Rather, it is necessary to ascertain the effect of this exposure on his plays. What was the commonly taught conception of rhetoric and how is that related to Shakespeare's poetics? Moreover, how are these conceptions related to Kenneth Burke's rhetoric which I will be using to analyze the problem plays? - 7 -The Renaissance conception of rhetoric is in no way uniform since its very content was the subject of technical, in-house disputes. Cicero had denominated five "offices" of rhetoric: invention, disposition, elocution, memory, and delivery. The traditional rhetoricians, carrying on the Ciceronian and medieval inheritance, included the "invention" of arguments and their "disposition" within the province of rhetoric. They recognized, with Aristotle, that rhetoric had its counterpart in dialectic, from which it borrowed "proofs," but that it also used "probable" proofs drawn from certain commonplaces or "topoi" that would provide matter for argument. The reformers of rhetoric in the Renaissance, led by Peter Ramus, proposed to separate invention and disposition from rhetoric, to include these offices under dialectic alone, and to leave for rhetoric the office of elocution — that is, dressing up ideas with fit "ornaments" and with a "garment of style." Ramus always assumed that in his system a student would study both dialectic and rhetoric; he merely wanted to reduce duplication of offices. "12 At question in this dispute is the degree to which rhetoric is a way of knowing. To the reformers, it was merely a way of expressing effectively what had to be known in the more rigorous but surer discipline of dialectics. To the traditionalists, however, rhetoric was concerned with finding arguments as well as with setting them forth. Through rhetoric, one could come to know as much as might be known by common assent to arguments drawn from the commonplaces of probable opinions. These in-house differences, however, should not obscure the crucial point of agreement: to some extent all recognized rhetoric's important role as the communicator of ideas, either its own or those found by dialectics. - 8 -The textbook Renaissance emphasis on rhetoric as a way of knowing must supplement any study of the effectiveness of tropes and figures in order to appreciate the full range of rhetorical thinking at work in Renaissance literature. Among others, Joel B. Altman's, The Tudor Play of Mind is an example of just such a broader view. Altman shows how a training in rhetoric taught both students and playwrights how to argue opposites ("in utramque partem") when they wrote and this helps to explain the multiple points of view on any topic usually encountered in Renaissance drama. On the other hand, Sr. Miriam Joseph's classic study on Rhetoric in Shakespeare's Time and Brian Vickers's Classical Rhetoric in English Poetry concentrate so well and so much on the tropes and figures of rhetoric that they can mislead a person into taking for the whole of Renaissance rhetoric what was only, at least for Ciceronians, a part of it — elocution.13 Kenneth Burke, too, recognizes the tropes and figures as persuasive forms of speech. That is, figures like "antithesis" and "gradatio" do more than decorate an idea that could have been expressed just as well without them. Rather, they carry the hearer along with the speaker because by satisfying the hearer's sense of form they help to transfer acceptance of the figure to acceptance of the argument. The figures, as Longinus said, by adding "energy" transport the hearer to agreement through ecstasy: an audience under the influence of the figures will leave its own thoughts behind and 1 u identify with the speaker's. For Burke, the tropes and figures are undeniably important to the rhetorician; they are, according to Puttenham's submerged analogy, like a general's plan of war, employed strategically to overcome the opposition.^ However, they are not the whole of rhetoric. Burke calls the tropes and figures "minor forms," which will have persuasive effect only within an argument set up, as Aristotle prescribed, by the use of other kinds of "proof." Burke's rhetoric, then, is concerned with more than - 9 -figures of speech; it agrees with the traditionalists in regarding rhetoric as a way of knowing or at least of coming to agree about what speaker and audience think that they know. Burke goes further than the traditionalists, however, by including literature or fiction as a kind of rhetoric. He mentions that the literary forms which he calls "conventional," "progressive," and "repetitive" work as a kind of argument, persuading an audience to accept the outcome of their development as a true account of a situation. The major forms work like the minor forms by setting up an audience's expectations and then satisfying them, thus leading it to transfer satisfaction with the form to satisfaction with the "argument." Burke's expansion of the realm of rhetoric into literature has met with objection from other rhetoricians, like Wilbur S. Howell, who want to maintain a strict distinction between rhetoric and poetics: that is, between language directly addressed to an audience (non-mimetic) and language addressed to an audience through a fable or fiction (mimetic).^ Brian Vickers seems to share this view when he ponders the problem of how rhetoric (that is, the minor forms) can be useful for explaining the movement of an entire play. As he says: The problem facing rhetoric studies, especially in drama, is how to move from micro-texts — the presence and functioning of rhetoric at the levels of word, phrase, sentence, even whole speeches — to macro-texts, the overall structures or patterns within plays. One can trace the rhetorical form of a speech by Berowne, or Brutus, or Ulysses, but when it comes to describing plot, lexis has to yield to mythos. Aristotle's Rhetoric must give way to his Poetics. Rhetoric seems to have a cut-off point beyond which it cannot be taken as an analytical tool, or if so only in increasingly generalized forms.^ Howell maintains that Renaissance theorists knew very well that the "two literatures" differed, if not in aim (which in both cases is to persuade) at - 10 -least in method. Burke's rejoinder is that he cannot accept the need to draw such a hard and artificial line. Everyone agrees that Renaissance literary theory emphasized the didactic function of literature, and everyone agrees that the poet freely borrowed from rhetoric at least the "energy" of its tropes and figures. What Burke has done is to revise the notion of rhetoric so that it includes both non-mimetic and mimetic writing. Along with Howell and Renaissance theorists, then, Burke accepts that the fable persuades; however, in his philosophy of literary form he goes further and attempts to show how it does so.17 Of course, the idea that literature "persuades" in any way meets resistance from those who regard a work of art as free of "interest" or "profit" of any kind. Aesthetic theories that suspect didacticism, ideology, or paraphrase of any kind as necessarily partisan distortions of experience focus attention on the structure of a work itself as a "reconciliation of opposites" (Coleridge) or a balancing of tensions (Richards) and not on the artist or the audience as communicating anything through the structure. To this aesthetic, the emphasis on didacticism in Renaissance theory seems puzzling if not perverse, and a woeful misreading of the best drama and poetry which flourished all around it. In my use of rhetorical analysis, I hope to show that a subtle appreciation of a work's form and texture need not detract from the artist's communication of something about experience that concerns both him and his audience. I assume, however, that this "something" is not reducible to a thematic paraphrase, nor that it is separable from the form through which it is communicated. Granted, some literature can seem like blatant propaganda, like Gorboduc, for example. Other literature seems to ask explicitly that we take it that way — as a justification of the ways of God to man, perhaps, or as a warning to "the wise/ Only to wonder at unlawful things,/ Whose deepness doth entice such forward wits/ To practice more than heavenly power permits" (Marlowe's Dr. Faustus, Epilogue). But Burke believes that a literary presentation of such issues — especially a dramatic one — is inescapably more subtle than what appears as the obvious moral. To put it simply, every protagonist needs an antagonist for the staging of a drama, just as God needs Satan in Paradise Lost before the action can begin. The characters are ironically defined by one another. In the course of their combat, one will win and the other will lose, with an audience's interest in the outcome all the keener to the extent that the contest could go either way, or to the extent that the struggle has been intense. Also, every drama includes a "tragic ambiguity": although one character is necessarily expelled or killed off because the action requires it, that same character has been required for the dramatic enactment in the first place. Iago i£ before he is "right" or "wrong," and he will always be, even if he must always be denied. Now, instead of "characters," substitute "attitudes" or "terms" for understanding some extra-textual situation, and it is obvious how an audience can divide in its response to the conflict. It may cheer or hiss the victory at the close depending upon its identification with the characters who uphold the order established at the end. As my analysis of Burke's rhetoric will make clear, the characters in a drama are not allegories of ideas. What they "represent" must be ascertained by as thorough an "indexing" as possible of their "stance": they are agents who act within a certain context, with certain purposes and means of acting. But as the interaction of these characters in the course of the drama begins to show who will win and who will lose, an audience will "agree" to the outcome only to the extent that they agree with the "terms" themselves and how they end up. - 12 -As a rhetorician, Burke recognizes that tragic ambiguity — obvious as it is — cannot for long prevent some kind of action, and as the playwright "votes" for one action over another, he invites the audience to accept or to reject his expression or arguing of the issue. Shakespeare, of course, is more subtle than most playwrights and votes, so to speak, by secret ballot. It is impossible to do more than guess what he himself thought of the winners and the losers in his plays because the chameleon poet expressed every shade of opinion as forcibly as possible and with negative capability opened his mind to many arguments. The fact that Julius Caesar contains simultaneously and cogently the views of Caesar/Marc Antony and the views of Brutus/Cassius on the value of "Caesarism" makes it, to some, primarily the tragedy of Caesar and, to others, primarily the tragedy of Brutus. Obviously, the play does not change, only the verdict of the majority of the audience will differ, depending on what it thinks of how the play has ended up. Burke's rhetoric, then, like the best of Renaissance poetics, assumes both a purpose for which the poet writes and a well-argued presentation of that purpose. What separates the best of poetry from narrow didacticism is the poet's comprehensive, sophisticated and well-formed vision of an order or attitude toward experience which satisfies the united faculties of mind, emotions, and imagination. As Rosemond Tuve has explained it, the didactic theory of Renaissance poetics assumes (bluntly) that poetry teaches; it appeals to the mind as well as to the other faculties because it believes that the "contemplating intellect" can "apprehend the true nature of things." Poetry teaches in the sense that it communicates "a hitherto unperceived rationally apprehensible order," and Tuve emphasizes that a "rational" apprehension is not confined to the intellect: it requires the interaction of all the faculties.18 - 13 -Writing in 1947, Tuve seems especially sensitive to "modern" (New Critical) objections against didactic intentions in poetry while, at the same time, she tries to explicate the undeniable bias toward didacticism in Renaissance theory. To that end, she makes a helpful distinction, I think, between a poem's "subject" or the poet's purpose for writing, and the content of the poem — what gets said on behalf of the purpose. The "teaching" is the purpose as it is embodied in the form. Tuve's distinctions coincide with Burke's theory of how literary forms argue for an attitude which, the poet believes, will "encompass" a situation; the attitude to be taken or the order to be upheld would be the purpose for writing; the formal presentation would be the "inventions" of the poet's imagination. Tuve's remarks should, I think, be quoted at length: ...one cannot pick out in it [Wilson's Arte of Rhetoriquej the ordinary modern notion of some content as the purpose of a piece, or of a 'subject matter* (didactically important) divisible from the form (didactically negligible). To what is the matter 'apt'? What does the distinction between 'matter' and 'purpose', made several times, mean — if not that the directing conception determines my selection of things true and likely as well as my way of 'commending' or making impressive those things? How can words and sentences (probably figures of words and figures of thought) confirm the cause, unless the process is one of fit incarnation of an intention, just as I have suited my matter to my purpose by the way I have ordered it? I do not beautify my style; I beautify the cause. I do not start out with my matter; I find it. ...I believe that the root of much modern critical dissatisfaction with the didactic theory of poetry is its supposed identification of content with purpose — and I do not think that the Renaissance made this identification. Many of our quarrels with didactic poems turn out to be quarrels not with the poet's aim but with the subject matter and devices through which he has made his aim apparent — and no element in poetry is so subject to the changing fashions of different times as the first of these."19 If Tuve is right, then the praise of Shakespeare for what he has to teach us does not imply praise of his abstractable precepts; rather, it implies praise - 14 -for the thoroughness of his invention — for the way he has fully argued divergent attitudes toward a subject so that we can understand its complexity more clearly, even if we do not accept the ostensibly proposed order. This, certainly, is the way Kenneth Burke sees Shakespeare: as a dialectician who could see the "quality of the action by views from various angles," and who could excel so many others in his ability to marshal all available arguments, even if he "votes" in the end for one over another.^u This concept of rhetoric is not didactic, then, in a narrow sense. Rather, it assumes that an artist needs to build agreements with his audience, starting with premises it will accept and moving it through various mergers and divisions until the conclusion is, as far as possible, acceptable to most, if not to all. It is this concept of rhetoric that I expect will be helpful for analyzing the problem with the problem plays. If, in fact, an audience needs to "identify" with a rationally comprehensible order, and if it expects to do so at the end of a play, and if the artist prevents it from doing that, will there not be a problem? What if Shakespeare is trying to communicate the "idea of disjunction" in the problem plays, as Ellis-Fermor suggests in relation to Troilus and Cressida? Will he not have to use every rhetorical means at his disposal to convince the audience that its urge to indulge a conventional response is mistaken? I believe that Burke's philosophy of literary form and his rhetoric offer a flexible and fruitful way of explaining what is happening in three of Shakespeare's most troubling plays as well as in others throughout the canon. Therefore, after an explanation of Burke's critical method, I will analyze All's Well That Ends Well, Troilus and Cressida, and Measure for Measure, and I will conclude with suggestions for distinguishing these plays from the tragedies and the romances which follow them. - 15 -The order in which I study the plays is strategic and does not imply a decision about their dating. Since Troilus is the "darkest" of the three, I have put it in the middle, using it as a contrast to the others whose romance motifs lighten the troubling tone but do not completely relieve it. One may glimpse a ray of hope or imagine that there is light at the close of All1s Well and Measure, but according to this analysis, one is still in the tunnel. - 16 -II. BURKE'S RHETORIC: LANGUAGE AS SYMBOLIC ACTION Kenneth Burke's essay on Adolf Hitler's "word magic" in Mein Kampf provides a starting point for a clear understanding of Burke's rhetoric as "symbolic action." According to Burke, the purpose of rhetoric is to persuade an audience to change its attitude or stance toward some tension in its situation through identification with those symbols of a new identity presented by the speaker. The new identity is welcomed in direct proportion to an audience's dissatisfaction with its lack of identity or its inability to act purposefully with others in the present context. Writing his analysis of "The Rhetoric of Hilter's Battle" in the summer of 1939, Burke welcomed the unexpurgated edition of Hitler's book not only as a chance to study the tactics of a master rhetorician who provided identity for a people, but also to defuse the sinister effects of those tactics by exposing them to a quizzical analysis. Since the results of this study are applicable to any use of language as symbolic action, they will help to explain to some extent the "problem" of the problem plays. If, as Burke maintains, an audience expects a "persuasion to change" by attending to an author's symbolic action and yet is prevented from doing so, there will be problems for the audience stemming from a frustration of formal expectations and anthropological needs. For Burke, Hitler's rhetoric is effective precisely because he provides a clear symbol of a new order which will redeem his audience from the burdens of its historical condition. Hitler's rhetoric works because it is "the bastardization of fundamentally religious patterns of thought" (PLF, p.219);1 that is, as a "salvation device," it draws upon ways of thinking which appeal to deeply grounded human needs for purpose, fellowship, and freedom. However, - 17 -as Burke goes on to show, Hitler's rhetoric is sinister and ultimately ineffective because it bastardizes these religious patterns of thought, applying them in "illegitimate" ways. Hitler's "medicine" (or "snakeoil," to be more exact) was his prescription for the conditions of post-war Germany. The context of situation was a breakdown of the capitalist economy in a world-wide depression, wounded national pride after defeat in war, and a "babel" of voices at the center of the "tottering Hapsburg Empire," all of them urging reform and preventing it at the same time by their wrangling. Hitler equated Vienna, the capital of the former empire, with "poverty, prostitution, immorality, coalitions, half-measures, incest, democracy (i.e., majority rule leading to 'lack of personal responsibility') death, internationalism, seduction, and anything else of thumbs-down sort the associative enterprise cared to add on this side of the balance" (PLF, p.200). Using ideas just as a poet uses images, Hitler characterized Vienna as the city from which his audience obviously needed to move, figuratively speaking, if it wanted to transcend its present troubles. The new city was to be Munich, the headquarters for the Nazi party, the perfect setting for Hitler's philosophy of an Aryan race with inborn dignity of blood and the center of vituperation against the common enemy, the "international Jew" whose blood would "pollute" the Aryan if mixed with it. Hitler deliberately chose one enemy against which to direct his attacks, because, as he acknowledges himself, it makes thinking easier and casts less doubt on the strength of one's own position if objections to it come from only one direction. The Jew was "defined," then, as the "devil" and the rival male to the strong leader, wooing the masses (conceived in feminine terms) away from the leader's one voice. His aim was to seduce the "folk" into following ideas - 18 -(like democracy) that would drag them back into the burdensome conditions under which they had suffered. For Hitler, the Jew was to be a scapegoat, on whose back the Aryan could load the detested burdens of his own situation (the failure of his own economy, the ignominy of his own wounded pride) in order to expel them and thus to purify his own identity as one no longer burdened or polluted. Burke's analysis clearly shows the poetic way in which Hitler's rhetoric works: first, by making mergers among some ideas and divisions between others; so, for example, the equations for Vienna, already mentioned, merge to identify that city as the fit setting for the common enemy; Munich, on the other hand, is distinguished from Vienna by a different set of equations. It is identified with Hitler's innner voice, leader- people identification, unity, Reich, plow, sword, work, war, army, responsibility, sacrifice, idealism, obedience to nature, race, and nation. "And, of course, the two keystones of these opposite equations were Aryan 'heroism' and 'sacrifice' vs. Jewish 'cunning' and 'arrogance'" (PLF, pp. 207-208). Next, Hitler pits one term against the other as rivals and then points the "arrows of expectation" toward having to expel the one in order to save the other. By drawing upon the commonly accepted values of his audience toward sexuality, Hitler points the arrows in the direction of the Jew by identifying him as a rival male and hence as a "pollutant" like syphilis, prostitution, or incest. The message is clear: in order to preserve the "inborn dignity" — blood purity — of the superior race (with which Hitler's audience is invited to identify itself), the inferior races must be expelled. Burke's incisive critique of Hitler's rhetoric also points out that much of its power derives from its sincerity. Hitler is offering to others a "salvation device" which had proved successful for himself when his first - 19 -formulations of a political philosophy in Vienna had met with attack from Bolshevist rivals. Hitler had discovered hate as a way out and took it to the end of the line. Mein Kampf is Hitler's battle, as Burke tries to emphasize by the title for his essay, and although Hitler's plans may be dismissed as irrational, they worked precisely because they were presented in the name of reason and in a form which caricatures a religious way of thinking. In a shrewd distinction, Burke points out that Mein Kampf is "the bad filling of a good need" (PLF, p.218). "The yearning for unity," he says, "is so great that people are always willing to meet you halfway if you will give it to them by fiat, by flat statement, regardless of the facts" (PLF, p.205). Hitler's rhetoric is "bad," however, not only because it is literally murderous, but because it solves nothing; it provides a noneconomic interpretation for burdens which are economically engendered. By making a scapegoat of the Jew as the advocate of "bad capitalism," Hitler allows the Aryans to continue the same economic practices which had brought about the depression in the first place. Instead of getting his audience to recognize the babel of voices within themselves and to sort them out there before taking action, Hitler simplifies the thinking of his audience by encouraging them to project the cause of their burdens elsewhere and to purify themselves by killing off what is supposedly not themselves. Burke's solution for Hitler's word magic is as ingenious as his analysis. Since we cannot change the way rhetoric works, he argues, we (in 1939) should take a lesson from Hitler's masterful, sinister use of it and make of Hitler the scapegoat. In that way, people will be motivated first to defeat Hitler's fascism and then, once the outside danger to democracy is removed, to extirpate those elements of fascism which threaten democracy from within. "Our job, then," says Burke, "our anti-Hitler Battle, is to find all available ways of making the Hitlerite distortions of religion apparent, in - 20 -order that politicians of his kind in America be unable to perform a similar swindle. The desire for unity is genuine and admirable. The desire for national unity, in the present state of the world, is genuine and admirable. But this unity, if attained on a deceptive basis, by emotional trickeries that shift our criticism from the accurate locus of our trouble, is no unity at all" (PLF, p.219). As Burke has analyzed it, then, Hitler's use of rhetoric is a "salvation device," synonomous with "medicine," with "equipment for living," and with a "ritual of rebirth" that uses a religious way of thinking to help a people transform their sense of identity from that of a people damned to that of a people saved. Hitler's success comes not from the content of his mergers — which falls apart under analysis — but from the fact that his message is used to "fill in" a pattern of thinking which satisfies an audience by a ritual or formal kind of progression. According to Burke, every use of symbols works, in effect, for the same end: to persuade people to change through identification with a term which is equated with the way out of a present predicament and which proves its potency by surviving a contest with rival terms or other explanations for the same predicament. Every act of persuasion is, so to speak, a local and ritual reenactment of a religious way of thinking employed, for example, in the "combat myth" in which one term (or god or power) struggles with its rival for mastery over the allegiances of a people. Commenting on Python, A Study of Delphic Myth and Its Origins by Joseph Fontenrose, Burke applauds the anthropological insights which help to explain the role of mythic narrative in the founding of cults, and he emphasizes especially that the rival gods or terms are in perpetual dialectical tension. As polar opposites, they will always imply one another as surely as positive - 21 -implies negative and order implies chaos, even if one power is accepted as god for the moment. The reason for a "combat myth" or narrative of their struggle is to show how they end up and therefore which is the god with which a people would want to identify and in the process to overcome their divided and burdensome state. As Burke explains, "In themselves, as 'polar' terms, they have no progression or priority, but merely imply each other. When translated into terms of mythic narrative, however, such opposition can become a quasi-temporal 'combat' between the two terms, with the corresponding possibility that one of the terms can be pictured as 'vanquishing' the other. Or they can be thought of as alternatively uppermost, in periodic or cyclic succession (an arrangement that comes closer to retaining the notion of their mutual involvement in each other, even while distinguishing between them and giving each a measure of predominance). Similarly, the pattern can be further modulated by the thought of an inter-regnum, with one of the terms not an out-and-out victor but a temporary interrex, eventually to be replaced by the other" (LSA, pp. 387-388, Burke's emphases). Burke emphasizes that a combat myth is told not only for aesthetic pleasure but also to explain the founding of a cult which is "a system of governance" with sanctions for particular attitudes and actions. Therefore, the structure of the myth will be broadly applicable to any act of persuasion, but it will convince a people only to the extent that it draws on the beliefs, hopes and fears of a particular "context of situation" and persuades them to accept one order as good and the other as bad — even though both are possible and always will be. As Burke slyly suggests, the killing of a god does not cause him to die off; rather, it makes him immortal. By showing where he ends up, the story defines the scapegoat as the god-to-be-expelled, but it also - 22 -shows that this is the rival attitude of the reigning order and that if it is ever revived, chaos will come again. The ending of a combat myth is simultaneously a transcendence of a struggle (or ironic impasse of conflicting terms) and a catharsis of an unwanted burden. It could represent a moving on to a more inclusive term, as in a Platonic dialogue of contending opinions, but more often it takes the route of tragic expulsion. To some extent, both movements occur simlutaneously, with only an emphasis on one or the other to mark the difference. Burke then extrapolates from these comments on mythic narrative and applies them to poetic narrative in general, especially tragedy and comedy. Just as the combat myth pits against one another rival gods (which ultimately represent the powers of Love and Death, as Freud believed) and then tells how one god won and founded the cult while the other lost and survives to threaten it, poetry, too, in dramatic ways, defines terms by clusters or equations of images and ideas, pits them against one another, and points the arrows of expectation toward the defeat of the devil term and the survival of the god term. Structurally, then, tragedy and comedy are modifications of the same combat myth, applying the formula to different kinds of character ("better" than ordinary in tragedy, "worse" than ordinary in comedy), all the time "fitting" the characters to their end so that an audience can be satisfied by knowing how and when and whom to applaud (LSA, pp. 399-400). LITERATURE AS A DEFINITION OF TERMS For Burke, poetry, like the combat myth and every other kind of symbolic action (including sinister kinds, like Mein Kampf), uses both a religious way - 23 -of thinking and a dramatic kind of pattern to define terms and to move an audience to accept the definition. As characters in a drama, the terms cannot be defined, obviously, by paraphrase or abstraction to a terminology outside of the play. The characters are actors on a particular scene, acting with certain purposes and agencies. Therefore, an audience learns what to think of the characters or terms by making as thorough an "indexing" as possible of who does what, where, how and why. (Obviously, a more thorough job can be done if one is studying a text rather than witnessing a performance.) Burke calls these five constituents of any act the "Pentad" and, as simple as it sounds, he uses it with great ingenuity in his Grammar of Motives to show how rhetoricians can manipulate the "ratios" between one integer and another to construct anything from the symbol structure of a play like Enemy of the People, to a philosophy like pragmatism or idealism, or to a political instrument like the Constitution of the United States. Much like formalists with whom he is sometimes contrasted, Burke advocates as thorough a charting as possible of the "equations" a poet or philosopher has set for the definition of his terms. So, for example, what it means to say that Dr.Stockmann is an "enemy" of the people comes to be understood ironically by noting not only what he does but where he does it. Ibsen defines the term by showing Stockmann acting on behalf of the people's safety and then suffering their hostile reaction because they are not ready for the truth he has to tell them. Burke then describes the setting of the final action: In Act V, the stage directions tell us that the hero's clothes are torn, and the room is in disorder, with broken windows. You may consider these details either as properties of the scene or as a reflection of the hero's condition after his recent struggle with the forces of reaction. The scene is laid in Dr. Stockmann's study, a setting so symbolic of the direction taken by the plot - 24 -that the play ends with Dr. Stockmann announcing his plan to enroll twelve young disciples and with thern to found a school in which he will work for the education of society (GM, p.5, Burke's emphases). The meaning of the poet's terms, then, emerges by studying not only the integers of the Pentad but the ratios between them (for example, that Stockmann's act of saving the people through education is contained within the scene of his study in the company of twelve disciples such as Jesus had). In addition to the Pentad, the poet also uses imagery to indicate the quality of an action from different angles. Imagery or metaphor are what Burke, following Nietzsche, calls "perspectives by incongruity" (ATH, p.269); they are a "screen" or "filter" through which an audience is persuaded to see the essence of the action. Impressed with Caroline Spurgeon's book on Shakespeare's imagery, Burke notes that "her method can disclose statistically how Shakespeare frequently organized a play about a key or pivotal metaphor, which he repeated in variants (like a musical 'theme with variations') throughout the play." So, for example, "Romeo and Juliet is organized about images of light; Hamlet, the ulcer or tumor, and King Lear, bodily torture" (ATH, pp. 274-275). The metaphoric perspectives are complicated still further by Shakespeare's favoring of puns to indicate that the quality of the action may be perceived from at least two directions at once. Burke does not comment on the following plays specifically, but in Romeo and Juliet love and death imply one another in a pun on "die": "Thus, with a kiss, I die" (V.iii. 120)In Hamlet, "union" is a grisly pun on the pearl with which Claudius poisons a drinking cup and the incestuous marriage with which he has poisoned Denmark, and Hamlet's use of this pun, by linking the marriage to the poisoning act, underscores the poetic justice of Claudius's death: "Here, thou incestuous, murd'rous, damned Dane,/ Drink off this potion. Is thy union here?/ Follow my - 25 -mother" (V.II.336-338). And, in King Lear, a pun on "kind" shows that one's "kind" or family may not necessarily be "kind" or caring and the wrenching apart of these two senses of the word complements the images of bodily torture in this play. According to the Fool, only the fathers "that bear bags/ Shall see their children kind" (II.iv.51), and Lear, who had trusted first in the "kind" nursery of Cordelia and then of Goneril and Regan, is stung by "filial ingratitude" until he discovers, as if for the first time, Cordelia as a "kind and dear princess" (IV.vii.28). Puns and metaphoric perspectives, then, are ways in which a poet attempts to direct the audience's attention toward an understanding of the terms he is setting up. But each term is defined not only in itself by imagery and in ways analyzed by the Pentad (by mergers); it is also defined in opposition to another term which serves as its rival possibility (by division). There can be no action or dramatic development unless a contest can be staged, just as there can be no positive idea of a society's goals without implying what these goals are not. This, says Burke, is the "paradox of substance" — that nothing can be defined as what it is without reference to what it is not (GM, pp.21-23). The etymology of "substance" itself (to stand under) shows that when we enunciate the "stance" of anything, it is always in relation to an "understood" context or scene. Thus, every term for encompassing a situation is inherently ambiguous since it evokes its polar opposite or rival possibility even when it is taken to be "substantially" true. In dramatic terms, this means that the hero cannot be accepted as such unless an audience both recognizes a struggle against a villain and agrees to expel him. The risk for a playwright, then, is in the choice of terms for mergers and divisions. If done with an accurate gauging of an audience's beliefs, the playwright can direct his audience's agreements where he wants them. However, - 26 -if his equations and contrasts are unappealing or misjudged, an audience may fail to go along with the argument. The unforseen changes in perception because of historical developments further complicate the playwright's task. For example, the response to The Merchant of Venice is difficult enough because of dramatic ironies between Belmont and Venice and the use of money in both scenes. But Shylock's Jewishness adds something to the equation to which a twentieth century audience is especially sensitive. The fear to be identified with anti-semitism will cause some in the audience to make Shylock a martyr and in no way a comic butt or scapegoat. On the other hand, some will use his Jewishness to confirm their own prejudices and will ignore the ambiguities of Shylock's relationship to the Christians of Venice. By making the outsider to the festive conclusion Jewish, Shakespeare has risked, perhaps intentionally, a different reception to his definition of terms. Finally, the "substance" of a playwright's argument is defined by where the terms end up. Speaking of death as one kind of ending, Burke calls it the "narrative equivalent of the Aristotelian entelechy. For the poet could define the essence of a motive narratively or dramatically (in terms of a history) by showing how that motive ended; the maturity or fulfillment of a motive, its 'perfection' or 'finishedness,' if translated into terms of tragic outcome, would entail the identifying of that motive with a narrative figure whose acts led to some fitting form of death" (RM, p.14). In rhetorical terms, the moment of death or expulsion is a transformation of terms, the significance of which must be determined in the context of each play and, ultimately, by the judgement of those in the audience. As Burke explains, "a poet's identification with imagery of murder or suicide, either one or the other, is from the 'neutral' point of view, - 27 -merely a concern with terms for transformation in general" (RM, p.11). To "kill off" a term, then, may mean that it deserves to die: it is the ritual scapegoat for an attitude which "has" to go. On the other hand, the death may be a martyrdom, showing that the principle or term that is sacrificed has been too good for this world which is then condemned for the act of murder. For Burke, suicide, as self murder, either shows the self-stifling effects of an attitude or becomes the vehicle for self-transcendence in the name of that cause for which one gives his life. The act of death can show that something is worth dying for or that something is "fit" to die. In either case, some attitude with which the audience identifies is being transformed by being killed off and therefore, if a eulogy is spoken, it is on behalf of that part of itself which an audience believes it must relinquish for the sake of what survives. Burke's analysis of drama as symbolic action can best be studied in his article "Othello: An Essay to Illustrate a Method" in which the salient assumptions of his kind of analysis are clearly explained and illustrated: the assumption of a "context of situation" (usually economic) to which the play is a "counterstatement"; the analysis of characters as terms "fit" for the arguing of the counterstatement and not as personalities with psychological case histories; the progression of the argument from the setting up of terms through their peripety to the conclusion where one term is sacrificed so that the other might survive and the whole vision accepted by the audience as an attitude pointing to the way out of its burden. Burke's belief in drama as a "ritual of rebirth" or a "salvation device" is clearly implied in his calling Othello a "viaticum" for the burdens of Shakespeare's audience as owners of private property. Using only the terms of the play, which enact Othello's jealousy or fear of losing what he has "invested" in Desdemona, and assuming that one kind of relationship (property - 28 -ownership) may be expressed in terms of another (monogamous marriage in which the husband is "lord" of the wife, as Othello is called), Burke studies how the principal terms or characters (Othello, Desdemona, and Iago) fit together for defining what is essentially or substantially the tension involved with increased attempts to acquire and to keep private property. In this analysis, Desdemona is the property which Othello would keep to himself. Her value is increased by a topical appeal to the audience's belief in the value of monogamous marriage. As Othello's wife, Desdemona "belongs" to Othello, and any violation of her would be promiscuous. If Othello were to lose her and what she represents (the "tranquil mind," "content," and all the "pride, pomp and circumstance" of Othello's occupation), chaos would truly come again. Iago enters as an attitude not so much distinct from Othello's as its counterpart. He appears at Othello's ear, whispering his suspicions; he kneels at Othello's side, pledging his support. He is as close to being inside Othello as a playwright can make him, and he represents the fear of estrangement which accompanies the act of ownership. Othello's tragedy arises from his foredoomed desire to extend his ownership so absolutely that others' uses are prevented. Given Othello's "engrossment" in his property, Iago's task is to induce jealousy from what appears to be Cassio's promiscuous handling of the handkerchief. Iago succeeds so well in making Othello suffer estrangement from his property precisely because Othello has attempted to extend his ownership to such an extent that he cannot distinguish courtesy from lechery. Othello, then, kills Desdemona, attempting to transform her into a creature who belongs entirely to him, even if she will then be dead to his own "uses" as well as to others', and then he kills himself when he is told that his fear of estrangement was without reason. The suicide, in rhetorical terms, represents the reflexive nature of Othello's burden: the stifling and self-killing effects of the attempt to make of private property an absolutely personal possession. The play, then, serves as a counterstatement to the audience's "tension." If they weep for Othello, it is because they realize where their own jealous engrossments are "ending up" (what they "amount" to), and if they hate Iago it is because they need him as a tangible villain, a scapegoat of their own jealous fantasies. If the drama is to work as a "viaticum" for the audience, it will lead them to a more quizzical analysis of the attitude that is absolutely engrossed in private property. The substance of Othello's attitude cannot be understood without remembering the "paradox of substance": that every claim to property implies a fear of rival claims — that every "exchange" of love is "discounted" to some extent by fear of jealousy. In fact, to the extent that one's attitude is "absolute" in its demands, it is sure to provoke its opposite. Given his appreciation for the "fit" of the characters in the argument of the play, Burke favors two tropes especially as master methods of analysis: irony, which will keep the critic aware of the dialectical tensions among competing attitudes, and synechdoche, which will train the critic to see each part of the play as contributing to the defining of the whole. The effect of the play, then, will finally be gauged by the way in which an audience responds to the "fit" of competing attitudes and to the way in which they end up. • CRITICISM AS CONVERSATION: TWO REJOINDERS TO BURKE There are two qualifications I would have to make to Burke's analysis before using it for my own purposes. First, Burke's assumption of economic - 30 -tensions as the audience's "context of situation" needs some sophistication if this method of analysis is to be more flexible, more respectful of the range of concerns in Shakespeare's plays, and therefore acceptable to more critics. Burke assumes the economic context because he believes that in some form it is always there. Class differences on the basis of property distribution exist in every age, creating tensions between those who are up or down in the hierarchy and requiring "courtship" of a kind between the classes to assuage their separation by providing a sense that they share a place in the same overarching order. Burke derives these ideas from William Empson who, in Some Versions of Pastoral, argues that the conventions of "pastoral literature" are actually a paradigm for how all of literature works: in every work different constituencies of the audience are "wooed" into a sense of union by seeing their ideas played out in the same context. In pastoral, the moral concerns of the "higher" orders are argued out in "terms" of the lower orders; in drama, a double plot can serve this purpose; in a novel, different characters can express the divergent attitudes toward a situation in ironic juxtaposition. According to Paul de Man, Empson under the pretense of analysing a poetic convention is actually explaining "the ontology of the poetic" itself, namely, the "problem of separation" between poet and audience and between different classes in the audience itself which a poet contrives to overcome by symbolic means though he is never completely successful.^ Burke takes from Empson the idea of a separated audience, but he too often, I think, explains that separation merely in economic terms. Surely, Burke is right to assume that economic conditions exist outside the play and that they form a "substructure" (in Marxist terms) for the values which the audience has adopted. But as Burke himself admits, Shakespeare does not seem overtly interested in the economic substructure. "Shakespeare's strategy as a dramatist," according to Burke," was formed by [the] relation - 31 -between feudal and bourgeois values. This 'superstructural' material was the objective, social material he manipulated in eliciting his audience's response. Economic factors gave rise to the transition in values, but he dealt with the transition in values" (PLF, p.309). Burke's assumption, then, that a play is a ritual of rebirth for an audience, persuading it to a way out of its tensions by a narrative formulation of terms, this assumption is more credible and helpful if one assumes a more than economic definition of these concerns. So, for example, Theodore Spencer in Shakespeare and the Nature of Man analyses the tensions in the Renaissance between Copernican and Ptolemaic systems of astronomy which altered the perception of man's place in the cosmos; between Ciceronian and Machiavellian theories of statecraft, which differed in their view of the moral nature of public life; and between the optimistic anthropology of a Raimond Sebond and the deflating commentaries on it by Michel de Montaigne. "Thus," he concludes, "in the immediate intellectual background of the late sixteenth century, two main attacks were being made on the idealistic picture of the nobility and dignity of man. There was the traditional attack, which described man's wretchedness since the fall, but which was still based on a firm belief in man's crucial place in the center of things; and there was the newer attack, which in a threefold way, threatened to destroy that belief itself." 4 The list of polar opposites in the context of situation could be indefinitely extended, since the Renaissance in England was one of those watershed moments in history when attitudes of various kinds were being argued out thoroughly before one of them would clearly come to predominate as a paradigm. The context of situation, then, must be understood in a flexible way, and, if that is done, it can help explain the play as a counterstatement to the audience's tensions and a more or less accepted arguing out of its - 32 -concerns. Othello may or may not be about the burdens of private property economically considered, but it is certainly about a jealous man who will not keep a corner of the thing he loves for others' uses. As the tension of jealousy in some sense is argued out, it will be a viaticum only for those who feel "consubstantial" with Othello's tragedy. Thus modified, Burke's assumption of a context of situation for a play coincides precisely with the practice of contemporary directors who choose those plays for production whose concerns seem to overlap with those of the audience and which therefore seem to be the plays "for the moment." In his interviews with several contemporary directors of Shakespeare's plays, Ralph Berry discovered that, given a choice, and not just box office considerations, directors chose those plays which would say something to a situation (usually political) particularly burdensome to the audience. Hence, Michael Kahn "would have liked the opportunity to do Troilus and Cressida during the Vietnam war"; Konrad Swinarski staged All's Well in his native Poland "because I think it is a picture of a world that is very similar to the world I'm living in and collaborating with; and I'm trying to show its face." For him, this meant showing how the Court in All's Well, like the power of the State in Poland, "finally determines what is going on between people." And Robin Phillips' production of Measure for Measure was staged in part because the "sexual core" of the play was able to be explored in 1975 in a way not possible previously. As Phillips believes: There have been periods since it was written when this would not have been possible. And here we are at the time when people are prepared to accept it; a play that pivots on that central theme is permissible in 1975, for a start. I think also that the other themes of power, corruption in power, sexual blackmail in power, are interesting. I suppose a thousand plays can relate in some sense to Watergate [a political scandal in the United States at that time]; but corruption, whether or not Watergate had any sexual motives at its core, is neither here nor there. The fact that we've had a major scandal at that level allows one to explore - 33 -a play with that as plot. And consequently one is prepared to delve into the reasons — not the ones that we've explored in our newspapers, but totally different.^ According to the practice of these directors, then, it seems that drama can serve very well as a "counterstatement" for an audience's situation, provided, of course, that one can grant the metaphorical equivalents of one tension as expressed in terms of another. A second caution needs to be raised concerning the way Burke interprets the endings of Shakespeare's plays. Although his concept of the "paradox of substance" commits him to recognize a dialectical arguing out of terms, his response to a play's ending frequently takes a one-sided view both of its significance as a transformation of terms and, accordingly, of the essence of the play. This can best be illustrated by a contrast between Burke's interpretation of Coriolanus and Norman Rabkin's. For Burke, Coriolanus is "fit" to be the sacrifice or scapegoat of an attitude which is a burden for Shakespeare's class-conscious society. Coriolanus's vituperations against the lower orders embody and exaggerate an attitude that "has" to go if the body politic is to work harmoniously along the lines of Menenius's analogy to the human body. Shakespeare further fits Coriolanus for his role as scapegoat by the way he has created characters whose role in the play is "derived" from their function in forwarding the "destiny" of Coriolanus: Aufidius, the slayer, of course, but also Virgilia the devoted wife, who gives us a glimpse of the victim's more lovable side, and, above all, Volumnia, whose influence over her son helps to prepare the audience for two turns of the plot — Coriolanus's decision to stand for consul and his decision not to march on Rome. These characters are so constructed that the death of Coriolanus will be made to seem not only good but also inevitable. - 34 -For Burke, then, the ending is clearly purgative, and an audience feels well rid of its victim. But as Burke himself has stated in Rhetoric of Motives, the meaning of a death is ambiguous and has to be interpreted in the context of the entire development of terms in a text. In his 1981 production of Coriolanus at Ashland, Oregon, Jerry Turner showed how an opposite interpretation of Coriolanus's death could be staged and be well received by making of Coriolanus a hero whom the plebians were not prepared to accept. According to Alan Dessen's review in the Shakespeare Quarterly; Arndt [the leading actor], without distorting or changing Shakespeare's lines, found a sympathetic side to that war machine Coriolanus...his rejection of praise, honors, and spoils often came across to the Ashland audience as an appealing modesty, while his contempt for the plebians (who, in his eyes, did not deserve tribunes or corn gratis) often elicited cheers from the spectators, along with laughter at the mob, the tribunes, and, at times, Volumnia. The gown of humility scene (II.iii) thereby became more a display of Coriolanus' restraint than an expose of false patrician hauteur; similarly, the outbursts triggered by the tribunes in II.i. and III.iii seemed logical, even inevitable. For the most part, this Coriolanus did not rage in I.i and in other potential diatribes, but rather delivered the lines rapidly and curtly, so as to provide a dismissive contempt that the plebians seemed to accept as their due, a contempt later justified in the battle scenes when Coriolanus backed up his words with deeds and the citizens behaved largely as he had predicted.6 Dessen does not mention this, but it is interesting to conjecture how much the audience's reception to this interpretation reflects a mood in the United States at that time of wanting a hero after a period of war and political scandals and of choosing to make a scapegoat of the poor in the hope that the "disgrace" of their condition would thereby go away. In any case, in Turner's production, Coriolanus is certainly not the scapegoat, but a martyr. Norman Rabkin's analysis of Coriolanus proceeds scene by scene to show how Shakespeare manipulates an audience's perceptions either on behalf of Coriolanus the honorable and blood-dealing man (his mother's view), or against Coriolanus, the traitorous man and "breaker of butterflies" (the - 35 -plebians' view). Coriolanus's effectiveness seems inseparable from his bloodiness, raising a moral dilemma for the audience because it cannot have one without the other. Writing his article in 1966, Rabkin seems conscious of his own context of situation (the United States during the Vietnam War) as he further explicates the political dilemmas of this play and alludes to the difficulty of being simultaneously a man of principle and a political animal. Up to a point, he says, Coriolanus's view of honor as something to be deserved makes him seem haughty but pardonably proud because the people are shown to be not worth serving. But eventually this principle leads Coriolanus to betray Rome and to be killed. "Defining his entire life in terms of his inner principle of integrity, Caius Martius Coriolanus has destroyed his very identity. Obviously, then, Coriolanus's choice does not work and must be disowned. Thus far, Rabkin would agree for different reasons with Burke's interpretation of Martius's death. But, asks Rabkin, what are the alternatives to Coriolanus? Certainly not Aufidius, a traitor as well as an opportunist? Certainly not the compromisers like Cominius, Menenius, or even Volumnia who would concede "that value is dictated not by the nature of the object but by the tastes of the valuer, so that Coriolanus is honorable not so much when he rescues Rome as when he receives the accolades of its worthless citizens?"^ With careful attention to what he has come to call the "complementarity" of a Shakespearean play, Rabkin sums up the dilemma: "Shakespeare offers us two alternatives, the idea of the state as unbending moral imperative and the idea of the state as a community organized for the benefit of its members — on the one hand the state as worthy of allegiance only when it represents the highest moral ideals, on the other my country right or wrong. And he seems to be telling us hopelessly that neither of these notions of the state will - 36 -work." Therefore, completely contrary to Burke's analysis, for Rabkin "no catharsis is possible."9 As I have said, Burke himself recognizes that the fact of death as a transformation of terms is in itself an ambiguous act. Therefore, one can expect equivocal interpretations of its significance. Burke has shown one such interpretation in Coriolanus's case, and Jerry Turner has shown another, while Norman Rabkin has shown those features of the text which would explain them both. I do not believe, then, that accepting Burke's method requires that in every case one accept a univocal interpretation of how the terms have ended lip. An audience may reach a consensus one way or another, but if rival terms have truly been well argued, the "devil" will always have his advocate. With certain adjustments, then, to Burke's concept of "context of situation" and to his usual practice of interpreting a death as simply cathartic rather than problematic, I would propose that his rhetorical theory of drama as persuasion to change through identification with some "god term" and expulsion of a "devil term" will explain much of the problem with the problem plays. In them, such identification is made impossible by equivocal definitions of terms or characters and by no transformation of terms through death or expulsion of a scapegoat. FORM AND MEANING According to Burke's philosophy of literary form, a rhetorician gains acceptance for his definition of terms by engaging his audience's cooperation in the making of meaning. First he creates formal expectations in his audience and then, by satisfying them, contrives to convince the audience that the argument or "conclusion" is inevitable. As Burke analyzed it in Mein - 37 -Kampf, for example, the way out or salvation device is always achieved by deliberately formal means. Minor forms illustrate this principle most easily. So, for example, antithesis sets up expectations of what to think, first of one side, then the other. As Burke explains in Rhetoric of Motives, "...we know that many purely formal patterns can readily awaken an attitude of collaborative expectancy in us. For instance, imagine a passage built about a set of oppositions (we do this, but they on the other hand do that; we stay here, but they go there; we look up_, but they look down, etc.). Once you grasp the trend of the form, it invites participation regardless of the subject matter" (RM, p.58). In Language As Symbolic Action, Burke comments further on the effectiveness of this form especially if one needs a scapegoat: "One may find himself hard put to define a policy purely in its own terms, but one can advocate it persuasively by an urgent assurance that it is decidedly against such-and-such other policy with which people may be disgruntled. For this reason also, the use of antithesis helps deflect embarrassing criticism (as when rulers silence domestic controversy by turning public attention to animosity against some foreign country's policies). And, in this way, of course, antithesis helps reinforce unification by scapegoat" (LSA,p.19). Like the minor forms, certain larger forms also arouse an audience's expectations and fulfill them. These are the Repetitive, Progressive, and Conventional forms described by Burke in "Lexicon Rhetoricae" from Counterstatement. "Repetitive form is the consistent maintaining of a principle under new guises. It is a restatement of the same thing in different ways. Thus, in so far as each detail of Gulliver's life among the Lilliputians is a new exemplification of the discrepancy in size between Gulliver and the - 38 -Lilliputians, Swift is using repetitive form" (CS,p.125). Repetitive form means the same thing as recognizing "what goes with what." A character's actions and purposes for action, the means of acting and the scene of the action (the integers of the Pentad and the ratios among them) can all be "indexed" in order to define what the character "stands for" in the play. To put it another way, the cluster of equations is also definition by "merger," with the character summing up the meaning of one term in the "argument." Progressive form is subdivided into syllogistic and qualitative progression. "Syllogistic progression is the form of a perfectly conducted argument, advancing step by step. It is the form of a mystery story, where everything falls together, as in a story of ratiocination by Poe. It is the form of a demonstration in Euclid...The arrows of our desires are turned in a certain direction, and the plot follows the direction of the arrows. The peripety, or reversal of the situation, discussed by Aristotle, is obviously one of the keenest manifestations of syllogistic progression" (CS, p.124). "Qualitative progression ...is subtler. Instead of one incident in the plot preparing us for some other possible incident of plot (as Macbeth's murder of Duncan prepares us for the dying of Macbeth), the presence of one quality prepares us for the introduction of another (the grotesque seriousness of the murder scene preparing us for the grotesque buffoonery of the porter scene)" (CS, pp.124-125). Finally, Conventional form is "the appeal of form as form." Burke notes that "any form can become conventional, and be sought for itself — whether it be as complex as the Greek tragedy or as compact as the sonnet" (p.126). Conventional form differs from progressive and repetitive forms in being categorically expected by the audience. "That is, whereas the anticipations and gratifications of progressive and repetitive form arise during the process - 39 -of reading, the expectations of conventional form may be anterior to the reading" (CS, p.127). All of these forms may intermingle, of course; that is, any one incident may be serving more than one formal function. "A closing scene may be syllogistic in that its particular events mark the dramatic conclusion of the dramatic premises; qualitative in that it exemplifies some mood made desirable by the preceding matter; repetitive in that the characters once again proclaim their identity; conventional in that it has about it something categorically terminal, as a farewell or death; and minor or incidental in that it contains a speech displaying a structural rise, development, and fall independently of its context" (CS,p.128). Of special importance for a study of the problem plays, Burke recognizes that forms may conflict as well as intermingle. "An artist," he says, "may create a character which, by the logic of the fiction, should be destroyed; but he may have made this character so appealing that the audience wholly desires the character's salvation. Here would be a conflict between syllogistic and qualitative progression. Or, he may depict a wicked character who, if the plot is to work correctly, must suddenly 'reform,' thereby violating repetitive form in the interests of syllogistic progression" (CS,p.129). In other words, the ambiguity of a definition will be especially evident if the forms through which the definition of terms is presented lead to the arousing and fulfilling of different expectations. Because, for Burke, forms are means of persuasion on behalf of terms which define the way out of an audience's burdens or tensions, Burke differs from both formalists and deconstructionists at the same time that he shares with them certain critical assumptions and procedures. Like the formalists, Burke advocates as thorough an "indexing" as possible of a work's imagery, - 40 -equations, ironies and paradoxes; unlike them, however, Burke wants to use "all that there is to use," including historical and biographical information to determine the context of situation and a knowledge of the author's entire corpus to ascertain his peculiar definition of key terms. For example, Shakespeare's definitions of Othello and Iago, Burke suggests, might gain greater clarification by comparing them with Aaron the Moor in Titus Andronicus in whom the traits of Othello and Iago seem to be combined.10 Like the deconstructionists, Burke recognizes that every work contains "always already" a suppressed attitude. Where Jacques Derrida will find "traces" of such an attitude, Burke finds the "paradox of substance," recognizing that every positive term necessarily implies a negative, every order a chaos, and every god a devil. However, where Derrida would urge deconstruction of the ostensible order for the sake of insight into the tactics which have suppressed a rival understanding, Burke will argue that some action — however inadequate — is always necessary for the symbol-using animal if he is to satisfy his "yearning for unity" not only with a symbol of order but with others who also accept that symbol. As he says in Rhetoric of Motives: Identification is affirmed with earnestness precisely because there is division. Identification is compensatory to division. If men were not apart from one another, there would be no need for the rhetorician to proclaim their unity. If men were wholly and truly of one substance, absolute communication would be of man's very essence. It would not be an ideal, as it now is, partly embodied in material conditions and partly frustrated by these same conditions; rather, it would be as natural, spontaneous, and total as with those ideal prototypes of communication, the theologian's angels, or 'messengers' (RM, p.22). The dramatist, like the historian, knows that "a thing [for example, a movement in history] has many aspects, good, bad, indifferent. You 'transcend' this confusion when, by secular prayer, you 'vote' that ONE of the aspects is the essence of the lot" (ATH, p.260). And a dramatist "votes" by - 41 -showing through the narrative progression of his drama where a term ends up. As "dishonest" as it may seem, there is no way beyond an oppressive condition other than by partially adequate acts on the scene of one's situation. "The problem of evil," says Burke, "is met by transcendance — the process of secular prayer whereby a man sees an intermingling of good and evil factors and 'votes' to select either the good ones or the evil ones as the 'essence' of the lot. And choice between policies is not a choice between one that is a 'lesser evil' policy and another that is not. It is a choice between two lesser-evil policies, with one of them having more of a lesser evil than the other" (ATH.p.314). It is interesting to speculate on whether the differences between Burke's philosophy of language as symbolic action and Derrida's philosophy of deconstruction may, in part, be explained by the differences between the Gallic and American scenes: one has experienced the oppression of an occupying power and is therefore sceptical of language as manipulation; the other has experienced the working of democracy in the "human barnyard" and is therefore more confident that an action taken will roughly approximate the action needed. In any case, it is in large part his concept of literary form as a kind of persuasion to action which has made Burke something of a maverick to many literary critics. As Frank Lentricchia sums it up in Criticism and Social Change, "Modernist literary theorists since Cleanth Brooks, and other crusaders for literary autonomy, have been openly hostile [to Burke] — they sense his more-then-literary commitments. The newest academic avant-garde, from Jacques Derrida to Paul deMan, mainly ignores him: like a powerfully accomplished father, the mere thought of whom creates those queasy feelings of impotence, Burke must be forgotten. He knew too much, too soon." - 42 -A RHETORICAL ANTHROPOLOGY Burke grounds his literary theory in a definition of man which he enunciates in five codicils. Through this anthropology Burke clarifies his understanding of how any language as symbolic action elicits cooperation from people who, by nature, respond to symbols. To the extent that the definition is accurate, it explains why rhetorical criticism can do much to explain the probable effect of symbols on an audience. For Burke: 1. Man is the symbol-using animal. That is, through language man "entitles" or sums up an attitude toward his world which would otherwise be an undifferentiated chaos of forces. Every name for a situation is a perspective on it, and, at the same time, it is a "screen," coloring one's perception of reality. Words are implicit persuasions about what to notice and about what action to take toward what is noticed, and since they are necessarily partial entitlements of reality, words need to be juxtaposed with one another for a fuller perspective on the context of situation. Against a naive verbal realism which assumes that reality is. as it is named, Burke admonishes that the symbol is a partial perspective and an implicit persuasion: "In responding to words," he says in Language As Symbolic Action, "with their overt and covert modes of persuasion ('progress' is a typical one that usually sets expectations to vibrating), we like to forget the kind of relation that really prevails between the verbal and the nonverbal. In being a link between us and the nonverbal, words are by the same token a screen separating us from the nonverbal" (LSA,p.5). An artist's symbols, then, are new definitions of terms, new perspectives which could not be enunciated as well in any other way. As Burke says in Counterstatement, "The symbol might be called a word invented by the artist to specify a particular grouping or pattern or emphasizing of experiences — and the work of art in which the symbol figures might be called a definition of this word. . The novel, Madame Bovary, is an elaborate definition of a new word in our vocabulary" (CS,p.153K 2. The second codicil explains how man's symbols arise. Man is inventor of the negative or moralized by the negative. That is, every purposeful human action is a 'yes* to one course of action and an implicit 'no' to another. Human action implies freedom to choose and therefore a competition among contending attitudes to determine which one "should" be the way to go. Polar opposites belong inseparably to human ways of thinking and acting, and Burke's "paradox of substance," discussed earlier, is only a further sophistication of the recognition that no choice is self-evident or stands outside of a limiting context. As a matter of fact, "There is an implied sense of negativity in the ability to use words at all. For to use them properly, we must know that they are not the things they stand for" (LSA.p.12). 3. Because of his symbols, man is separated from his natural condition by instruments of his own making. That is, the class structure and social hierarchies of all kinds are established first and last by man's capacity and need for defining where he "stands" symbolically. Contrary to orthodox Marxism, Burke presumes that man's defining capacity comes first, followed by tool-making or economic capacities. It is shown to be the more "essential" trait because "In choosing any definition at all, one implicitly represents man as a kind of animal that is capable of definition (that is to say, capable of symbolic action). Thus, even if one views the powers of speech and mechanical invention as mutually involving each other, in a technical or formal sense one should make the implications explicit by treating the gifts of symbolicity as the 'prior' member of the pair" (LSA,p.14). - nn -4. After his use of symbols has established several 'orders' of society (economic, political, religious, for example), man is goaded by the spirit of hierarchy or moved by a sense of order. That is, he naturally desires to accept his place in an order by a kind of "courtship" in which he identifies with those on top of the hierarchy and they, in turn, can be seen to "woo" his allegiance. Burke especially admires how E. M. Forster has shown the "embarrassments" of hierarchy (or social mystery) in A Passage to India, how these are interwoven with the idea of cosmic mystery, and how they are transcended by courtesies and other rituals of respect between the colonials and the colonizing power (LSA,p.227). 5. The final codicil is a "wry" one: that man is rotten with perfection. That is, since every symbol strives to be the 'perfect' definition or the 'proper' naming of a tension, it usually employs a scapegoat, as in drama, to differentiate the 'false' or 'imperfect' symbols from the 'true' or 'perfect' ones. The yearning for perfection, however, is ultimately illusory, since every assertion will always imply some polar opposite or option as surely as God implies the Devil, and ultimately dangerous as well, because without some other perspective on the situation, the chance of missing what is "really" there increases. As Burke explains in Philosophy of Literary Form, "Dictatorships, in silencing the opposition, remove the intermediary between error and reality. Silence the human opponent, and you are brought flat against the unanswerable opponent, the nature of brute reality itself" (PLF,p.445). Of course, since warnings like this have not kept precisionists of every kind from trying to stifle debate, Burke calls this a "wry" codicil and advocates a policy of ironic contemplation of contending attitudes (a "parliamentary" of representative opinions) in order to expose the limitations of any symbol that claims to provide an absolute understanding of the "substance" of the human situation. - 45 -SHAKESPEARE AS RHETORICIAN "Burke," said his friend Howard Nemerov, "is Shakespearean, I believe, in his delight in what some of us deplore: ambiguity, the range of meanings hidden and evident in, it may be, a single word; and Shakespearean, too, in his willingness to let perspectives criticize one another 'dramatically'."12 If this is so, and I have tried to show that it is, then the use of Burke's method seems particularly promising for a study of Shakespeare. From the time of his first play, 1 Henry VI, Shakespeare demonstrates his ability to dramatize the claims of rival perspectives. At the same time, he shows that he knows about the rhetorical effects of a scapegoat as a structuring principle; if one term can be established as the "false" explanation of events, the other will be accepted as "true." However, a brief but closer look at this play will show that even in this apprentice work, the master dramatist was showing signs of scepticism about the absolute claims of either partial perspective. In this way, Shakespeare gives an early indication of his style throughout the canon of his work, and especially in the "problem plays" where rival terms are presented more even-handedly than elsewhere. According to Bullough, 1 Henry VI was written about 1591/2 and was therefore of topical interest to an English audience since the country was again at war with France. The figures of brave Talbot and his son become a way of identifying true English behavior and of rallying patriotic feelings against the French led by Joan of Arc who is, fittingly enough, called a witch and a devil. - 46 -In this play, Shakespeare gives his audience in the French as tangible a villain as Iago, and, even more than he does in Othello, directs his audience to the "lynching" of the victim who is clearly other than themselves. Now, if this were all that he was doing, the piece would be no more than melodramatic propaganda. However, Shakespeare has other interests to pursue in this play, a clear sign of which is that he deviates from his chronicle sources to present a garden scene in which the War of the Roses originates. Shakespeare focuses attention, then, not so much on the enemy without as the enemy within, so that Talbot is shown to die not so much because of treachery by the French as because of discord among the English. In the garden (Eden before the Fall?) Plantagenet (York) and Somerset are arguing over Plantagenet's claim to the throne - "a case of truth." When Warwick is asked to adjudicate between the rivals, he shows how difficult it is to distinguish their claims: Between two hawks, which flies the higher pitch; Between two dogs, which hath the deeper mouth; Between two blades, which bears the better temper: Between two horses, which doth bear him best; Between two girls, which hath the merriest eye; I have perhaps some shallow spirit of judgement; But in these nice sharp quillets of the law, Good faith, I am no wiser than a daw. (II.iv.11-18) Neither rival, however, accepts this verdict. Each one tries to establish that his claim is the only truth: it is either so "naked" as to be obvious (York) or so well "well apparell'd" (Somerset) as to be evident even to "a blind man's eye." The imagery, of course, shows how the same kind of claim can be argued in ways which look different but which really amount to the same argument. Further distinctions are likewise misleading. As York picks a white rose and Somerset a red, and as each urges his followers to do the same, the - 47 -audience knows that a red rose and a white rose are equally roses and that it will take a civil war to settle the claims between such rivals since any reasonable distinction between them is hardly possible and since Somerset will not accept the expedient of a majority decision. The colors of the roses can even be used to suggest emblematic interpretations, depending upon whose perspective one wants to adopt (emphasis on the willfulness of the decision). York chides Somerset for cowardice: "Meantime your cheeks do counterfeit our roses;/ For pale they look with fear, as witnessing/ The truth on our side." Somerset replies: "No, Plantagenet,/ 'Tis not for fear but anger that thy cheeks/ Blush for pure shame to counterfeit our roses,/ And yet thy tongue will not confess thy error." And, since each faction is a rose, each contains a hidden disease or danger : "Hath not thy rose a canker, Somerset?/ Hath not thy rose a thorn, Plantagenet?" (II.iv.62-69). These rivals, who will lead a nation to war, maintain indistinguishable claims to the throne, but even closer to the throne exist rivals who weaken the position of an already weak king. Winchester, great-uncle to Henry VI, and Gloucester, uncle and Protector, also contend over which of them will truly rule the king and, through him, England. Their rivalry is exacerbated by their ties of blood (since close family ties make the claims of one over the other even harder to distinguish), and therefore it is a most revealing perspective on their feud when Winchester challenges Gloucester at one point, "be thou cursed Cain/ To slay thy brother Abel, if thou wilt" (I.iii.39). And, in a reprise of the red rose/white rose rivalry, Gloucester urges his blue coated men to oust Winchester's tawny coated men from their place at the Tower of London, all to the distress of the general citizenry led by the Mayor, who cries out: "Fie Lords! that you, being supreme magistrates,/ Thus contumatiously should break the peace!" (I.iii.57-58). - 48 -The rivalry among the English themselves, then, seems of more pressing danger than that from the French. Shakespeare has provided a villain in the French so that simple-minded patriots can have their lynching, but also so that more sober-minded patriots can recognize that a lynching solves nothing since the real enemy is within. Ironically, Gloucester comments on the treachery of the Duke of Burgundy against Henry VI when he and Winchester have been plotting even more treacherously closer to home under outward signs of friendship: "0 monstrous treachery! can this be so,/ That in alliance, amity and oaths,/ There should be found such false dissembling guile?" (IV.i.61-63). Shakespeare, thus early in his career, is showing his ability to argue opposites. Moreover, he also shows that, as every rhetorician knows, the way out is usually through a scapegoat — a character or term whose death will "prove" something about the term that survives. In this play, Talbot's death is the intended scapegoat, but since the loss of the bravest Englishman in France will be used for different purposes by York and Somerset, it will prove nothing toward settling their feud. For easier contrast of their rival positions, Shakespeare juxtaposes their different versions of history in successive scenes: York: A Plague upon that villain Somerset, That thus delays my promised supply Of horsemen, that were levied for this seige! Renowned Talbot doth expect my aid, And I am lowted by a traitor villain And I cannot help the noble chevalier: God comfort him in this necessity! If he miscarry, farewell wars in France. (IV. iii. 9-16) Somerset: It is too late; I cannot send them now: This expedition was by York and Talbot Too rashly plotted: all our general force Might with a sally of the very town Be buckled with: the over-daring Talbot Hath sullied all his gloss of former honour By this unheedful, desperate, wild adventure: - 49 -York set him on to fight and die in shame, That, Talbot dead, great York might bear the name. (IV.iv.1-9) Of special interest for an analysis of the problem plays, it should be emphasized that these rival positions, which cannot sort themselves out even by the death of an ostensible scapegoat, arise and continue because the King is young and ineffective. The symbol of order is weak, able to remonstrate only feebly with the warring factions of Winchester and Gloucester, "0, how this discord doth afflict my soul!" (III.i.106). Moreover, the King is dangerously led by his "fancy," not his reason. He is so impolitic as to imagine that he can settle the York/Somerset faction by arbitrarily plucking a red rose and expecting that it will be interpreted as a gesture that proves nothing. Then, addressing the contending factions during the campaign in France, he urges them: 0, think upon the conquest of my father, My tender years, and let us not forgo That for a trifle that was bought with blood! Let me be umpire in this doubtful strife. I see no reason, if I wear this rose, That any one should therefore be suspicious I more incline to Somerset than York: Both are my kinsmen, and I love them both: As well they may upbraid me with my crown, Because, forsooth, the king of Scots is crown'd. (IV.i.148-157) Commenting on this performance, Warwick tells York: "My Lord of York, I promise you, the king/ Prettily, methought, did play the orator." York replies, "And so he did: but yet I like it not,/ In that he wears the badge of Somerset." Warwick assures him, "Tush, that was but his fancy, blame him not; /I dare presume, sweet prince, he thought no harm." But York muses over it, "An if I wist he did, — but let it rest" (IV.i.174-180). - 50 -Later, Henry's "will" leads him to take the dangerous step of overriding Gloucester's choice of a bride and of accepting Suffolk's choice of Margaret of France, through whom Suffolk hopes to rule the king himself. With an ironic perspective on his action that draws attention to its danger, Suffolk concludes the play: Thus Suffolk hath prevail'd; and thus he goes, As did the youthful Paris once to Greece, With hope to find the like event in love, But prosper better than the Trojan did. Margaret shall now be queen, and rule the king; But I will rule both her, the king and realm. (V.v.103-108) Obviously, Shakespeare, from the start of his dramatic career, knew how to argue opposites and also knew what he would have to do in order to resolve an "ironic impasse." At the same time, he is showing scepticism already about the "better" claims of either rival and knows that the fact of death itself can be manipulated for different purposes. With this much understanding of ritual drama to begin with, he continues the most extensive and probative explorations imaginable of the dilemmas that arise over any human value like honor, love, reason, mercy, or justice, or of any human enterprise like war or marriage. In the problem plays, I believe, Shakespeare's arguing of opposites is particularly intense and unrelieved. Using Burke's rhetoric, I will examine how Shakespeare's equations for terms like Helena, Cressida, and Isabella are inherently ambivalent; besides that, their rivalry with other terms is not resolved by any credible scapegoat or by any clear acceptance of how the terms end up. More than that, the authorities in these plays, like Henry VI, are either weak or arbitrary, contributing to the concourse of discord rather than helping to resolve it. Finally, the playwright's deliberate interference with the progression of his plot, especially toward the endings of these plays, - 51 -throws doubt, I suggest, on the resolution which the audience thinks it is getting and may even desire. Recalling R.S. White's analysis of the endless ending of romance, I think the problem plays show that Shakespeare knows he could continue the argument indefinitely, has to conclude somehow, but reminds the audience that it could have ended otherwise. In all of these ways, Shakespeare frustrates the expectations of the audience for a symbolic action that will help them to encompass their situation, and he therefore leaves them not only dissatisfied but even anxious at having been shown only the dilemma and not the way out. I do not know why Shakespeare wrote these plays, but I think it is simplistic to assume that he was suffering some kind of collapse or period of depression. It is just as possible to argue that in All's Well, Troilus and Cressida, and Measure for Measure, he is at the full peak of his powers, arguing opposites at white heat and daring the consequences of audience dissatisfaction. According to Stephen Booth, Shakespeare shows in his writing of Love's Labor's Lost that he knows how to violate an audience's expectations of an ending in the interest of a greater awareness of what is so about reality (or the context of situation) but which has not been formulated in the play and perhaps can never be. The drama "ends not like the old play" in order to respect the "indefinition" of experience itself.13 What Shakespeare does in Love's Labor's Lost and, indeed, throughout the canon from IHenry VI to the Tempest he does, I suggest, in an especially unrelieved way in the problem plays. With what Burke calls comic ambivalence, he charts the range of human conduct, knowing the value of as comprehensive a vocabulary as possible in order to "gauge the full range of human possibilities" (ATH,p.74). Shakespeare's own attitude, it seems, is one of "methodical quizzicality toward language" whereby he allows a full appreciation of its resourcefulness - 52 -for encompassing the human condition (GM,pp.441-442). His metaphorical perspectives, his puns, his arguing of terms are so thorough that he clearly reveals the limits of any other attitude as the "final" word. Shakespeare's mastery of language served as a model for Burke's own strategy of "planned incongruity" (the transferring of words from one category of association to another by the "coaching" of their metaphorical implications). In his praise for Shakespeare's style, Burke clearly identifies his sympathies as a thinker with Shakespeare, and this praise provides a fitting link between an exposition of Burke's method and the analysis of Shakespeare's plays which follows: In Shakespeare, casuistry was absolute and constant. He could make new 'metaphorical extensions' at random. He could leap across categories of association as readily as walking...We propose by the casuistry of 'planned incongruity' to follow in [our] conceptual vocabulary the lesson that Shakespeare taught us with his (ATH,p.230). - 53 -III. ALL'S WELL THAT ENDS WELL In his Arden edition of All's Well, G.K. Hunter suggests that Helena provokes such divergent responses in critics that the problem for interpretation is whether to fit Helena into the play or to fit the play to her. Is she a heroine of romance whose completion of impossible tasks proves her to be not only the worthy wife but also the salvation of her husband? Or is she a scheming social climber whose success in getting her man proves to be a pyrrhic victory for "predatory monogamy" (Tillyard's phrase), matching together, as it does, an unwanted wife with an undeserving husband? Hunter then suggests that criticism, to be most helpful, should provide "a context within which the genuine virtues of the play can be appreciated."^ The context I propose is that of the play as rhetoric in Burke's sense: the use of forms for the defining of terms. As a dramatist and skilled rhetorician, Shakespeare is used to arguing opposites, but in this play, as in Troilus and Cressida and Measure for Measure, he presents a particularly unrelieved divergence of perspectives on the action, so that Helena's apparent victory is by no means certain or desirable. Not only do the "equations" for Helena's character clash, but the syllogistic movement of the plot is deliberately frustrated, especially at the ending, with the result that an audience is made self-conscious of its desire for a happy ending and is forced to question the adequacy of conventional forms to account for every situation and to encompass it. Since All's Well is concerned so explicitly with a class conscious hero and heroine, it seems to illustrate as well Burke's theory that class division is, in some way, the "context of situation" to be addressed by a play's symbolic action. As I have mentioned in Chapter 2, however, it is not my - 54 -concern to assume a specific extra-textual tension or burden. I would not want to argue, for example, that Bertram represents a money-poor but titled aristocracy being pursued by a "mounting" bourgeois class in search of titles, and that if his proud resistance to a match sanctioned by his mother and his King is not checked it threatens not only to endanger the future of his class but to tear apart the commonwealth as well. This is a plausible reconstruction of class relationships in England after the rise of the Tudors and before the civil war — a situation much alluded to in "citizen comedy," for example. But it is not necessary to assume this specific social context in order to appreciate in more general terms the pursuit of Helena and the flight of Bertram. Some critics, like G. Wilson Knight, for example, have used the imagery of the play to argue a Christian rather than an economic message: that Helena is Divine Grace and that Bertram is Sinful Man who does all that he can to reject his own redemption.^ Whatever the extra-textual issues may be, the problems caused by the text are those of how to define Helena and of how to respond to her victory. These problems, in turn, create a more difficult problem for the audience: how to identify with a way out of a tension when only the dilemma has been presented. The division "characterized" by Helena and Bertram is great, and the action of the play gives the audience no clear reason to believe that it can be bridged. Instead, All's Well betrays the audience to itself as so craving the "promised end" of a way out that it is willing to gloss over an embarrassing amount of inconsistency in order to enjoy it. In his review of John Barton's 1968 production of All's Well, J.W. Lambert gives away just how much an audience truly craves a definite ending and how, in his view, Barton provided it, especially by making Bertram more likeable and excusable (by emphasizing his boyishness) and by making Helena's trickery more acceptable. "All's Well that Ends Well," he writes, "is a good - 55 -play after all, this production tells me. And how finely it manages the gentle ritual of the end, when as one discord after another is resolved, 'Mine eyes smell onions' exclaims Lafew, and in that single phrase recognizes the absurdity of the contrivance, smiles at it, yet ratifies our unquenchable insistence — a correct aesthetic demand, not a superficial emotional surrender — for a well-tempered harmony at the last."3 In my view, the aesthetic demand is certainly there, and obviously it can be satisfied by various productions. But a troubled response to the text is not mistaken, and it arises from disappointment that the aesthetic demand is not being satisfied as generously as it might be and from the suspicion that Shakespeare is deliberately frustrating a simple response to this play, especially to the ending. THE AMBIGUOUS VALUE OF HONOR IN WAR Shakespeare's rhetorical qualifying of self-evident values, which he does throughout the play, can be seen, for example, in how he suggests that Bertram has gained only a doubtful honor by fighting for the Duke of Florence. Although Diana reports that "they say the French count has done most honorable service" (III.v.3-4) and although the Duke has created Bertram General of the horse for this, there are many hints that this honor which any gentleman would value has, in fact, no reasonable basis and is, besides, hollow and ostentatious.4 Expanding on one sentence in his source, Painter's Palace of Pleasure, Shakespeare adds two short scenes (Ill.i and III.iii) and other commentary to undercut Bertram's achievement. According to Painter, "when [Beltramo] was on - 56 -horsebacke hee went not [home] but toke his journey into Tuscane, where understanding that the Florentines and Senois were at warres, he determined to take the Florentines parte, and was willingly received and honourablie entertained, and was made captaine of a certaine nomber of men, continuing in their service a long time."^ From the way he handles the subject of the war, Shakespeare, I suspect, took a hint from the word "determined" because it suggests an act of choice with no reason given, the kind of willful act which is impossible to evaluate as right or wrong in the absence of reasonable criteria. Then, in Ill.i he presents the Duke of Florence, marvelling to his entourage of the lords of France that their King "would in so just a business [as this war] shut his bosom against our borrowing prayers" (III.i.7-8). Because the lords cannot offer any explanation for their King's refusal of aid, the Duke implies an arbitrary one: "Be it his pleasure" (III.i.17). We know from his farewell to the young lords (I.ii) that the King of France is, in fact, indifferent to the claims of either the Florentines or Senoys. "They have fought," he says, "with equal fortune, and continue/ A braving war" (I.ii.2-3). And so the young lords have "leave/ to stand on either part" (I.ii.14). Since the King cannot distinguish between the rivals, it makes no difference to him which side kills the other. Honor, whatever it may be, can be gained either way, and at least the war may allow young hot bloods a chance to work off excess energy. The wars will offer a "nursery" for the young men who are "sick/ For breathing and exploit" (I.ii.16-17). Despite the King's indifference, the Duke has convinced his company that he has "fundamental reasons" for this war which make his cause seem "holy" and his rival's cause seem "black and fearful." According to the rhetoric, it is obvious that fighting for the Duke is the right thing to do, and that victory - 57 -in his cause is an honorable prize. But Shakespeare knows that if Bertram would fight for the Duke, he will have to "determine" to do so. The Duke's "fundamental reasons" are never presented to the audience, nor are Bertram's. When he leaves France, it is only "to the wars"; he does not at that point choose sides. Shakespeare, then, strengthens Painter's hint that the hero's choice of whom to serve is arbitrary by suppressing any discussion of reasons for the quarrel and making it the King's "pleasure" to stand apart from it with almost comic detachment or at least wise passiveness. If, indeed, Florentines and Senoys are so close to one another that they are "by th'ears," how is one to be distinguished from the other? Since, in fact, the rivals are also brothers, their wars are even more bloody for the close relationship of the contestants and the difficulty of clearly distinguishing one's rights from the other's.6 To say that one side is "holy" and that the other is "black and fearful" is to lay on the rhetoric with a trowel. Why, then, should Bertram win distinction or honor for having killed the Duke's brother in battle (III.v.7)? If he had fought for the other side and had killed the Duke, would an audience's estimation of him change in any way? Shakespeare, then, takes no pains to provide a reasonable basis for Bertram's honor even as he parades the soldiers in victory with "drums and colors" before the soldier-struck citizens of Florence, the Widow, Diana, and Mariana. As the noisy procession passes by, the drum of Mars which Bertram loves makes a loud and hollow sound. In fact, the victory itself is a little hollow, or at least muted, because the soldiers have lost their regimental drum, much to the chagrin of Parolles. The regimental colors which troop before them are matched for ostentation by the "plume" which identifies Bertram and the "scarves" which Parolles wears. These conspicuous clothes help to mark the heroes out as members of the new generation "whose judgments," the King had said, "are/ Mere fathers of their garments; whose constancies/ Expire before their fashions" (I.ii.61-63). This qualifying perspective on the young heroes is reenforced by the comments of the Widow and Diana. To them, the honor Bertram gains in war does not excuse his failure to be loyal to his wife. Honor and honesty belong together. In a scene that much resembles the return of the soldiers to Troy in Troilus and Cressida, the glory of a military procession is undercut by the objective, moral commentary of disinterested observers: Diana: He -That with the plume; 'tis a most gallant fellow. I would he loved his wife. If he were honester He were much goodlier. (III.v.77-80) The honor gained in the service of Mars, then, is shown to be doubtful. Moreover, the purpose for which the young lords have gone to war is presented in suspicious terms. As the First Lord says to the Duke, echoing what was said to the King about war's therapeutic value, the war may, indeed, prove a "physic" for those of "the younger of our nature,/ That surfeit on their ease" (III.i.17-18). But this implies that war is for "sick" people, who have chosen it, wisely or not, as their remedy. Besides, just because "ease" has been purged does not mean that honor has replaced it. In light of these disparagements of war's rituals, effects, and causes, we should not be surprised to find puns which evaluate war ambivalently even as the Duke explains his case at the opening of Ill.i.: Duke. So that from point to point now have you heard The fundamental reasons of this war, Whose great decision hath much blood let forth, And more thirsts after. - 59 -First Lord. Holy seems the quarrel Upon you Grace's part; black and fearful On the Opposer. Duke. Therefore we marvel much our cousin France Would in so just a business shut his bosom Against our borrowing prayers. (III. i.1-8) According to the O.E.D., the first use of "fundamental" in its "immaterial" sense occurs in this play. Prior to this, it was the adjectival form of "fundament" in the sense of the foundation of a building or the buttocks of the body, especially the anus. Shakespeare is stretching the word to include an immaterial sense at the same time that more earthy denotations would be more prominent for his audience. As he usually does, Shakespeare wants to suggest a two-edged commentary with a pun, and it is consistent with the imagery he is using in reference to the war. The King has already said that war is merely a physic or cathartic for those who "surfeit" on their ease; why, then, should its reasons not be "fundamental" in two senses: foundational and stinky? The fact that the quarrel seems "holy" further corroborates the suggestion of war as a "hole" through which the vile matter of sick people can be purged. This possibility of a pun on "fundamental" is strengthened by the fact that Shakespeare uses the word only one other time in his plays, and once again it is in a context where physic is needed to restore the body politic to health. In Coriolanus, Coriolanus addresses the senators of Rome, saying: You that will be less fearful than discreet, That love the fundamental part of state More than you doubt the change on't, that prefer A noble life before a long, and wish To jump a body with a dangerous physic That's sure of death without it, at once pluck out The multitudinous tongue. (III. i.150-156) - 60 -As in All's Well, the society's burden is concealed in a pun which not only provides a scatological interpretation of the burden but also implies that it should be purged. If this reading of a pun is correct, it would make the Duke's reasons "full of holes," at the same time that the quarrel only seems "holy" in its righteous sense. All's Well will end with a similar qualification: that all seems well, but it is important to note that this explicit ambivalence has marked the play early on. Both Bertram's acquiring of honor through war and of Helena through marriage are craftily qualified in this play. Also of interest in this short exchange is the Duke's reference to the war as a "business." There may be deflationary overtones in the use of the word, as when Iago speaks of the "trade of war" (Othello I.ii.1). But, more than that, the epithet "business" will also describe Bertram's marriage to Helena, which he despises, his courtship of Diana, for which even Parolles criticizes him, Helena's plot to use Diana to trap Bertram, and Parolles' fatuous plan to recover the drum. When the cynical clown says that his "business" is to fetch Helena for the Countess and, later, that his "business" — like Helena's — is to the court, we hear a word accumulating unsavory connotations at the same time that it links all levels of the action. In a more subtle linking of the two actions, the Duke promises to reward those who follow him with the words, "all honor that can fly from us/ Shall on them settle." (III.i.20-21) It undercuts the Duke's promise of honor to recall that Bertram had caustically referred in similar terms to the "honor" which the King had conferred by bestowing Helena on him: "When I consider," he had said, "what dole [dolor?] of honor/ Flies where you bid it, I find that she, which late/ Was in my nobler thoughts most base, is now/ The praised of the King; who, so ennobled,/ Is as 'twere born so" (II.iii.169-173)• - 61 -Bertram, seconded by Parolles, has enrolled in the wars in order to achieve an honor in deed which would complement the honor of his noble lineage, but the language of the text suggests that he may not have succeeded in his plan. He wants to prove himself a man and believes that he cannot do so if he is kept back for being "too young" and is "clogged" with a wife who is not only below his station but, more to the point, not of his choosing. Bertram envies the other young lords of France whom the King had urged upon leaving for the wars not to "woo honor, but to wed it" (II.i.15). Therefore, leaving home and France for Italy, Bertram has shifted the scene of his action to where he will be free from constraint and free for achievements in war and love which he can determine to undertake as he pleases. He succeeds at least to the extent that he wins promotion from the Duke and that Fortune seems his "auspicious mistress." Shakespeare shows, however, that Bertram's gaining of honor in war is at least dubious, and he will show explicitly that Bertram loses the honor of his house in the attempt to seduce Diana. Back in Rousillon, the Countess, assured by some gentlemen the "The Duke will lay upon [Bertram] all the honor/ That good convenience claims" (III .ii.73-74), remains unimpressed. In her view, "His sword can never win/ The honor that he loses" for having deserted Helena (III.ii.97-98). THE AMBIGUOUS VALUE OF HELENA So much in this play seems to show that Helena is Bertram's unquestioned good, that it sometimes remains underappreciated how much Shakespeare has qualified the value of Helena just as he has qualified the honor Bertram - 62 -supposedly gains in war. Helena, I suggest, is defined in deliberately ambiguous terms because an audience is supposed to remain frustrated by not knowing how to accept her marriage with Bertram. Helena, on the one hand, is described as a "herb of grace" and should prove to be Bertram's salvation. She is well "derived" from a wise father and has inherited his virtuous qualities with no admixture of "an unclean mind." Moreover, both her status and her actions combine to define her perfection in the Countess's estimation: "She derives her honesty and achieves her goodness" (I.i.47-48). Heaven loves to hear the prayers of such a woman, and with good reason: she is heaven's agent ("minister") for curing the King and may well be equally instrumental, the Countess hopes, in reprieving Bertram "from the wrath of greatest justice" (III.iv.28-29). As W.W. Lawrence has argued, Helena's deeds are consistent with the identity of the conventional "clever wench" of folk tale and romance.8 By curing the King and solving tasks, she assures the regeneration of her society. She is, as well, a virgin and an honest woman, one who is twice willing to lay down her life that the King and Bertram might live. Helena's exemplary qualifications as a "god term" are corroborated by the King's and the Countess's endorsements. The King gives "honor" and "wealth" as his dowry to Helena, along with a ring which is discovered only late in Act V. Moreover, he warns Bertram, "As thou lov'st her,/ Thy love's to me religious; else, does err" (II.iii.183-184). The Countess adopts Helena, and not only in I.iii where she plays with the word "daughter" in order to discover Helena's intentions of marriage toward Bertram. When Bertram deserts Helena, the Countess adopts her in earnest. "He was my son/ But I wash his name out of my blood/ And thou art all my child" (III.ii.68-69). She tells Lafew that "if [Helena] had partaken of my flesh and cost me - 63 -the dearest groans of a mother, I could not have owed her a more rooted love" (IV.v.10-13). Rhetorically, then, Helena is "consubstantial" with the aged authorities of this play. She is identified with whatever they, in their wisdom, recognize as honesty, worth, goodness, and deserving. The equations which, together, establish Helena as the "herb of grace" seem most strongly validated by her miraculous act of raising the King. Helena comes to ,the court of the dying King so recommended by Lafew for "wisdom and constancy" (II.i.86) that the King orders him to "bring in the admiration that we with thee/ May spend our wonder too, or take off thine/ By wondering how thou took'st it" (II.i.90-92). The solemn tone of romance is sounded by these words and continues through those incantatory verses in which Helena, modestly at first, presents her credentials as the "weakest minister" of "[Him] that of greatest works is finisher" (II.i.138). She prays, in effect, that the King awake his faith, and appeals to the precedent of great miracles recorded in "holy writ" to assure him that "oft expectation hits/ Where hope is coldest and despair most sits" (II.i.145-146). She counts herself among those whose "inspired merit" may be doubted by men but whose acts are heaven's itself. "Of heaven not me, make an experiment" (II.i.156). In paradoxical terms and with druid-like calculations of time, Helena promises the "The greatest grace lending grace/ Ere twice the horses of the sun shall bring/ Their fiery torcher his diurnal ring/...Health shall live free, and sickness freely die" (II.i.163-165/170). Then, as surety of her confidence in her credentials and her cure, she lays down her life as the forfeit if her promises prove false. It is pure magic! Thus paraphrased, the action of raising the King represents Helena as the "god-term" — the one whose worth defines the good which, if chosen, leads to comedy and which, if rejected, leads to tragedy. But it is also obvious that Helena's actions are undercut throughout this scene, calling into - 64 -question any reasonable basis for defining her as an unmixed blessing. Before she enters, for example, Lafew's joking with the King insinuates with phallic innuendo that the King's raising may indeed involve a rather ordinary visible sign of an invisible grace: Lafew: I have seen a medicine That's able to breathe life into a stone, Quicken a rock, and make you dance canary With sprightly fire and motion, whose simple touch Is powerful to araise King Pippen, nay, To give great Charlemain a pen in's hand, And write to her a love-line. (11.1.74-79) And, in a most daringly denigrating perspective on Helena's visit, Lafew remarks that she looks like a traitor and that he is "Cressid's uncle/ That dare leave two together" (II.i.99-100). Moreover, Helena's reason for coming to the King is at best a half truth. She tells him: ...hearing your high Majesty is touched With that malignant cause wherein the honor Of my dear father's gift stood chief in power, I come to tender it and my appliance, With all bound humbleness. (II.i.112-116) She has already tried out this high-sounding motive on the Countess, swearing "by grace itself" (I.iii.222) for its veracity, but had been forced to admit: My lord your son made me to think of (curing the King) Else Paris, and the medicine, and the King, Had from the conversation of my thoughts Haply been absent then. (I.iii.234-237) It seems, then, that Helena's intentions to marry Bertram are fixed but that her motives, like Cressida's, are hard to ascertain. Her ability to drive a hard bargain, however, is obvious. As the scene ends and before she - 65 -undertakes any cure, she exacts from the King the price of his cooperation in her choosing of a husband from among his wards. In light of the trapping of Bertram which Helena is plotting from the beginning and of the King's being brought to comply with it through this scene, I wonder if an allusion to Kyd's The Spanish Tragedy is more than a mnemonic irrelevance. When Lafew goes to fetch Helena, he uses the famous words which precede Hieronymo's staging of a play (or action) calculated to take in the spectators and to seal their doom. "Nay, I'll fit you," (II.i.93) says Lafew, and so said Hieronymo (The Spanish Tragedy, IV.i.70). If an audience catches this allusion, Helena's action appears in the perspective of a trap as well as a cure. As Bertram will put it, by raising up the King, Helena contrives to bring down Bertram. It seems, then, that even in the scene where Helena shows herself most powerful for good, most self-sacrificing, and "graceful," qualifications arise, however lightly touched upon, that compromise from within any simple definition of her character. These qualifications recur throughout the play and justify the pun which the Clown, Lavatch, makes on her epithet. Not only is she the "herb of grace," which is rue or mercy; she is also a herb of "grass" (IV.v.17-22), a reference, as the Clown explains it, to the grass which Nebuchadnezzar ate only after he had gone mad (Daniel 4:28-37). Helena, for example, claims that she is heaven's minister but also knows, as she mentions in soliloquy, that Our remedies oft in ourselves do lie, Which we ascribe to heaven; the fated sky Gives us free scope; only doth backward pull Our slow designs when we ourselves are dull. (I. i.223-226) - 66 -There is nothing untoward about self reliance itself, of course, but when it cloaks sheer will power behind references to heavenly destiny, it compromises a person's sincerity. Thus, Helena's attempting to convince the Widow that "heaven/ Hath brought me up to be your daughter's dower,/ As it hath fated her to be my motive/ And helper to a husband" (IV.iv.19-22) sounds pious enough, but it follows soon after some tough negotiating for which, we have seen, Helena has some skill. As Helena walks hand in hand with heaven, it is hard to tell who is leading whom. Acts of self reliance, then, break the equation between heaven and Helena as heaven's instrument, as do references to Helena's ambition. As she leaves Rousillon on pilgrimage, Helena offers as her explanation that "Ambitious love hath so in me offended/ That barefoot plod I the cold ground upon,/ With sainted vow my faults to have amended" (III.iv.5-7). Whether she means to repent or not, Helena has recognized in soliloquy that she does, indeed, desire to "mount" to a status above her and that her appetite to do so may, in fact, be sick and even dangerous, no less so than Bertram's "sick" desires which arise in his wooing of Diana. "Th' ambition in my love," she admits, "thus plagues itself:/ The hind that would be mated by the lion/ Must die for love" (I.i.96-98). Moreover, like her namesake in Midsummer Night's Dream, this Helena shows an equal eagerness in pursuit of a man who does not want her mingled with a little masochism in the process. Given Helena's self reliance and ambition, her "fixed intents" (I.i.236), the imagery that would make of her Bertram's sister by adoption takes on an added significance. As I suggested when discussing the rivalry theme in the war plot, Shakespeare shows scepticism about any "fundamental" reasons which can distinguish one brother's claims from another's. The closer the rivals, the more equal their claim and the harder to tell them apart. If Helena, then, claims the right to choose for herself a husband and takes the - 67 -steps to do so, why should her "brother" Bertram have any less a right? Moreover, what fundamental reason can convince him to choose her for a wife when it cannot be said for certain whether she is a herb of grace or a herb of grass? The less "savory" side of Helena shows clearly for most critics in her use of the bed trick to fulfill the tasks Bertram has given her if she would win him for a husband. It is here that she shows herself less of a handmaid of heaven and more of an enterprising woman with cash advances for inducement and a manual of instructions for the "business" at hand. However, trouble for interpreters begins even before Helena arrives in Florence. As Bertrand Evans has noticed, Shakespeare, in his comedies, usually keeps an audience as fully informed as the most informed character on stage so that the audience may enjoy the "discrepant awareness" between itself and those who are duped or in other ways manipulated by that character.^ But, in All's Well Shakespeare suspends his usual practice and allows Helena to dupe or at least to puzzle an audience as surely as she will dupe and puzzle Bertram. Violating the convention that an audience can trust the disclosures of a soliloquy, Shakespeare provides Helena with a speech in which she expresses fierce concern for Bertram's safety in the wars and upbraids herself for having caused him to expose himself to danger. Twice she promises, "I will be gone"; she will not remain at home to discourage his return. Instead, she will expose herself to dangers rather than submit Bertram to the "mark/ of smoky muskets" (III.ii. 112-113). What is an audience to think? Certainly, that Helena will be gone! But where? Surely not to Florence if she is as solicitous for Bertram's comfort as she claims to be. Furthermore, what is an audience to believe when a letter from Helena to the Countess announces that she is "Saint Jacques' pilgrim" (III.iv.D? - 68 -Shakespeare has added this information to his source in a deliberate effort, it seems, to throw his audience off the scent of Helena's whereabouts. Painter's heroine, Giletta, "toke her way...telling no man whither shee wente, and never rested till shee came to Florence." ^u Shakespeare's heroine follows a more circuitous route, even while she pens sanctimonies to the Countess. "Bless him at home in peace," she writes, "whilst I from far/ His name with zealous fervor sanctify" (III.iv.10-11). She even hints at a death wish: "He is too good and fair for death and me/ Whom I myself embrace to set him free" (III.iv.16-17). Like Portia in The Merchant of Venice, Helena uses the smokescreen of having holy business in hand in order to hide her true interests. Portia, however, confides her plans completely to Nerissa and, through Nerissa, to the audience. Moreover, her deception is for an unambiguously good purpose: to save the life of her husband's "bosom lover." By contrast, Helena tells no one her plans and proceeds to win back Bertram only because she wants him back, not for any clear advantage to him. Helena's lies and deceptions may prove the strength of her single-minded purpose, but they also hint at a desperate desire to have her way which will not be resisted. Later, Helena's hint to the Countess of death to come is made to seem a fact as she lets it drop in conversation with the Widow that she is "supposed dead" (IV.iv.11) and has somehow gotten the rector of Saint Jacques to confirm it in a letter written to one of Bertram's companions (IV.iii.58-63). Meanwhile, however, the audience, which has been led to suspect that Helena is a languishing pilgrim on the way to Spain, discovers that she has, in fact, arrived in Florence with no explanation, and it watches as she busies herself with interest in Bertram, the talk of the city. Evans throws up his hands at such duplicity. "Excepting the moment of openness when she needed Diana to help her trap Bertram," he complains, "this - 69 -heroine has not spoken straight to anyone. She has not taken us into her confidence, but has kept silent, hinted loosely, or put us off the track with falsehood. Unlike our sense of earlier heroines, our awareness of what she is grows and changes. Our understanding of her past conduct is repeatedly revised by our view of her present conduct." And this revision, Evans maintains, does not show Helena in a favorable light.11 Besides her deviousness, Helena shows a mercenary streak which taints her act of trapping Bertram, however lawful it can be made to seem, because of the agency she uses. Shakespeare's telling of how Helena wins the Widow's cooperation for her plan differs again from his source in several ways to the effect of strengthening the impression that Helena has bribed the Widow as much as she has convinced her. For example, Painter's Widow is explicitly compassionate "after that the Countesse had rehearsed the whole circumstance" of her "estate of love".1^ Shakespeare spares the audience a lengthy conversation between the women, which makes dramatic sense, but, contrary to Painter, he indicates that the the Widow is not so much compassionate as she is uneasy with Helena's plan. "I was well born," she demurs, "Nothing acquainted with these businesses/ And would not put my reputation now/ In any staining act" (III.vii.4-7). When the Widow hints that her belief in Helena can be swayed by Helena's wealth ("I should believe you/ FOR you have showed me that which well approves/ Y'are great in fortune" [III.vii.13-15]), Helena sees her opening: "Take this purse of gold/ And let me buy your friendship thus far,/ Which I will over-pay and pay again/ When I have found it" (III.vii.14-17). This offer of personal recompense to the Widow is Shakespeare's addition to his source, as is the important detail that the purse contains gold. Painter's heroine offers the Widow an unspecified sum in exchange for her cooperation, - 70 -but it is intended for the daughter's dowry, not for herself. Even so, Painter's Widow, needy as she is, agrees to cooperate only "if it be a thinge honest"; Shakespeare's Widow expresses no doubts once she has been offered the money. Shakespeare returns to his source for the detail about the dowry but, again, with a difference. Painter specifies that the sum of 500 pounds passes to the Widow only after Giletta has slept with Beltramo and, even then, since the Widow refuses to accept it as a reward for services rendered, Giletta replies, "I doe not purpose to give unto you the thing you shall demaunde in reward, but for consideration of your well doing, which dutie forceth me to do."13 Shakespeare, significantly, raises the sum of the dowry to 3.000 crowns and has Helena promise it to the Widow before the fact, almost as an added incentive. "After,/ To marry her, I'll add three thousand crowns/ To what is passed already" (III .vii.34-36). If the exchanges of a bawdy house come to mind, the effect, I think, is not accidental. Moreover, the "business" is explicitly called a "deceit" even if it be a "lawful" one. Further denigration of the bed trick arises by Shakespeare's arranging the scenes in which Helena plans to trap Bertram to fall alternately between the scenes in which the Dumaine brothers plan to expose Parolles for "the love of laughter" and the education of Bertram. Shakespeare is obviously inviting a comparison between the analogous actions of entrapment and exposure, but the intended effect is ambiguous. The simple juxtaposition of the two actions teases the mind into making the connections and then sends it in several directions. I will, in a moment, explain how the parallel plot can reflect favorably on Helena's action. But to finish the highlighting of her deceitfulness and mercenary savvy, there should be noticed the mention of gold in the subplot (entirely Shakespeare's invention) which corresponds to the purse of gold that Shakespeare has added to his source in the main plot. Gold is mentioned twice; the first is in a letter found on Parolles and written by him to Diana in which he advises the woman to demand payment in advance for her services because of Bertram's deceitfulness. Dian, the Count's a fool, and full of gold... When he swears oaths, bid him drop gold, and take it; After he scores, he never pays the score. Half won is match well made; match and well make it He ne'er pays after debts, take it before. (IV.iii.225/236-239) Helena is at least tarnished by this resemblance between Bertram's dealings and her own paying of gold to the Widow before she "scores" with the bed trick. It is as if she is as deceitful as Bertram, which makes payment in advance advisable, or is at least as prostituting in her intentions. The second mention of gold emphasizes its power to corrupt. The Interpreter, interrogating Parolles about Bertram, allows that "His qualities being at this poor price, I need not to ask you if gold will corrupt him to revolt" (IV.iii.289-291). The suggestion is clear: has not the Widow likewise been corrupted when she agrees to revolt from her misgivings and to cooperate with Helena's deceit? A more damaging reflection on Helena derives from the entire action of entrapping Parolles since it does more than show him to be a braggart and traitor to his friends. As he betrays them to themselves, Parolles also tells the truth about them and especially' about Bertram, "one Count Rousillon, a foolish, idle boy, but for all that very ruttish" (IV.iii.226-228). Parolles reveals the lords to be as wicked in their way as he is in his, and he shows Bertram especially to be ensconced in a self-serving and seeming knowledge of himself. Although it is fun to see a braggart and a liar exposed for what he is, Parolles also gains sympathy from the fact that he has been surprised by superior numbers in a place he least expected. We grant him his reason for - 72 -chagrin: "Yet who would have suspected an ambush where I was taken?" (III.iii.315-317), and we admit that Everyman is liable to the same exposure: "Who cannot be crushed with a plot?" (IV.iii.340). Put Bertram in Parolles' place, and we see him as a person exposed for the faults he has, even a traitor to himself and others, but also one overwhelmed by deceit and superior numbers. We see Helena, for a moment, as one who differs from Bertram only in one respect: her own faults will never be exposed. In many ways, then, the bed trick represents Helena as a "herb of grass" just as the healing of the King had represented her as a "herb of grace." But just as the raising of the King was qualified in a lewd direction, the bed trick and the actions surrounding it are qualified in a romantic and even moralistic direction. For all the unsavory connotations which Shakespeare has allowed to arise, the bed trick remains, as W.W. Lawrence pointed out, a staple convention of folk tale and romance. No one, insofar as they respond to that convention alone, will blame Helena for using it. Moreover, bribed or not, the Widow does agree that the deceit is "lawful," and just when they are needed most to suggest the world or "scene" of romance, Shakespeare cranks out some paradoxical and incantatory couplets to gloss Helena's plans: Let us assay our plot, which, if it speed Is wicked meaning in a lawful deed, And lawful meaning in a lawful act, Where both not sin, and yet a sinful fact. (III.vii.44-47) As Helena makes her way back to France with the Widow and Diana, she alludes to heaven's aid and heaven's hand in the "fated" events, and she strikes the - 73 -proper attitude of a romantic heroine as she invokes the cooperation of time for the unfolding of the plot's direction: ...the time will bring on summer When briars shall have leaves as well as thorns And be as sweet as sharp. We must away; Our wagon is prepared, and time revives us. All's well that ends well; still the fine's the crown. Whate'er the course, the end is the renown. (IV.iv.31-36) These romance motifs are complemented by allusions to the morality tradition in the exposure of Parolles, and these reflect favorably on Helena as one whose grace will save Bertram from himself. Like Everyman, Bertram "o'erflows himself" in an act of "rebellion" whereby he is merely his own traitor for fleshing his will in the attempted spoil of Diana's honor. His companions lament his guilt "for shaking off so good a wife and so sweet a lady" and for having earned "the everlasting displeasure of the King" (IV.iii.6-8). They expect that Parolles' exposure will teach Bertram not to trust in the judgment of his companion, and they observe a reason for hope which some critics take to be the rueful and summarizing wisdom of the play: The web of our life is of a mingled yarn, good and ill together; our virtues would be proud if our faults whipped them not, and our crimes would despair if they were not cherished by our virtues. (IV.iii.74-78) According to this reading of the subplot, if Bertram's folly is surprised and exposed for what it is, and if he is cherished nonetheless, he has reason to be grateful that he has been saved from himself and, in the words of Dr. Johnson, "dismissed to happiness." - 74 -THE ATTEMPT TO ESTABLISH CERTAIN VALUE So far, then, we have seen that Shakespeare has established discordant equations for Helena, which for clarity's sake I have clustered around the pun on the epithet "herb of grace" or "grass." Rhetorically speaking, Helena is a term inherently ambiguous and obviously so. Unless in the action of the play it can be shown which understanding is "true" (the god term) and which is "false" (the devil term), Helena will remain ambiguous, and the desire of the audience both to identify the god term and to identify with it will remain frustrated. At one point it seems, indeed, that some attempt is made to distinguish right from wrong, true from false, according to some stable criterion of value. This is when Helena is presented to Bertram as the gift of the King and when Bertram's rejection of her on the grounds of her poor birth provokes the King's sternly -argued definition of true honor. A closer look at this speech and its context, however, will show that no stable and self-consistent definition of honor arises and that, as a result, no reasonable criterion for Helena's worth is provided. The King's first speech, which summarizes the views on a subject of much interest to Shakespeare's contemporaries, distinguishes between two definitions of honor: one that derives from title (status) and one that is achieved by deeds (acts).14 Of course, the two definitions of honor need not contradict one another, but like Chaucer, Dante, and Boethius before him, the King's definition of "true" nobility clearly favors that which is shown in deed: 'Tis only title thou disdain'st in her [Helena], the which I can build up. Strange it is that our bloods, - 75 -Of color, weight, and heat, poured all together, Would quite confound distinction, yet stands off In differences so mighty. If she be All that is virtuous, save what thou dislik'st-A poor physician's daughter — thou dislik'st Of virtue for the name. But do not so: From lowest place when virtuous things proceed, The place is dignified by th'doer's deed. Where great addition swells and virtue none, It is a dropsied honor. Good alone Is good, without a name; vileness is so: The property by what it is should go, Not by the title. She is young, wise, fair; In these to nature she's immediate heir; And these breed honor. That is honor's scorn Which challenges itself as honor's born And is not like the sire. Honors thrive When rather from our acts we them derive Than our foregoers. The mere word's a slave, Deboshed on every tomb, on every grave A lying trophy, and as oft is dumb Where dust and damned oblivion is the tomb Of honored bones indeed. What should be said? If thou canst like this creature as a maid, I can create the rest. Virtue and she Is her own dower; honor and wealth from me. (II.iii.118-145) Muriel Bradbrook, who sees this speech as the "germ of the play," argues that it is "doctrine of a kind which ought to convince Bertram. It is only after he has objected, 'I cannot love her, nor will strive to do it,' that the King exercises his power to compel submission" (my emphasis).^ According to Bradbrook, in consequence of the grounds of Helena's nobility (which include her curing of the King by heaven's power) Bertram's offense in refusing her is greatly aggravated. But if we grant that Helena is noble because of her virtue (though this virtue clearly coexists with willful, calculating ambition, as we have seen), and if we recognize that the King ennobles Helena for services rendered to him, we may still ask with Bertram, "But follows it, my lord, to bring me down/ Must answer for your raising?" (II.iii.112-115). Bertram is challenging the authority of the King to determine for him what he should value as noble. Even if Helena were unambiguously good, Bertram claims the right to choose - 76 -her for himself. "I shall beseech your Highness," he says, "in such a business give me leave to use/ The help of mine own eyes" (II.iii.107-109). He sees no reason why he must pay the price for benefits bestowed on someone else. Through Bertram's response, Shakespeare frustrates the conferring of the conventional good fortune of romance and requires an audience to think about the King's offer rather than to accept it without question. Bertram's stated reason for objecting to the match is churlish and follows after his protest in the name of free choice: "I know her well/ She had her breeding at my father's charge/ A poor physician's daughter my wife! Disdain/ Rather corrupt me ever!" (II.iii.113-117). It well deserves the King's rebuke as an ignoble statement. Bertram's father, for example, would not have acted so. Rather, "who were below him/ He used as creatures of another place,/ And bowed his eminent top to their low ranks,/ Making them proud of his humility,/ In their poor praise he humbled" (I.ii.41-45). However, is not the King's rebuke in some ways beside the point? The root of Bertram's objection lies not in Helena's birth but in his desire to choose for himself in this "business," and he sees no reason why the King's will should compel his own choice. If, in fact, "Honors thrive/ When rather from our acts we them derive/ Than our foregoers," why should Bertram be prevented from achieving greatness just because the King is so intent on having it thrust upon him? Bertram has wanted to woo honor in the wars and has been forbidden to do so. Now he is told to find honor solely in the gift of the King. Throughout this play, Bertram is forbidden to grow up by acting for himself at the same time that the values of the dead and older characters (with whom Helena is identified) are held up for imitation. It seems unfair. Why should Helena be allowed to achieve honor by deeds while Bertram must live with only the frustrated desire to do so? - 77 -The King in anger during his second speech only strengthens Bertram's case. The King's "honor" at the stake seems to be neither that achieved by deeds nor derived from noble blood; it seems more like reputation and wounded pride seconded by force: My honor's at the stake, which to defeat, I must produce my power. Here, take her hand, Proud scornful boy, unworthy this good gift, That dost in vile misprision shackle up My love and her desert; that canst not dream We, poising us in her defective scale, Shall weigh thee to the beam; that wilt not know, It is in us to plant thine honor where We please to have it grow. Check thy contempt; Obey our will, which travails in thy good; Believe not thy disdain, but presently Do thine own fortunes that obedient right Where both thy duty owes and our power claims; Or I will throw thee from my care forever Into the staggers and the careless lapse Of youth and ignorance; both my revenge and hate, Loosing upon thee in the name of justice, Without all terms of pity... (II.iii.151-167) Where in the second speech (or even in the first) is there any reason given for Bertram's honoring Helena which is not merely personal to the King and which would cogently and unambiguously establish Helena as Bertram's certain good? I suggest that no such reason can be found and that Bertram signals this by saying that only when he looks with the King's eyes, and not his own, does he recognize that Helena is ennobled (II.iii.168-174). The King's speech, then, like Ulysses' speech on degree in Troilus and Cressida is full of commonplace orthodoxies of the time but provides no stable moral center for the play as it might at first appear to do. It speaks beside the point of Bertram's assertion that he should be free to choose a wife for himself, and it offers no reasonable means of arguing Helena's worth for Bertram. Ominously, as well, it promises to loose "revenge and hate...in the - 78 -name of justice" which would further confound the terminology of this play to a point of complete ambiguity. Since this scene of royal judgment will be repeated with a difference at the end of the play, several moments require mentioning for the light they will throw by analogy on the later scene. Helena, as the King's preserver by heaven's power, is presented to the lords as one whom they are powerless to refuse. Even so, she seems humble in their presence and draws back. "I am a simple maid," she says, "and therein wealthiest/ That I protest I simply am a maid./ Please it your Majesty, I have done already" (II.iii.67-69). It is impossible to say for certain, but is Helena's holding back a calculated move to assure herself of her King's support? Is she acting as Buckingham advised Richard III: "Play the maid's part, still answer nay, and take it" (Richard III, III.vii.51)? In any case, the King will hear no objections and, after this slight frustration of syllogistic progression, pushes Helena forward to make her choice. Shakespeare has added the lottery of lords to his source, and this has the effect of showing Helena's "fixed intent" on Bertram as well as the arbitrary nature of her choice. All of the lords are equally qualified; "not one of those but had a noble father" (II.iii.63), and all are equally rejected by her either for no reason at all or for reasons which are declared by them to be beside the point. Helena: You are too young, too happy, and too good To make yourself a son out of my blood. Fourth Lord: Fair one, I think not so. (II.iii.77-99) Obviously, Helena's intents have long since been fixed on Bertram, and her going through the motions of the lottery functions as a way of confirming this fact for the audience and of showing how Helena will achieve her end despite any false starts or even apparent obstacles in the way. Lafew's comments serve two purposes: they show that at least to his mind Helena would make a desirable match ("I had rather be in this choice than throw ames-ace for my life"); they also show that Lafew can at times be an unreliable chorus. He believes that the lords are rejecting Helena ("Do they all deny her?") when, in fact, she is rejecting them. Bertram's response to the King's second speech shows that he has the wisdom to know when resistance is useless. He asks for "pardon," admits that Helena is the "praised of the King," but when told "Take her hand/ And tell her she is yours," replies only "I take her hand" (II.iii.174-175/177). The King, in what seems indecent haste to cover up the omission, declares it a "contract," to be blessed by "good fortune and the favor of the King" and then exits with the court. He leaves behind Lafew and Parolles, who repeat in a more explicit way the roles of the King and Bertram respectively. Lafew is glad that Bertram has made his "recantation," and Parolles objects to the word. Lafew then relentlessly exposes Parolles as one "good for nothing but taking up"; he heaps "egregious indignities" on Parolles who is powerless to respond because of Lafew's "privilege of antiquity." Like Bertram, Parolles knows the limit of his options. "Well, I must be patient," he says, "there is no fettering of authority" (II.iii.237-238). He may hurl invectives in Lafew's absence and threaten to "beat him and if I could but meet him again." But when Lafew returns at once and faces Parolles with the chance to make good his threat, Parolles is, as usual, only "words." Having suffered this relentless excoriation and heavy-handed truth telling, Parolles not only shares Bertram's - 80 -experience of indignity, he also seconds Bertram's solution: to seek an honor of his own choosing in the Tuscan wars. Those who would see Parolles simply as a Vice who misleads Bertram (and whose exposure would relieve Bertram of all illusions) should notice that it is Bertram's idea to go to the wars. Parolles may be Bertram's "fit" companion and accomplice, but he is not the complete seducer he is blamed for being. Bertram, like Helena, has "fixed intents" of his own without benefit of seduction, and he sees no certain reason to surrender his will to that of another As we have seen, however, the honor Bertram seeks elsewhere will be dubious. As in Troilus and Cressida, the values of love and honor are shown to be not self evident but dependent for their worth on the estimation of the one who values them. That is what makes this play so problematic and troubling; the definitions of value are so even-handedly presented that not only the characters but also the audience will be frustrated trying to define a true and certain good in this play. On a morality or allegorical level, the King's will to work for Bertram's good by marrying him to Helena may well suggest the dispositions of Providence for wayward Humanity. Bertram's stubborn resistance may figure a "natural rebellion" crying out for redemption by the patient, suffering, graceful woman who saves him from his worst intents by laying down her life .for his sake. But this morality pattern must ignore the ambiguous equations for Helena, the less than godly motives of the King who seeks to constrain the issue, and the understandable frustration of a youth who wants to be a man, who wants to gain honor by deeds, and who without reason is forbidden to be himself by choosing for himself. - 81 -THE CLOWN'S PERSPECTIVE The Clown's remarks are often too oblique to be interpreted easily or precisely, and yet they serve as another perspective on the action, affecting the response to the play according to the interpretation taken. Dowden, for example, understood the words "That man should be at woman's command, and yet no hurt done" (I.iii.93-94) as a straightforward comment and, in fact, as the motto of the play. W.W. Lawrence interpreted it ironically, but maintained that Helena's conduct is in contrast to it. Other critics will grant the irony but interpret it as a damaging critique of Helena's eventual control over Bertram.1? Granted the openness of the text, I suggest that the Clown's comments usually show two features: a double applicability to the actions of Helena and Bertram and a deflating of those actions to a level below that of any high-sounding interpretation. Some comments, of course, apply only to Helena, as when Lavatch is sent to fetch her for the Countess and is reminded by her name of another Helen and of the damage she caused for Troy: Was this fair face the cause, quoth she, Why the Grecians sacked Troy? Fond done, done fond, Was this King Priam's joy? (I.iii.71-74) Other comments, on the other hand, apply as much to Bertram as to the Clown's situation. Explaining to the Countess, for example, his reasons for marrying, Lavatch says, "I so marry that I may repent" (I.iii.36-37) and "I am out of friends, madame, and I hope to have friends for my wife's sake" (I.iii.39-40). The interpretation of these lines is uncertain, but the ironical and self-- 82 -serving meaning is always possible. For example, one may marry either to repent former wrongs or to have the chance of repenting the marriage itself, as the Countess points out. The "friends for my wife's sake" may not be the husband's friends at all but may, in fact, be close to the wife for their own purposes and for hers. The Clown's meaning is not certain, but neither is Bertram's, I will suggest, at the play's conclusion! The references to Isabel likewise apply more clearly to Bertram and show that what a man may desire in one context or at one time he may reject at another time and place. The appetite is not always certain or stable, so that although the Clown wants to "do" with "Isabel the woman" in I.iii, he has given her over in Ill.ii with only the explanation, "I have no mind to Isabel since I was at court" (III.ii.12). Does this willful and callous rejection foreshadow Bertram's rejection of both Helena and Diana? I think it is possible to see such a connection and to see in both "cases" a wry comment on the uncertain, sickly appetite. Marriage may come by destiny, as Lavatcn says, but "Your cuckoo sings by kind" (I.iii.64). It is only natural, it seems, that men and women will deceive one another despite the promises of a lasting and faithful union. Men may think they differ from one another as "rivals," but they are more alike in their deceivable humanity than they may want to believe: "If men could be contented to be what they are, there would be no fear in marriage; for young Charbon the puritan and old Poysam the papist, howsome'er their hearts are severed in religion, their heads are both one; they may jowl horns together like any deer i1 th' herd" (I.iii.51-56). The clown, then, throws up moral objections to any artfully contrived happy ending just as surely as the King's illness will challenge the art of Helena's cure. Although her successful healing marks a temporary victory of - 83 -art over nature, the play points out more severe limits to art's power, stubborn facts of mortality and immorality — deceit and treachery of all kinds —that will not be easily coerced into a final harmony.1^ These reductive views of human motives and human limitations can be applied equally to Helena and Bertram, as can other comments which have no specific referent. For example, when the Clown desires to "go to the world," he gives as his explanation, "I am driven on by the flesh, and he must needs go that the devil drives" (I.iii.28-30). This follows both Bertram's going to the King's court and Helena's planning to do likewise. It reflects suspiciously on both of them, as does the pun on "holy" and "reasons" ("raisings") in the Clown's further explanation of his wishes: "I have other holy reasons, such as they are" (I.iii.32-33). Moreover, Lavatch knows how artfully hypocrisy can hide the pride of a "big heart" under the seeming virtuous actions either of healing a King or of acquiescing in his edicts. "Though honesty be no puritan, yet it will do no hurt; it will wear the surplice of humility over the black gown of a big heart" (I.iii.94-96). Finally, the Clown believes that "Service is no heritage" (I.iii.23); that is why he wants to go to the world. He throws suspicion, then, on both the motives and the likely outcome of Helena's and Bertram's diverse offers of service. If Helena offers to serve Bertram ("I dare not say I take you, but I give/ Me and my service, ever whilst I live/ Into your guiding power" [II.iii.104].), Bertram, in turn, both serves the Duke of Florence (III.ii.53) and offers to serve Diana: "...I love thee/ By love's own sweet constraint, and will forever/ Do thee all rights of service" (IV.ii.15-17). Are they both deceived in their offers of allegiance and both as likely to be knaves and fools serving the devil, the "prince of the world" (IV.v.25-56)? - 84 -The perspectives which the Clown's comments open up only increase the difficulty of interpreting the actions of this play. Some might seek to neutralize the Clown's perspective by interpreting it as Shakespeare's way of indicating that the cynical point of view is "low" — the thoughts of a churlish household retainer. But this is too easy. The actions of Helena and Bertram show in themselves an ambiguity which the Clown's comments only serve to mirror and to magnify. THE AMBIGUITY OF THE ENDING OR ALL SEEMS WELL Despite the subtlety with which Shakespeare has defined his terms through Act IV, he seems especially insistent from IV.iv onwards to end well with a comic resolution. Helena invokes the saving power of time and the approach of summer as she returns to France; Lafew arrives at Rousillon to announce the King's proposed match of Lafew's daughter to Bertram which will reconcile the men after Helena's supposed death; Parolles is reconciled to Lafew, and after the King enters Bertram's home with the Countess, Lafew and others in attendance, Bertram is reconciled to his sovereign. King: The time is fair again. Bertram: My high-repented blames, Dear sovereign pardon to me. King: All is whole. (V.iii.36-39) In rhetorical terms, Shakespeare is setting up expectations through syllogistic progression that the action will lead to reconciliation, even though the audience knows that reconciliation cannot occur by a marriage with - 85 -Lafew's daughter. All the pointers indicate that marriage with Helena is Bertram's "destiny" from the time that she fulfills his tasks with Diana's help and Diana says ironically to Bertram, "You have won/ A wife of me, though there my hope be done" (17.11.64-65). In fact, the haste with which events begin to move toward a comic close struck Dr. Johnson as indecent, considering as he did "that Bertram's double crime of cruelty and disobedience, joined likewise with some hypocrisy, should raise more resentment."^ But the speed is deceptive. Soon enough Shakespeare deviates from his source by raising charges against Bertram for the alleged murder of Helena, blackening Bertram further by showing him to be a liar and a coward in defense of himself, and tuning the action to such a pitch that only the arrival of Helena can resolve the accumulating discords.2u Shakespeare's deliberate frustration of the progress of the plot takes place in three stages, each of which seeks to establish the true state of Bertram's marital status, and each of which concludes with a climactic revelation about a ring. In the first stage of the resolution, the King is reconciled to Bertram and then, after concluding Helena's eulogy, sends for Lafew's daughter, all in the space of two lines: "Be this sweet Helen's knell, and now forget her./ Send forth your amorous token for fair Maudlin" (V.iii.67-68). The seemingly indecent haste to proceed toward another marriage (which Dr. Johnson attributed to Shakespeare's desire to finish his play and to seize his reward) is soon stopped by Bertram's handing Lafew a ring which, it turns out, the King had given to Helena and, with it, "bade her, if her fortunes ever stood/ Necessitated to help, that by this token/ I would relieve her" (V.iii.84-86). The second stage takes longer to develop as the King turns the scene into a trial and seeks to unravel the mystery of how Bertram came to possess - 86 -the ring. All of the testimony (including his mother's) is against Bertram; the ring is clearly Helena's, and Bertram's lie that it was thrown to him from a casement does not convince anyone. He is sent away under guard and under suspicion of murder. When Diana Capilet is admitted into court and claims that he has promised to marry her, Bertram is brought back and adds detraction of Diana and another lie to his discredit as he denies that he had taken her virginity: "She's impudent, my lord," he says, "And was a common gamester to the camp" (V.iii.187-188). At this point, Diana brings the nature of Bertram's marital status into further confusion by denying his charge and dramatically presenting the evidence: He does me wrong, my lord; if it were so He might have bought me at a common price. Do not believe him. 0, behold this ring, Whose high respect and rich validity Did lack a parallel; yet for all that He gave it to a commoner o' the camp, If I be one. As the Countess lets the audience know, "He blushes, and 'tis hit!/...This is his wife,/ That ring's a thousand proofs" (V.iii.189-199). In the third stage, the court sifts this new evidence in light of Bertram's denial that it proves he promised Diana anything, in light of Diana's claiming that the ring on the King's finger (which he had given to Helena) is actually hers, and in light of Bertram's retraction of his earlier story that Diana had thrown it to him from a casement. Diana calls in Parolles to witness her story and he does, but this still leaves unsolved the question of where Diana got the ring that the King had given to Helena. From the evidence so far extracted, it seems to the other characters that Bertram has at least promised marriage to Diana and that Diana is - 87 -unwilling to explain in what way she has received the ring. The King's impatience and displeasure turn against them both: "Take her away; I do not like her now./ To prison with her. And away with him" (V.iii.281-282). Diana then confounds the confusion further by withdrawing her charge against Bertram and by putting his relationship to her in conditional and paradoxical terms: Diana: By Jove, if ever I knew man, 'twas you. King: Wherefore hast thou accused him all this while? Diana: Because he's guilty and he is not guilty: He knows I am no maid, and he'll swear to it: I'll swear I am a maid and he knows not. Great King, I am no strumpet; by my life I am either maid or else this old man's wife (V.iii.287-293). These incidents in the trial of Bertram frustrate the expectation of an easy solution aroused by the earlier progression of events and, in doing so, the delay accomplishes two purposes: it allows all the characters on stage, including Parolles, to unite against Bertram, making his position even less tenable in light of their testimony against him and his own action; also, it allows the obscuring of Bertram's true marital status to such an extent that it frustrates the King and brings Bertram to the point of maximum danger unless that identity can be sorted out. In The Merchant of Venice Shakespeare handled much differently the situation of confusion over the ownership of rings (which, of course, have a sexual as well as marital significance). Like All's Well, Merchant also concludes with some confusion about who has the rings which, in this case, were given by Portia and Nerissa to their husbands, but the momentary embarrassment of Bassanio and Gratiano is nothing compared to Bertram's predicament. More to the point, the husbands of Belmont clearly desire their wives, however much they may have compromised their promises and given away - 88 -the rings in order to help a deserving friend. Generosity, in this play, is easily distinguished from promiscuity which, for a moment, it seems to resemble. Bertram's case is darker in that he has tried to give away his ring to another woman in an act of infidelity and then has tried to deny any significance in having done so. As a result, his status as a hero baffles clear definition. He does not want Helena or Diana, and so is unfit to be a comic hero; on the other hand, neither he nor his predicament is fit for a tragedy. What is to be made of Bertram's status? Does he end up with a clearly defined relationship to Helena? According to some critics like R.Y. Turner, the build up of damaging evidence against the "hero" suggests the conventional ending of a "Prodigal Son" play in which circumstances at a trial are "so intense that by implication the suffering the hero undergoes would be momentous enough to change him, an experience we now call traumatic.'"11 In other words, according to this reading, Shakespeare is using the repeated frustrations of syllogistic progression to create in Bertram a sense of longing for relief and a welcoming of it when it comes, making his final plea for "pardon" a genuine sign of repentance. Moreover, fear and dread on behalf of Bertram and Diana and frustration with the delay of deliverance prepare the audience for the change to the opposite quality of joy when the solution reveals itself. That Shakespeare intends to offer some such refuge in a conventional, comic resolution can be ascertained by his introduction, once again, of incantatory couplets to mark a marvelous point of transition. As the King orders her to prison, Diana sends her mother off to fetch her "bail" (which Helena will surely prove to be) and then winds up her charm with summarizing paradox and priestlike competence: - 89 -Stay, royal sir, The jeweler that owes the ring is sent for And he shall surety me. But for this lord Who hath accused me as he knows himself, Though he never harmed me, here I quit him. He knows himself my bed he hath defiled And at that time he got his wife with child. Dead though she be, she feels her young one kick. So there's my riddle: one that's dead is quick. And now behold the meaning. (V.iii.295-303) Enter Helena with the Widow. The effect, of course, is pure magic. At one stroke Helena proves that the accusations against Bertram are false, and she resolves the identity of his relationship with Diana, pointing to the ring from off his finger as the sign that she has, indeed, completed the tasks required of her in his letter. Like Hero in Much Ado and Hermione in The Winter's Tale, Helena rises up as if from the dead to save an apparently impossible situation. In the romances generally, Shakespeare presents such a "wonder" which engages all who gaze on it, characters and audience alike. The resolution, which is "the more delay'd, delighted" (Cymbeline, V.iv.102), arrives with the power to compel acceptance because it not only relieves burdens but also solves paradoxes, dilemmas, and confused identities at once. Unlike Hero and Hermione, however, Helena has taken considerable pains to ensure the ending she wants. The wonderful effect of her entry is such that an audience will no doubt forget for the moment that Helena has been stage managing the solution through Diana all of the time. On the way to the reunion with Bertram, Helena has given Diana her "instructions" (IV.iv.27) to the end that Helena will appear a welcome relief after the confusion which she herself has set afoot. For the moment, however, the scheming is forgotten and it seems that all is ending well. In fact, says Kenneth Muir, if Bertram were to be given a longer speech at the end and the Clown better jokes, the ending would be - 90 -satisfactory indeed. But Shakespeare has not obliged Professor Muir, and critics are almost unanimous in their agreement that the ending does not satisfy. Besides admitting that certain romance or "Prodigal Son" conventions have lost their savor for contemporary audiences, those troubled by the ending present three principal objections: first, according to Turner, because Helena is as much a Machiavel as a miracle worker and Bertram is no prize either, "our moral sensibility flinches at the aggressive Helena who traps the hero into marriage and at the same time is repelled by Bertram who snobbishly rejects Helena and lies ruthlessly in the trial scene."^ Secondly, the ending seems forced and moves so quickly to take advantage of Helena's reappearance that no one seems to have learned very much. The King is ready to marry off Diana to another unsuspecting ward, Helena seems, according to Howard Felperin, "blithely unaware that the self-discoveries [she has] precipitated represent only half the struggle toward self recovery," and, according to Anthony Dawson, the principals "leave the stage without coming to terms with themselves, their evil, or the evil around them."2-* Finally, many critics explain their unsettled feelings by an appeal to the clash of forms or modes. According to A.P. Rossiter, "the fairy tale solution we might like to believe in (and are adjured to by the title, and the 'historical method' interpreters) is in conflict with the realistic, psychological exposure — which is very much more convincing."^ As Clifford Leech says, "A traditional story and realistic characterization can be fused as in Lear...But here there is no fusion."2^ A variant of this last explanation supposes that the clash of modes is a sign of Shakespeare's experimenting with the genre of romance, testing both its ability to contain recalcitrant material like unrepentant people and its sense of an "endless - 91 -ending" which can be interrupted only arbitrarily by the need to finish a play. According to the rhetorical analysis of this thesis, the ending does indeed leave the audience uneasy because for several reasons it is unable to identify with the presented solution. Shakespeare has deliberately frustrated his.formal development in such a way that the qualitative change introduced by Helena's entry is undercut; no effective scapegoat takes away those attitudes which threaten the acceptance of a new order; and Helena herself remains an ambiguous good, leaving audiences not only unreconciled to Bertram, as Dr. Johnson was, but unreconciled to the heroine as well. Thus, despite Tillyard's belief that "there is not the least cause for doubting [Bertram's] sincerity,"^ an audience will harbor some doubts if it would ask upon hearing Bertram's plea for "pardon," "Haven't we heard 'pardon' before?" A comparison between the Trial scene and Helena's first being presented to Bertram for marriage raises the suspicion that Bertram may very well be exercising the better part of his reputed valor and giving up only because "there is no fettering of authority." Moreover, Lafew's choric comment that his eyes "smell onions" may be no more trustworthy a guide to audience response than his comments in the earlier scene that the young lords were rejecting Helena. Bertram's conditional acceptance ("If she, my liege, can make me know this clearly,/ I'll love her dearly, ever, ever dearly" V.iii.314-316), which has troubled all but the most optimistic critics, reenforces the resemblance to the marriage scene in which Bertram had taken Helena's hand in obedience to the King but did not promise to say that she would be his. Shakespeare, then, not only has frustrated the progress of the plot by the introduction of conflicting testimony at Bertram's trial, but has also undercut the quality of - 92 -the resolution by actions analogous to those earlier in the play which show at least Bertram's resistance to the promised joy. This is an example of what Burke calls "self-interference" on the part of the playwright, the act of counteracting the drift of his own resolution in the name of "pure persuasion" or truly open interpretation. Besides using formal frustrations, Shakespeare has failed to show that Bertram has learned anything about himself which would incline him to repent like the Prodigal Son and Fallen Humanity which an allegorical reading supposes him to be. A quick comparison with the unmasking of Parolles has convinced some critics that Bertram has been similarly relieved of any illusions about himself. As G.K. Hunter maintains: "... Bertram's promise to marry Diana is based on nothing but words, and his unmasking in V.iii, no less than Parolles' in IV.iii, is a stripping away of the screen of words with which he, no less that Parolles, has concealed himself from his own deeds."29 However, as I believe, Parolles' influence on Bertram is not so decisive that his exposure need prove anything to the young man. Besides, during Parolles' interrogation, Bertram distances himself from his companion, refusing either to admit or to deny the damaging revelation that he is a "whale to virginity." He leaves the scene of the unmasking showing no sign that it has changed him for the better. To be effective, a scapegoat has to be acknowledged and disowned; Bertram does neither. Moreover, if any analogy is to be drawn between Bertram and Parolles, it should be noted that Parolles remains unchanged by the unmasking. He knows who he is before it takes place, and he determines to live by finding a place for himself as he is once it is over. What looks like an unmasking of false seeming turns out to be no such thing, and if this is an analogy for Bertram's - 93 -situation at the Trial, it means that he has not changed any more than Parolles has. With no scapegoat to serve a playwright-rhetoricians's purpose of separating out the true from the false attitudes, the audience cannot be moved to see the "drift" of the argument in some plausible direction and consequently cannot prepare itself to identify with the proposed conclusion. Finally, Bertram's conditional acceptance of Helena mirrors the predicament of the audience which has not been shown any definition of her character which is not ambivalent. She is the presented solution, the promised relief from the burden of confused identities and the threat of punishment. However, she is also forced on Bertram by the King and the Countess who have identified their interests with hers and who have either tried to prevent Bertram from achieving an honor of his own or have disparaged the honor he has received. Marriage with Helena is at once Bertram's destiny and a regressive action, binding Bertram to his fortune in a place he thought he had left behind. In bringing the full weight of authority against Bertram, Shakespeare has contrived to bring the King to Rousillon and thus assures the rhetorical fitness of having the trial as well as the enforcing of the marriage take place at Bertram's "home." As a result of this, Lafew's words to the Countess and Bertram in I.i prove ironically prophetic: "You shall find of the King a husband, madam; you, sir, a father." And Bertram's words in the same scene come true more grimly than he had expected: "I must attend his Majesty's command, to whom I am now in ward, evermore in subjection" (I.i.4-6). All of this leaves an audience, as well as Bertram, unable to move beyond an acceptance of Helena which is not somehow qualified. If this play is to end - 94 -at all, it must end with "all seems well" and "if it end so meet" because, as Touchstone knows, your "if" is a great peacemaker. I believe that Shakespeare's rhetorical skills in this play, in Troilus and Cressida, and in Measure for Measure leave an audience more aware than usual of its craving for a resolution with which it can identify. For whatever reason, Shakespeare has refused to provide it; instead, he presents us with an alternative: either we "crush this a little" so that the play bows to "what we will," as Malvolio did, or we face the fact of an unsatisfied appetite for order and remain content with complexity. Perhaps, as John Barton suggests, Shakespeare had become dissatisfied with conventional forms as adequate accounts of experience. Perhaps he was concerned with how to sophisticate the form so that it could give "that sense of reality breaking in on convention...a wry sense of what life's really like and what people are really like...at odds with what the story-line dictates."3U Barton sees this sense of a split between romance convention and a sense of reality as "coming to a boil" in Shakespeare's dramatic development from the time of As You Like It and Twelfth Night; Stephen Booth, as I have said in chapter 2, would locate Shakespeare's experimenting with a sense of "indefinition" at least as far back as Love's Labor's Lost. Shakespeare, the great story teller, knew with what contrivance an ending has to be provided; as a rhetorician, he knew that where the story ends up is a matter of deciding on what side one chooses to argue. For whatever reason, Shakespeare, in the so-called problem plays, is more content than he is elsewhere to leave the argument open-ended and to provide the kind of ending which John Fowles in The Magus suggests is more true-to-life, at least to an audience in the twentieth century: - 95 -The smallest hope, a bare continuing to exist, is enough for the antihero's future; leave him, says our age, leave him where mankind is in its history, at a crossroads, in dilemma, with all to lose and only more bf the same to win; let him survive, but give him no direction, no reward; because we too are waiting, in our solitary rooms where the telephone never rings, waiting for this girl, this truth, this crystal of humanity, this reality lost through imagination, to return; and to say she returns is a lie. But the maze has no centre. An ending is no more than a point in sequence, a snip of the cutting shears. Benedick kissed Beatrice at last; but ten years later? And Elsinore, that following spring?31 Dr. Johnson, who accepted Helena as simply good, complained because Bertram is "dismissed to happiness." But Bertram, I suggest, is dismissed to Helena, and what this will mean for both of them remains undefined. - 96 -IV. TROILUS AND CRESSIDA ...my soul aches To know, when two authorities are up, Neither supreme, how soon confusion May enter 'twixt the gap of both and take The one by thother. Coriolanus (III.i.108-112) For Shakespeare and his contemporaries, stories of the fall of Troy had a special significance insofar as they could be translated into stories about England itself. According to popular belief, Great Britain had been founded by Brutus, a Trojan general, and London was New Troy. The inherent drama of a city subject to siege and of heroic action in its defense was complemented by the sense that, in the case of Troy, this was family history.1 Before Shakespeare tried his hand at it, the Troy story had become popular primarily through Caxton's edition of The Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye (0.1474), Chaucer's Troilus and Criseyde (c.1480), and Lydgate's Troy- book (1513). Not much evidence of dramatic versions survives, although the outline exists of a play written by Dekker and Chettle for the Admiral's Company c. 1596. As Chaucer tells the story, the poem is a meditation in the manner of Boethius on the fickleness of Fortune, the instability of all goods of the world (of which Criseyde is the best example), and on the importance of trust in Providence over all. In Chaucer's presentation of her, Criseyde is not so much blamed for abandoning Troilus as pitied for her "slydynge corage," and Troilus is pitied, too, for his helpless condition and blindness to the consolations of philosophy. According to one interpretation of this subtle poem, Chaucer, who also lived in times troubled by "lak of stedfastnesse," wrote of a way out for his audience through an attitude which is granted to - 97 -Troilus only after he has left behind the perspective of this world for that of his heavenly home. According to Bullough, Henryson, who follows Chaucer, began the tradition of blaming Cressida for treachery and of punishing her with leprosy, thus simplifying Chaucer's story by making the woman a scapegoat of those values which were to be shunned by a society seeking to pattern itself on the heroic virtues represented by Troilus. Likewise, Caxton, and especially Lydgate, simplify the story by exalting the chivalry and warlike courage of Troilus and Hector through whom Trojan (and implicitly English) virtues are commended.2 Shakespeare approaches the story of Troy differently, with the result that his is, indeed, a troubling play. For Shakespeare, no attitude is commendable. Trojans along with Greeks, Troilus and Cressida alike, are all sunk in the quicksands of time, and there is no way out for any of them. Shakespeare eschews the rhetoric of the chroniclers (who commend the Trojans at the expense of the Greeks), of Chapman (whose translation of the Iliad in 1598 restores the Homeric emphasis on Greek virtues), and of Chaucer (who pities both Troilus and Criseyde and then supplies the perspective that would transcend their troubles). Along with Bullough, therefore, I do not believe that analyses like G. Wilson Knight's, for example, accurately account for the play. Knight's thesis is that Shakespeare is contrasting Trojan intuition and Greek intellect, between which Troilus is torn as Cressida, symbolically, is transferred from Troy to the Greek camp. According to Knight, "The Trojan party stands for human beauty and worth, the Greek party for the bestial and stupid elements of man, the barren stagnancy of intellect divorced from action, and the criticism which exposes these things with jeers." Therefore, - 98 -"Troilus champions, not only Troy, but the fine values of humanity fighting against the demonic powers of cynicism."3 I do not think that Shakespeare believed in such simple contrasts, and, by examining the formal construction of the play, it will be obvious how Shakespeare makes it impossible for an audience to identify with either Trojans or Greeks. My reading owes much to Una Ellis-Fermor, who suggests that Shakespeare is using form to create the experience of formlessness (the idea of chaos), and to Katherine Stockholder and Rosalie Colie, who analyze how Shakespeare frustrates an audience's generic and formal expectations in order to empty all values and all categorical expectations of significance. These analyses coincide exactly with Kenneth Burke's philosophy of literary form: that its usual purpose is to arouse expectations in an audience in order to fulfill them, thus leading the audience to agreement about the way out of a presented tension. When this purpose of form is frustrated, the audience is unable to identify with a way out through the play and is both thrown back on its own resources and forced to recognize the limits of any formal constructs or attitudes to encompass a situation. "WHAT A PAIR OF SPECTACLES IS HERE!" (Troilus and Cressida IV.iv 14-15) Shakespeare sets to work immediately as Troilus's entrance in I.i.1 frustrates the expectations set up by the Prologue and thus initiates the audience into a pattern that will be observed throughout the play. The Prologue had entered armed, "suited/ In like condition to our argument" (Prologue, 1.25), and had announced the "quarrel" of the Trojan war.^ Troilus - 99 -enters, announcing that he will "unarm again," leaving the battle without because of the battle within his heart. He seems, like Romeo, too love sick for battle, and, for the moment appears to provide an alternative to war through love. He seems, so to speak, an audience's "way in" to the play so that through him it will find a way out of the burden represented by the war. However, unlike Romeo's love, Troilus's does not develop into any deep rooted, constant, or transforming commitment. He disengages himself from the war but finds no lasting alternative to it. Moreover, Troilus's love is subverted from the start. Like Romeo, Troilus uses many similes to describe his heart-sick condition. He is "weaker than a woman's tear,/ Tamer than sleep, fonder than ignorance " (I.i.9-10). Like Romeo, Troilus has his Mercutio in the person of Pandarus to insinuate a more sensual interpretation of the motives and the progress of love. However, in Romeo's case, the proverbial conceits and the bantering of Mercutio are a way of measuring the difference between Romeo's commonplace love for Rosaline and his transforming love for Juliet. Romeo does not joke with Mercutio about Juliet; in fact, he does not mention her. Even as his friends seek to "raise up" his spirit in the name of his mistress Rosaline, Romeo is turning his back away from them and his face toward the light in Juliet's window. Troilus, by contrast, speaks openly of Cressida to Pandarus, and his love for her suffers a cheapening by Pandarus's likening her "somewhat" to Helen and by reminding the audience that he and Cressida are kin. As the go-between and instrument of their love, Pandarus is like Juliet's nurse, the drudge in their service. But the Nurse, like Mercutio, functions as a way of distinguishing a merely sensual interpretation of love from its transforming nature. Pandarus, on the other hand, functions as a reminder that the love of Troilus and Cressida will not transform either of them. Knowing that he can rely on an audience's common knowledge of how the Trojan war and the love of - 100 -Troilus end up, Shakespeare uses Pandarus as a way of undercutting Troilus's high-sounding assessment of his own condition. Troilus is not a Romeo; he is as self-deluding as Orsino, and, as such, is more laughable than tragic. To emphasize that Troilus's love cannot be taken as seriously as he tries to make it sound, Shakespeare ends the scene with Troilus's arming once again at the call of Aeneas, leaving his thoughts of love for the "sport abroad" in the field. In 120 lines, Shakespeare enacts the rhythm of the entire play by frustrating syllogistic progression at the beginning and at the end of the o scene. The Prologue's promise of an armed conflict is undone by the entrance of Troilus unarming himself, and his purpose to unarm himself fails as he takes to the field. By frustrating formal expectations in this way, Shakespeare prepares an audience for Troilus's actions later when, once again, he will desert Cressida for battle; at the same time, Shakespeare implicitly warns an audience not to identify with any action as a way out of the situation of the war. Shakespeare also shows that the purpose for action may in fact be frivolous or arbitrary, thus vitiating the act as unworthy of serious attention. Cressida is no Juliet, we soon discover, and neither is Helen. In his soliloquy after the exit of Pandarus and before the entrance of Aeneas, Troilus sums up his attitude toward Helen and toward Cressida which, under analysis, shows him to be untrustworthy not only for his inconstancy but also for his arbitrary idealism. First, Troilus reasserts his resolution to retire from the fighting because Helen is not worth the battle; she is only made worthy by the amount of blood spilled on her behalf: - 101 -Peace, you ungracious clamors! Peace, rude sounds! Fools on both sides! Helen must needs be fair, When with your blood you daily paint her thus. I cannot fight upon this argument; It is too starved a subject for my sword. (I.i.93-97) This position, which he takes up now, he will retract in the Trojan council, reversing himself in order to propose the worthiness of fighting to keep Helen in Troy. His assessment of Cressida as "stubborn, chaste, against all suit" (I.i.101) will likewise be reversed not only when Troilus succeeds in winning her, but when Diomede succeeds too. Given the inconstancy of actions in this play, the question of identity will become problematic. Troilus hints that this is already the case by asking, "Tell me, Apollo, for thy Daphne's love,/ What Cressid is, what Pandar, and what we" (I.i.102-103). Ironically, Apollo's love for Daphne was so hot and lawless in its pursuit that it lost him the nymph, who also lost her own life, when she was changed into a bay tree trying to escape from him.6 Troilus's hot love will meet a similar frustration, and he will come no closer to finding an answer to his question. This is largely because Troilus is a naive idealist, adept at finding similes for his experience which name it as he would like it to be and not as it is. To him, Her [Cressida's] bed is India; there she lies, a pearl. Between our Ilium and where she resides Let it be called the wild and wand'ring flood, Ourself the merchant, and this sailing Pandar Our doubtful hope, our convoy, and our bark. (I.i.104-108) The key to Troilus's self-deluding state is the phrase "Let it be called." Obviously, the simile he suggests is arbitrary. Moreover, the mercantile imagery makes Troilus's love-quest sound at first exotic and adventuresome, but it is at the same time implicitly reductive, making of love a purchase or acquisition. The same imagery of trade will reappear in arguments for the - 102 -keeping of Helen, likewise called a "pearl," and besides linking Helen with Cressida will reduce both of them to bartered objects. There is also, I think, an ironic suggestion for Shakespeare's audience in Troilus's likening himself to a merchant in search of a fine pearl. According to the parable of Jesus in Matthew 13:45-46, a merchant will sell all that he has to buy a pearl of great price (the Kingdom of Heaven), but the merchant actually loses nothing for the exchange because of the pearl's intrinsic worth. Troilus and the Trojans, on the contrary, are giving everything they have for "pearls" of doubtful worth, making their service greater than the god, as Hector will say, and thus calling their wisdom into question. Troilus, then, is an idealist who cannot be trusted to name his experience accurately and who cannot be expected to remain constant even to the purpose he has mistakenly conceived. After resolving that he cannot fight, Troilus, immediately after this soliloquy, goes off to battle along with Aeneas. As the play continues, Shakespeare uses the frustration of formal expectations to show that every action on the scene of the war is like Troilus's: without constant or credible purpose. This leaves an audience able to identify neither with Troilus nor Cressida, neither with Hector nor Achilles. As rival attitudes contend for which will win or lose, an audience becomes increasingly disturbed by the suspicion that the outcome makes no difference either way. There is small choice in rotten apples. Cressida's betrayal of Troilus is indefensible, but so is naive idealism. Achilles' butchery of Hector is barbaric, but Hector's chivalry is beside the point. On the scene of war, no action presents itself as seriously able to wrest significance from impending doom. In I.ii, the entrance of Cressida continues the pattern of frustrating expectations. According to Troilus's account of her, we expect a scornful mistress of rare beauty; instead, she enters asking trivial questions in - 103 -ordinary prose, eliciting gossip about Hector and Ajax from her servant Alexander. However, Cressida quickly shows herself to be shrewd as well as inquisitive. As Pandarus enters, Cressida makes sure that he overhears her praising Hector to Alexander: Cressida: Hector's a gallant man Alexander: As may be in the world, lady. Pandarus: What's that? What's that? (I.ii.39-41) Thus begins a game between uncle and niece in which Pandarus tries to forward the suit of Troilus, Cressida anticipates his moves, puts him off by pretending to be unimpressed with Troilus's qualities, and ends up revealing her true feelings only in soliloquy. In this scene, as in the first, the question of identity comes to the fore as Pandarus matches Troilus with Hector to Troilus's advantage and Cressida rejects the comparison, giving the impression that she thinks Hector is the better man, while explicitly saying only that each man is what he is: Pandarus: Troilus is the better man of the two. Cressida: 0 Jupiter! There's no comparison. Pandarus: What? not between Troilus and Hector? Do you know a man if you see him? Cressida: Ay, if I ever saw him before and knew him. Pandarus: Well, I say Troilus is Troilus. Cressida: Then you say as I say, for I am sure he is not Hector. Pandarus: No, nor Hector is not Troilus in some degrees. Cressida: 'Tis just to each of them; he is himself. Pandarus: Himself? Alas, poor Troilus, I would he were. Cressida: So he is. (I.ii.61-75) Cressida also refuses to be made jealous by Pandarus's saying that Helen praised Troilus's complexion above Paris's. To her, "Paris hath color enough" (I.ii.102). Clearly, the men are what they are, and there is no comparison possible. Ironically, what each one is will never become clear because they - 104 -all end up looking alike in their merely willful pursuit of questionable goals. After Pandarus tells Cressida a long tale about the hair on Troilus's chin (where, once again, the build up to a punch line leads to the let down of the actual joke), uncle and niece review the return of the soldiers to Troy. Pandarus describes each of the heroes while building up anticipation for Troilus, but when Troilus enters the effect is deflating. First of all, his place in the procession is after Helenus, a priest who fights "indifferent well"; then, Cressida points to Troilus with the question, "What sneaking fellow comes yonder?". Pandarus, who ought to know his man, confuses Troilus with Deiphobus and recovers without much conviction: "Where? Yonder? That's Deiphobus. 'Tis Troilus! There's a man, niece, hem? Brave Troilus, the prince of chivalry!" (I.ii.235-237). Finally, to cap the anticlimax, more soldiers enter after Troilus, identified by Pandarus as "Asses, fools, dolts; chaff and bran, chaff and bran; porridge after meat" (I.ii.250-251)J Deflation by association could hardly be more complete, and then Cressida suggests another comparison: "There is amongst the Greeks Achilles, a better man than Troilus" (I.ii.256-257). Pandarus chides her for not knowing what a man is, praises her for defending herself skillfully, and then leaves to attend on Troilus. The comparison with Achilles is not accidental. It suggests a contrast between Greek and Trojan, warrior and lover, which will end up merely as a distinction without a difference. If Troilus's love for Cressida unfits him for battle, Achilles' love for Polyxena will do the same; if Achilles' fierce rage at the loss of Patroclus will cause him to hack at Hector, Troilus's rage at the loss of Cressida and Hector will cause him to vow revenge on Diomede and Achilles. - 105 -At the conclusion of scene ii, Cressida's soliloquy shows her true feelings for Troilus and her shrewd assessment of his unstable intentions. "Men," she says, "prize the thing ungained more than it is;/ That she was never yet, that ever knew/ Love got so sweet as when desire did sue" (I.ii.301-303). Cressida knows that "Things won are done, joy's soul lies in the doing" (I.ii.299). Unlike Troilus, who trusts in the time to come for fame to canonize him, Cressida knows that the present is the moment that matters, and she knows also how quickly the present becomes the past. In thinking this, she is no different from Ulysses when he urges Achilles to remember that "To have done, is to hang/ Quite out of fashion, like a rusty mail/ In monumental mock'ry"; therefore, "Take the instant way" (III .iii.152-154). Cressida and the Greeks share a pragmatic stance toward action; they are without illusions. Ironically, however, their best laid plans cannot come to any satisfactory conclusion in this play. Cressida calculates the opportune moment for giving in to Troilus, only to lose him overnight. What she calls her "firm love" is doomed from the start, not only by the chance of war, which sends her to the Greeks, but also by her pragmatic skill at adaptation to those circumstances. She survives by her wits, but no better for Diomede than for Troilus. Achilles, too, seizes the opportune moment to kill Hector, but the result is only increased incentive for slaughter by the Trojans and a war that continues past the end. The argument that the Greeks eventually win the war is beside the point, since the play does not present this and since outside the play they are defeated by time in any case. The tragedy of Agamemnon by Aeschylus begins at the point where the Iliad ends. With the close of scene ii, the audience should be actively cooperating in a critique of rival attitudes represented by Troilus and Cressida. The - 106 -conventional understanding of Cressida as a whore for betraying Troilus undercuts her profession of "firm love" and makes her dallying not only trivial but even sinister; on the other hand, Troilus's vacillation between love and war proves him to be less than the constant lover he claims to be, while the presentation of Cressida undercuts the naive idealism with which he insists on evaluating her. Cressida is no prize, and Troilus is no trustworthy appriser. Working differently than he has in All's Well, Shakespeare is representing rival attitudes in two different characters and two different camps; thus, having begun with an even-handed critique of both attitudes in the lovers, Shakespeare opens up the stage of fools to include the Greeks. THE GREEKS IN COUNCIL: THE FACTION OF FOOLS The first long moments of I.iii are devoted to the speeches of the generals in council, whose reiterations of some proverbial wisdom from moral philosophy make it sound hollow even as they speak. To say that as metal is tried in fire, trials test the constancy of men is true enough. But there is a subtle difference between a proverb and a cliche, and the long-winded, simile-laden, repetitious development of this simple thought by Agamemnon and Nestor helps to empty their speeches of whatever wisdom they contain. Moreover, they seem to be using a kind of argument, but it amounts to a rationalization for the stalemate at which the war action has arrived. By using moral wisdom in this way, they show the disjunction between their inactivity and any reasonable explanation for it. Whether Jove is testing their "mettle" or not, the result is the same: events have gone beyond their - 10? -power to manage them, and they are looking for a way not to bear it with constancy but to act with effectiveness. Ulysses' speech on the importance of observing "the specialty of rule" or "degree" has a similar effect. It contains commonly accepted images and analogies (the general is like "the hive/ To whom the foragers shall all repair"; the commandment of a king is like the medicinable effect of the sun on evil planets) but these have only a descriptive, not a prescriptive power. They amount to a rationalization of the order that happens to exist at the moment; they are not a cogent defense of an order that ought to exist. It is true enough that without some accepted basis for distinction, "Force should be right, or rather right and wrong —/ Between whose endless jar justice resides —/ Should lose their names, and so should justice too" (I.iii.116-118). It is true that mere appetite, "seconded with will and power,/ Must make perforce a universal prey/ And last eat up itself" (I.iii.122-124). But Ulysses' speech provides no criteria for determining which person or which principles serve as the "authentic" basis of order. Rather, his speech amounts merely to an upholding of the present authorities with the implication that whatever is, is right. Moreover, his belonging to the inner circle of the order that exists creates a conflict of interest which undercuts the force of his argument. Ulysses' arguments may be true in the abstract, they may be proverbial or even a cliche; as such, they can provide a means for an audience attuned to these orthodoxies to identify momentarily with the wisdom of the analysis. However, Ulysses' use of these arguments is pragmatic: to bring Achilles to heel as an effective instrument in the hands of those who have a use for him. This speech on degree is a set piece of orthodox Elizabethan theory, but because it appears in the mouth of the wily Ulysses, its wisdom is qualified; - 108 -its applicability to actual events is questionable. It is like Rosencrantz's applying to Claudius the orthodox teaching that: The cess of majesty Dies not alone; but, like a gulf, doth draw What's near it with it: it is a massy wheel Fix'd on the summit of the highest mount, To whose huge spokes ten thousand lesser things Are mortis'd and adjoin'd; which, when it falls, Each small annexment, petty consequence, Attends the boist'rous ruin. Never alone Did the King sigh, but with a general groan. (Hamlet III.iii.15-23) Since Claudius is a usurper, the disturbing question arises: even if this doctrine is true, how does it apply? How can it serve as a criterion for distinguishing a true symbol of order from a false one? The lengthy discussion of the generals establishes that the danger of others' imitating Achilles' insubordination is great and that their authority must be reasserted. At this point, a trumpet cuts short the speech making, and the abrupt arrival of Aeneas further undercuts the credibility of the generals' authority and even the greatness of the danger. Aeneas, either pretending not to recognize Agamemnon or intending to insult him, calls into question any intrinsic basis for his authority: "How," he asks, "may/ A stranger to those most imperial looks/ Know them from eyes of other mortals?" (I.iii.223-224). This is a daring question, and one that raises again the problem of identity. Among rival positions or claimants to power, how is one to determine the difference between them and the priority of one over the other? Leaving this question in the air, Aeneas issues a challenge from Hector which deflates the serious nature of the rivalry between Greeks and Trojans. The chivalric challenge is over a lady who bears only a conventional resemblance to the real woman in question. Hector boasts that "He hath a lady - 109 -wiser, fairer, truer,/ Than ever Greek did compass in his arms" (I.iii.275-276). This estimate of Andromache's character did not prevent Hector from chiding her on his return from battle, taking out on her his anger at Ajax, nor will it keep him from silencing her when she pleads with him not to go into battle in Act V. Hector's challenge is over something or someone who does not exist and, as such, reflects not only Troilus's estimation of Cressida, but Helen herself, the ostensible cause of the war. As Diomede and Hector himself will argue, Helen's worth is out of all proportion to the blood spilt on her behalf. There is something unconvincing about the rivalry of Greeks and Trojans if they fight for causes that cannot be substantiated. Aeneass challenge, then, demonstrates the impossibility of applying Ulysses' philosophy on authority and degree with any certitude, at the same time that it shows the hollowness of the Trojan alternative. At his exit, Ulysses and Nestor come together to plot how to use this challenge to build up Ajax for the discomforting of Achilles. As they do so, they show how little bearing the seeming-substance of Ulysses' previous arguments has on practical policy. Nestor at first suggests the common sense response of waking Achilles to answer Hector; after all, he is their best man and surest chance of winning. Ulysses, however, suggests the more devious approach of using Ajax whose success in the contest will shame Achilles into action and whose failure will prove nothing against the Greeks. This rapid shift from abstract philosophy to practical policy makes Ulysses' moralizing on appetite seem all the more platitudinous and unable either to account for the actions he himself undertakes or to influence their direction. In this play, rival parties and rival actions will seek to affect the course of the war and to defeat opposing positions, but in the absence of clear criteria for distinguishing their - 110 -worth, neither will emerge as the undisputed way out of the chaos caused by their strife. Given the presentation of all the attitudes so far, Act One fittingly closes with two deflating perspectives on the immediate action drawn from images of trade and eating which also recur throughout the play. Ulysses compares his scheme of entering Ajax into the lists to sharp business practices: ' Let us, like merchants, First show foul wares, and think perchance they'll sell; If not, the lustre of the better shall exceed By showing the worse first. (I.iii.358-361 ) And Nestor "digests" this advice readily: Now, Ulysses, I begin to relish thy advice, And I will give a taste thereof forthwith To Agamemnon. (I.iii.386-388) According to Caroline Spurgeon, the images of food, drink and cooking in this play far exceed their use in other plays.8 As Derek Traversi explains, these images, which include the act of tasting, fit the play well because they express two sides of the digestive process: "Taste is a sense at once luxuriant, delicate, and transitory; also, it can be connected, in gross opposition to Troilus's bodiless idealism, with digestion and the functioning of the body...In fact, the very sense which expresses the related intensity and lightness of Trojan passion becomes, in the Greeks, a symbol of inaction and distemper out of which issue the boils, 'the bothcy core,' of Thersites' disgust. Of course, Ulysses clearly knows that "Love, friendship, charity, are subjects all/ To envious and calumniating time" (III.iii.172-173) which puts the "scraps" of "good deeds past" into his wallet, "devoured/ As fast as they are made, forgot as soon/ As done" (III.iii.148-150). But taste serves well to show that all the transformations in this play are from the refined to the vulgar, from (as Troilus says) "love's thrice-repured nectar" to the "orts," "bits," and "greasy relics" of Cressida's "o'ereaten faith" (III.ii.21 and V.ii.155-157). Obviously, cynicism, couched in gastro-intestinal language, is not confined to the Greeks. The appetites of both Greeks and Trojans will seek to devour one another for the sake of "sweet" Helen who, it will be said, is, in fact, "bitter" to her country. They will become more alike one another in their rapacious rivalry than they are different from one another in principle. That is why Nestor's concluding couplet neatly summarizes the action of all the rivals, even though he applies it only to the immediate plan of pitting Ajax against Achilles: Two curs shall tame each other; pride alone Must tarre the mastiffs on, as 'twere a bone. (I.iii.389-390) THERSITES: A PRIVILEGED MAN Patroclus: Then tell me, I pray thee, what's thyself? Thersites: Thy knower, Patroclus. (II.iii.48-50) By Act II a frustration of purposeful action is emerging as the rhythm of the play so that we will not be surprised to discover that the seeming-wise plan of Ulysses and Nestor comes to nothing. As Thersites reports: "They set me up in policy, that mongrel cur, Ajax, against that dog of as bad a kind, Achilles; and now is the cur Ajax prouder than the cur Achilles, and will not arm today" (V.iv.12-16). - 112 -It is beginning to emerge that one rival attitude looks very much like the other, both as intrinsically flawed and as powerless to control the flow of events. Neither Troilus's visionary idealism nor Cressida's short-sighted pragmatism can recommend itself to an audience seeking a kind of salvation through significant action in the teeth of devouring time. As Act II begins, the choric comments of Thersites voice a feeling of disgust as purpose is reduced to appetite, action to motion, and man to beast. Thersites has only invective to offer, but it serves as an audience's outlet for nausea at what is being "digested" in this play. No sooner is the council concluded and the plotting of Ulysses begun than Thersites enters railing: "Agamemnon, how if he had boils — full, all over, generally?...And those boils did run? — say so — did not the general run then? Were not that a botchy core? Then would some matter come from him. I see none now" (II.i.1-9). The generals have just decided that Achilles is to blame for the "fever whereof all our power is sick" (I.iii.139), and now Thersites suggests that the diagnosis is not that simple. The disease is "general," and, as the pun suggests, this means that it affects the person of the "head and general," as Agamemnon describes himself (I.iii.222), and does so completely. Through him, of course, the entire Greek camp is affected. There is no "matter" in their designs worth more than the matter of an erupted boil. From this perspective, the Greeks at war lose all heroic stature and are reduced to sick men whose actions are symptomatic of disease, not of health and vigor. If Thersites is right, it will not work for Ulysses to make a scapegoat out of Achilles in order to save the order of which Agamemnon is the head. The order itself is too "generally" far gone to be saved. This is like the state of Denmark in which King Claudius calls Hamlet (his "mighty opposite") the "hectic" in his blood and an ulcer, while he is himself, - 113 -according to the Ghost, the one whose incestuous lust and fratricide have poisoned all of Denmark. The disease imagery is one of several ways in which the railing of Thersites reduces the heroic action, however rationalized, to mere appetite or motion with only an ostensibly defensible purpose. Thersites also uses animal imagery to reduce the actions of men to a bestial counterpart. Combining animal with disease imagery, Thersites turns on Ajax who has struck him: "The plague of Greece upon thee, thou mongrel beef-witted lord!" (II.i. 12-13) • Thersites' bestiary would make of Ajax and Achilles mongrel curs, Ulysses a dog-fox, Troilus an ass, Diomede a hunting hound, and Menelaus a bull baited by the dog Paris. As this list makes clear, Thersites' invective applies to all — no Greek or Trojan excepted. By taking all men to be beasts and by reducing all heroic action to the level of sensual appetite, Thersites makes clear that there is no reasonable distinction between the rivals and that therefore a victory on either side will gain nothing for anyone. There is hardly a more troubling perspective in all of Shakespeare's plays. If Thersites is right, all action is merely a rationalized license to slaughter. Neither the Greeks who seek to regain Helen nor the Trojans who have stolen her (in retaliation for the theft of their aunt) "deserve" to win. "A plague on both your houses!", as Mercutio would say. Because Thersites tries to debunk the heroic postures of men who are intent on destroying one another, Kenneth Burke calls him Saint Thersites — an example of quizzicality toward symbol structures which are erected or used for a deadly purpose: And what of Thersites, Despised of all his tribe Whipped by power, wisdom, and heroic love, all three: - 114 -(By Agamemnon, Ulysses, and Achilles), Loathed by the bard that made him, Ultimate filth, speaking against epic war? What of Thersites? Salute — to Saint Thersites.10 Thersites' invective may serve a purgative purpose, but as mere railing it does not offer any way out through action. With a war on and with rivals in conflict, man, the symbol-using animal, is radically frustrated if he suspects that there is no action he can take which is not illusory. Thersites, however, is not obliged to provide answers. He tells only what he knows and leaves others to make of his remarks what they will. As Achilles explains to Patroclus, Thersites is a "privileged" man (II.iii.59). He is like the Fool who is licensed to speak his mind for his betters' instruction and entertainment. The analogy explains much about Thersites, including the vehemence with which he is made to speak out in this play. As a bastard and as a soldier serving voluntary among the Greeks, Thersites is an outsider, able to take a disinterested perspective on the action. However, as a Fool, Thersites belongs to a household of sorts, obliged to share what he knows with his master. Like Lear's Fool, Thersites speaks out not only because it is his job, but, even more, because in some sense he cares about his fellows. True, Lear's Fool speaks in gentler, more riddling ways, but his message is a hard one for all that: Lear has made a mistake, and he will pay a price. The Fool's astringent comments seek to cure Lear of the blinding pride which proves to be his undoing. In no way, however, does the Fool use what he knows to desert his master; he can advise Kent, according to common sense, that no one should follow a wheel as it goes down hill, but he refuses to heed his own warning and follows after Lear into the storm. The perspective he offers, - 115 -then, is a sympathetic critique of Lear's tragedy, not merely a satirical indictment of Lear's folly. Thersites' bitter style conceals his care about what is happening to Ajax and to Achilles, his two masters. His concern is not as evident as Lear's Fool's, but it is there, exasperated by the folly which leads men to their own slaughter. Thersites' words to Ajax are harsh but true: "Thou hast no more brain than I have in my elbows; an asinico may tutor thee. Thou scurvy-valiant ass, thou art here but to thrash Troyans, and thou art bought and sold among those of any wit like a barbarian slave" (II.i.45-50). It does not sound like a caring critque, but it is a true abstract of Ajax's condition and, to that extent, it is a service to say it. Ajax beats Thersites, but in doing so he is silencing the only one who can tell him who he is. Thersites has similar words for Achilles: "A great deal of your wit, too, lies in your sinews, or else there be liars." Then, addressing both Achilles and Ajax, he says, "Hector shall have a great catch if he knock out either of your brains. 'A were as good crack a fusty nut with no kernel...There's Ulysses and old Nestor...yoke you like draft oxen and make you plow up the wars" (II.i.102-111). This is precisely how Ulysses views Achilles — as the "sinew and the forehand of our host" (I.iii.144), who, along with "dull brainless Ajax" (I.iii.380) should submit to those who will guide his power like a battering ram in the hands of those "that with the fineness of their souls/ By reason guide his execution" (I.iii.207-210). Thersites, then, offers a perspective which sounds radically reductive but which is also partially true. It is even half-way to compassion through concern. Like other satirists such as Voltaire and Mark Twain, Thersites' railing implies values he is trying to protect, and - 116 -the scurrility of his invective indicates how desperate he has become when he is not heeded. Even more than his verbal commentary, Thersites' functioning at two points serves to reenforce the awareness that in this play rival attitudes — both in love and war — are more alike than different and equally have no effect on the flow of events. On the field of battle in Act V, Thersites, surprised by Hector, admits that he is "a rascal, a scurvy, railing knave, a very filthy rogue," and he is allowed to live (V.iv.29-30). In this encounter Thersites shows that he is obviously not "for Hector's match" (V.v.27), and Hector's chivalry in letting him go seems easily to distinguish heroic from vile behavior. For the moment, Thersites, like Falstaff on the field of Shrewsbury, survives because he comically side-steps any commitment to a serious action or identity. He lives, but at the price of diminshing his significance for anyone trying to identify a reason for living. For the moment, Hector's code, which can distinguish man from man, stands out as the one attitude able to guide events in some significant way. However, the illusion that this is so is short-lived. Two short scenes later, Hector, after once more showing courtesy by letting Achilles retire, hunts a nameless Greek in armor for his hide. The result is that Hector's courtesy seems arbitrary and his chivalry without reasonable motivation. Ironically, he refers to the cause of his own death when he addresses the corpse of his victim: "Most putrified core, so fair without,/ Thy goodly armor thus hath cost thy life" (V.viii.1-2). Hector is admirable for his courtesy but contemptible for his stupidity. Perhaps Troilus is right to call Hector's standards "fool's play" even as Hector defends them as "fair play" (V.iii.43). - 117 -In any case, Thersites lives to comment on the conflict, and his most telling commentary falls in the scene between Hector's pursuit of the armor and his return with it. Thersites meets his opposite in the bastard son of Priam: Bastard: Turn, slave, and fight. Thersites: What art thou? Bastard: A bastard son of Priam's. Thersites: I am a bastard too; I love bastards. I am bastard begot, bastard instructed, bastard in mind, bastard in valor, in everything illegitimate. One bear will not bite another, and wherefore should one bastard? (V.vii.13-20) From one perspective, this exchange confirms the earlier impression of Thersites as merely a coward in order to live; from another perspective, this meeting mirrors all the others. If Thersites has met his exact double in the Bastard, has not Menelaus met his in Paris: "The cuckold and the cuckold-maker are at it. Now, bull! Now, dog!" (V.vii.9-10)? Has not Troilus met his double in Diomede: "Hold thy whore, Grecian! Now for thy whore,/ Troyan!" (V.iv.24-25)? Has not Hector met his exact double in Achilles? Ajax thinks so: Diomedes: The bruit is, Hector's slain, and by Achilles. Ajax: If it be so, yet bragless let it be; Great Hector was as good a man as he. (V.ix.3-5) Hector may be more courteous than Achilles, and Achilles more ruthless than Hector, but they talk the same under battle conditions. After killing his Greek, Hector says, "Rest, sword; thou hast thy fill of blood and death" (V.viii.1), and, after killing Hector, Achilles uses the same imagery of eating and sleeping to describe his action: "My half-supped sword, that - 118 -frankly would have fed,/ Pleased with this dainty bait, thus goes to bed" (V.viii.19-20). Thersites' meeting with the Bastard, then, functions as a denigrating comment on the rivals of the war plot. Like Thersites, they are all "bastards." Earlier in the play, his transfer from the service of Ajax to the tent of Achilles served as a deflating comment on the transfer of Helen from the Greeks to Troy and of Cressida from Trolilus to Diomede. In all three cases there is a transfer without a change, motion without progress, more similarity than difference between one master and another, Ajax and Achilles, Paris and Menelaus, Troilus and Diomede. In II.i. Thersites is in Ajax's service; in II.ii the great debate in the Trojan council seeks to determine whether to surrender Helen, and at the opening of II.iii, Thersites comments on the equally poor merits of Ajax and Achilles before being "inveigled" into Achilles' service. Like Launcelot Gobbo's debating with himself before leaving Shylock's service and entering Bassanio's, Thersites pauses to weigh the alternatives. Unlike Gobbo, however, Thersites sees nothing to distinguish one lout from another and therefore transfers from Ajax to Achilles without explanation. HELEN: A THEME OF HONOR AND RENOWN? Thersites' reductive views in which all are alike and equally less-than-human is confirmed by the Trojans in council who are doubles of the Greeks for pursuing a policy that sounds honorable but which has no reasonable basis. Troilus's defense for keeping Helen not only contradicts his earlier complaint ("I cannot fight upon this cause") but is also unreasonable in itself. After - 119 -dismissing reason as merely a check to heroic action, Troilus overturns the moral hierarchy of reason, will, and senses by locating the value of Helen in an act of "will enkindled by mine eyes and ears/ Two traded pilots 'twixt the dangerous shores/ Of will and judgment" (II.ii.63-65). He argues from the analogy that in electing to "take" a wife, one does not go back on the commitment, no matter, it seems, what the commitment is. "How may I avoid,/ Although my will distaste what it elected,/ The wife I chose?" (II.iii.65-67). Ironically, it is Menelaus's wife who has been "taken," in the sense of stolen, and this should suggest that the act is indefensible from the outset. The one possible justification for having taken Helen and for keeping her is that the Greeks keep their aunt, yet even this reason is spurious since Troilus admits that there is no comparison between an "old aunt" and "a Grecian queen, whose youth and freshness/ Wrinkles Apollo's and makes pale the morning" (II .ii.79-80). Even as he speaks, however, Troilus inadvertently impugns Helen's worth by likening her not only to stolen goods but to soiled silks which are not to be returned and to the "remainder viands" of a meal which are not to be carelessly discarded. He makes the act of her "fair rape" less heroic by using mercantile imagery which alters Marlowe's famous lines about Helen even while alluding to them. Marlowe had said that Helen's "face" had launched above a thousand ships and had burnt the topless towers of Ilium. For Marlowe, tragedy follows from a romantic cause at the same time that the lure of beauty implies tragic consequences. For Troilus, the tragic potential of taking Helen is ignored, while the action itself is likened not to heroic but to mercantile adventures: "Why she is a pearl/ Whose price had launched above a thousand ships/ And turned crowned kings to merchants" (II.ii.81-83). Finally, Troilus argues that the decision to take Helen cannot be reversed without impugning that decision. In other words, loss of face will - 120 -ensue, even if the original deed was a theft. "0 theft most base," he concludes, "That we have stol'n what we do fear to keep!" (II.ii.92-92). A speech of 34 lines could hardly contain more illogical arguments and self-damaging allusions, proving that Troilus and Paris, too, are, as Hector says, "not much/ Unlike young men, whom Aristotle thought/ Unfit to hear moral philosophy" (II .ii.165-167). The apt comment on this speech and, in fact, the entire situation immediately follows in the wailing of Cassandra: Cry, Troyans, cry! Practice your eyes with tears! Troy must not be, nor goodly Ilion stand; Our firebrand brother, Paris, burns us all. Cry, Troyans, cry! A Helen and a woe! Cry, cry! Troy burns, or else let Helen go. (II.ii.108-112) But Cassandra is dismissed as mad by Troilus and Paris whose honors are engaged to make the quarrel gracious, and Priam — the nominal authority of Troy — is too weak to do more than issue a mild protest: Paris, you speak Like one besotted on your sweet delights. You have the honey still, but these the gall; So to be valiant is no praise at all. (II.ii.142-145) Hector knows better than Troilus; he knows, for example, about the "law in each well-ordered nation/ To curb those raging appetites that are/ Most disobedient and refractory." He argues: If Helen, then, be wife to Sparta's king, As it is known she is, these moral laws Of nature and of nations speak aloud To have her back returned. (II.ii.180-186) Despite his knowing this, Hector agrees to follow a policy that has no reasonable basis. Because of that, his reversal of his stand shows less constancy than Troilus's reversal and leaves an audience with little to choose between Greeks and Trojans. Both camps know their orthodox philosophy, and both camps leave it hanging in the air in order to pursue policies that are calculated to bring victory and fame. The proof that the Trojans are mistaken rather than noble idealists is not only the commentary of Cassandra within the debate and the commentary of Thersites after it, but also the presentation of Helen herself. Just as Cressida's entrance had deflated Troilus's references to her as a "pearl," Helen's entrance with Paris does the same for her. Pandarus is waiting for them and jokes with them, just as he does with Cressida and Troilus. Both women are trivialized by being compared with one another in this scene while Helen tells bawdy jokes, dallies with Paris to the soft sounds of music, and encourages Pandarus's lewd love song. The constant repetition of the epithets "fair" and "sweet" throughout the scene not only reduces the conversation to a banal level but also affects an audience with nausea at too much sweetness. As Friar Lawrence counselled Romeo, "The sweetest honey/ Is loathsome in his own deliciousness/ And in the taste confounds the appetite" (Romeo and Juliet II.vi.11-13); and, as Orsino knows, excess of any food causes the appetite to sicken and so die (Twelfth Night I.i.1-3). Some productions, like Ashland's in 1984, will make Helen not only nauseating but also obviously corrupt by showing her suffering the symptoms of venereal disease. As a result, she, the occasion if not the cause of the war, appears as the "putrified core" at the heart of the action of which the Grecian's armor in Act V Is only another emblem. Helen, as she is presented, differs, then, from the Helen of Troilus's defense before the council just as surely as his estimate of Cressida differed from the presented woman. If the women are to be blamed for fickle and even - 122 -adulterous behavior — and this had become the conventional appraisal of both by Shakespeare's time — the men are no better for their wishful thinking in the guise of heroic rhetoric. Throughout this play, Shakespeare allows no attitude to win out over the other. The Trojans and the Greeks fight each other over a worthless Helen; Troilus and Diomede fight over a worthless Cressida, but neither rival deserves the woman more than the other nor is she worth deserving. And, to repeat, the woman who is not worth deserving is also no less despicable than the brutes who fight over her. A GORY EMULATION Thersites' body is as good as Ajax' When neither is alive. Cymbeline (IV.ii. 252-253) Throughout this play, Shakespeare empties every attitude and action of significance; by arousing an audience's expectations only to frustrate them, he teaches it to expect only disappointment. He forces it to share in a rhythm which arouses frustration when "The ample proposition that hope makes/ In all designs begun on earth below/ Fails in the promised largeness" (I.iii.3-5). An audience is forced to experience the failure of any symbolic action to achieve a significant ordering of mere motion. In this play, Shakespeare is exploring to the full that dramatizing of opposites and that scepticism about scapegoats which he began with 1 Henry VI. It is Hector's fight with Ajax that shows the true state of the rivals in this play: they are so much alike, so related in fact, that the only reasonable issue of their quarrel is "embracement." In no way can Hector dissect Ajax so that it would be possible to say "This hand is Grecian all,/ And this is Troyan; the sinews of this leg/ All Greek, and this all Troy; my - 123 -mother's blood/ Runs on the dexter cheek, and this sinister/ Bounds in my father's" (IV.v.124-128). The build up to this match, which began with Aeneas's challenge to Agamemnon in I.iii, is frustrated by Hector's refusal to bring it to any conclusion. Like all the other frustrations of progressive form, this disapppoints an audience's expectation of an outcome to the combat. In doing so, it educates the audience into the state of ironic contemplation of opposing stands or rival attitudes in which action is frustrated while the range of opinion is also recognized. Hector's refusal to defeat Ajax, whom he might have killed, is the rhetorical equivalent of recognizing the opposite term's inalienable existence. Throughout the canon of his works, Shakespeare's way with an opposing or dissenting attitude is highly realistic: the term is not to be killed off, but is to survive either in opposition to the dominant order or in an uneasy truce with it. Shylock is not killed but offered conversion; Malvolio is entreated to a peace; Jaques' melancholy unfits him for the company's festive mood and so, with reluctance, he is allowed to seek the society of Duke Frederick somewhere on the fringes of Arden; in Much Ado, Don John is returned to Messina under guard and survives to threaten his brother's authority as he has from the beginning. In these plays, the dominant attitude accommodates the subordinate one with some sense of its right to be heard but with no recognition of its right to dominate. In Troilus and Cressida, the attitudes clash more equally, frustrating an audience's need for a symbolic action that shows itself capable of establishing some order in the teeth of chaos, some durable significance against the destructive flow of time. After the match between Ajax and Hector, and an amicable exchange between them and among Agamemnon, Ulysses and Nestor, Achilles demonstrates - 124 -the usual attitude of a rival by refusing to recognize any distinction in Hector's parts. They are all one, and all worthy of death. This taunting draws from Hector a similar boast, which he admits is foolish even as he says it. The contrast cannot be clearer between the issue of embracement because rivals are essentially related, and the issue of death because one rival refuses to recognize in the other the mirror image of himself. The imagery of eating returns in order to emphasize that the desire for slaughter is more appetitive and insatiable than reasonable, and would reduce the protagonists to "orts and bits" of themselves as soon as they have tasted and digested one another: Achilles: Now, Hector, I have fed mine eyes on thee, I have with exact view perused thee, Hector, And quoted joint by joint. Hector: Is this Achilles? Achilles: I am Achilles. Hector: Stand fair, I pray thee; let me look on thee. Achilles: Behold thy fill. Hector: Nay,I have done already. (IV.v.230-235) The imagery of eating also links the actions of both the war and the love plots, suggesting not only that the slaughter can be sensual and that love can be a battle, but that both are appetites which cannot make distinctions in what they do because of the mere movement of their desire to be satisfied. Achilles, enraged by Hector's killing of Patroclus, will reenter the battle and slaughter Hector, but, as I have implied earlier, the action will prove nothing for either side. Granted, Hector will get a eulogy from Troilus, and his loss will be felt because he was, for the most part, courteous in an anachronistic way. But he was also as violent as Achilles in battle (Nestor calls him a "belching whale") and also apt to seek "bad success in a bad cause" (II.ii.117) against his own reason and against the warnings of Andromache, Cassandra, and Priam. - 125 -Troilus, like Hector, holds to beliefs which are endearing for their courtesy and devotion but which are also shown to be foolish. Troilus's estimate of Cressida, as I have said, bears no resemblance to the Cressida an audience knows from legend and from this play. As a result, Troilus's disillusionment with her in V.ii. is simultaneously a sorry shock for him, a source of wonderment for Ulysses ("May worthy Troilus be half attached/ With that which here his passion doth express?" V.ii.158-159), and a subject for scorn from Thersites ("Will 'a swagger himself out on's own eyes?" V.ii. 133). Troilus's idealism is, in fact, no more a constant and trustworthy attitude than is Cressida's accommodating pragmatism, the proof of which is Troilus's desertion of Cressida in Act I, when he follows Aeneas to battle, his slinking away from her house in Act III, and his refusal to read her letters after witnessing her tryst with Diomede. Troilus is hardly as "true as truth's simplicity" (III.ii.170), and his rivalry with Diomede is, as a result, without a basis. Troilus becomes as fierce as Achilles over a cause which was misconceived from the start, pursued with only indifferent loyalty, and deserted in fact while fighting in its name. In this play, Shakespeare leaves an audience no way out of a situation clearly presented as corrupted and corrupting. Neither Greek nor Trojan, Achilles nor Hector, Troilus nor Diomede, characterizes an attitude which is superior to another and able to wrest significance from the' flow of events.11 Instead, this play is a quizzical analysis of the attitudes which arise in the attempt to grapple with devouring time in the guise of war, and, at the same time it is a refusal to argue for any one of them. Rhetorically, then, this explains the darkness of Troilus and Cressida: an audience is kept from finding in the drama a "ritual of rebirth" or a "salvation device," in Burke's terms, which will point to the way out of its burden through identification with a surviving term. - 126 -In place of a symbolic action with purpose and hope of success, Troilus exits after Hector's death with the promise of motiveless motion that proves nothing: "Hope of revenge shall hide our inward woe" (V.x.31), and Pandarus explicitly bequeaths to the audience the corruption of diseases which it has already shared in a figurative sense through identification with brutal Greeks and self-deceiving Trojans. The enactment of inaction through a quizzical study of rival attitudes could hardly be more complete than it is in Troilus and Cressida. As Ellis-Fermor suggests, the "way out" cannot be found in this play but can only be suggested later, in the tragedies and romances.12 - 127 -V. MEASURE FOR MEASURE Rhetorically, Measure for Measure is a disturbing play because it presents corruption or lawlessness in terms of lust but does not show any "property of government," any law of justice or mercy, that can extirp it from the life of a city or from the heart of a man. Corruption is intolerable since it cannot provide the basis for positive action; it frustrates the symbol-using animal who orders the lawless world of motion through terms which identify his purposes for action and which allow him to join with others in achieving those purposes. Without authoritative principles of order, a person faces social and even personal disintegration. Measure for Measure begins as the Duke's controlled experiment to solve a problem of government and to test his deputy Angelo. The problem, simply put, is whether lawlessness or corruption can best be controlled by justice or mercy. These conflicting attitudes qualify one another in heated debate but leave the corruption of Vienna as unreformed as ever. In the course of the debate, the problem of the city becomes the problem of one person: Angelo discovers in himself a war between the conflicting attitudes of sense and honor which lead him to conclude "We are all frail"; no one in Vienna can trust that his adherence to one attitude will prevent him from espousing its opposite. More troubling, no one can be certain that one attitude is virtuous and the other vicious, since virtue and vice often appear as their opposites. The play concludes with the Duke's offer of pardon to all and an allocation of marriages which conventionally betoken that obstacles have been overcome and that destinies have been achieved. A closer look at the Duke's judgment* however, will show that the issues raised earlier in the play have not been solved but sidestepped. Having seen "corruption boil and bubble/ - 128 -Till it o'errun the stew," the Duke, in effect, puts the lid back on the pot. He covers the dilemma over with the appearance of merciful judgement and by tolerating all attitudes prevents a resolution in terms of any one of them. ANGELO AND ISABELLA: A FIERCE DISPUTE The problem of this play and the problem of government begins and ends with what to do about Claudio. This young man has gotten his fiancee, Juliet, with child — a natural act which, in this case, falls outside the law governing its exercise. Theirs is not a lawful marriage because it lacks the outward form of public rites. Of some importance to the themes of this play, the union appears to be fornication in the eyes of the civil law no matter how truly married the couple may be in their own eyes and according to commonly acknowledged conditions for clandestine marriages.1 Angelo, who has been given the Duke's own scope of authority to correct the abuses of liberty in Vienna, has drawn the line in such a way that the law applies to Claudio's case. Escalus, his vice regent, may protest that the line is drawn too widely, and Lucio, Claudio's fast talking friend, may dismiss the offense as a game of "tick tack" and of no legal importance. But Claudio himself, while alleging the extenuating circumstances of his case, while protesting that the law has been so neglected as to be almost dead, while insinuating that Angelo has enforced the law for the sake of gaining a reputation as a strict governor, even Claudio admits that his offense can be called "lechery" and that it comes within the compass of the law. Wryly, he suggests that the restraint to which he is subjected comes from too much liberty, just as fasting is the price of surfeiting. With this analogy, Claudio describes a movement of "measure for measure" which will characterize many actions of this play. Attitudes of one kind necessarily provoke their - 129 -opposites, and the two compete as equally plausible motives for action. Liberty and restraint have their counterparts in justice and mercy, sense and honour, frailty and grace.2 Claudio's is a good test case for arguing the ordering of the commonwealth. On the one hand, he is guilty of a crime which, figuratively, represents willful appetite at war with the right reason of law. Lechery or lust in all of its forms, if given too much "liberty," would dissolve all social relationships like the one represented by marriage. On the other hand, Claudio's guilt is slight and much closer to impetuosity than malice. He respects the law regarding marriage but has been caught in a technicality on the way to assuming that relationship. For Claudio, as for everyman, the law only serves to point out how impossible it is to act perfectly. In Claudio, then, an audience can see itself in its frail humanity, wanting the good but failing to achieve it completely. The Provost is the spokesman for an audience's common sense perspective when he laments, "All sects, all ages smack of this vice, and he/ To die for't!" (II.i.5-6).3 The way out of his predicament, it seems, is through mercy rather than justice, and so he appeals through Lucio to his sister Isabella that she intercede for him with Angelo. Before he meets with her, however, Angelo's precise views on justice and the law are made clear in an interview with Escalus. For Angelo, the law is not a "scarecrow," standing still while "birds of prey" perch as they please; to be effective, it must be put into execution. Escalus's special pleading on Claudio's behalf — that he had a noble father — is clearly beside the point, and his more subtle argument, that Angelo, too, could easily become subject to the law and should therefore show mercy, receives a most just and severe response: "You may not so extenuate his offense/ For I have had such faults; but rather tell me/ When I - 130 -that censure him do so offend,/ Let mine own judgement pattern out my death/ And nothing come in partial. Sir, he must die" (II.i.27-31). The response, of course, is ironic in view of Angelo's subsequent fall, but it shows his impartial commitment to justice. If faults are to be extirpated from the commonwealth, they must first be "open made to justice" and then "seized," not ignored. It makes no difference who has committed the fault. Angelo's thinking on this matter, in fact, echoes the Duke's, who has explained the condition of Vienna in similar terms: Now, as fond fathers, Having bound up the threatening twigs of birch, Only to stick it in their children's sight For terror, not to use, in time the rod Becomes more mock'd than fear'd so our decrees, Dead to infliction, to themselves are dead, And liberty plucks Justice by the nose, The baby beats the nurse, and quite athwart Goes all decorum. (I.iii.23-3D Much like Ulysses' speech on degree in Troilus and Cressida, these words present an image of society turned upside down for lack of right relations. In the battle between mercy and justice, then, justice must prevail if decorum is to be retained. If Angelo's views are severe and precise, they are also just and, for that reason, represent an attitude which is desirable for the ordering of society which it can effect. Of course, this attitude, however desirable, has only a limited scope; despite their rightness, the "biting laws" can never coerce all behavior. So, for example, Vienna's bawdiness will live on in the person of Pompey the tapster despite any litigation against it. In an episode that follows immediately upon Angelo's apologia for justice, the audience finds this out in comic terms. Escalus, interrogating Pompey, asks him: Pompey, you are partly a bawd, Pompey, howsoever you colour it in being a - 131 -tapster, are you not? Come, tell me, it shall be the better for you. Pompey: Truly, sir, I am a poor fellow that would live. Escalus: How would you live, Pompey? By being a bawd? What do you think of the trade, Pompey? Is it a lawful trade? Pompey: If the law would allow it, sir. Escalus: But the law will not allow it, Pompey; nor it shall not be allowed in Vienna. Pompey: Does your worship mean to geld and splay all the youth of the city? Escalus: No, Pompey. Pompey: Truly, sir, in my poor opinion, they will to't then. (II.i.216-230) The value of justice, then, is admittedly limited. Nevertheless, its value must be recognized in order to appreciate the dramatic conflict that occurs when the claims of justice as a principle for the ordering of society clash with the claims of mercy. The question is this: if justice cannot extirp lawlessness, will mercy do any better? i It is during Isabella's plea before Angelo that Shakespeare sets up this -clash of attitudes — one of the most absolute and famous confrontations in all of his drama — and in this debate Angelo is not a straw man. What emerges from the scene is no clear victory for either attitude but a keen appreciation by the audience of the reasonableness and the limits of each. Isabella herself, at the beginning of her plea, admits that her -brother's fault should "meet the blow of justice," but asks that the fault be condemned and not her brother. Angelo responds, recalling his earlier scarecrow analogy: "Mine were the very cipher of a function/ To fine the faults, whose fine stands in record,/ And let go by the actor." "0 just but severe law!," concedes Isabel, "I had a brother then" (II.ii.39-42). The case seems closed until prompting from Lucio causes Isabel to plead for the possibility of mercy as an alternative to justice. In effect, since - 132 -justice cannot be answered, she seeks to supersede it. Unlike Cassandra, her counterpart in Shakespeare's source (Whetstone's Promos and Cassandra), Isabel offers no argument that would mitigate the justice of Angelo's ruling. Cassandra, for example, had argued for her brother: Weigh his yong' yeares, the force of love, which forced his amis Weigh, weigh, that Mariage works amends for what committed is. He hath defilde no nuptial bed, nor forced rape hath mov'd, He fel through love, who never ment but wive the wight he lov'd. And wantons sure to keepe in awe these statutes first were made, Or none but lustfull leachers should with rygrous law be payd." ^ Isabella, however, speaks completely beside the point of what justice requires and suggests, instead, that mercy is possible, that it is a becoming attitude for rulers, that in a hypothetical change of places Claudio would not be as stern to Angelo as Angelo is toward him and, finally, that God himself has shown the best example of mercy by forgiving all the debt owed by a forfeited humanity(II.ii.49-78). This last argument might carry weight with the individual Christian; however, it provides no guidance for a legal system which must function according to norms of justice interpreted impartially for all. Angelo seems to acknowledge the force of Isabel's argument for himself as a person at the same time that he rules it out of court as a judge: "It is the law, not I, condemn your brother;/ Were he my kinsman, brother, or my son,/ It should be thus with him. He must die tomorrow" (II.ii.80-82). Angelo stands for justice, as he says, because it ends present evils in order to prevent future ones. With justice he shows pity both to society, whose thirst for justice must be satisfied, and to the criminal, who not only gets what he deserves (which is a kind of satisfaction) but is also prevented from committing further wrongs. - 133 -Justice, then, has many arguments on its side at the same time that Isabella's plea for mercy seems right because it would save Claudio, a person whom no one in the audience wants to die. Shakespeare has done well to make Claudio his proving ground for contending attitudes. If Isabella had pleaded for mercy toward all the bawds of Vienna, if she had, in effect, argued that nothing be done to prevent babies from beating their nurses, an audience could not have accepted her plea. But her arguments, however much beside the point of what justice requires, retain some cogency because they would effect what the audience wants — the life of Claudio. So far, an audience has witnessed the drawing of the line in a debate between two attitudes. Angelo draws it in such a way that Claudio's death is required in the name of justice; Isabella has drawn it so that Claudio's death is excluded in the name of mercy. THE FRAILTY OF OUR POWERS Isabella's arguments, however convincing they may be to an audience, do not reach their most cogent pitch until she uses again an argument that Angelo has already used and answered for himself. "Go to your bosom," she challenges him, "Knock there, and ask your heart what it doth know/ That's like my brother's fault. If it confess/ A natural guiltiness, such as is his,/ Let it not sound a thought upon your tongue/ Against my brother's life" (II.ii.137-142). Isabella would make the execution of justice impossible if the judge were to share the same crime with the criminal. Earlier, Angelo had offered an alternative to this position: that impartial judgement should "pattern out [his own] death" if he were guilty of the same crime which he himself - 134 -condemned (II.i.27-31). However, as Isabel speaks, the Deputy begins to turn toward her point of view: "She speaks, and 'tis such sense/ That my sense breeds with it" (II.ii.143-144). No doubt an audience is supposed to share the Provost's sentiments, whispered in an aside, "Pray heaven she win him"; no doubt it is to welcome the change in Angelo's attitude because it will save Claudio. But for Angelo, this moment is clearly a temptation. It means the abandoning of his earlier conviction that even thieves recognize a kind of law among themselves and the taking up of an entirely different proposition: that "Thieves for their robbery have authority, / When judges steal themselves" (II.ii.176-177). "Quite athwart goes all decorum" if Angelo's sharing of Claudio's condition means that justice must be jettisoned. "0, let her brother live!" is not the impartial judgement of a just but severe law; it is the abandoning of a sentence because the judge does not want to apply it to himself as well. The depth of Angelo's agony has to be measured not only by the depth of depravity which he discovers in himself at which he exclaims, "Having waste ground enough/ Shall we desire to raze the sanctuary/ And pitch our evils there?" (II.ii.170-172). His agony is deepened by the conclusion to which this lust leads him — the abandoning of a strict adherence to justice.5 Shakespeare has so set up the terms of this dilemma that each attitude is an extreme exclusive of the other. Pure" justice is unmerciful and leads to death; pure mercy is unjust and leads to indecorum. To abandon one untenable position leads, by an equal and opposite reaction, to the adoption of the other. Isabella's arguments, then, have meant the victory of sense in two ways. For the audience, the sparing of Claudio makes reasonable sense; for Angelo, however, it means the victory of appetite. His sense "breeds," but it is with - 135 -"the strong and swelling evil/ Of my conception" (II.iv.6-7). He feels in himself the force of blood leading to lawless ends and, at the same time, abandons a view of impartial justice that would regulate this appetite with deadly force. Claudio had, ironically, anticipated this effect of his sister on the Deputy when he told Lucio of her talents as a persuader in words of double meaning: "in her youth/ There is a prone and speechless dialect/ Such as moves men; besides, she hath prosperous art/ When she will play with reason and discourse/ And well she can persuade" (I.ii.172-176),° With keen insight, Shakespeare presents Angelo's lust for Isabella — not the Tightness of her reasons — as the cause of his abandoning a commitment to impartial justice. Moreover, the playwright has so structured the first interview with Angelo that Lucio's presence and his promptings against Isabella's coldness seem much like pimping for a prostitution of justice. As Shakespeare has set up the dilemma, the audience has little room to maneuver. In wanting Claudio to live, it must also accept the victory of "sense," and Angelo soon shows what this means by tyrannically giving his "sensual race the rein" and commanding Isabel to "Fit thy consent to my sharp appetite...Redeem thy brother/ By yielding up thy body to my will" (II.iv.159-163). Even as he pursues his own lustful intentions, Angelo shows Isabella the limits of her own merciful attitude. When Isabel refuses to act as Claudio has done and as Angelo is trying to do, Angelo points out: "Were you not then as cruel as the sentence/ That you have slander'd so?" (IV.iv.109-110). In other words, are there not actions that mercy would proscribe as surely as justice would? Isabel's answer corroborates Angelo's point: "Ignomy in ransom and free pardon/ Are of two houses: lawful mercy/ Is nothing kin to foul - 136 -redemption" (II.iv.111-113). She implicitly admits that mercy is limited to actions that are lawful so that under some conditions redemption can be foul. She admits still further that she would "something excuse" Claudio's deed, even though it deserves to be hated, "For his advantage that I dearly love" (II.iv.119-120). Clearly, it is as unhelpful for mercy to excuse evil for the sake of private feelings as it is for justice to condemn what should be saved merely for the sake of public order. Angelo's comments on this dilemma show compassion not only for his own predicament but for what he sees as Isabel's struggle too: "We are all frail" (II.iv.121). He sees before Isabel does, and he sees with tragic awareness, that neither perfect justice nor perfect mercy is possible. At the same time, he sees that the "affection that now guides [him] most" makes him false and tyrannical. From the first moments of his temptation, he has seen that his identity is at stake: "What dost thou, or what art thou, Angelo?," he asks (II.ii.173). It seems that he cannot be himself without acting justly and yet he cannot act justly at least in this one case where he is severely tempted. As commendable as he is for many reasons, Angelo has lost his honor by wanting to do one deed which will disparage it. That is why it is with increasing irony that he is addressed as judge with the title "your honour" and with the customary good wish, frequently repeated, "Heaven keep your honour" (II.ii.25;27-28;43;158). In the last exchange of II.ii, Angelo explicitly points the irony: Isabella says, "Save your honour." And Angelo replies, "From thee: even from thy virtue!" (II.ii.162). It is also ironic that Angelo's entire temptation of Isabella has taken place within the context of the Duke's testing of him. This is made clear by a direct verbal parallel between Isabella's situation and Angelo's. She presents herself for their second interview with the words, "I am come to know - 137 -your pleasure," (II.iv.31) and this will mean, of course, learning of Angelo's willful designs upon her. Likewise, Angelo had presented himself to the Duke with the words, "Always obedient to your Grace's will,/ I come to know your pleasure" (I.i.25-26). The Duke's designs on Angelo have been to see "If power change purpose, what our seemers be" (I.iii.54). The Duke has succeeded in showing Angelo that given power he would prove unjust, but Angelo has likewise shown Isabella that, given the power to save her brother, she herself would prove to be unmerciful. It is disturbing, moreover, to notice that both tests are "willful," not reasonable. Neither the Duke nor Angelo can appeal to "right reason" as the basis for their actions. In this play, all people — especially the authorities — proceed willfully and create confusion, a process whose disturbing implications for order are enacted in the frustrations of formal expectations at the close of the play. Isabella learns the full willfulness of her world when she goes to Claudio in prison, seeking his support for her decision. She is frightened and shaken by Angelo's loss of honor and by the proud man of authority who has bid "the law make curtsy to [his] will/ Hooking both right and wrong to th'appetite,/ To follow as it draws." Surely, she expects, Claudio "Though he hath fall'n by prompture of the blood [as Angelo has]/Yet hath in him such a mind of honour/ That had he twenty heads to tender down/ On twenty blocks, he'd yield them up/ Before his sister should her body stoop/ To such abhorr'd pollution" (II.iv.174-182). Claudio's willing death would vindicate Isabel's position — that, if lawful mercy cannot be procured, life must yield to a higher principle. It has damaged Isabella's position in the eyes of many critics that this principle happens to be her own chastity. After all, the heroine of Shakespeare's source, Cassandra, consents to lose her chastity in order to save her brother's life, and consents, as well, to lose her honor with it. - 138 -Why should Isabella stick at this point? One obvious reason is that Shakespeare is writing a different play. If Isabella were to consent to Angelo, and if, further, he were to go back on his promise and kill Claudio anyway, as Whetstone told the story, the issue to be resolved would be simply that of how to get justice against a tyrannical judge. Isabella's refusal to surrender her chastity raises the question of whether life should continue at the cost of any principle. Isabella has pleaded against Angelo's "Justice" in order to save Claudio; must she also surrender the principle for the sake of which she is "giving up" (or at least dedicating) her own life? Should she be merciful at any cost or would not life lose its meaning for her if it were lived for no purpose? When Isabel seeks out Claudio in prison, she finds that he is already prepared to die, thanks to the Duke's "consolation," delivered in the guise of Friar Lodowick. Claudio, in fact, is "absolute" for death, a dangerous position as we have seen, since absolute attitudes tend to provoke their opposites. This, in fact, is what happens. At the least glimmer of hope for life, Claudio surrenders his willingness to die for the sake of his sister's chastity and pleads that he be allowed to live. He gives up his brave speech about encountering darkness as a bride and, like Pompey the bawd, shows himself to be "a poor fellow that would live" (II.i.220). Claudio acts on Angelo's example, taking courage from his conviction that a wise man like Angelo must know what he is doing, and is willing to call the sin that would save him a virtue. It is his desperate pleading for life at any cost, it is his Angelo-like willingness to do anything for the sake of will or appetite, his juggling of names for virtue and vice, that cause Isabel to turn on her brother with a loathing proportionate to her fear: - 139 -0, you beast! 0 faithless coward! 0 dishonest wretch! Wilt thou then be made a man out of my vice?" (III.i.135-137) Her reaction is as extreme as her fear of unbridled appetite. She sees in Claudio's attitude a surrender of all attempts to live for some purpose. In rhetorical terms, Isabel sees the failure of any symbol to order the world of motion — to provide a purpose for action. That is why she says, "Thy sin's not accidental but a trade." Claudio's impetuous fornication with Juliet was but a hint of more unrestrained appetite to come. She who pleaded for mercy now believes that even that principle has its limits. "Mercy to thee would prove itself a bawd," she says, "'Tis best that thou diest quickly" (III.i.147-149)• What to do with Claudio, then, has become a problem both for those who would kill him for the sake of justice or save him for the sake of mercy. He is not so wicked that he deserves to die; he is not so innocent that he deserves to live. He is the natural ground on which two contending attitudes meet and debate the merits of their claims to decide his fate. A sensitive response to their confrontation should be a troubled one, since neither justice nor mercy can provide an obvious answer about what to do. An audience at this point cannot identify with either position represented by Angelo or Isabella, nor can it allow Claudio to live unless he can in some way be pardoned or exonerated. The difficulty of finding a term that will resolve this dilemma is complicated by the difficulty of naming anything for what it is because appearance and reality are often interchangeable. The central act of deception (or deceiving act), of course, is Angelo's appearing to be a just judge and a "precise" person while actually being less innocent than Claudio. With Shakespearean irony, his deceitful intention is clearly stated to Isabel: - 140 -"...on mine honour,/ My words express my purpose." To which she replies, "Ha? Little honour, to be much believ'd/ And most pernicious purpose! Seeming, seeming!" (II .iv.146-149). Angelo's reality is clear enough, at least to Isabel, but the troublesome question arises, how often does the appearance of authority based on impartial justice (including the Duke's?) hide a reality grounded in will or appetite. 0 place, 0 form, How often dost thou with thy case, thy habit, Wrench awe from fools, and tie the wiser souls To thy false seeming! (II.iv.12-15) How often is apparent mercy nothing of the kind? Justice: Lord Angelo is severe. Escalus: It is but needful Mercy is not itself, that oft looks so. Pardon is still the nurse of second woe. (II.i.279-281) How often is life itself a kind of death and death itself a kind of life? Duke: Thou hast nor youth, nor age, But as it were an after-dinner's sleep Dreaming on both... What's yet in this That bears the name of life? Yet in this life Lie hid moe thousand deaths; yet death we fear That makes these odds all even. III.i.32-41) In such a world, where truth is hard enough to determine, slander of authority is especially fearsome and detestable because it complicates an already complicated task. Concern with slander runs as a motif throughout this play, and culminates in the trial of Act V, where it will be analyzed more fully. - 141 -THE COMIC SUB-PLOT: I HOPE HERE BE TRUTHS The themes which arise over the case of Claudio are repeated by Shakespeare in the sub-plot so that a study of that action will serve to sum up and to fill out what has been said so far. Most obviously, the brothel life of Vienna is a diseased world, unreformable by "grace," however grace is to be defined and even if it is personified in his Grace the Duke himself. Like Pompey, its spokesman, the underworld may suffer the checks of law, but it will find some means to live. When the proclamation for pulling down houses of prostitution goes into effect, Pompey counsels Mistress Overdone to take courage: "Though you change place, you need not change your trade" (I.ii.99-100). After Escalus warns him of a whipping unless he ceases to be a tapster, Pompey boasts: "Whip me? No, no, let carman whip his jade;/ The valiant heart's not whipt out of his trade" (II.i.252-253). And when he is finally thrown into prison, he finds that it is very much like a house of prostitution once again; all the regulars are there, and the "mysteries" of hangman and bawd are much the same: they both thrive on "dying" and "beheading." In a daring pun, Shakespeare associates the forces of law and lawlessness as workmen toward a common end: death and disease in the name of order and life. Pompey the bawd will join Abhorson the hangman in calling Barnardine to "rise and be put to death" (IV,iii.28), an action required by the state and also, through the puns on "rise" and "death," suggestive of the bawd's profession.7 The history of Pompey suggests that the disease of sexual license can never be eradicated from the state, not only because it is a highly adaptable virus, but because no one is exempt from catching it. Even ministers of state whose purpose is just judgement can have that purpose changed by power. Their "heading and hanging" may serve no social purpose at all but only appetite, as - 142 -the history of Angelo has shown. He was a man who saw himself as "precise" and a just judge, but who soon discovered "blood thou art blood" (II.iv.15). His appetite had been restrained easily enough before he met Isabel, but it had been piqued by her because in two ways she represented a challenge worthy of his efforts. As a "saint" and a virgin, Isabella is Angelo's equal, and, like him, is keeping powerful sexual feelings under strict control. Deep is calling to deep in their encounter, all the more powerfully because the feelings are implicit and a mutual union is ostensibly unattainable. On another level, Isabella is defending an example of lawlessness that had become known to Justice; she represents virgin territory into which the absolute application of Justice might be extended. Angelo's appetite, then, takes the form first of trying to "behead" Isabella in the name of the law which, he claims, "requires" this act as redemption for her brother; then, he tries to behead Claudio anyway to save himself from the danger of revenge against the abuse of his authority. Through punning, then, and through the sub-plot action, Shakespeare raises disturbing questions about authority and order in society. Angelo's appetite for order is shown to be as unruly and destructive as lust can be in sexual relations. Both the body politic and the human body are equally subject to a rage for order that can be deadly. This creates a dilemma. On the one hand, authority is needed to prevent disorder in terms of lust and disease; in rhetorical terms, authority enables a society to "identify" its own purposes and to act together accordingly. On the other hand, authority is limited and fallible; it cannot extirp the life of dissident attitudes, and it cannot keep from acting in a way inconsistent from its own stated ends. The bawds of Vienna therefore present a problem; they need to be regulated in some way, but how? As we have seen, Claudio has become the test case for what to do, and he is a good choice because an audience will want - 143 -authority to save him. He is too much the ordinary person and his offense is too common to be sacrificed to any rigorous reason. On the other hand, if Claudio is to be spared, what grounds will authority provide consistent with a public order with which an audience also needs to identify? The problem authority faces is where to draw the line: how to name the action in such a way that an attitude can be taken toward it. For Pompey and the bawds, Claudio's offense presents no problem, and their word play suggests both how natural it is and how difficult to identify in legal terms: Mistress Overdone: Well! What has he done? Pompey: A woman. Mistress Overdone: But what's his offense? Pompey: Groping for trouts in a peculiar river. Mistress Overdone: What? Is there a maid with child by him? Pompey: No: but there's a woman with maid by him. (I.ii.80-85) But human society requires names for actions and relationships. It is full of "thou shalt nots" in order to preserve the order it wants. Only if thieves ignore the injunction "thou shalt not steal" can they have warrant for what they do (I.ii.7-16), but even as outlaws to established order, thieves will make some law to govern themselves, because no society can exist without it. "What knows the laws/ That thieves do pass on thieves?," says Angelo (II.i.22-23). Claudio's fate has to be decided in some way; hence the inconclusive debate between justice and mercy, Angelo and Isabella in Act II, scenes 2 and 4. Shakespeare takes another perspective on the problem of Claudio by presenting Elbow's arrest of Froth and Pompey and their trial before Escalus in II.iii. Elbow's misplacings (a curious defect shared with fellow constables Dull and Dogberry) are especially appropriate to the themes of this - 144 -play. Once again they show how slippery language can be; its naming of an offense is not always accurate. "Notorious benefactors" are, of course, malefactors, and an "honourable" man is clearly dishonourable (an ironic glancing at his "honour" Angelo). "Respected" means "suspected" as Elbow uses the term, but as Pompey uses it referring to Elbow's wife, "respected" means "respected" in two senses of the word, allowing him to.insult Elbow and to keep clear of slander at the same time. The misplacings of Elbow, the man who leans on Justice, are laughably correctable, but they echo the more painful ' difficulty of symbolic action in the main plot where authority's naming of Claudio's action is a matter of life or death. In the course of the trial, Pompey's defense of Froth rests upon trusting to appearances: "Doth your honour see any harm in his face?...I'11 be supposed upon a book, his face is the worst thing about him" (II.i.151-155). Of course, such a criterion is dangerous; it would condemn Claudio because his offense is "writ large" upon Juliet and would preserve Angelo because he seems innocent up until the trial scene. Yet, as the Duke implies in a sententious soliloquy, Angelo's and Claudio's crimes are the same: Shame to him whose cruel striking Kills-for faults of his own liking! Twice treble shame on Angelo; To weed my vice, and let his grow! (III.ii.260-263) Given a choice between Elbow's misplacing of names and Pompey's sophistic reasonings, no wonder Escalus asks, "Which is the wiser here, Justice or Iniquity?" (II.i. 169). Once again, the workings of the law and the bawd prove to be strikingly similar. In the course of the trial the concern with slander is also raised, a subject of some concern to authority. When the Duke appointed Angelo as Deputy, it was, in part, to avoid being slandered for a tyrant if he were to - 145 -enforce laws whose transgression he had seemed to tolerate (I.iii.39-43). Slander will be something of which the Duke disguised as Friar will be accused during the trial of Act V and of which Lucio will be convicted. The State cannot be slandered for what it does without losing allegiance to its authority, and authority is all that mediates between a society's yearning for order and the "disease" of lawlessness. As the trial before Escalus makes clear, however, it is not always easy to tell when slander has occurred. The issue arises when Pompey gives Elbow's wife the equivocal compliment that she is "respected." When Elbow demands proof of the charge, or "I'll have mine action of battery on thee," Escalus suggests, "If he took you a box o* th' ear, you might have your action of slander too" (III.i. 175-178). Not only are the actions of slander and battery confused, but the supposed action of slander has literally been a compliment, even if it was intended to be an insult. In the main action of the play, it will not be any easier to tell when there has been slander to the State or not. Finally, Escalus's judgement seems to mirror what we know of the Duke's rule before the play: namely, a tolerant attitude that has so far left everything as it is. Escalus warns Froth not to frequent tapsters; he warns Pompey of a whipping if he is caught at his trade again, and he seeks to replace Elbow as constable since it both pains him and leaves justice undone. Such authority may seem a model of moderation or temperance, but in the context of a state which has known fourteen years or more of neglected law enforcement, the result is indecorous. By the Duke's own admission to Friar Peter, his giving the"people scope was a "fault" and is to be remedied now by whatever means Angelo can devise (I.iii.35). The trial of Froth and Pompey, like the case of Claudio, presents the irreformable fact of lust along with the conviction that something must be - 146 -done about it. Authority is provoked to act for the sake of order, but how it should act by heading or hanging or by kindly warning, is hard to tell. The dilemma is made all the more difficult by law enforcers who misname the crime and merely bumble their way to whatever justice is to be found. HIS GRACE THE DUKE: LIKE PROVIDENCE DIVINE? For some critics, the Duke represents the solution to this dilemma. He is, for example, the Disguised Ruler of folklore, like King Severus, who seeks out abuses in disguise in order to bring them to justice. He is like King Corvinus of Promos and Cassandra, the all-powerful and final court of appeal who delivers the innocent and renders just judgement. For others, Duke Vincentio represents a third "term" that can transcend and so mediate the claims of Justice and Mercy. He is Temperance, for example, like the kind enjoined upon rulers in James I's Basilikon Doran or he is Aristotelian Moderation. More mystically, he represents Providence itself; he is like the Lord of the Christian parable who went away leaving his servants in charge of his affairs and commanding them to spend their talents well until his return. The Duke is "Grace" in contrast to Angelo's "honour"; he represents a divine deliverance for frail humanity based on a mercy beyond any justice of human devising.^ These folkloric and biblical motifs are reenforced by the quality of the verse in the second half of the play — the Duke's sphere of action. At times, sententious couplets point the moral; at other times, a brisk expository prose serves the necessities of plot manipulation. We are in a world where realistic dilemmas, presented earlier in powerful blank verse, are now to be viewed partly from that perspective and partly from a perspective conventionally romantic and mystical. - 147 -In various ways, critics have argued the success of the Duke's devious methods, the wisdom of his supposed point of view, and the dignity of his divine identity. They say that he educates Angelo to repentance of his crime, Isabella to worldly respect for the claims of the world against her well-defended honor, and Claudio to the recognition that "That life is better life, past fearing death,/ Than that which lives to fear" (V.i.395-396).9 However, even those who defend the Duke remain troubled by the sense of some frustration which remains at the end of the action. Robert Ornstein, for example, who claims that the Duke succeeds in "rehabilitating" Angelo's character and provides a "comic resolution" adds immediately, "This does not mean that the many readers who find the ending of Measure for Measure unsatisfactory are insensitive or mistaken. The ending of the play is unsatisfactory in that it disappoints our longing for a more perfect justice than the world affords and because it avoids the very moral problems which lend reality and meaning to a contrived novella fable."10 In rhetorical terms, formal expectations have been frustrated. The syllogistic development of the conflict between justice and mercy halts with Isabella's refusal to give in to Angelo; the Duke's maneuvers signal a qualitative shift to another perspective which is beside the point of what to do about lawlessness, and the conventional ending of marriage is provided only to be resisted. The Duke's character as supreme authority, buttressed as it is by allusions to folklore and the bible, seems to offer hope of a resolution to a troublesome human dilemma: the ordering of personal and social relationships. But the darkness of this play stems from the fact that the Duke's authority orders a solution which originates merely with his will to provide it (he offers no reasonable motive for his proceeding) and which proves ineffective upon examination. It is the Duke's kind of rule which has allowed the dilemma - 148 -of Claudio to arise in the first place, and it is the Duke's kind of solution which leaves that dilemma just where it is. Vincentio, like Angelo, begins the play believing that the laws of Vienna have been neglected: We have strict statutes and most biting laws, The needful bits and curbs to headstrong jades, Which for fourteen years we have let slip. (I.iii.19-21) Moreover, his first act upon donning his disguise is to urge Claudio to be absolute for death. He gives no hint to the audience that he has any ulterior and beneficent purpose for this advice. He seems, rather, to be cooperating with his Deputy in the act of extirpating lawbreakers. Even if Claudio is relatively harmless and innocent, the law must begin somewhere; justice must seize what is open to it, and Claudio's offense is undeniably public. Only after overhearing Isabella's report of Angelo's injustice and Claudio's pleading for his life does the Duke spring into action. In doing so, he leaves behind the question of whether Claudio deserves to die or not, accepts the assumption that he ought to live, and devotes his full energy to frustrating Angelo's plans. The focus of the play shifts from a serious resolution of a debate over lawlessness to the engineering of an ending in which everyone lives, including those who want to die. A study of the Duke's methods will show that, as usual, he is avoiding a resolution rather that providing one. Since Isabella refuses to give in to Angelo, the Duke must find a substitute who will satisfy Angelo's conditions for saving Claudio's life. Conveniently, Mariana lies ready to hand, and the Duke explains to Isabel in business-like prose the fourfold benefit of her going to Angelo: "...by this - 149 -is your brother saved, your honour untainted, the poor Mariana advantaged, and the corrupt deputy scaled" (III.i.253-256). Elegant as it is, the bed-trick solution has always caused problems for critics. Admitedly, it is a "deceit" and, as such, taints the Duke's character and the act of his saving Claudio. Shakespeare, however, seems to have taken pains to defend the device against these charges. Three times the Duke gives assurances that the trick is an acceptable means to a remedy: here, in Act III, scene 1; again, in the soliloquy of III.ii.270-275: Craft against vice I must apply, With Angelo tonight shall lie His old betrothed but despised: So disguise shall by th'disguised Pay with falsehood false exacting, And perform an old contracting. and to Mariana in IV.i.71-75: ...gentle daughter, fear you not at all. He is your husband on a pre-contract: To bring you thus together 'tis no sin, With that the justice of your title to him Doth flourish the deceit. The Duke ignores the moral issue of whether the end can ever justify the means; instead, he favors the poetic justice of the device (deceit defeats deceit) and the dramatic paradox of the trick (deceit will establish what the Duke regards as the true relationship of Angelo and Mariana). The bed trick could, for these reasons, be defended by the standards of a "higher law" whose ways are not always human ways. To accept the trick is to accept the Duke as a Providence who is free to act for his own benevolent purposes and whose results should prove the wisdom of his actions. We will return to this point momentarily. Meanwhile, it is clear that the Duke intends to save Claudio by substituting one head for another: - 150 -Mariana's maidenhead for Isabella's. When Angelo, however, reneges on his agreement with Isabella and decides to behead Claudio anyway, the Duke of dark corners is cornered again. Once more he seeks to get out by a substitution: to submit someone else's head for Claudio's. This time, however, he meets a greater challenge than the one Isabella posed for him. He wants to use Barnardine, but the man, like Isabel, refuses to "die." Like Pompey and Claudio, Barnardine is a poor man who would live. He has no specific purpose, just a brute, habitual, instinctive clinging to life. He is "fit" neither to live nor to die. Since his very presence in the prison is the result of the Duke's earlier, lenient decision to live and let live, Barnardine is a comic reminder that the Duke has been unable to do anything about him before and cannot do anything now. The Duke is delivered from the impasse which his own inaction has caused by an "accident that heaven provides." Thanks to the death of Ragozine the pirate, the Duke now has another head to send to Angelo, and, with danger averted, he is free to proceed to unmask Angelo for what he has done and to wrap up the ending by assigning rewards and punishments. This deliverance, welcome as it is, shows that the Duke is as helpless as Angelo or Escalus before the lawlessness of Vienna. He is as incompetent as he ever was, and an audience's laughter at this point stems from its rueful awareness that the best of supposedly authoritative wisdom is a patchwork affair; that, at bottom, even the Duke cannot decide if Barnardine is fit for life or death; and that if anything is to be done to move on, it will have to depend on an "accident that heaven provides." This is a dark indictment of human incapacity, if looked into too curiously, and it is compounded by the question, do the Duke's substitutions even accomplish the purpose he intends for them? Certainly Ragozine's head saves Claudio's, and no one, I think, objects to that. For reasons it may never be able to explain (and which it is never required to understand) the audience wants Claudio to live. But does Mariana's head subsititute for Isabella's? The Duke thinks so, but does Angelo? More importantly, does the audience? Does not Harriet Hawkins speak for many when she asks, "...one may well wonder just what might have happened in the bed of Angelo. How would [Isabella] have responded? Could he be right in attributing to her a latent sensuality equal to his own? Who wouldn't like to find that out?...In certain works, the author arouses a desire, on the part of his audience for climax, not anticlimax. Thus — sometimes — for the audience, as well as for certain dramatic heroes and heroines, there can be no contentment but in going all the way. Indeed, fictional characters of various kinds may serve as surrogates for our own desires to 'try the utmost,' to experience whatever it is we most desire, or fear."11 The objection to the bed trick, then, is not so much on moral as on formal grounds. It prevents Angelo and Isabella from resolving their relationship in the terms that they have set up. Angelo's act of lust from which he has already learned so much about his frailty, is countered with a forced commitment from which he gains nothing except a love he does not want. The Duke, who cannot decide what to do about Barnardine, seems to have no problem deciding about Angelo. In effect, he "beheads" him with Mariana. It is no accident that immediately after the Duke explains to Mariana the rightness of her action and his deceit, the Provost asks Pompey, "Can you cut off a man's head?" (IV.ii.1). The Duke is like Pompey, then, who also comes to the prison and there takes upon himself the dual role of hangman and bawd (IV.ii.14-16). The Duke may defend his actions as best he can, and an audience may yearn to accept them for the sake of the desired ending. Both the Duke's - 152 -authority and the authority of the conventional form of a tragi-comic ending may work to persuade the audience to applaud the saving of Claudio. But Elbow's entrance immediately after the Duke's explaining the bed trick to Isabella, like the Provost's comment, casts an oblique but damaging perspective on what has just transpired. The Duke has just presented his "remedy" to Isabella (III.i.198) when Elbow enters, chiding Pompey: "Nay, if there be no remedy for it, but that you will needs buy and sell men and women like beasts, we shall have all the world drink brown and white bastard" (III.ii.1-4). Logically, Elbow's "it" refers to something like concupiscence or sexual appetite for which Pompey would provide a remedy through pimping. On the open Elizabethan stage, however, with no break in the action, Elbow's "it" can refer semantically if not logically to Claudio's situation. The Duke's authority, then, comes under severe scrutiny. It is the principle of order on the one hand; from this authority we expect the power to provide a happy ending — just as Oberon and Prospero are able to provide in their plays. On the other hand, this authority has limits to what it can do, and moreover uses methods which make it, at times, indistinguishable from actions like pimping which it would control. This troubling, ambivalent view of "the properties of government" is brought to "light" especially through the role of Lucio. LUCIO: AN "INWARD" OF THE DUKE Lucio is Shakespeare's most distinctive addition to his source and is therefore a sure clue not only to his intended emphases but also to the troubled response of the audience at the end of the play. Through Lucio's role we can see Shakespeare working both to provide a happy ending and to - 153 -frustrate it, and it is this dual effort of authority — the Duke's and the author's — which prevents an audience from identifying with a symbol of order and which troubles them. Lucio is not only the scapegoat the Duke would like to make of him; he is also a reflector of the Duke's attitudes and, as such, creates for the audience two perspectives on the role of authority: it is the only hope for order; it also fails to coordinate competing attitudes successfully in the order it would establish. Lucio is fit for his role by being the only character who acts and speaks so much like the Duke. Only Lucio goes about as much as the Duke does into the dark corners of Vienna, visiting with each of the citizens, commenting on their fates, and urging them to action. His thoughts on several subjects also mirror the Duke's. Both, for example, think that Angelo's attitude is too severe; both believe that Claudio should be spared; each in his way encourages Isabella to work toward that end, and each offers the same advice to her when these efforts seem in vain: the Duke's "Show your wisdom, daughter,/ In your close patience" (IV.iii.117-118) is echoed soon after by Lucio's "0 pretty Isabella, I am pale at mine heart to see thine eyes so red: thou must be patient" (IV.iii. 150-151). It is because the audience wants Claudio to live that it sides with Lucio and the Duke in their efforts to save him. It never raises the question, as Angelo and Isabella do, on what grounds he should live. For Lucio, the question is absurd: "Why should a man lose his life for a game of tick tack?" He assumes that the Duke shares his thinking on this and says so to his disguised face: "Why, what a ruthless thing is this in [the Deputy], for the rebellion of a codpiece to take away the life of a man! Would the Duke that is absent have done this? Ere he would have hanged a man for the - 154 -getting a hundred bastards, he would have paid for the nursing a thousand. He had some feeling of the sport; he knew the service; and that instructed him to mercy" (III.ii.110-117). The Duke's defensiveness ("I have never heard the absent Duke much detected for women; he was not inclined that way") is laughable because he shows such Elbow-like resistance to an intended compliment. He also presents the very image of repression as he struggles under his monk's cowl to beat back Lucio's suggestion of sexual license and his own rising anger at the charge. Clearly, he does not want his compassion for Claudio to be misconstrued as complicity with his crime. He is sensitive to the "slander" which suggests that his authority winks at lawless behaviour. Yet he offers no explanation for his decision to free Claudio consistent with his opposition to promiscuity . That opposition was shown most strongly in the Duke's stinging rebuke to Pompey as he was escorted to prison: "Fie, sirrah, a bawd, a wicked bawd;/ The evil that thou causest to be done,/ That is thy means to live.../ Canst thou think thy living is a life,/ So stinkingly depending?...Take him to prison, officer:/ Correction and instruction must both work/ Ere this rude beast will profit" (III.ii.18-32). And these admonitions are echoed by Lucio who turns on Pompey in mock triumph just as he has (we learn later) betrayed Mistress Overdone to the authorities: "Art going to prison, Pompey?...Why, 'tis not amiss, Pompey. Farewell: go, say I sent thee thither" (III.ii.59-61). Lucio's dramatic function is largely to echo the Duke. When this means pleading for Claudio's life in Part One, Lucio is at Isabella's side, urging her to ever more' impassioned pleas for mercy. When this means condemning fornication as a crime, Lucio even betrays his friends to do so. Lucio, then, serves as an extreme example of both tolerance and harshness and, as such, - 155 -distracts from an audiences's noticing and feeling the Duke's own contradictory attitudes so keenly. The Duke not only has an inconsistent policy toward the examples of lechery which he sees alternately in Claudio and in Pompey, he is also far from understanding the pull toward lechery in himself. It is Lucio's function, again, to show how much Vincentio's lofty intentions of bringing order to Vienna are bound to fail because they seek to repress — both in the city and in the man — attitudes which are lawless and yet would live. The Duke tells Lucio that he is "not inclined that way" as he has told Friar Peter that he has a "complete bosom"; but one recognizes in this an absolute self-assurance which is bound to crumble as surely as Claudio's and Angelo's have. Lucio is like the Duke's shadow self, throwing light in Luciferian fashion on the neglected attitude, the forbidden fruit. The Duke's response is to repress any suggestion of acquiescence in such an attitude at the same time that he tolerates it in the case of Claudio. Lucio will be made a scapegoat for supposedly slandering the Duke's character. But, in his antic fashion, he actually throws light on the Duke's twofold efforts: to provide a happy ending for Claudio and, at the same time, to extirpate the lawlessness of which Claudio's offense is an example. By making a scapegoat of Lucio, the Duke and Shakespeare preserve the image of the Duke as a mean between extremes and distract from the disturbing fact that the Duke, like Lucio, is also patently inconsistent. Moreover, Lucio helps to raise more than a suspicion that the Duke's authoritative conclusion will be little better than a whitewash, since the Duke shows more signs of repressing lawless lust than of accommodating it with any wisdom or patience. - 156 -THE CONCLUSION: THIS LOOKS NOT LIKE A NUPTIAL As the Duke returns to Vienna for a trial of justice in which Angelo will be called to account, the audience expects him to provide the happy ending which he has been preparing. In the conventional sense, he does. No one dies, and multiple marriages are provided. But a closer look at the Duke's arrangements has caused many audiences to respond with only rueful mirth at best.12 Why is this so? Why are they unpersuaded? In rhetorical terms, the answer is to be sought in the Duke's frustration of formal expectations and in his failure to provide a symbol of authority with which an audience can identify. The trial in Act V is concerned, of course, with discovering the truth and with punishing those who slander authority. However, it begins most indirectly to find these directions out. Isabella, under instructions from the Friar, accuses Angelo falsely of having forced her to lie with him, claiming that her charge is true "to th'end of reck'ning." Although her accusation seems like madness, the Duke allows her to tell her story but dismisses its tenor immediately ("This is most likely!") and arrests Isabella for slander. The Duke's judgement, of course, is technically correct; Angelo has never violated Isabel, and one wonders why she has been advised to proceed this way. At this point, Friar Peter produces the veiled Mariana as a witness against Isabella. Mariana will not lift her veil until her husband bids her, and so only after some puzzled questioning to determine her identity and only at Angelo's command — "Let's see thy face" — does she say, "My husband bids me; now I will unmask" (V.i.204-205). - 157 -The unveiling has a dramatic effect; it "reveals" the truth of Angelo's relationship with Mariana which, hidden up to now, is announced to all, even to Angelo himself. This is also the first of three unveilings at the trial in which the revealing of someone's head seems to contribute to the resolution. Fittingly, the punning on "heads" earlier in the play is picked up at the conclusion and reenforced; the energy of life seems irrepressible as heads emerge from veils or cowls which have concealed them. However, as in All's Well (where three climaxes at the trial concerned "rings"), the build ups lead to let downs. Progressive form is frustrated and the dramatic moment is wasted. At this point, for example, Angelo has no reason to acknowledge Mariana as his wife, since he thinks that he has violated Isabella. He therefore dismisses the revelation and is given leave to find out who is behind these seemingly false accusations. The Duke leaves him to his office with the injunction "stir not until you have well determined/ Upon these slanderers" (V.i.257-258). With the discovery of the truth delayed and frustrated, the tension mounts toward a second revelation. When the Duke, disguised as the Friar is brought in to defend himself against the charge of having slandered Angelo through the women he counselled, he not only defends himself but further indicts the "absent" Duke, Angelo, and Vienna itself for various injustices and villainies. Speaking to Mariana and Isabella, he says: The Duke's unjust Thus to retort your manifest appeal, And put your trial in the villain's mouth Which here you come to accuse... Then, speaking to all, he says: My business in this state Made me a looker-on here in Vienna, Where I have seen corruption boil and bubble Till it o'errun the stew: laws for all faults, - 158 -But faults so countenanc'd that the strong statutes Stand like the forfeits in a barber's shop, As much in mock as mark. To which accusations the shocked Escalus replies: Slander to th' state! Away with him to prison! (V.i.298-321) If the Duke's indictments of Vienna and Angelo are true, and not apparent slanders, are they not also true of himself? Is he not here accusing himself of injustice for having installed Angelo as Deputy not only in this scene but at the beginning? These questions are answered affirmatively in the contest that ensues between Lucio and the Friar. Lucio slanders the Friar's character and testimony, accusing him of having been the one to speak ill of the Duke in his absence, whereas it is clear to the Duke and to the audience that Lucio himself is guilty of the charge. Angelo orders Lucio to help the Provost arrest the Friar, and, in the figurative contest between Falsehood and Truth, Lucio forces the hood from the Friar's face. A second revelation of a head occurs as the Duke shows himself for who he is and Lucio starts to slink away. Surely, now, this will be the promised end. It begins to look that way. The Duke pardons Escalus and implicitly establishes the truth of his own recent indictments against Vienna; Angelo confesses his crime and is married to Mariana; and even Isabella is pardoned for having "employ'd and pain'd" the Duke's sovereignty. However, the Duke has further plans for frustrating the expected ending. First, he lies to Isabella and tells her that Claudio is dead; then he orders Angelo to die for it, setting up the tense scene of Mariana's begging with Isabel to join with her in a plea for mercy, all the time that the Duke is insisting that "He dies for Claudio's death." Some see in Isabella's plea - 159 -the high point of her moral development and the true test of her doctrine of mercy. Her speech is a beautiful moment of selfless love, however qualified it may be by the suggestion of sadism in the Duke's forcing it upon her. It is beautiful, indeed, but ineffective. The Duke allows Isabella's ingenious defense of Angelo to proceed, only to announce: "Your suit's unprofitable. Stand up, I say/ I have bethought me of another fault" (V.i.453-454). This time it is the Provost who supposedly needs pardoning for having supposedly killed Claudio, but since both he and the Duke know that Claudio is alive, the pardon is useless and the stage is set for yet another dramatic climax. As the Provost leaves to fetch Barnardine and Claudio, Angelo's words show that he has accepted his fate and looks forward to death as the tribute he owes to justice. Responding to Escalus's offer of sympathy, he says: "I am sorry that such sorrow I procure,/ And so deep sticks it in my penitent heart/ That I crave death more willingly than mercy;/ 'Tis my deserving, and I do entreat it" (V.i.472-475). These are the last words Angelo will say, and they are consistent with his tragic history. Rhetorically speaking, he is trying to transform himself by dying for the sake of justice. He is trying to resolve the inconsistency in his identity caused by the act of tyranny into which his lust led him. For this reason, marriage and a happy ending are furthest from his mind. The Duke, however, will not let Angelo be; he intends to force upon him a future he does not expect and does not want. The Provost brings in two prisoners. One is Barnardine who, of course, is promptly forgiven. The other is disguised; however, a dramatic unmuffling soon takes place for the third time and reveals the truth that Claudio is alive. In terms of this play, Claudio's "head" has been spared. The visual pun reenforces the verbal punning on this subject and enacts the fact that - 160 -life is irrepressible, or, in other words, that the heads of fornicators who should "die" for taking maidenheads are not so easily put down. Angelo is then pardoned for Claudio's sake and the Duke offers marriage to Isabella for the same reason. It seems, then, that all the machinery of justice has been erected to no avail. All of the tortuous groping for truth in Act V has been unnecessary. The Duke has known what he would do since Act III, and when he does it he finally frustrates the progression toward a knowledge of what to do about Claudio initiated by the grand debate between Angelo and Isabella. At first glance, the solution the Duke offers seems humane and desirable to the audience; after all, Claudio is to live. But his solution is offered by the same authority which has fulminated against Vienna's corruption. The Duke wants it both ways; he has commanded a solution to the problem of lawlessness and, at the same time, has frustrated the only efforts taken to solve it. He offers no solution of his own, just the same tolerance and pardon for all which he has shown for fourteen years. Besides frustrating a progressive development that would have led to tragic suffering but also perhaps to tragic wisdom, the Duke supplies his own ending which looks conventionally comic but is nothing of the kind. Every marriage, except Claudio's and Juliet's, is commanded, and every marriage is resisted to some degree. The Duke acknowledges Isabella's possible hesitation when he qualifies the offer of his hand: "Dear Isabel,/ I have a motion much imparts your good,/ Whereto if you'll a willing ear incline,/ What's mine is yours, and what is yours is mine.." (V.i.531-534). Angelo has said that he would rather die, and it may be only the Duke's wishful thinking that spies a "quickening in his eye" upon the revelation of Claudio. But, as usual, the loudest and most explicit comments come from - 161 -Lucio. Like Angelo, Lucio has been exposed for his crime, forced to be married, then threatened with "The nuptial finish'd,/ Let him be whipp'd and hang'd" (V.i.510-511). Just as quickly, he is forgiven his slanders but forced into marriage anyway. Lucio wails in protest, "Marrying a punk, my Lord is pressing to death,/ Whipping and hanging." To which the Duke's final response is, "Slandering a prince deserves it" (V.i.520-521). Lucio is the intended scapegoat, then, the one whose punishment helps to define what the victorious order stands for. However, his howls of protest carry more than a hint that truth is on his side as much as on the Duke's. This seems not like a nuptial, nor do the other marriages which the Duke is arranging to remedy the lawless fornication of Vienna. Lucio's slanders may be false or true, but they have raised the suspicion that the order the Duke intends to establish has not really worked out a cooperative alliance with the attitudes represented by Pompey and the bawds at one extreme and Angelo's Justice at the other. The commands to obey the arrangements are not enough to still the suspicion that this authority does not know what he is doing. The haunting question returns, "Who is the wiser here, Justice or Iniquity?" And when an audience asks this, it goes home troubled, not only failing to identify with the proposed symbol of order in this play, but also made to wonder if the "properties of government" may not be such that no authority can coerce contending attitudes into a cooperative commonwealth. - 162 -VI.LOOKING BEFORE AND AFTER " Truth uncompromisingly told will always have its ragged edges...". Billy Budd, chapter 28 In an influential essay, Una Ellis-Fermor suggested that Troilus and Cressida is a play which tests one of the "frontiers of drama" and succeeds in crossing it. Drama, she says, can easily encompass only certain moods, forms and thoughts; it reaches its limits in the portrayal of religious emotion, the scope of action more fitly told in epic, and certain complex ideas which challenge coherent development. In Troilus and Cressida, she maintains, Shakespeare challenges the limits of what dramatic form can express and enacts the very "idea of disjunction." Paradoxically, he achieves "the triumphant revelation of disjunction, of the negation of all order, within the ordered concentration of dramatic shape."1 In my analysis of the problem plays, I have, in effect, accepted this verdict about Troilus and Cressida and have extended its application to All's Well and Measure for Measure, while corroborating Ellis-Fermors insight with, an examination along the lines of Burkean rhetoric. As we have seen, central to Burke's rhetoric is his definition of man as the symbol-using animal and his definition of rhetoric as persuasion to change through "identification" with a symbol of order. "Rhetoric," he says, "is rooted in an essential function of language itself, a function that is wholly realistic, and is continually born anew; the use of language as a symbolic means of inducing cooperation in beings that by nature respond to symbols." As Burke maintains, the dramatist persuades by his use of several forms, each of which, alone and in combination, causes a collaborative effort between him and the audience which leads it to see the order and the attitude he is - 163 -defining. An audience is free to accept or to reject the dramatist's persuasion, of course, but ordinarily it is obvious what kind of order it is ostensibly persuaded to accept. It is possible, for example, that some will secretly cheer on Macbeth despite his villainy, and I believe that Shakespeare provides them with sufficient reason to do so. Meanwhile, however, others are seeking revenge for Macduff's children and with a "blessed rage for order" are piously awaiting the victory of Malcolm. The dramatist's use of forms is only an attempt to persuade; it is not a guarantee that the persuasion will succeed. He establishes the order, but not without first having established dramatic ironies which make the verdict on the order more or less problematic. In Macbeth, the ostensible order is clear. In the problem plays, however, Shakespeare completely frustrates in several ways the need to identify which is deeply rooted in the symbol-using audience. First, he frustrates its expectations for a definite ending through death or marriage — states of division or merger respectively which show that the "terms" of the play (the characters) have undergone a clear transformation. Secondly, he provides no "scapegoat" who can carry off the perceived "pollution" or block to resolution. Finally, he supplies no symbol of order which credibly demonstrates its power to win assent and to establish the renewed society. So, for example, All's Well and Measure for Measure end with the clear reluctance of the groom to take up his bride. Even Beatrice and Benedick in Much Ado are able to convince themselves that they really must love one another after all, deep down, somewhere. But Angelo and Bertram are, at best, only resigned to their lot. It is imposed on them and they accept. In Troilus and Cressida the principals are neither destined for marriage nor allowed to die. Troilus maintains his attitude of naive and savage dedication, first to love and then to war; Cressida persists in her attitude of reluctant accommodation. Neither is able to act upon the scene of war in a - 164 -way that will alter events, and so the confusion of battle fitly closes this enactment of "the idea of disjunction." Appropriately enough, each of the plays either closes or pivots on "if" — a sure sign that the dramatist has intended an ambiguity, that the frustration of forms has been deliberate. Troilus's argument in front of Calchas's tent shows how much depends on his resolving the identity of Cressida: This she? No, this is Diomed's Cressida. If beauty have a soul, this is not she; If souls guide vows, if vows be sanctimonies, If sanctimony be the gods' delight, If there be rule in unity itself, This was not she... This is, and is not, Cressid. (V.ii.134-143) Two perceptions of Cressida remain; "bifold authority" cannot reconcile her behavior and the comforting axioms Troilus lives by. Therefore, not only is there "madness of discourse" but, for the audience, unrelieved shifting between Cressida as she is and Cressida as Troilus would have her be — her attitude and his. In Measure for Measure, the Duke says cautiously to Isabella, "I have a motion much imports your good,/ Whereto if you'll a willing ear incline,/ What's mine is yours, and what is yours is mine" (V.i.538-540). He seems rightly aware of the possible resistance to his suggestion which his earlier actions in the play have done something to encourage. And the King says dubiously at the close of All's Well, with a nervous look, perhaps, at the apparently reconciled Bertram: "All yet seems well, and if it end so meet,/ The bitter past, more welcome is the sweet" (V.iii.333-334). The endings of these plays, then, are not clearly resolved by "worthy" deaths or happy marriages. - 165 -Moreover, in each play there is a concerted but futile effort to find a scapegoat whose punishment will end the rivalry of attitudes and clearly establish which are to be expelled and which to be revered. As Rene Girard has succinctly observed, "Even the most banal scapegoat effect is an unconscious structuring process."3 With the scapegoat expelled, a society can come together with a renewed sense of what it stands for. Girard's theory coincides with much of Burke's thinking on the necessity of the scapegoat's function for establishing an order, but as Girard also suggests, Shakespeare seemed to understand the dishonesty of such a device. For Shakespeare, all attitudes belong in "cooperative competition" (Burke's phrase) for the well being of society or for the defining of an issue. If history were not written by the winners, and if people were not usually conscious only of the recent past, it would be clearer that many attitudes have always coexisted in any order. So, in Girard's analysis, the scapegoat device in the deaths of Romeo and Juliet is parodied in the ludicrous deaths of Pyramus and Thisbe in Midsummer Night's Dream. The audience so much wants its "order" at the end that it will swallow almost anything to get it, including the nagging doubt that these deaths need not have happened. "Shakespeare," says Girard, "knows that fiction is and must be a lie. The audience is looking for its pharmakos, as Northrop Frye tells us, and even the tiniest little sign in one direction or another will send everybody charging like raving buffaloes, so long as someone is there to be trampled to death. The doubles will be tilted one way or the other; better give them a strong and obvious tilt, in order not to be trampled oneself, or completely ignored, which is the same thing, really, for a playwright." - 166 -However, even if Shakespeare knows that he must please his audience in the end, or even if he is sincerely urging their acceptance of some order at last, he always manages to dramatize the best that can be said for diverse attitudes. Through Helena in All1s Well for example, he shows that virginity is a much respected value; through Parolles, he also argues that if everyone were a virgin, where would virgins come from? Unless contrasted attitudes like these can be sorted out, with one expelled and the other preserved, no resolution can occur. This failure to provide a scapegoat, I have suggested, helps to explain the problem of the problem plays. In Troilus and Cressida, the obvious candidate for scapegoat is Thersites; his reductive views on love and war would, in another play, cause him to excuse himself from the festive conclusion, as Jaques does, or suffer imprisonment and self-exile like Malvolio. There would be a clear attempt to place his attitude on the bottom rung of a scale of values. In his own play, however, his voice shares equally with those of an idealistic lover (Troilus), an idealistic soldier (Hector), and the pragmatic policies of men of action (Ulysses and Achilles). Thersites qualifies rationalizations of all kinds from a perspective so vile that it reduces all actions to the motive of blind lust — of mere motion without purpose. Although his cynicism and invective dirties him even as he speaks it, some of his judgment also besmears those at whom it is directed. His well-realized attitude keeps an audience off balance, constantly reminding it that its desire for action with credible purpose and its desire for "perfect" consummation through love or war is illusory. In Troilus and Cressida, then, there is no scapegoat, no one to blame more than another, and therefore no way of establishing an order in which one attitude is to be preferred over another. Likewise, but in more subtle ways, Parolles and Lucio survive attempts to blame them and to cast them out for attitudes which block the way of a - 167 -desired resolution. Each, of course, is kept alive, forgiven, and invited to join the comic procession of the close. But each does so without having changed his wry point of view toward the turns of the plot. Therefore, they cast suspicions on the motives of those characters whose fates resemble their own. Parolles' determination to remain what he is casts a qualifying light on the sincerity of Bertram's repentance; Lucio's protest against being married to a punk casts a suspicious light on Angelo's willingness to "die" after his marriage to Mariana. To the extent that the scapegoat has not carried off the qualifying attitude, to the extent an audience is invited to have reservations even to the end, to that extent the order can retain only a shaky hold. I have implied in my analysis that the problem plays differ from others in the canon not for having conflicting attitudes but for keeping them so much in suspense even to the end. There is more of a protest against the imposition of the conventional ending and against the inexorable grinding forward of syllogistic progression than is to be found in the other plays. Since the protest is not "carried off" or placed securely on a spectrum, the problem of identification for the audience is intensified. Finally, the order to be imposed seems to depend merely on the will of the protagonists and not on any reasonable grounds. So, for example, the lengthy debate in the Trojan council demonstrates that the Trojans keep Helen because they want to, with no regard for the "moral laws/ Of nature and of nations" (II.ii.184-185). Likewise, the slaughter of Hector makes it clear that the Grecian actions also lack all proportionate cause. In the scene before he attacks Hector, Achilles addresses his Myrmidons, not with explanations but with a weak expletive ("It is decreed") and with imperatives that show a rapacious will to consummate Hector's death: Come here about me, you my Myrmidons; Mark what I say. Attend me where I wheel. - 168 -Strike not a stroke, but keep yourselves in breath. And when I have the bloody Hector found, Empale him with your weapons round about; In fellest manner execute your arms. Follow me, sirs, and my proceedings eye; It is decreed Hector the great must die. (V.vii.1-8) An audience needs to know more than the will of the protagonist in order to identify with the results of his actions. Some explanation must be obvious, even if only the conventional one that this action has brought about an order desired by the more reasonable characters. Comedy succeeds when it is obvious that a "saner" society replaces an irrational one; tragedy succeeds when it is obvious that something has been learned by suffering the response to an assertive action. In Troilus and Cressida, the action is not only without reasonable explanation, but also without any desirable results. The brute facts of death and disease remain after willful attempts to wage war and love. Therefore, "Hector is dead, there is no more to say" (V.x.22). As I have analyzed them, the same willfulness characterizes the decisions of the King in All's Well and of the Duke in Measure for Measure. When the King attempts to marry off Helena to the man of her choice, his anger at Bertram's refusal of this arrangement and his equivocal use of "honor" to mean "will" show that his motives are at best self-interested; they merely cooperate with Helena's plan to marry Bertram because she has effected a cure. Bertram's interests are in no way consulted. Although the conventions of folk tale would suppress such considerations for the sake of the story, Shakespeare, I believe, has raised them deliberately, thus throwing into question the reasonableness of the King's actions and preventing identification with them. In the same way, the Duke's decisions to test Angelo and then to test Isabella are made without reasonable explanations in either case. Even if the - 169 -testings could be justified on allegorical grounds — such as the Duke's wanting to educate them to a more humane understanding, for example — why should the rewards of virtue be made to look indistinguishable from whipping and hanging? Because marriage is imposed on Angelo and Lucio and offered to Isabella without preparation, it cannot satisfy even in a conventional way. The syllogistic progression up to Act III.i.152 pointed the arrows of expectation toward the issue of Angelo's getting Isabella; with the Duke's plotting from III.i.153 onward, the audience learns that he is to get Mariana. In both cases, his getting of the woman is to be the result of an unexplained will that it be so. To see Angelo trapped into accepting Mariana takes away the feeling of a "saner" conclusion, even if marrying her means that he will live. An audience cannot be expected to identify with Angelo's attempt to rape Isabella in exchange for her brother's life; this is willful villainy. It can accept only a little more easily the Duke's willful imposition of a marriage on Angelo in order to satisfy the desires of Mariana. I have entitled my rhetorical analysis of these plays "A Dancing of Attitudes" because they dramatize more than Shakespeare's other plays an active weaving in and out of divergent attitudes while failing to provide a reasonable basis for sorting out which should be preferred over the other. As its first benefit, this rhetorical method provides a way of understanding in formal terms why All's Well, Measure for Measure, and Troilus and Cressida have puzzled critics and audiences alike. - 170 -THIS, THEN, IS THE PRAISE OF SHAKESPEARE A further use of Burkean rhetorical analysis will help to explain three features of Shakespeare's style which Dr.Johnson also noticed but which he labeled faults: punning, counteracting, and lack of poetic justice. According to Johnson, Shakespeare interrupts the straightforward telling of his "fable" by turning aside for a pun. It exerts a "malevolent" influence over him; it is like "luminous vapors" to a traveller or, worse, it is the "fatal Cleopatra for which he lost the world and was content to lose it."^ Rhetorical criticism would reply that instead of losing one world, Shakespeare has gained two, by fusing in one word two perspectives on the same subject. So, for example, Helena is both "grace" and "grass"; Angelo's "sense" breeds at Isabella's words; and Cressida is kissed in "general." The pun shows in little what Shakespeare is doing throughout a play: combining "perspectives by incongruity," arguing opposites, and including a "parliament" of attitudes on the subject he is contemplating. Several decades after Johnson, Coleridge defended the pun by calling it "one of the most effectual intensives of passion.Burke would agree, noting how a pun allows an artist to admit even the "thinking of the body" (through scatological meanings, for example) into a thoroughgoing presentation of a subject. Commenting on Gaunt's death bed scene (Richard II II.i) and Richard's question, "Can sick men play so nicely with their names?," Coleridge replies, "Yes! on a death bed there is a feeling which may make all things appear but as puns and equivocation...it is profoundly true that there is a natural, an almost irresistible tendency in the mind, when immersed in one strong feeling, to connect that feeling with every sight and object around it; especially if there be opposition, and the words addressed to it are in any - 171 -way repugnant to the feeling itself, as here in the instance of Richard's unkind language: 'Misery makes sport to mock itself. "'7 For Coleridge, it seems, a pun serves to reinforce a passion by merging it, when provoked, with ideas and images that help give the passion "presence" and extent. Gaunt's name suggests, easily enough, "gaunt" images, and such is his state on the way to death. But Gaunt's purpose in punning is also important, and Coleridge seems to miss it even though he is, in Biographia Literaria, the best explicator of poetry's function as a reconciler of opposites. "Misery makes sport to mock itself." That is, Gaunt momentarily takes Richard's attitude toward his dying and, in doing so, makes sport of it, for thus his death appears to Richard. The pun, then, has served as a way not only of expressing Gaunt's passion more intensely but also of conveying Richard's attitude of mockery at Gaunt's gaunt condition. Perhaps the play on words serves to relieve Gaunt of his misery momentarily by giving him an incongruous perspective on it, but, if so, it serves another purpose as well. By taking Richard's attitude, it flatters him, and so it surprises him into asking: "Should dying men flatter with those who live?" "No, no," Gaunt admits, "men living flatter those who die." Richard is puzzled: "Thou, now a -dying sayest thou flatterest me." And Gaunt can now turn the tables on Richard by reversing the terms with which each understands his situation: "0 no! thou diest, though I the sicker be/...Thy death-bed is no lesser than thy land/ Wherein thou liest in reputation sick" (Richard II II.i.83-96). Here, then, is an argument of attitudes which began with a pun that contained them both. It is the rhetorical usefulness of a pun which led Kenneth Burke to declare that "[Shakespeare] had to indulge in his more atrocious puns not only for the sake of the crowd but for his own sake as well. It gave him the basis - 172 -for refining them into the more subtle metaphorical leaps of which he is capable."8 Empson suggests even further that "...one source of the unity of a Shakespearean play, however brusque its handling of character, is this coherence of its subdued puns."9 It is Shakespeare's genius, then, and not his Antony-like turpitude which woos the word that will beget a twin understanding of any issue he dramatizes, any story he tells. As Stephen Booth points out, it is the pun which exemplifies in little what makes a Shakespearean drama as a whole so troubling or awesome in its complexity. "A pun," says Booth, "is the commonest and smallest practical manifestation of the fragility of definitions. Since a word is a definer — exists to fix quasi-physical limits to an idea — the experience of perceiving a pun is a real, though admittedly petty, experience of collapsing limits."1u The pun is, as Nietzsche called it and as Burke concurs, a "perspective by incongruity." As such, it is a most fit rhetorical form for use in a dramatic definition of terms. Shakespeare's second fault, according to Johnson, is his tendency to "counteract" himself, of which turning aside for a pun is only one example. As Johnson puts it, "What he does best, he soon ceases to do. He is not long soft and pathetic without some idle conceit or contemptible equivocation. He no sooner begins to move than he counteracts himself; and terror and pity, as they are rising in the mind, are checked and blasted by sudden frigidity."11 Johnson, in thus describing Shakespeare's tendency to qualify one argument by the injection of its opposite, felicitously suggests a resemblance to Burke's idea of drama as an inter-action of terms, or the "comic contemplation" of "cooperative competition" among conflicting attitudes. As I noted in my analysis, this tendency to "self interference," as Burke calls it, shows especially in the endings of the problem plays where an - 173 -audience is most eager for some order to be established. It is as if Shakespeare is deliberately frustrating an easy solution either because he does not believe in it or because he knows that he could continue the debate indefinitely. His "sense of an ending" is that it is potentially endless — that "every exit (is) an entrance somewhere else." 13 Shakespeare's failure to end neatly relates, I suspect, to Johnson's gravest dissatisfaction, that "He sacrifices virtue to convenience and is so much more careful to please than to instruct that he seems to write without 1 4 any moral purpose.",n Johnson was especially offended, as we know, by the fate of Cordelia. Shakespeare, he acknowledged, may not have violated probability by showing "the wicked prosper and the virtuous miscarry," because it is, after all, a "just representation of the common events of human life." But insofar as everyone loves justice, they will be better pleased, Johnson argued, by "the final triumph of persecuted virtue." He rests his case on the public's acceptance of Tate's revised ending, adding, "...if my sensations could add anything to the general suffrage, I might relate that I was many years ago so shocked by Cordelia's death that I know not whether I ever endured to read again the last scenes of the play till I undertook to revise them as an editor."^ In our time, however, the public has decided otherwise, with Shakespeare's version not only restored but played more frequently and turned into three film versions for even wider distribution (Kozintsev, 1970; Brook, 1971; Olivier, 1983). I suspect that this play has found its audience again because of an increased scepticism toward the comfort of ideologies and a greater willingness to hear out all the arguments on behalf of questions such as: "Who is it can tell me who I am?" We understand Lear in Keats's terms as "a fierce dispute betwixt damnation and impassioned clay," and we sit still to learn what can be learned as one human act counteracts another, as clothes are - 174 -doffed and donned, as puns on "nature" and "kind" encapsulate divergent perspectives on the human condition. We know that neither Lear's view nor Edmund's is self-evidently just, and that therefore the honest course for the playwright is the one that Shakespeare has taken: to present the issues and to trust the audience to decide the merits of each. Shakespeare's morality, then, is what Burke would call "linguistic scepticism, which we synonymize with linguistic appreciation, on the grounds that an attitude of methodical quizzicality towards language may best equip us to perceive the full scope of its resourcefulness."^ Given the human tendency to "perfect" any one symbol or attitude to the exclusion of others, Burke sees linguistic scepticism as a strategy for survival. Any method which shows the limits or ambiguities of one symbol (Lear's "nature," for example, or Edmund's) also assures a place for the other in the unending conversation of the "human barnyard." Stalemate does not satisfy those who would perfect an ideology at the expense of a scapegoat, but at least it ensures the survival of all attitudes, honestly recognizing the truth of each perspective. Coleridge, I think, inadvertently explained the "morality" of Shakespeare's plays by noting one of the salient features of his life-like character portrayal: "signal adherence to the great law of nature, that all opposites tend to attract and temper each other" and, again, "In Shakespeare the heterogeneous is united, as it is in nature."^ The plays, like life itself, show the interaction of many attitudes and, by doing so, convey whatever truth we are prepared to accept, and whatever definition of justice we are prepared to agree upon. To use the terms of renaissance rhetoric, Shakespeare's imagination has found the "available arguments" touching the subject he is contemplating; it is up to us, the audience, to assent to what we believe is most probably the case. - 175 -Ironically, Johnson himself is the best defender of Shakespeare's morality when he praises Shakespeare for having, above all poets, "the largest and most comprehensive soul." Moreover, he says, "This is the praise of Shakespeare, that his drama is the mirror of life, that he who has mazed his imagination in following the phantoms which other writers raise up before him, may here be cured of his delirious ecstasies by reading human sentiments in human language, by scenes from which a hermit may estimate the transactions of the world and a confessor predict the progress of the passions."18 Johnson is specifically contrasting Shakespeare with writers of sentimental comedy for whom "the universal agent is love." Shakespeare, by contrast, knew that "love is only one of many passions; and as it has no great influence upon the sum of life, it has little operation in the dramas of a poet who caught his ideas from the living world and exhibited only what he saw before him. He knew that any other passion, as it was regular or exorbitant, was a cause of happiness or calamity.Johnson praises Shakespeare, then, for dramatizing a variety of passions or attitudes operating in life; furthermore, Shakespeare's dramaturgy is natural in that "His persons act and speak by the influence of those general passions and principles by which all minds are agitated and the whole system of life continued in motion." Shakespeare's plays are "just representations of general nature," then, in their mirroring both of the variety of passions and of the way these passions operate.20 Johnson, like Coleridge, has recognized the truth-to-life in Shakespeare's drama, and, in doing so, has located the salient principle of his morality. The praise of Shakespeare as the poet of nature means, in rhetorical terms, that he has shown a variety of passions or attitudes interacting in his "fable" and has traced their progress in such a way that they impress an audience as true to the movement of its own spirit. From the knowledge of itself which an audience gains by such a "comic contemplation," - 176 -it is more ready to accept an ironic juxtaposition of conflicting terms as the necessary condition for any definition of order. If this, then, is the praise of Shakesperare, it should be enough not only to explain why his plays reward attention, but also why he excels so many other playwrights including the brightest candidates. Bernard Shaw, for example, granted Shakespeare his "word music" and pitied the person who could not enjoy Shakespeare on that account, but he scoffed at Shakespeare's ideas. "Shakespear's morality is a mere reach-me-down," he says, full of accepted ideas against which some characters, like Hamlet, struggle only fitfully and unsuccessfully. Shakespeare had no original contributions to make to morality and religion and was therefore inferior to Ibsen — and, of course, to Shaw himself.21 Shaw, like Johnson, seems to think that Shakespeare's morality should be identifiable with paraphrasable sententiae or a comforting ideology. That is why he says: "We have got so far beyond Shakespeare as a man of ideas that there is by this time hardly a famous passage in his works that is considered fine on any other ground than that it sounds beautifully, and awakens in us the emotion that originally expressed itself by its beauty. Strip it of that beauty of sound by prosaic paraphrase, and you have nothing left but a platitude that even an American professor of ethics would blush to offer to his disciples" (my emphases).22 The answer to this, of course, is that Shakespeare, unlike Shaw, is able to contemplate more than one great idea at a time — especially those attitudes which are part of life even if they seem repugnant to a realistic philosophy: like Henry Vs patriotic speeches and Cleopatra's immortal longings. Therefore, what seems to Shaw a muddle is actually a complex network of meaning, too "intrinse t'unloose" (King Lear II.ii.81). As an example of his own dramatic method, Shaw felt compelled to tidy up the ending of Cymbeline by omitting the religious references to Jupiter's - 177 -intervention and by putting into Imogen's mouth an explicit and strident instruction on the proper way to treat a woman. Shakespeare worked otherwise, and it is his contemplation of the interaction of several attitudes, his arguing of opposites, his methodical quizzicality toward all symbolic actions which constitute his morality. After all, it is a truthful man, as well as a just and brave man, who will try to hear every argument that can be heard and to give every reason that can be given, even if he proposes to "vote" for one over the other in the end. IS THIS THE PROMISED END? As I have discussed them, the problem plays show Shakespeare's morality at its most scrupulous, offering several perspectives in an act of "pure persuasion" which is so evenly argued that no attitude emerges as the one the audience is clearly asked to accept. The arguments in these plays are more unrelieved by a persuasion to order at the end than those in other plays of the canon. With the tragedies, Shakespeare once again returns to resolving the conflict of attitudes as he has done in his earlier plays, at least in this sense: he brings his characters or terms through the total transformation signified by death. Rhetorically, he makes them worthy of a "eulogy"; he praises their worth as the "vessels of meaning" or scapegoats that have helped us — the audience — reach an understanding through their act and suffering. Of course, it is not possible to put this understanding easily into the words of a theme. What we learn from Hamlet's pained predicament, Lear's rashness, and Othello's jealousy comes from years of contemplating the interaction of attitudes which have made the deaths of these characters surely pitiful and somehow necessary. It would take another thesis to put my own paraphrase into - 178 -decent order, and I would, at that, only be adding a small contribution to the understanding of so many others. Nevertheless, I should emphasize that my understanding would be rhetorical; it would assume that I am "consubstantial" with these heroes and with their antagonists, that I can see in them attitudes I have in myself and that I therefore can learn from them. In this I would differ from those who are persuaded otherwise. I remember two undergraduates, for example, to whom Lear's rashness seemed "unrealistic," his refusal to accommodate himself to changing times impractical, and his choice of Cordelia sentimental. Therefore, they lost interest in Lear and transferred it to Edmund because his attitude more clearly matched their own: he is the up and coming man of "nature" who gets shortchanged by an outdated society and who, despite a sentimental death-bed conversion, survives in the memory as the one whose attitude calls every Lear-like and Albany-like order into question. I believe that most people are persuaded as I am — that Lear is the "vessel of meaning" in this play — but I am also convinced that Shakespeare has presented Edmund's attitude so well that latter-day Machiavels and neo-Nietzschean supermen (certainly the two undergraduates) will identify with his attitude and his tragedy, even to the extent of downplaying Lear's. What could become for a few the tragedy of Edmund does become, for many, the tragedy of Macbeth. His death is also a "transformation." Granted, his heroic evil gets no eulogy; instead, it is made "immortal." By dying for the principle of self-determination, as a rebel to Malcolm's order, Macbeth, in rhetorical terms, shows that such a principle is worth dying for. For that reason, I would qualify slightly Stephen Booth's recent and excellent analysis of this play. For Booth, Macbeth, like any formal tragedy, is the attempt to define an indefinable experience. The audience feels a conflict between its customary, neat moral judgments and how it really experiences the character of Macbeth. The clash between what it feels and what it ought to say goes - 179 -unrecognized consciously, but since it is sensed sublirninally and endured, the audience feels good for having survived this grave threat to its cosy, everyday assumptions. Macbeth's lawless attitude threatens every attempt to define a moral order, but his death expels that threat at least within the confines of the play.2^ Booth assumes, then, that the audience retains some measure of comfort; a rhetorical analysis would not be so sure. Many in the audience, no doubt, believe that the surviving order is well rid of the "dead butcher and his fiend like queen." Others, however, will sense only a fragile peace in the victory of Malcolm, a mere act of wishful thinking that his coronation at Scone will unite his subjects and satisfy their ambitions. In his film of Macbeth (1971), Roman Polanski has tinkered with the text to give more weight to this pessimistic view. As Jack Jorgens describes it: The time is not free at the end of Polanski's melodrama, for there will be no end to the chain of ambitious killings, repression, and fear. In the concluding scene a rider approaches the ruins of the witches and the sour bagpipes sound again. It is Donalbain, Malcolm's younger brother, whose limp links him with the young murderer and whose looks were as dark as Macbeth's when Duncan named Malcolm successor. He takes shelter from the rain under the ruins as Macbeth and Banquo did. Hearing the witches' chanting, he goes to investigate. The film's final image is a sustained long shot of the ruin in the rain with the horse outside awaiting its master. e-Of course, Polanski need not have strayed far from the text to make this point. An attentive audience will hear again in Malcolm's promise t& plant "newly with the time" whatever needs to be done (V.viii.66) an echo of his father Duncan's similar promise: to "plant" Macbeth and to make him "full of growing" (I.iv.28-29). And in this echoed promise of calm after a storm is also heard the sequel of disappointed ambition and of a radical refusal to serve that can be traced back both to the man and the woman in the garden and to the rebellion of Satan to whom Macbeth and his Lady have been implicitly - 180 -compared. Since, rhetorically speaking, every "god term" needs a "devil term" in order to define itself, an audience cannot help but suspect any promise of pure grace and peace. In the tragedy of Macbeth, the audience has, in a sense, witnessed the devil being given his due, and some may even be persuaded that the devil has only lost a battle, not the war. For Burke, Macbeth is Shakespeare's way of expressing "outlaw" attitudes while giving proper deference to the order that commands for the moment. He represents a mounting middle class ambition which tries to grasp the "golden round" for itself in order to establish a new order based on its principles.2^ One need not accept Burke's socially weighted analysis in order to accept his principal point: that Macbeth, like every drama, enacts attitudes that will appeal in different ways to several constituencies in the audience. According to William Empson, who is discussing irony in the novel, "double irony is somehow natural to the stage" where a dramatist can appeal to different parties in the audience in order to help him argue a complex matter of concern. It is when the ironist himself begins to doubt...that the far-reaching ironies [of a novel] appear; and by then the thing is like a dramatic appeal to an audience, because both parties in the audience could swallow it. The essential is for the author to repeat the audience in himself, and he may safely seem to do nothing more. No doubt he has covertly, if it is a good irony, to reconcile the opposites into a larger unity, or suggest a balanced position by setting out two extreme views, or accept a lie (more or less consciously) to find energy to accept a truth...I think it must be conceived as like a full-blown "dramatic ambiguity," in which different parts of the audience are meant to interpret the thing in different ways.2 As the audience interprets, heated debate will ensue over whether the order finally proferred is adequate or not, desirable or not. As I have said, the tragedies move away from the problem plays by clearly presenting an order for acceptance or rejection. In the same way, the romances provide a clear pointer to a comic kind of acceptance: to the deep joy that comes when the - 181 -lost are found, identities are clarified and accepted, and the sinful are forgiven. The conventions of romance are used with less formal qualification; they are not felt to be an imposition on a plot struggling to go elsewhere. The characters are also drawn with less inherent ambiguity. Imogen, for example, not only loves Posthumus but is clearly lovable in return. It is wrong to doubt her and to harm her while it is not as obviously wrong for Bertram to resist Helena. Also, Imogen's search for Posthumus is not presented as a scheme to win him back. No one would call Imogen a "clever wench" of folk tale, much less defend her on those grounds which W.W.Lawrence chose in order to defend Helena's apparently "predatory monogamy." Of course, even in the romances, Shakespeare does not entirely give up contrasting attitudes and including qualifications to the order he would establish, although the formal construction is more of a piece than in the problem plays. The qualifications come, instead, from reminders within the play of its fictive and illusory nature and of the loose ends that have not been included within the charmed circle of the resolution. For example, the loose bones of Antigonus rattle against the final harmony of The Winter's Tale and, in The Tempest, it is clear both that Antonio will never accept forgiveness from Prospero and that Caliban is one upon whose nature the nurture of art will never stick. These are recalcitrant materials, not to be wrestled, it seems, to any resolution. Moreover, the fictive nature of the play itself is relentlessly pointed out as if to qualify its claim to serious attention. Pericles is a "song that old was sung," told by "ancient" Gower; the reunion of Hermione, Leontes and Perdita "were it but told you, should be hooted at/ Like an old tale" (Winter's Tale V.iii.116-117); and the pageants of Prospero, like those of the artist generally and of nature itself, are but a "baseless fabric" (Tempest IV.i.151). - 182 -Let Autolycus, the thieving seller of incredible ballads, stand in for the playwright himself. Let him test your credulity with a story about "a fish, that appeared upon the coast on Wednesday the fourscore of April, forty thousand fathoms above water, and sang this ballad against the hard hearts of maids; it was thought she was a woman and was turned into a cold fish for she would not exchange flesh with one that loved her." Let him convince you that "the ballad is very pitiful and true," and you will be ready for anything — even for a statue that moves (Winter's Tale IV.iv.279-287). "There are cozeners abroad; therefore it behooves men to be wary" (IV.iv.256-257). We have been warned, but, if we stay in our seats, it is because we have solved for ourselves the relationship between art and nature; we have come to know how "what is so" about us can reach us through "what is not so," how we can be persuaded to a truth through a fiction. The argument of attitudes, then, has moved to another level of abstraction. Within the romance, the order is clearly established, and the playwright has used every formal means to move us to accept it. The preferable order, then, is not in doubt; what remains in doubt is the possible relevance of this order to anything we know in nature. IMAGINARY GARDENS AND REAL TOADS The strength of Burke's rhetorical method, which attends closely to the use of form for specific effects on an audience, can best be appreciated by comparing it with the structural criticism of Northrop Frye. As I mentioned in the Introduction, Frye sees no problem with how to interpret the problem plays. For him, the question is settled by detecting the convention or mythic - 183 -structure which serves as the general framework of the narrative. If its mythos is comic rather than tragic, its genre and the response to it are obvious. Frye asks the question baldly: "Does anything that exhibits the structure of a comedy have to be taken as a comedy, regardless of its content or our attitude to that content?" And his response? "The answer is clearly yes. A comedy is not a play which ends happily. It is a play in which a certain structure is present and works through to its own logical end, whether we or the cast or the author feel happy about it or not."2? According to Frye, the problem with the problem plays is the clash between the convention used and "the unacceptable behavior" it imposes on the characters as they are developed. So, "If the hero of a thriller miraculously gets out of his scrape, that is convention: but if he had to be invincibly stupid to have got into the scrape in the first place, we may become impatient with the convention."28 Therefore, the problem with All's Well is how Helena will accomplish her tasks; the problem with Measure for Measure is how Isabella's chastity will effect the resolution. For Frye, Cymbeline is the "apotheosis of the problem comedies"; it is "much ado about everything."2^ In it Shakespeare recapitulates earlier concerns and motifs, including the theme of reconciliation, and moves his scaled down characters inexorably through myriad disguisings, disclosures and tearful reunions until the promised end arrives. According to Frye, "The difference between Cymbeline and the earlier problem comedies, then, is that the counter-problem force, so to speak, which brings a festive conclusion out of all the mistakes of the characters, is explicitly associated with the working of a divine providence, here called Jupiter. Jupiter is as much a projection of the author's craftsmanship as the Duke in Measure for Measure; that is, the difference between Cymbeline and the problem comedies is not that Cymbeline is adding a religious allegory to the dramatic action. What it is - 184 -adding...is the primitive mythical dimension which is only implicit in the problem comedies. Cymbeline is not a more religious play than Much Ado, it is a more academic play, with a greater technical interest in dramatic structure."3° The elevating of Much Ado, All's Well, and Measure for Measure and the flattening of Cymbeline would make these plays resemble one another as more or less explicit and successful attempts to use romance conventions; they are not "dark comedies," therefore, but rather plays within the penumbra of romance. However, if my analysis has any merit, it has shown that the problem of the problem plays cannot be resolved by isolating the "narrative framework" alone and making that the sole criterion for the audience's principal response. I say "principal" because Frye acknowledges that responses to a play vary — one may view the festive ending through the eyes of Orlando or Jaques. Nevertheless, he maintains that if the play is a comedy or incipient romance according to its structure, it must be taken to be such regardless of one's responses otherwise. This procrustean determination of the genre of a Shakespearean play should be contrasted, however, with the views of others who have sensed something "sui generis" in Shakespeare's dramas, like Kenneth Muir who argues that Shakespeare wrote tragedies, not tragedy, and like Ralph Berry, who argues the same for the comedies. Frye is led to his conclusion, I believe, by his emphasis on mythos or conventional form. Rhetorical criticism, however, takes a broader approach. It places the primary focus on communication between author and audience, and then recognizes progressive, repetitive, and minor forms in addition to conventional forms as means of persuasion. These forms may overlap and complement one another, or they may collide, but in any case they subserve the - 185 -primary purpose of persuading the audience to identification with the artist's contemplation of a matter which concerns them both.^1 One of the principal concerns of Cymbeline, for example, is to distinguish true nobility from that which is merely inherited. Cloten and his mother are killed off while Posthumus and Imogen are married partly to satisfy an audience's sense of the kind of nobility which belongs to a desirable public order. Unlike the problem plays, Cymbeline does not confuse the issues. The terms are clearly defined through the conventional form of a romance or fairy tale (wicked stepmother seeks to poison beautiful daughter of the King), and the ending is, for all the complexity of its unravelling, "the more delayed, delighted." In the spirit of reconciliation which prevails at the close ("Pardon's the word to all"), both the claims of natural vigor coupled with a generous spirit and the claims of inherited title are recognized. Not only does the brave Leonatus Posthumus marry the princess Imogen, but the King's sons are recognized to be such both by their brave behavior in battle as well as by Guiderius's distinctive birthmark. Unlike the endings of All's Well and Measure for Measure, no one in this play finally resists the progressive movement to mercy and marriage. True, King Cymbeline, through whom all the reconciliations are effected, refuses to grant complete forgiveness at first to his own son and to his Roman enemies. However, this is because he possesses only partial knowledge of who is before him and partly because he is still under the evil influence of his queen. Once she is "killed off," Cymbeline comes to learn the full extent of her wickedness, is told the identity of his sons, and is shown an example of noble forgiveness through Posthumus's pardoning of Iachimo. As a result, he is educated to the point where he can effect the final' and fullest reconciliation of enemies as he says: "Although the victor, we submit to - 186 -Caesar,/ And to the Roman empire, promising/ To pay our wonted tribute, from the which/ We were dissuaded by our wicked queen." (Cymbeline V.v.460-463). Cymbeline does more than add "a religious allegory to the dramatic action." It uses conventional, repetitive, and progressive forms for the sake of persuading the audience to the kind of nobility which is celebrated at the close. Unlike the problem plays, this play has made up its mind about what attitude is desirable and argues for it to the end. As my analysis illustrates, then, the difference between a rhetorical criticism and a structural one is the difference between emphasizing the use of form for the sake of persuasion to an attitude and the use of form for its own sake.^2 In his introduction to A Natural Perspective, Northrop Frye suggests that there are two kinds of critic: one is either an "Iliad" or an "Odyssey" critic, depending upon whether one prefers either the didactic or the pleasing function of literature; whether one looks primarily for life-like characterization and high seriousness of theme (literature as allegory of "the nonliterary center of experience") or whether one studies and responds to the story itself (the acceptance of conventions and the tour de force required to overcome them). The Iliad critic prefers tragedy and realism; the Odyssey critic, comedy and romance. Shakespeare, says Frye, is an Odyssey writer, unlike Jonson who respected too much an audience's "subcritical" tendency to equate stage action and real life and who consciously appealed to it. Frye casts in his lot with the Odyssey writers and critics; hence, his analysis of mythoi in Anatomy of Criticism which he constructs with consummate skill and involuted complexity. In the spirit of Frye's analogy, I would suggest that it is possible to be an "Aeneid" critic: one who, like Vergil, combines both the Iliad and the Odyssey — communication of attitudes and skill of craftsmanship — in a commentary on art and life. I assume, with Sidney and other Renaissance critics, that art "imitates" life in such a way that through the poet's fiction one can learn truths more philosophical than history and more lively than philosophy. At the same time, I assume that only through his formal construction of an artifact can the poet communicate his insight and, in doing so, risk success or failure depending upon the response of the audience to his equations for terms and to the conventional, progressive, and repetitive movements in their exposition. I believe, then, that Shakespeare is an Aeneid writer, whose artful constructions and arguing of attitudes draw us into a never-ending contemplation of humanity in action and contrive in so doing to give us the pleasure and the wisdom of imaginary gardens with real toads in them.33 - 188 -VII. ENDNOTES INTRODUCTION 1. Frederick S. Boas, Shakespeare and his Predecessors, (1896; rpt. New York: Greenwood, 1969) pp. 345 and 357-358. 2. W.W. Lawrence, Shakespeare's Problem Comedies, 2nd. ed. (1931; rpt. New York: Ungar, 1960), pp.3-5 and 209; E.M.W. Tillyard, Shakespeare's Problem Plays (1950; rpt. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1968), pp. 3-5; A.P. Rossiter, Angel With Horns: Fifteen Lectures on Shakespeare, ed. Graham Storey (New York: Longman, 1961), p.117. 3. Lawrence, p.207; Tillyard, pp.139-143; Madeleine Doran, Endeavors of Art: A study of Form in Elizabethan Drama (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1954), pp.366-367. 4. Lawrence, p.206: "There appears to be no valid reason for necessarily viewing [the problem comedies] as satirical or ironical. There are no real ambiguities as to which characters are good and which are bad. Heroism and virtue still shine clearly forth, though sometimes in ways which appear to us strange. To this point we must hold fast, forgetting that we are of the twentieth century..."; Northrop Frye, A Natural Perspective: The Development of Shakespearean Comedy and Romance (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1965), p.64: "The problems of the problem comedies have to be looked at first of all as conventional descendants of myths. The 'problem' of All's Well is not any Shavian social problem of how a woman gets her man, but the mythical problem of how Helena, like her ancestress Psyche, is going to solve her three impossible tasks. Similarly, the problem in Measure for Measure is how Isabell's chastity, always a magical force in romance, is going to rescue both - 189 -the violated Julietta and the jilted Mariana as a result of being exposed to the solicitations of Angelo." 5. Ernest Schanzer, The Problem Plays of Shakespeare: A Study of Julius Caesar, Measure for Measure, Antony and Cleopatra (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1963), p.6. 6. Patrick Murray, The Shakespearian Scene: Some Twentieth-Century Perspectives (London: Longmans, 1969). 7. Philip Edwards, Shakespeare and the Confines of Art (London: Menthuen,1968), pp.95-119. 8. Howard Felperin, Shakespearean Romance (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1972), p.77. 9. E.C. Pettet, Shakespeare and the Romance Tradition (London: Staples Press, 1949), p.160. 10. R.S. White, Shakespeare and the Romance Ending (Newcastle upon Tyne: privately printed, 1981), p.47. 11. Paul de Man, Blindness and Insight: Essays in the Rhetoric of Contemporary Criticism 2nd. ed. Theory and History of Literature, Vol.7 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1983), pp. 220-226. 12. Wilbur Samuel Howell, "The Arts of Literary Critics, in Renaissance Britain: A Comprehensive View," from Poetics Rhetoric, and Logic: Studies in the Basic Disciplines of Criticism (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1975), p.86. 13. Howell, ibid. p. 119, chides Vickers for his slighting of the concern in Renaissance rhetorical theory for content and form as well as for tropes and figures. "Vickers's willingness to follow Ramus and to isolate rhetoric from its classical concern for content and form leaves him in the position of not being able to live up to the requirements of the title which he has given to his book [Classical Rhetoric in English Poetry]. In short, this rhetoric is not classical rhetoric, but only a part of it." - 190 -14. "Longinus refers to that kind of elation wherein the audience feels as though it were not merely receiving, but were itself creatively participating in the poet's or speaker's assertion. Could we not say that, in such cases, the audience is exalted by the assertion because it has the feel of collaborating in the assertion?" Kenneth Burke, Rhetoric of Motives (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969), pp.57-58. 15. "For to say truely, what else is man but his mind?...He therefore that hath vanquished the minde of man [by using the figures] hath made the greatest and most glorious conquest." George Puttenham, The Arte of English Poesie, ed. Gladys Doidge Willock and Alice Walker (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970), p.197. 16. Howell, p.104: "To Aristotle, to Cicero, and to Horace..the crucial distinction to be recognized between delight and didacticism in poetry, on the one hand, and delight and didacticism in oratory, on the other, was that the poem accomplished these ends by fictions, the oration by statements." The infighting among rhetoricians about the "proper" matter for their study (whether "discourse" alone [spoken or written] or any persuasive use of a symbol system) should not obscure their agreement that a rhetorician examines the pragmatic and humanizing effects of communication. To that end, he or she continues the Aristotelian analysis of speaker, audience, and message, of ethos, pathos, and logos in order to evaluate how effective and how excellent the use of rhetoric has been. Most rhetoricians (with academic domiciles usually in the Speech Department) have traditionally limited their studies to historical orations or to speeches embedded in the context of literature (see Donald C. Bryant, Rhetorical Dimensions in Criticism [Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University, 1973], pp.27-28). Some, like Wayne C. Booth in The Rhetoric of Fiction (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1961) have studied the strategies in novels by which the implied author seeks to convince his implied audience of a moral stance toward the action. Kenneth Burke stands almost - 191 -alone both for examining the rhetoric of every "symbolic action" and for using all that there is to use (psychology, sociology, biography, formal analysis) in order to explain to what effect the communication is couched in the way it is (a process of analysis which he calls "prophesying after the event"). 17. Brian Vickers, review of Shakespeare and the Rhetoricians, by Marion Trousdale, Times Literary Supplement, 8 October, 1982, p.1110. 18. Tuve, p.387 and p.397: "Poetry's concern with universals is thus 'intellectual' contemplation. One cannot confine the 'rational' to the activities of the intellectus; it cannot do anything alone. The pursuit of truth requires the interaction of all these faculties, and falsity or lack of discipline in any of them will hinder that pursuit." 19. Tuve, pp.389-390. 20. Philosophy of Literary Form; Studies in Symbolic Action, 3rd. ed. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973), p.31. BURKE 1. In this chapter, the works of Burke will be cited as follows: ATH (Attitudes Toward History. 2nd. ed. Los Altos: Hermes, 1959); CS (Counterstatement. 1931; rpt. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1968); GM (Grammar of Motives. 1945; rpt. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969); LSA (Language as Symbolic Action. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1968); Othello ("Othello: An Essay to Illustrate a Method." Hudson Review. 4 (1951), pp. 165-203); PLF (Philosophy of Literary Form. 1941. rpt. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973); RM (A Rhetoric of Motives. 1950; rpt. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969). 2. Unless otherwise indicated, all quotations are from The Complete Works of Shakespeare, ed. Hardin Craig and David Bevington, rev.ed. (Glenview: Scott, Foresman and Company, 1973). - 192 -3. Blindness and Insight: Essays in the Rhetoric of Contemporary Criticism (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1983), pp. 240-241. 4. Theodore Spencer, Shakespeare and the Nature of Man (1942; rpt. Toronto: Macmillan, 1969), p.45. 5. On Directing Shakespeare (London: Crown Helm, 1977), p.77 (Kahn); p.42 (Swinarski); p.92 (Philips). 6. Shakespeare Quarterly, 32 (1981), p.272. 7. Shakespeare Quarterly, 17 (1966), p.206. 8. Ibid., p.208. 9. Ibid., pp. 208 and 211 . 10. "Othello: An Essay to Illustrate a Method," Hudson Review, 4 (1951), p.202. 11. Frank Lentricchia, Criticism and Social Change (Chicago: University of Chicago Press), p.86. 12. Critical Responses to Kenneth Burke, ed. William H. Rueckert (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1969), pp. 190-191. 13. Stephen Booth, King Lear, Macbeth, Indefinition, and Tragedy, (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1983), pp. 61-78. ALL'S WELL THAT ENDS WELL 1. G.K. Hunter, ed., All's Well That Ends Well (New York: Methuen, 1959), p.xlvii. 2. G. Wilson Knight, "The Third Eye" in his The Sovereign Flower (London: Methuen, 1958), pp. 95-160. 3. Drama, Spring 1968, p.27. 4. All quotations are from the Signet edition of All's Well That Ends Well, ed. Sylvan Barnet (New York: New American Library, 1965). - 193 -5. Geoffrey Bullough, ed., Narrative and Dramatic Sources of Shakespeare (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1968), Vol. 2, p.392. 6. Rene Girard has studied extensively the theme of the "double" in literature, especially as it appears in myths about brothers in the Greek legends and the Hebrew scriptures. He examines the "mimetic desire" of these rivals, which escalates violently until a scapegoat or "sacrificial outlet" establishes a new order based on the sense that some issue has been settled in a final way. See especially Violence and the Sacred, trans. Patrick Gregory (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1977). Girard insists as well that only opinion or belief can decide between illegitimate and judicial forms of violence. In other words, only a rhetorician's arguments can create a consensus in which people agree to accept some act as a "final" decision. See Violence and the Sacred, p.24. 7. Kenneth Burke studies such images of catharsis in "The Thinking of the Body"; see LSA, pp.308-343. 8. W.W. Lawrence, Shakespeare's Problem Comedies (New York: Frederick Unger, 2nd.ed., 1960), pp. 32-77. 9. Bertrand Evans, Shakespeare's Comedies (London: Oxford University Press, 1967), pp. vii-xi. 10. Bullough, p.393. 11. Evans, p.164. 12. Bullough, p.393. 13. Bullough, p.394. 14. Muriel C. Bradbrook surveys the literature.on the discussion of honor in "Virtue is the True Nobility: A Study of the Structure of All's Well That Ends Well," Review of English Studies, NS 1 (1950), pp. 289-301. 15. Bradbrook, quoted in All's Well That Ends Well, Signet Edition, p.183. - 194 -16. See Richard A. Levin, "All's Well That Ends Well and 'All seems Well'," Shakespeare Survey, 13 (1980), p.142: "A society so willfully self-ignorant as the one pictured here needs a scapegoat, and it has one in Parolles. He alone suffers, though many are as corrupt as he...As critics have shown, Bertram is wrongly exculpated by those who would say that Parolles leads him astray." 17. Lawrence, pp.65-66. 18. Shakespeare realistically touches upon the limits of art's power in Lafew's words to the Countess about Helena's father: "He was skillful enough to have lived still, if knowledge could be set up against mortality" (I.i.32-33). 19. Johnson on Shakespeare, R.W. Desai, ed. (New Delhi: Orient Longman, 1979), p.135. 20. It seems that deliberate frustration of expectations is a signature of this play. That is how I would explain the changes to Shakespeare's source which make no sense dramatically but which are perfectly consistent if frustration is a theme. The first is in III.v, the soldiers' entrance into Florence. Why does Shakespeare build up their entry only to have the Widow say, "We have lost our labor; they are gone a contrary way" (III.v.7-8)? Why, secondly, does he have Helena seek the King at Marseilles in V.i, only to discover that he has departed for Rousillon ? This might have been prevented by a messenger. I think it gives him the chance for more frustration of expectation and the sowing of a little more hope for a happy ending. When the Widow says, "Lord, how we lose our pains!", Helena has her chance to say, "All's well that ends well yet,/ Though time seem so adverse and means unfit" (V.i.24-26). The sense of an "endless ending" is created by these oscillating rhythms of expectation and disappointment. 21. Robert Y. Turner, "Dramatic Conventions in All's Well That Ends Well," PMLA, 75 (1960), p.499. - 195 -22. See Walter F. Eggers, Jr., "'Bring Forth a Wonder': Presentation in Shakespeare's Romances," Texas Studies in Language and Literature, 21 (1979), pp. 454-475 for a study of Shakespeare's presentation of wonder with the intended effect of engaging an audience to wonder at a marvel and then to wonder about it. 23. Turner, p.502. 24. Howard Felperin, Shakespearean Romance (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1972), p.94. 25. Anthony B. Dawson, Indirections (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1978), p.xiv. 26. A.P. Rossiter, Angel With Horns (New York: Theatre Arts Books, 1974), p.100. 27. Clifford Leech, "The Theme of Ambition in All's Well That Ends Well," English Literary History 21 (1954), p.29. 28. E.M.W. Tillyard, Shakespeare's Problem Plays (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1968), p.117. 29. Hunter, p.xl. 30. "Directing Problem Plays: John Barton Talks to Gareth Lloyd Evans," Shakespeare Survey 25 (1972), p.63. 31. The Magus: Revised Version (New York: Dell, 1978), p.657. - 196 -TROILUS AND CRESSIDA 1. Nevill Coghill sums up the Troy legend in England in his Shakespeare's Professional Skills (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1965), pp. 86-88. 2. Geoffrey Bullough, ed. Narrative and Dramatic Sources of Shakespeare (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1977), Vol. 6, pp.93, 95, and 100. 3. G. Wilson Knight, The Wheel of Fire, 4th. ed. (London: Methuen, 1965), pp. 47 and 70. According to Bullough, p.108, "The difference between them [Greeks and Trojans] is not, as Professor G.W. Knight has argued, between 'reason' and 'intuition', but between pride veiled with policy and pride openly admitted and glorified." 4. Una Ellis-Fermor, "Discord in the Spheres" from her The Frontiers of Drama, 2nd.ed. (London: Methuen, 1964), pp.56-76; Katherine Stockholder, "Power and Pleasure in Troilus and Cressida, or Rhetoric and Structure of the Anti-Tragic," College English, 30 (1968/9), pp. 539-555; Rosalie L. Colie, Shakespeare's Living Art (Princeton: University of Princeton Press, 1974), pp. 317-349. 5. All quotations from Troilus and Cressida are from the Signet edition of the play, ed. Daniel Seltzer (New York: New American Library, 1963). 6. "Daphne," The Oxford Classical Dictionary, 2nd.ed. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1978). 7. I am indebted to Richard D. Fly for an excellent analysis of this episode and others in which he relates the "radical instability in the play's formal elements" to "the devastating and form-denying vision informing it." See his "'Suited in Like Conditions as our Argument': Imitative Form in Shakespeare's Troilus and Cressida," Studies in English Literature, 15 (1975), pp. 273-292. - 197 -8. Caroline Spurgeon, Shakespeare's Imagery and What It Tells Us (1935; rpt. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971), Chart VII. 9. Derek A. Traversi, An Approach to Shakespeare, 2nd.ed. (1938; rpt. Garden City: Doubleday Anchor, 1956), pp. 70-71. 10. Language As Symbolic Action (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1966), p.110. 11. Ashland's 1984 production enforced this theme of rivals enmeshed in Time by costuming Greeks and Trojans alike in rusty armor and tattered clothing, while the stage itself was set over a mound containing the skeletons from battles of previous times. 12. Ellis-Fermor, p.75: "In Lear, the indications of this [the emergence from destructive to constructive experience] are more frequent and the conversions that flow in rising and cumulative waves through the last two acts of the play all set towards a positive, though undefined, interpretation, resting upon this foundation [of an order positively perceived]." MEASURE FOR MEASURE 1. I accept Harriet Hawkins's judgment that it makes no difference to the play whether Claudio's marriage is a "de praesenti" or a "de futuro" contract. These fine distinctions are not drawn out for the audience and, in fact, it makes better dramatic sense if Claudio's contract and Angelo's seem to be the same. In this way, they both fall equally under the law. See Harriet Hawkins, "What Kind of Contract had Angelo? A Note on Some Non-Problems in Elizabethan Drama," College English, 36 (1974), pp. 173-179. 2. Burke describes this process as "The Paradox of Purity": the more one seeks a "pure definition" of a substance, the more one requires an opposite in order to define what it is not. See A Grammar of Motives, pp. 35-38. - 198 -3. All quotations are from the New Arden edition of Measure for Measure, ed. J.W. Lever (New York: Methuen, 1965). 4. Promos and Cassandra is reprinted in Narrative and Dramatic Sources of Shakespeare, ed. Geoffrey Bullough, Vol.2 (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1958). 5. This view of Angelo's tragedy is admirably set out in an article by W.M.T. Dodds, "The Character of Angelo in 'Measure for Measure'," Modern Language Review, 41 (1946), pp.246-255. 6. Empson analyses the innuendo of Claudio's speech in Seven Types of Ambiguity (London: Chatto and Windus, 1947), pp. 202-203. 7. I am indebted for their analyses of the punning on "heads" in this play to Charles Frey, "Shakespearean Interpretation: Promising Problems," Shakespeare Studies 10 (1977), pp.1-8 and to Meredith Skura, "New Interpretations for Interpretation in Measure for Measure," Boundary 2 7, No.2 (Winter, 1979), pp.39-59. 8. For the Duke as King Severus, see Mary Lascelles, "Sir Thomas Elyot and the Legend of Alexander Severus," Review of English Studies N.S. II, No.8 (1951), pp.305-318; as Moderation, see J.W. Lever,ed., Measure for Measure (London: Methuen, 1967), pp.xliv-li and passim; as Providence, see G. Wilson Knight, "Measure for Measure and the Gospels," in his The Wheel of Fire: Interpretations of Shakespearian Tragedy (1949; rpt. London: Methuen, 1961),pp. 73-96; also, Frank McCombie, "Measure for Measure and the Epistle to the Romans," New Blackfriars 61 (1980), pp. 276-285. 9. See J.W. Lever, Measure for Measure, pp. lxxxi-lxxxiii; Patrick Murray, The Shakespearian Scene: Some Twentieth-Century Perspectives (Longmans: London, 1969), p.138; R.W. Chambers, Man's Unconquerable Mind, cited in Measure for Measure, ed. S. Nagarajan (Signet Edition; New York: The New American Library, 1964), pp. 213-214. - 199 -10. Robert Ornstein, The Moral Vision of Jacobean Tragedy (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1960), p.258. 11. '"The Devil's Party': Virtues and Vices in 'Measure for Measure'," Shakespeare Survey, 31 (1978), pp. 109-110. 12. John Barton's landmark production of Measure for Measure at Stratford-upon-Avon in 1970 departed from customary stagings of the ending in order to emphasize the division of critical opinion about the Duke and Isabella's puzzlement over his behavior and his proposal (see "Directing Problem Plays: John Barton Talks to Gareth Lloyd Evans," Shakespeare Survey 25 [1972], pp. 64-66). Influenced by this darker view of the Duke's movements, Jerry Turner's Ashland production of 1978 set the play in Vienna (to give a Freudian perspective) and relentlessly emphasized the Duke as inept and even "kinky" (see Alan Dessen's review in Shakespeare Quarterly 29 [1978], pp.279-280). At this writing (1985), the Shakespeare Festival in Stratford, Ontario is staging a "punk" version of Measure in which "the duke, with his flat, spreading face and maleficent voice, derives an almost obscene, and curiously sexual, pleasure in finally releasing [his subjects] from their toils" (reviewed by Ray Conlogue in The Toronto Globe and Mail, May 31, 1985, p.12). Although they achieve consistency of a kind at the expense of subtlety, these productions merely emphasize explicitly and strongly a sense of that "shiftingness" of character (Rossiter's word) which is fully warranted by the text. CONCLUSION 1. The Frontiers of Drama (London: Methuen, 1964), p.15. 2. Rhetoric of Motives (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969), p.43. - 200 -3. "To Double Business Bound": Essays on Literature, Mimesis, and Anthropology (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978), p.218. 4. "Levi-Strauss, Frye, Derrida and Shakespearean Criticism," Diacritics, 3 (Fall, 1973), p.37. 5. "Preface" to Johnson's edition of The Plays of William Shakespeare, 1765 from R.W. Desai, ed., Johnson on Shakespeare (New Delhi: Orient Longman, 1979), para. 44. 6. Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Lectures and Notes on Shakespere and Other English Poets, ed. T. Ashe (1884; rpt. Freeport: Books for Libraries Press, 1972), p.263. 7. Ibid., p.262. 8. Attitudes Toward History, 2nd.ed. (Los Altos: Hermes, 1959), p.239. 9. Some Versions of Pastoral (Norfolk: New Directions, n.d.), p.39. 10. King Lear, Macbeth, Indefinition, and Tragedy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1983), p.71. 11. "Preface," para.43. Johnson gives an example of such counteraction in his comment on Othello V.2.20-21 (Desai, p.171): "'I must weep,/ But they are cruel tears. This sorrow's heavenly;/ It strikes where it doth love. She wakes.'...I wish these two lines could be honestly ejected. It is the fate of Shakespeare to counteract his own pathos." 12. Burke cites "self-interference" as a signal of delight in the act of persuasion for its own sake and not for the sake of an ulterior advantage to be gained. Such "pure persuasion" is only relatively attained, but it is likely to be found most of all in those who delight in the way language works: "...the indication of pure persuasion in any activity is in an element of 'standoffishness,' or perhaps better, self-interference, as judged by the tests of acquisition...Pure persuasion involves the saying of something, not for an extra-verbal advantage to be got by the saying, but because of a satisfaction intrinsic to the saying. It summons because it likes the feel of - 201 -a summons. It would be nonplused if the summons were answered. It attacks because it revels in the sheer syllables of vituperation." Rhetoric of Motives, p.269. 13. Tom Stoppard, Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead (New York: Grove Press, 1967), p.28. 14. "Preface," para. 33. 15. Desai, p.155. 16. A Grammar of Motives (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969), p.442. 17. Lectures and. Notes on Shakespere, pp. 237 and 241. 18. "Preface," paras. 160 and 14. 19. Ibid., para. 11. 20. Ibid., para. 8. 21. Bernard Shaw, The Irrational Knot: A Novel (1880; rpt. London: Constable, 1950), p.xvii. 22. Bernard Shaw, Our Theatres in the Nineties, Vol.XXV of The Collected Works of Bernard Shaw (New York: Wise, 1931),p.80. 23. Indefinition, p.115: "For the length of Macbeth we are like superhuman beings, creatures capable of being mentally comfortable with infinite possibility. No wonder we enjoy ourselves. I said earlier that an audience to Macbeth cannot keep itself within the category dictated by its own morality, even though its moral judgments are dictated entirely by that morality. The achievement of the play is that it enables its audience to endure the experience of such potential in itself." 24. Shakespeare on Film (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1977), p.168. 25. Attitudes Toward History, pp. 24 and 29. 26. Some Versions of Pastoral, pp. 62-63. - 202 -27. A Natural Perspective: The Development of Shakespearean Comedy and Romance (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1965), p.46. 28. Ibid., p.45. 29. Ibid., p.65. 30. Ibid., pp. 69-70. 31. Urging the case for rhetorical criticism as comprehensive, as ready to use all that there is to use, William J. Kennedy presses the point home: "Structuralist critics forget that each literary utterance adds up to more than the sum of its linguistic parts; the study of those parts at whatever level of abstraction represents only a fraction of the whole. Beyond the binary oppositions and equivalences favored by these critics, there are other rhetorical dimensions that originate metalinguistically in the interaction between speaker and audience, and that furthermore participate in the historical unfolding of the text. The total literary work balances all these rhetorical aspects in subtly nuanced relationships which surpass the structuralist method of analysis." Rhetorical Norms in Renaissance Literature (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1978), p.15. 32. In one brief mention of the play, Kenneth Burke sees Cymbeline as Shakespeare's successful integration of two attitudes belonging to two classes in his audience. Following Empson, Burke sees different languages as signs of different class interests, and he credits Shakespeare with "two triumphs. First, by interweaving country imagery with the new imagery of trade, he integrates for himself the feudal and mercantile worlds... and then tests the depth with which he has accepted the new coordinates by interweaving the imagery of trade into the texture of his play" (ATH, p.281). If Burke's analysis is correct, it would explain why Cymbeline might have been powerfully moving for its original audience. The movement of reconciliation between all parties (and languages) within the play satisfies a need for reconciliation between the classes watching the play. 0 - 203 -33. Marianne Moore, "Poetry" in her Collected Poems (New York: Macmillan, 1952), p.41. - 204 -VIII, BIBLIOGRAPHY RHETORIC Baldwin, T.W. William Shakspere's Small Latine and Lesse Greeke. 2 Vols. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1944. Bewley, Marius. "Kenneth Burke as Literary Critic." In his The Complex Fate: Hawthorne, Henry James and Some Other American Writers. London: Chatto and Windus, 1952. Black, Edwin. Rhetorical Criticism: A Study in Method. New York: Macmillan, 1965. Booth, Wayne. Critical Understanding: The Powers and Limits of Pluralism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979. Brown, Merle E. Kenneth Burke. University of Minnesota Pamphlets on American Writers, 75. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1969. Bryant, Donald C. Rhetorical Dimensions in Criticism. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University, 1973. Burke, Kenneth. "As I was Saying." Michigan Quarterly Review, 11 (1972), pp. 9-27. . Attitudes Toward History. 2nd.ed. Los Altos: Hermes, 1959. . Counterstatement. 1931; rpt. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1968. —. A Grammar of Motives. 1945; rpt. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969. . Language as Symbolic Action: Essays on Life, Literature, and Method. 1968; rpt. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973. "Othello: An Essay to Illustrate a Method." Hudson Review. 4 (1951), pp. 165-203. - 205 -. The Philosophy of Literary Form. 1941; rpt. 3rd. ed. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973. . A Rhetoric of Motives. 1950; rpt. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969. Cooper, Lane, ed. The Rhetoric of Aristotle. 1932; rpt. London: Prentice-Hall, n.d. Frank, Armin Paul. Kenneth Burke. New York: Twayne, 1969. Girard, Rene. "Generative Violence and the Extinction of Social Order." Trans. Thomas Wieser. Salmagundi, 63-64 (1984), pp. 204-237. . "To Double Business Bound": Essays on Literature, Mimesis, and Anthropology. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978. . Violence and the Sacred. Trans. Patrick Gregory. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1977. Howell, Wilbur Samuel. Poetics, Rhetoric, and Logic: Studies in the Basic Disciplines of Criticism. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1975. . Logic and Rhetoric in England, 1500-1700. New York: Russell and Russell, 1961. Hyman, Stanley Edgar. "Kenneth Burke and the Criticism of Symbolic Action." In his The Armed Vision: A Study in the Methods of Modern Literary Criticism, rev.ed. New York: Vintage, 1955. Kennedy, William J. Rhetorical Norms in Renaissance Literature. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1978. Knox, George. Critical Moments: Kenneth Burke's Categories and Critiquies. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1957. Krentz, Arthur A. "Dramatic "Form and Philosophical Content in Plato's Dialogues." Philosophy and Literature. 7, No.1 (1983), pp. 32-47. Lentricchia, Frank. Criticism and Social Change. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984. - 206 -Man, Paul de. Blindness and Insight: Essays in the Rhetoric of Contemporary Criticism. 2nd.ed. Theory and History of Literature, Vol.7. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1983. Norris, Christopher. Deconstruction: Theory and Practice. London: Methuen, 1982. Ong, Walter J. Ramus: Method and the Decay of Dialogue; From the Art of Discourse to the Art of Reason. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1958. Puttenham, George. The Arte of English Poesie. Ed. Galdys Doidge Willock and Alice Walker. 1936; rpt. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970. Richards, I.A. The Philosophy of Rhetoric. 1936; rpt. London: Oxford University Press, 1981. Rueckert, William H., ed. Critical Responses to Kenneth Burke: 1924-1966. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1969. . Kenneth Burke and the Drama of Human Relations. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1963. Sloane, Thomas 0. and Chaim Perelman. "Rhetoric." Encyclopedia Britannica: Macropedia. 1974 ed. Trousdale, Marion. Shakespeare and the Rhetoricians. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1982. Tuve, Rosemond. Elizabethan and Metaphysical Imagery: Renaissance Poetic and Twentieth Century Critics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1947. Vickers, Brian. Classical Rhetoric in English Poetry. London: Macmillan, 1970. - 207 -SHAKESPEARE: GENERAL WORKS Altman, Joel B. The Tudor Play of Mind: Rhetorical Inquiry and the Development of Elizabethan Drama. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978. Berry, Ralph. On Directing Shakespeare: Interviews With Contemporary Directors. London: Croom Helm, 1977. . The Shakespearean Metaphor: Studies in Language and Form. Totowa: Rowman and Littlefield, 1978. Shakespearean Structures. London: Macmillan, 1981. Booth, Stephen. King Lear, Macbeth, Indefinition, and Tragedy. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1983. , ed. Shakespeare's Sonnets ..New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977. \i Brown, John Russell. "The Interpretation of Shakespeare's Comedies: 1900-1953." Shakespeare Survey, 7 (1955), pp. 1-13. . Shakespeare and his Comedies. 2nd. ed. 1962; rpt. London: Methuen, 1968. Bullough, Geoffrey,ed. Narrative and Dramatic Sources of Shakespeare. Vol. II. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1968. . Narrative and Dramatic Sources of Shakespeare. Vol VI. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1977. Champion, Larry S. The Evolution of Shakespeare's Comedy: A Study in Dramatic Perspective. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1970. Coleridge, Samuel Taylor. Lectures and Notes on Shakespere and Other English Poets. Ed. T. Ashe. 1884; rpt. Freeport: Books For Libraries Press, 1972. Colie, Rosalie L. Shakespeare's Living Art. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1974. Council, Norman. When Honour's at the Stake: Ideas of Honour in Shakespeare's Plays. New York: Barnes and Noble, 1973. - 208 -Craig, Hardin and David Bevington, eds. The Complete Works of Shakespeare. Rev.ed. Glenview: Scott Foresman, 1973. Dawson, Anthony B. Indirections: Shakespeare and the Art of Illusion. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1978. Desai, R.W., ed. Johnson on Shakespeare. New Delhi: Orient Longman, 1979. "Directing Problem Plays: John Barton Talks to Gareth Lloyd Evans." Shakespeare Survey. 25 (1972), pp. 63-71. Doran, Madeleine. Endeavors of Art: A Study of Form in Elizabethan Drama. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1954. Edwards, Philip. Shakespeare and the Confines of Art. London: Methuen, 1968. "Shakespeare and the Healing Power of Deceit." Shakespeare Survey. 31 (1978), pp. 115-125. Eggers, Walter F., Jr. "'Bring Forth a Wonder': Presentation in Shakespeare's Romances." Texas Studies in Literature and Language, 21, No.4 (Winter, 1979), pp. 455-474. Ellis-Fermor, Una. The Frontiers of Drama. 2nd.ed. London: Methuen, 1946. . The Jacobean Drama. 4th.ed. London: Methuen, 1958. . Shakespeare the Dramatist, ed. Kenneth Muir. 1961; rpt. London: Methuen, 1962. Empson, William. Seven Types of Ambiguity. London: Chatto and Windus, 1947. Some Versions of Pastoral. Norfolk: New Directions, n.d. Evans, Bertrand. Shakespeare's Comedies. London: Oxford University Press, 1967. Felperin, Howard. Shakespearean Romance. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1973. - 209 -Fergusson, Francis. The Human Image in Drama; Essays by Francis Fergusson. Garden City: Doubleday, 1957. . The Idea of a Theater: A Study of Ten Plays: The Art of Drama in Changing Perspective. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1972. Foakes, R.A. Shakespeare: The Dark Comedies to the Last Plays: From Satire to Celebration. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1971. Frey, Charles. "Shakespearean Interpretation: Promising Problems." Shakespeare Studies, 10 (1977), pp. 1-8. Frye, Northrop. A Natural Perspective: The Development of Shakespearean Comedy and Romance. New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1965. Girard, Rene. "Levi-Strauss, Frye, Derrida and Shakespearean Criticism." Diacritics, 3 (Fall, 1973), pp.34-38. Grudin, Robert. Mighty Opposites: Shakespeare and Renaissance Contrariety. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979. Hawkins, Harriett. Likenesses of Truth in Elizabethan and Restoration Drama. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972. Jamieson, Jean. "The Problem Plays, 1920-1970: A Retrospect." Shakespeare Survey, 25 (1972), pp. 1-10. Jorgens, Jack J. Shakespeare on Film. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1977. Knight, G. Wilson. The Sovereign Flower. London: Methuen, 1958. . The Wheel of Fire: Interpretations of Shakespearian Tragedy With Three New Essays. 1930; rpt. London: Methuen, 1965. Lawrence, W.W. Shakespeare's Problem Comedies. 2nd.ed. New York: Frederick Ungar, 1960. Leech, Clifford and J.M.R. Margeson, eds. Shakespeare 1971: Proceedings of the World Shakespeare Congress Vancouver, August 1971. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1972. - 210 -Levin, Richard. The Multiple Plot in English Renaissance Drama. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971. "The Relation of External Evidence to the Allegorical and Thematic Interpretation of Shakespeare." Shakespeare Survey, 13 (1960), pp. 1-29. "Shakespeare or the Ideas of his Time." Mosaic, 10 (1977), pp. 129-137. Mack, Maynard. King Lear in our Time. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972. McAlindon, T. Shakespeare and Decorum. London: Macmillan, 1973. Melchiori, Giorgio. "The Rhetoric of Character Construction: Othello." Shakespeare Survey, 34 (1981), pp. 61-72. Merrill, Robert. "The Generic Approach in Recent Criticism of Shakespeare's Comedies and Romances: A Review Essay." Texas Studies in Language and Literature. 20 (1978), pp. 474-487. Muir, Kenneth and S. Schoenbaum, eds. A New Companion to Shakespeare Studies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971. Muir, Kenneth. "The Pursuit of Relevance." Essays and Studies, N.S. 26 (1973), pp. 20-34. . "Shakespeare's Open Secret." Shakespeare Survey, 34 (1981), pp. 1-9. . The Singularity of Shakespeare and Other Essays. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1977. Murray, Patrick. The Shakespearian Scene: Some Twentieth-Century Perspectives. London: Longmans, 1969. Ornstein, Robert. The Moral Vision of Jacobean Tragedy. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1960. Pettet, E. C. Shakespeare and the Romance Tradition. London: Staples Press, 1949. - 211 -Philias, Peter G. Shakespeare's Romantic Comedies; The Development of Their Form and Meaning. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1965. Rabkin, Norman. "Coriolanus: The Tragedy of Politics." Shakespeare Quarterly. 17 (1966), pp. 195-212. . Shakespeare and the Common Understanding. New York: The Free Press, 1968. . Shakespeare and the Problem of Meaning. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981. Rebhorn, Wayne A. "After Frye: A Review Article on the Interpretation of Shakespearean Comedy and Romance." Texas Studies in Literature and Language, 21 (1979), pp. 553-582. Rossiter, A.P. Angel With Horns: Fifteen Lectures on Shakespeare. Ed. Graham Storey. 1961; rpt. New York: Theatre Arts Books, 1974. Rubinstein, Frankie. A Dictionary of Shakespeare's Sexual Puns and Their Significance. London: Macmillan, 1984. Schanzer, Ernest. The Problem Plays of Shakespeare. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1963. Spencer, Theodore. Shakespeare and the Nature of Man. 1942; rpt. Toronto: Macmillan, 1969. Tillyard, E.M.W. Shakespeare's Problem Plays. 1950; rpt. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1968. Trewin, J.C. Shakespeare on the English Stage: 1900-1964. London: Barrie and Rockliff, 1964. Ure, Peter. Shakespeare: The Problem Plays. Writers and Their Work, No. 140. n.p.: Longmans, Greenland Co., 1961. Vickers, Brian. The Artistry of Shakespeare's Prose. London: Methuen, 1968. Weil, Herbert, S.,Jr. "On Expectation and Surprise: Shakespeare's Construction of Character." Shakespeare Survey, 34 (1981), pp. 39-50. - 212 -White, R.S. Shakespeare and the Romance Ending. Newcastle-upon-Tyne: n.p., 1981. Wilson, Edwin, ed. Shaw on Shakespeare. New York: Dutton, 1961. ALL'S WELL THAT ENDS WELL Bradbrook, Muriel C. "Virtue is the True Nobility." Review of English Studies. NS 1 (1950), pp. 289-301. Brooke, Nicholas. "All's Well That End Well." Shakespeare Survey, 30 (1977), pp. 73-84. Cole, Howard C. The All's Well Story From Boccacio to Shakespeare. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1981. Donaldson, Ian. "All's Well That Ends Well: Shakespeare's Play of Endings." Essays in Criticism, 27 (1977), pp. 34-55. Godshalk, William L. "All's Well That Ends Well and the Morality Play." Shakespeare Quarterly, 25 (1974), pp. 61-70. Halio, Jay L. "All's Well That Ends Well." Shakespeare Quarterly. 15 (1964), pp. 33-43. Hunter, G.K., ed. All's Well That Ends Well New York, Methuen, 1959. Leech, Clifford. "The Theme of Ambition in All's Well That Ends Well." Journal of English Literary History, 21 (1954), pp. 17-29. Leggatt, Alexander. "All's Well That Ends Well: The Testing of Romance." Modern Language Quarterly, 32 (1971), pp. 21-41. Levin, Richard. "All's Well That Ends Well and All Seems Well." Shakespeare Studies, 13 (1980), pp. 131-144. Pearce, Frances M. "In Quest of Unity: A Study of Failure and Redemption in All's Well That Ends Well." Shakespeare Quarterly, 25 (1974), pp. 71-88. Price, Joseph G. The Unfortunate Comedy: A Study of All's Well That Ends Well and its Critics. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1968. Silverman, J.M. "Two Types of Comedy in All's Well That Ends Well." Shakespeare Quarterly, 24 (1973), pp. 25-34. Smallwood, R. L. "The Design of All's Well That Ends Well." Shakespeare Survey, 25 (1972), pp. 45-61. Turner, Robert Y. "Dramatic Conventions in All's Well That Ends Well." PMLA, 75 (1960), pp. 497-502. Welsh, Alexander. "The Loss of Men and Getting of Children: All's Well That Ends Well and Measure for Measure." Modern Language Review, 73 (1978), pp. 17-28. TROILUS AND CRESSIDA Asp, Carolyn. "In Defense of Cressida." Studies in Philology, 74 (1977), pp. 406-417. Berry, Ralph. The Shakespearean Metaphor. London: Macmillan, 1978. Bradbrook, Muriel C. "What Shakespeare did to Chaucer's Troilus and Criseyde." Shakespeare Quarterly, 9 (1958), pp. 311-319. Burns, M.M. "Troilus and Cressida: the Worst of Both Worlds." Shakespeare Studies, 13 (1980), pp. 105-130. Coghill, Neville. Shakespeare's Professional Skills. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1965. Cole, Douglas. "Myth and Anti-Myth: The Case of Troilus and Cressida." Shakespeare Quarterly, 31 (1980), pp. 76-84. Dollimore, Jonathan. "Marston's 'Antonio' Plays and Shakespeare's 'Troilus and Cressida': The Birth of a Radical Drama." Essays And Studies, NS 33 (1980), pp. 48-69. Ellis-Fermor, Una. The Frontiers of Drama. 2nd. ed. London: Methuen, 1964. - 214 -Elton, W.R. "Shakespeare's Ulysses and the Problem of Value." Shakespeare Studies, 2 (1966), pp. 95-111. Farnham, Willard. "Troilus in Shapes of Infinite Desire." Shakespeare Quarterly, 15 (1964), pp. 257-264. Fly, Richard D. "I cannot come to Cressid but by Pandar1: Mediation in the Theme and Structure of Troilus and Cressida." English Literary Renaissance, 3 (1973), pp. 145-165. "'Suited in Like Conditions as our Argument': Imitative Form in Shakespeare's Troilus and Cressida." Studies in English Literature, 15 (1975), pp. 273-292. Knowland, A.S. "Troilus and Cressida." Shakespeare Quarterly, 10 (1959), pp. 353-365. McAlindon, T. "Language, Style and Meaning in Troilus and Cressida." PMLA, 84 (1969), pp. 29-43. Morris, Brian. "The Tragic Structure of Troilus and Cressida." Shakespeare Quarterly, 10 (1959), pp. 481-491. Muir, Kenneth. "Troilus and Cressida." Shakespeare Survey, 8 (1955), pp. 96-107. •,ed. Troilus and Cressida. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982. Oates, J.C. "The Ambiguity of Troilus and Cressida." Shakespeare Quarterly, 17 (1966), pp. 141-150. Okerlund, Arlene N. "In Defense of Cressida: Character as Metaphor." Women's Studies, 7 (1980), pp. 1-17. Presson, Robert K. Shakespeare's Troilus and Cressida and the Legends of Troy. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1953. Rabkin, Norman. "Troilus and Cressida: The Uses of the Double Plot." Shakespeare Studies 1 (1965), pp. 265-282. Slights, Camilla. "The Parallel Structure of Troilus and Cressida." Shakespeare Quarterly, 25 (1974), pp. 42-51. - 215. -Soellner, Rolf. "Providence and the Price of Helen: The Debate of the Trojans in Troilus and Cressida." Shakespeare Quarterly, 20 (1969), pp. 255-263. Stockholder, Katherine. "Power and Pleasure in Troilus and Cressida: Or, Rhetoric and Structure of the Anti-Tragic." College English. 30 (1969), pp. 539-554. Thomson, Patricia. "Rant and Cant in Troilus and Cressida." Essays and Studies. NS 22 (1969), pp. 33-65. Voth, Grant L. and Oliver H. Evans. "Cressida and the World of the Play." Shakespeare Studies, 8 (1975), pp. 231-239. Walker, Alice,ed. Troilus and Cressida. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1957. Yoder, R.A. "'Sons and Daughters of the Game': An Essay on Shakespeare's 'Troilus and Cressida'." Shakespeare Survey, 25 (1972), pp. 11-25. MEASURE FOR MEASURE Altieri, Joanne. "Style and Social Disorder in Measure for Measure." Shakespeare Quarterly, 25 (1974), pp. 7-16. Eccles, Mark,ed. Measure for Measure. New York: Modern Language Association of America, 1980. Chambers, R.W. "Measure for Measure." In his Man's Unconquerable Mind. London: Jonathan Cape, 1952. Dodds, W.M.T. "The Character of Angelo in 'Measure for Measure'." Modern Language Review, 41 (1946), pp. 246-255. Fergusson, Francis. The Human Image in Dramatic Literature:Essays by Francis Fergusson. Garden City: Doubleday, 1957. Geckle, George L. "Shakespeare's Isabella." Shakespeare Quarterly, 2 (1971), pp. 163-168. Gelb, Hal. "Duke Vincentio and the Illusion of Comedy or All's not Well That Ends Well." Shakespeare Quarterly, 22 (1971), pp. 25-34. - 216 -Hawkins, Harriett. "'The Devil's Party*: Virtues and Vices in Measure for Measure." Shakespeare Survey, 31 (1978), pp. 105-113. . Likenesses of Truth in Elizabethan and Restoration Drama. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972. "What Kind of Pre-Contract had Angelo? A Note on Some Non-Problems in Elizabethan Drama." College English, 36 (1974), pp. 173-179. Hyman, Lawrence W. "The Unity of Measure for Measure." Modern Language Quarterly, 36 (1975), pp. 3-20. Kirsch, Arthur C. The Integrity of Measure for Measure." Shakespeare Survey, 28 (1975), pp. 89-105. Kliman, Bernice W. "Isabella in Measure for Measure." Shakespeare Studies, 15 (1982), pp. 137-148. Murray, Patrick. The Shakespearian Scene: Some Twentieth Century Perspectives. London: Longmans, 1969. Nuttall, A.D. "Measure for Measure: The Bed Trick." Shakespeare Survey, 28 (1975), pp.51-56. . "Measure for Measure: Quid Pro Quo?" Shakespeare Studies, 4 (1968), pp. 231-251. Owen, Lucy. "Mode and Character in Measure for Measure." Shakespeare Quarterly, 25 (1974), pp. 17-32. Pope, Elizabeth Marie. "The Renaissance Background of Measure for Measure." Shakespeare Survey, 2 (1949), pp. 66-82. Price, Jonathan R. "Measure for Measure and the Critics: Towards a New Approach." Shakespeare Quarterly, 20 (1969), pp. 179-204. Prouty, Charles T. "George Whetstone and the Sources of Measure for Measure." Shakespeare Quarterly, 15 (1964), pp. 131-145. Skura, Meredith. "New Interpretations for Interpretation in Measure for Measure." Boundary 2, 7 No.2 (1979), pp. 39-59. - 217 -Weil, Herbert, Jr. "Form and Contexts in Measure for Measure." Critical Quarterly 12 (1970), pp. 55-72. . "The Options of the Audience: Theory and Practice in Peter Brook's Measure for Measure." Shakespeare Survey 25 (1972), pp. 27-35. - 218 - Cite	i don't know
Who has been the Leader of the SNP in the House of Commons since 2007?	Election 2015: SNP's Angus Robertson re-elected to House of Commons role - BBC News Election 2015: SNP's Angus Robertson re-elected to House of Commons role 12 May 2015 Read more about sharing. Close share panel Image caption The meeting to re-select Angus Robertson took place in the Grand Committee Room in Westminster Hall The Scottish National Party has re-selected Angus Robertson as its leader at Westminster. Last week's General Election saw 56 SNP MPs winning seats in the House of Commons - up 50 on its 2010 intake. Mr Robertson, who has been the party's group leader at Westminster since 2007, was backed by deputy leader Stewart Hosie and former leader Alex Salmond. Angus MP Mike Weir is to take on the role of chief whip, in charge of keeping discipline within the party. The re-selection of Mr Robertson as Westminster leader follows confirmation that the SNP is the Commons' official third party. The status has allowed the nationalists to take over the Westminster corridor once inhabited by the Liberal Democrats. Image copyright PA Image caption Angus Robertson has been re-elected to the post of the SNP's Westminster leader It will also result in the party's MPs being given control of two House of Commons select committees. Following his election in the Grand Committee Room in Westminster Hall, Mr Robertson said: "I'm absolutely delighted to be re-appointed as Group Leader for this new, record-breaking group of SNP MPs. It is a real honour to continue in this job during such an exciting time. "We have been announced as Westminster's third largest party - meaning we are better placed to hold the UK government to account." The Moray MP added: "Our MPs are committed to making Scotland's voice heard at every opportunity. Our MPs will continue to oppose the renewal of Trident, the Tory's unfair and punishing austerity agenda and we will press for new powers for Scotland." Other appointments at the meeting included confirming Stewart Hosie as Deputy Group Leader, Eilidh Whiteford as Group Secretary and Pete Wishart and Kirsten Oswald as members of the Group Executive.	Angus Robertson
Which former newspaper editor tweeted in June ‘Alastair Cook thinks his current KP-less England team will regain the Ashes this summer. In other news, I will be elected Pope in August.’?	Robertson backed for SNP group post (From Dorset Echo) Robertson backed for SNP group post Angus Robertson has been backed to continue as SNP Westminster group leader / Press Association 2014 SNP MP Angus Robertson has secured the backing of Alex Salmond and the nationalists' most senior MP to continue as group leader at Westminster. The re-elected Moray MP confirmed that he is to stand again for the position that he has held since 2007 when the record 56 SNP MPs meet for the first time tomorrow to select their group leader and other positions. Mr Salmond, former SNP leader and Scottish first minister, has stated his support for Mr Robertson along with SNP deputy leader Stewart Hosie MP. Mr Robertson said: "It has been an honour to lead the Westminster SNP group for the last eight years and it would be an honour to continue as group leader of the record-sized SNP parliamentary party. "I am grateful to have the support of deputy SNP leader Stewart Hosie MP, former first minister Alex Salmond MP and the encouragement from colleagues across the newly-elected SNP group. "The SNP is now the third party at Westminster and we have a huge responsibility to stand up for Scotland. "As third party we will be called every Prime Minister's Questions (PMQs), every debate and also serve on a wide range of committees. "We will use these opportunities to oppose the Tory austerity agenda, press for the delivery of more powers for Scotland and seek to block the renewal of Trident renewal." Mr Hosie said: "I'm delighted to be supporting Angus Robertson and will formally propose him to the SNP parliamentary party as our new group leader. "Angus has been a successful Westminster SNP group leader since 2007 and he is highly thought of and respected, not just within the SNP but across the House of Commons. "A hallmark of the leadership of Angus Robertson has been his team approach, working with colleagues across the parliamentary group and I know this will continue with his re-election." Conservative former Scotland Secretary Lord Forsyth said Ms Sturgeon had made "a big mistake" in committing herself to fiscal autonomy, which he said would leave a black hole of £8-9 billion in Scotland's finances, depending on the oil price. "It would mean either massive increases in taxes or massive cuts in public services," said Lord Forsyth. "It is simply undeliverable." Nonetheless, he told a post-election conference in Westminster that the Union was "in mortal danger" and urged David Cameron to produce a White Paper setting out the economic risks of fiscal autonomy. "We should fight the Scottish election next year on a platform that says 'These people have sold you a pig in a poke, their arguments are not credible, they threaten our public services, they threaten our United Kingdom and we Conservatives are the only people now who carry the banner for free market capitalism and also for unionism and progress in Scotland'," said Lord Forsyth.	i don't know
Whose first novel published in 1985 was Oranges Are Not the Only Fruit?	Jeanette Winterson (Author of Oranges Are Not the Only Fruit) edit data Novelist Jeanette Winterson was born in Manchester, England in 1959. She was adopted and brought up in Accrington, Lancashire, in the north of England. Her strict Pentecostal Evangelist upbringing provides the background to her acclaimed first novel, Oranges Are Not the Only Fruit, published in 1985. She graduated from St Catherine's College, Oxford, and moved to London where she worked as an assistant editor at Pandora Press. One of the most original voices in British fiction to emerge during the 1980s, Jeanette Winterson was named as one of the 20 'Best of Young British Writers' in a promotion run jointly between the literary magazine Granta and the Book Marketing Council. Her novels include Boating for Beginners (1985), published shortly Novelist Jeanette Winterson was born in Manchester, England in 1959. She was adopted and brought up in Accrington, Lancashire, in the north of England. Her strict Pentecostal Evangelist upbringing provides the background to her acclaimed first novel, Oranges Are Not the Only Fruit, published in 1985. She graduated from St Catherine's College, Oxford, and moved to London where she worked as an assistant editor at Pandora Press. One of the most original voices in British fiction to emerge during the 1980s, Jeanette Winterson was named as one of the 20 'Best of Young British Writers' in a promotion run jointly between the literary magazine Granta and the Book Marketing Council. Her novels include Boating for Beginners (1985), published shortly after Oranges Are Not the Only Fruit and described by the author as 'a comic book with pictures'; The Passion (1987), twin narratives following the adventures of the web-footed daughter of a Venetian gondolier and Napoleon's chicken chef; Sexing the Cherry (1989), an invented world set during the English Civil War featuring the fabulous 'Dog Woman' and the orphan she raises; and three books exploring triangular relationships, gender and formal experimentation: Written on the Body (1992), Art and Lies (1994) and Gut Symmetries (1997). She is also the author of a collection of short stories, The World and Other Places (1998), and a book of essays about art and culture, Art Objects, published in 1995. Her novel The. PowerBook (2000) she adapted for the National Theatre in 2002. Jeanette Winterson's work is published in 28 countries. Her latest novel is The Battle of the Sun (2009). She has also edited Midsummer Nights (2009), a collection of stories inspired by opera, by contemporary writers, to commemorate the 75th anniversary of the Glyndebourne Festival of Opera. She adapted Oranges Are Not the Only Fruit for BBC television in 1990, and also wrote Great Moments in Aviation, a television screenplay directed by Beeban Kidron for BBC2 in 1994. She is also editor of a series of new editions of novels by Virginia Woolf published in the UK by Vintage. She is a regular contributor of reviews and articles to many newspapers and journals and has a regular column published in The Guardian. Her radio drama includes the play Text Message, broadcast by BBC Radio in November 2001. The King of Capri (2003) and Tanglewreck (2006) are children's stories. Lighthousekeeping (2004), centres on the orphaned heroine Silver, taken in by the keeper of the Cape Wrath lighthouse, Mr Pew, whose stories of love and loss, passion and longing, are interwoven in the narrative. Her most recent book is The Battle of the Sun (2009). Jeanette Winterson lives in Gloucestershire and London. In 2006, she was awarded an OBE.	Jeanette Winterson
The name of which species of penguin derives from the narrow black band under their heads which makes it appear as if they are wearing black helmets?	Oranges Are Not The Only Fruit - Credo Reference On the way home I crunched at the Maureen 4 Ken’s. (p. 70 – italics in original) This passage represents the way in which seemingly innocent cultural products such as sweets help to reinforce dominant heterosexual codes of sexuality, but also reveals Jeanette’s inherent dislike of having those codes imposed upon her. This extends to her dreams about marriage, one of which sees her walking up the aisle to meet a husband but, ‘sometimes he was blind, sometimes a pig, sometimes my mother [. . .] and once just a suit of clothes with nothing inside’ (p. 69). This reveals Jeanette’s awakening sexuality and her anxieties about becoming part of a traditional heterosexual relationship. Jeanette’s sexuality offers another challenge to the traditional codes of masculinity and femininity. When Pastor Finch tries to account for the relationship Jeanette has with Melanie he argues that it is due to Jeanette subverting the established roles between men and women. Finch defines lesbianism in terms of Jeanette unnaturally taking the role of the man in her relationship with Melanie. This of course serves to posit desire as a masculine trait, which Jeanette’s narrative firmly denies: The real problem, it seemed, was going against the teachings of St Paul, and allowing women power in the church. Our branch of the church had never thought about it, we’d always had strong women, and the women organized everything [. . .] There was uproar, then a curious thing happened. My mother stood up and said she believed this was right: that women had specific circumstances for their ministry [. . .] but the message belonged to the men [. . .] She ended by saying that having taken on a man’s world in other ways I had flouted God’s law by trying to do it sexually. (p. 131) The sentiment here is clearly coming from Pastor Finch, even though Jeanette’s mother is the messenger. Jeanette feels particularly betrayed by the fact that her mother agrees with the Pastor re-imposing a patriarchal narrative onto Jeanette’s behaviour, especially as this goes against the strong female image that Jeanette has come to expect of her mother. The novel, then, sets out to challenge the connection between religion and conventional discourses of gender and sexuality that, in the Protestant Christian church (both High Church and non-Conformist variations), traditionally upholds the heterosexual nuclear family as the ideal social unit. The direct target is the form of Old Testament, non-Conformist Evangelism that Jeanette’s mother practices. This leads the novel, however, to question some of the bases on which Christian doctrines rest generally. Part of this critique is seen in the parodic attitude to the Bible suggested by the chapter titles and structure of the novel. As Susana Onega has argued, a parodic equivalent is established between ‘the stages in Jeanette’s quest for maturation and [. . .] the biblical narration’. 15 Each of these chapters is loosely based on the first eight chapters of the Bible and has a connection with the experiences Jeanette goes through: for example, ‘Genesis’ recounts Jeanette’s earliest memories and the details of how her mother has ‘got’ Jeanette (p. 10). ‘Exodus’ details Jeanette’s journey from the home environment to the unfamiliar social world of school, described by her mother as the ‘Breeding Ground’ (p. 17). The Pentateuch (the first five books of the bible) represents the laying down of the law, and in Winterson’s novel the first five chapters detail the establishment of the ideology against which Jeanette eventually places herself. The last three chapters of the novel, ‘Joshua’, ‘Judges’ and ‘Ruth’, find Jeanette establishing her own alternative world view and correspond to those books in the Old Testament that offer stories of individuals who either adhere to or set themselves against the word of God. Unlike the corresponding books in the Bible, the last three chapters of Oranges seem to support Jeanette’s attempt to escape religious laws, and are part of her challenge to the patriarchal framework of the Old Testament. Despite its iconoclasm, however, the novel is more ambivalent about the place of God within her narrative of empowerment. At one point towards the end of the text, Jeanette reflects nostalgically on the ideology she has rejected: But where was God now, with heaven full of astronauts, and the Lord overthrown? I miss God, I miss the company of someone utterly loyal. I still don’t think of God as my betrayer. The servants of God, yes, but servants by their very nature betray. I miss God who was my friend. (p. 165) As Jeanette becomes more at ease with her sexual identity, the Old Testament, patriarchal God to which her mother, perhaps somewhat grudgingly, concedes is replaced by an alternative discourse that is closer to a New Testament, Christian doctrine that celebrates love over obedience, and tolerance and forgiveness over discipline and punishment. As Peter Childs has argued: ‘Against the Old Testament logic of her mother, there is however a New Testament counter-narrative running from Jeanette’s miraculous birth to the story’s conclusion on Christmas Day’. 16 Jeanette’s arguments for her love of Melanie are significantly taken from the New Testament, encapsulated in the quotation she cites from St. Paul ‘To the pure all things are pure’ (p. 103). However, it is also St Paul’s teaching that is used by the Pastor and her mother to challenge Jeanette’s taking on the traditional role of the male in pursuing relationships with women. Despite this, Jeanette stresses her belief in a pure love that is reconfigured as a love between women: Romantic love has been diluted into paperback form and has sold thousands and millions of copies. Somewhere it is still in the original, written on tablets of stone. I would cross seas and suffer sunstroke and give away all I have, but not for a man, because they want to be the destroyer and never be destroyed. (p. 165) In this sense, Jeanette’s Bildungsroman, like many a modernist text, models the trials of the central character on Christ. 17 The parallels with Christ are many, although often parodic: Jeanette is the product of a kind of Virgin birth (as Childs points out) who faces a time in the wilderness, and who eventually rejects established codes of a religion that are shown to be too draconian. She preaches a doctrine of love and is ultimately betrayed by those closest to her. In a telling passage that suggests Jeanette as a prophet Christ-figure, she argues: I could have been a priest instead of a prophet. The priest has a book with the words set out. Old words, known words, words of power [. . .] The prophet has no book. The prophet is a voice that cries in the wilderness, full of sounds that do not always set into meaning. (p. 156) Where the priest preaches the established doctrine, the prophet’s message is unsettling and threatening to the prevailing power relationships in society. The prophet’s meaning, however, is not necessarily anti-spiritual, it is a different understanding of the religious nature of man. Oranges, then, does not reject outright a spiritual outlook on life. Religion becomes one of a series of valuable narratives that go towards the building of an individual’s identity. In this sense Oranges is not an atheistic book, nor is it an example of the nihilistic variety of postmodernism despite its engagement with ideas of pluralism, its suspicion of the grand narratives of history and patriarchy, and its formal experimentation. It is, in fact, closer to what Patricia Waugh has called ‘weak postmodernism’ as opposed to the more Nietzschean-influenced ‘strong’ version: Unlike strong postmodernism, the weak version may accept the human need to invest in grand narratives, though its proponents would reject monocausal varieties and insist that all knowledge is embedded or situated in particular cultures or cultural traditions. According to weak postmodernism, understanding arises through the practices, customs, traditions and textures of a particular culture and we may arrive at a shared structure of values, a sense of personal significance, and the possibility of belief in historical progress through collective engagements which do not require foundations of truth or value. 18 This type of postmodernism, according to Waugh, is more open to the liberatory struggle of the feminist movement, which wants to question certain grand narratives, but rejects an outright relativism, because it needs to have some ethical basis on which to construct an alternative politics. This form of tempered postmodernism fits well with Winterson’s approach in Oranges. This can also be seen in the form of the narrative. Although Winterson makes a bold claim for the experimental nature of the novel, in comparison with other texts covered in this book its experimentalism is far from radical. In fact, it tends to use a traditional linear realism, which is then disrupted by the non-realistic sections. Much of the novel reads like a traditional tragi-comedy, a dominant feature of British fiction from the 1950s onwards; the description of Northern working-class life make its setting similar to novels such as Saturday Night and Sunday Morning (1958), Billy Liar (1959) and A Kestrel for a Knave (1968). 19 However, Winterson disrupts this essentially male, working-class tradition with the incorporation of the non-realistic narratives of fairy tales and dream sequences. In her 1991 introduction she emphasizes that the novel has ‘a spiral’ form and ‘I really don’t see the point of reading in straight lines’ (p. xiii). Formally, the novel’s disruption of a linear narrative corresponds to its aim to challenge patriarchy. As Susana Onega has argued, the use of the spiral has become established in lesbian film iconography in particular, and the use in Oranges of this alternative formal structuring disrupts a patriarchal grand narrative, which is represented by ‘reading in straight lines’ as Winterson puts it. 20 Within the linear frame there are a number of other narratives that obliquely comment upon Jeanette’s experiences: the fairy tales, passages influenced by Arthurian legend, dream sequences and statements of opinion. These other forms of writing disrupt the linear time frame and problematize the notion of time in writing as a continuum and this disruption can be related to the novel’s suspicion towards the grand narratives of religion, the family and the heterosexual norm. In the important short chapter ‘Deuteronomy: The last book of the law’ the narrative voice of the novel sets out a philosophical approach to the function of stories and storytelling in which traditional history is seen to be a reductive form of linear narrative: ‘this reducing of stories called history’ (p. 91). This attitude to linear story-telling is similar to the kind of reduction that Jeanette observes in her mother’s explanation of the world through her religion. For her mother, religion orders the world (and how to behave in it) in a fixed way with clear demarcations between right and wrong: a discourse that resembles the organizing principles of a linear narrative. What Jeanette learns is that the world is far more complicated than this and the interaction of the differing stories expresses this in a formal way: ‘that is the way with stories; we make of them what we will. It’s a way of explaining the universe while leaving the universe unexplained, it’s a way of keeping it all alive, not boxing it into time’ (p. 91). History, for Jeanette, can be used to impose strict ideologies on people as in the way Jeanette’s mother and the Pastor interpret the bible as a means to control what they see as Jeanette’s unnatural behaviour. Stories, on the other hand, supply a more complicated way of interpreting the world: Everyone who tells a story tells it differently, just to remind us that everybody sees it differently. Some people say there are true things to be found, some people say all kinds of things can be proved. I don’t believe them. The only thing for certain is how complicated it all is, like string full of knots. It’s all there but hard to find the beginning and impossible to find the end. (p. 91) This suggests a way for the reader to approach the relationship between the main narrative and the various fairy tales and legends in the novel. For example, the story about the woman in the forest and the prince’s search for perfection follows the Pastor’s sermon on perfection, and links with Jeanette’s mother’s attempt to live life in perfect adherence to a set of religious codes (p. 58). The story shows that this search for perfection is inevitably flawed. This is not to say that the story is a direct analogy of Jeanette’s relationship with her mother, rather that the stories feed off each other, and this is what Winterson means when she explains that the novel can be ‘read in spirals’ (p. xiii). The different narratives often share motifs that help to form the connections. For example, the significance of the rough brown pebble Jeanette finds in her pocket after she has finished her affair with Katy, is only explained with reference to the raven in the Winnet story for whom a ‘brown pebble’ represents his heart because he has chosen to stay in the restricting village (p. 144); and the invisible thread that the sorcerer ties round the Winnet’s button (p. 144) reappears as a metaphor for Jeanette’s strong connection with her mother despite their differences (p. 171). Both Winterson and Carter are interested in the way that dominant and prevailing codes of behaviour and ideologies have served to fix traditional gender roles and sexual conventions, and they are particularly interested in the way these codes have restricted women’s behaviour. The next novel we will consider, Nick Hornby’s Fever Pitch, is also interested in gender roles, but takes codes of masculinity as one of its main subjects. 13 Jeanette Winterson, Oranges Are Not the Only Fruit (London: Vintage, [1985] 1991), p. xiv. All subsequent references in the text are to this edition. 14 Following Winterson’s lead, I will refer to the novel by its shortened title from this point onwards. 15 Susana Onega, Jeanette Winterson (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2006), p. 21. 16 Peter Childs, ‘Jeanette Winterson: Boundaries and Desire’, in Contemporary Novelists: British Fiction since 1970 (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2005), p. 266. 17 See, for example, D. H. Lawrence, Sons and Lovers (Harmondsworth: Penguin, [1913] 2006); and James Joyce, A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (Harmondsworth: Penguin, [1916] 2003). 18 Patricia Waugh, ‘Postmodernism and Feminism?’, in Contemporary Feminist Theories, ed. Stevi Jackson and Jackie Jones (New York: New York University Press, 1998), pp. 177–92, p. 88. 19 Alan Sillitoe, Saturday Night and Sunday Morning (London: Flamingo, [1958] 1994); Keith Waterhouse, Billy Liar (London: Michael Joseph, 1959); Barry Hines, A Kestrel for a Knave (Harmondsworth: Penguin, [1968] 1969). 20	i don't know
In which 1963 film does Richard Attenborough play Squadron Leader Roger Bartlett, known as Big X?	Richard Attenborough - Biography - IMDb Richard Attenborough Biography Showing all 119 items Jump to: Overview (5) \| Mini Bio (1) \| Spouse (1) \| Trade Mark (6) \| Trivia (79) \| Personal Quotes (27) Overview (5) 5' 7" (1.7 m) Mini Bio (1) Lord Richard Attenborough was born in Cambridge, England, the son of Mary (née Clegg), a founding member of the Marriage Guidance Council, and Frederick Levi Attenborough, a scholar and academic administrator who was a don at Emmanuel College and wrote a standard text on Anglo-Saxon law. Attenborough was educated at Wyggeston Grammar School for Boys in Leicester and at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art (RADA). His film career began with a role as a deserting sailor in In Which We Serve (1942), a part that contributed to his being typecast for many years as a coward in films like Dulcimer Street (1948), Operation Disaster (1950) and his breakthrough role as a psychopathic young gangster in the film adaptation of Graham Greene 's novel, Brighton Rock (1947). During World War II, Attenborough served in the Royal Air Force. He worked prolifically in British films for the next 30 years, and in the 1950s appeared in several successful comedies for John Boulting and Roy Boulting , including Private's Progress (1956) and I'm All Right Jack (1959). Early in his stage career, Attenborough starred in the London West End production of Agatha Christie 's "The Mousetrap", which went on to become one of the world's longest-running stage productions. Both he and his wife were among the original cast members of the production, which opened in 1952 and (as of 2007) is still running. In the 1960s, he expanded his range of character roles in films such as Seance on a Wet Afternoon (1964) and Guns at Batasi (1964), for which he won the BAFTA Award for Best Actor for his portrayal of the regimental Sergeant Major. He appeared in the ensemble cast of The Great Escape (1963), as Squadron Leader "Roger Bartlett" ("Big X"), the head of the escape committee. In 1967 and 1968, he won back-to-back Golden Globe Awards in the category of Best Supporting Actor, the first time for The Sand Pebbles (1966), starring Steve McQueen , and the second time for Doctor Dolittle (1967), starring Rex Harrison . He would win another Golden Globe for Best Director, for Gandhi (1982), in 1983. Six years prior to "Gandhi", he played the ruthless "Gen. Outram" in Indian director Satyajit Ray 's period piece, The Chess Players (1977). He has never been nominated for an Academy Award in an acting category. He took no acting roles following his appearance in Otto Preminger 's The Human Factor (1979), until his appearance as the eccentric developer "John Hammond" in Steven Spielberg 's Jurassic Park (1993). The following year, he starred as "Kris Kringle" in Miracle on 34th Street (1994), a remake of the 1947 classic. Since then, he has made occasional appearances in supporting roles, including the historical drama, Elizabeth (1998), as "Sir William Cecil". In the late 1950s, Attenborough formed a production company, "Beaver Films", with Bryan Forbes and began to build a profile as a producer on projects, including The League of Gentlemen (1960), The Angry Silence (1960) and Whistle Down the Wind (1961), also appearing in the first two of these as an actor. His feature film directorial debut was the all-star screen version of the hit musical, Oh! What a Lovely War (1969), and his acting appearances became more sporadic - the most notable being his portrayal of serial killer "John Christie" in 10 Rillington Place (1971). He later directed two epic period films: Young Winston (1972), based on the early life of Winston Churchill , and A Bridge Too Far (1977), an all-star account of Operation Market Garden in World War II. He won the 1982 Academy Award for Directing for his historical epic, Gandhi (1982), a project he had been attempting to get made for many years. As the film's producer, he also won the Academy Award for Best Picture. His most recent films, as director and producer, include Chaplin (1992), starring Robert Downey Jr. as Charles Chaplin , and Shadowlands (1993), based on the relationship between C.S. Lewis and Joy Gresham. Both films starred Anthony Hopkins , who also appeared in three other films for Attenborough: "Young Winston", "A Bridge Too Far" and the thriller, Magic (1978). Attenborough also directed the screen version of the hit Broadway musical, "A Chorus Line" ( A Chorus Line (1985)), and the apartheid drama, Cry Freedom (1987), based on the experiences of Donald Woods . He was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Director for both films. His most recent film as director was another biographical film, Grey Owl (1999), starring Pierce Brosnan . Attenborough is the President of RADA, Chairman of Capital Radio, President of BAFTA, President of the Gandhi Foundation, and President of the British National Film and Television School. He is also a vice patron of the Cinema and Television Benevolent Fund. He is also the patron of the UWC movement (United World Colleges), whereby he continually contributes greatly to the colleges that are part of the organization. He has frequented the United World College of Southern Africa(UWCSA) Waterford Kamhlaba. His wife and he founded the "Richard and Sheila Attenborough Visual Arts Center". He also founded the "Jane Holland Creative Center for Learning" at Waterford Kamhlaba in Swaziland in memory of his daughter, who died in the Tsunami on Boxing Day, 2004. He passionately believes in education, primarily education that does not judge upon color, race, creed or religion. His attachment to Waterford is his passion for non-racial education, which were the grounds on which Waterford Kamhlaba was founded. Waterford was one of his inspirations for directing Cry Freedom (1987), based on the life of Steve Biko. He was elected to the post of Chancellor of the University of Sussex on 20 March 1998, replacing the Duke of Richmond and Gordon. A lifelong supporter of Chelsea Football Club, Attenborough served as a director of the club from 1969-1982 and, since 1993, has held the honorary position of Life Vice President. He is also the head of the consortium, "Dragon International", which is constructing a film and television studio complex in Llanilid, Wales, often referred to as "Valleywood". In 1967, he was made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE). He was knighted in 1976 and, in 1993, he was made a life peer as Baron Attenborough, of Richmond-upon-Thames in the London Borough of Richmond upon Thames. On 13 July 2006, Attenborough and his brother, David Attenborough , were awarded the titles of Distinguished Honorary Fellows of the University of Leicester "in recognition of a record of continuing distinguished service to the University". Lord Attenborough is also listed as an Honorary Fellow of Bangor University for his continued efforts to film making. Attenborough has been married to English actress Sheila Sim , since 1945. They had three children. In December 2004, his elder daughter, Jane Holland, as well as her daughter Lucy and her mother-in-law, also named Jane, were killed in the tsunami caused by the Indian Ocean earthquake. A memorial service was held on 8 March 2005, and Attenborough read a lesson at the national memorial service on 11 May 2005. His grandson, Samuel Holland, and granddaughter, Alice Holland, also read in the service. Attenborough's father was principal of University College, Leicester, now the city's university. This has resulted in a long association with the university, with Lord Attenborough a patron. A commemorative plaque was placed on the floor of Richmond Parish Church. The university's "Richard Attenborough Centre for Disability and the Arts", which opened in 1997, is named in his Honor. His son, Michael Attenborough , is also a director. He has two younger brothers, the famous naturalist Sir David Attenborough and John Attenborough, who has made a career in the motor trade. He has collected Pablo Picasso ceramics since the 1950s. More than 100 items went on display at the New Walk Museum and Art Gallery in Leicester in 2007; the exhibition is dedicated to his family members lost in the tsunami. ( 22 January 1945 - 24 August 2014) (his death) (3 children) Trade Mark (6) Frequently films movies about former British colonies. Examples iclude India ( Gandhi (1982)), South Africa ( Cry Freedom (1987)), Canada ( Grey Owl (1999)) Frequently directs films about the lives of real-life individuals Warm, grandfatherly persona Making films with a moral message or a liberal political perspective Frequently cast 'Anthony Hopkins' It was his life ambition to direct Gandhi (1982). Philosophies include believing in content as opposed to style and sincerity rather than intelligence. He reprised his Jurassic Park (1993) character, John Hammond, for Universal Studio's Jurassic Park: The Ride attraction. He appears in a short film at the beginning of the ride telling you that the NEW Jurassic Park (the ride you're on) is completely safe, and that there will never be another incident like that at Costa Rica in 1993. 2004: 57 years after he starred in Brighton Rock (1947), his son Michael Attenborough directed a musical version of Graham Greene 's novel. 1952: Was the first to star in Agatha Christie 's "The Mousetrap", now the longest-running play in the world. Has two brothers, naturalist/presenter David Attenborough , and John Attenborough. Also, during World War Two, his parents adopted two German Jewish girls, who had been brought to Britain as part of the Kindertransport. He was awarded the CBE (Commander of the Order of the British Empire) in the 1967 Queen's Birthday Honours List, made a Knight Bachelor in the 1976 Queen's New Year Honours List and a life peer in the 1993 Queen's Birthday Honours List. 2002-: Third president of the British Academy of Film and Television Arts (BAFTA). 1971-94: Vice-president of the British Academy of Film and Television Arts (BAFTA). 1990: Freeman of the City of Leicester, England. 1993: Fellow of King's College, London. Created an honorary D.Litt of the Universities of Leicester, Kent and Sussex in 1970, 1981 and 1987 respectively. 12/02: Said he would go back on his claim to never appear in front of the camera again for one role only: that of Professor Dumbledore in the Harry Potter films. Former father-in-law of actress Jane Seymour . Life President of Chelsea Football Club. 2003: Was made President of the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art (RADA), a role that had been vacant since the death of Princess Diana in 1997. 2003: Was awarded the Patricia Rothermere Award for his lifelong service to theatre at the London Evening Standard Theatre Awards. He was trained at RADA (The Royal Acadamy of Dramatic Arts), where he later became Chairman. Often casts Anthony Hopkins . Biography in: John Wakeman , editor. "World Film Directors, Volume Two, 1945-1985". Pages 78-84. New York: The H.W. Wilson Company, 1988. Steven Spielberg has named him as an influence. 12/26/04: Members of his family - daughter Jane, son-in-law Michael Holland, grandchildren Sam, Lucy and Alice and Michael's mother Jane - were holidaying in Phuket, Thailand, when the area was hit by the South Asian tsunami on Boxing Day 2004. Lord Attenborough lost his daughter, her mother-in-law and his 14-year-old granddaughter Lucy in the tragedy. His elder granddaughter, 17-year-old Alice, was seriously injured and his son-in-law and grandson survived unscathed. Has been involved in some form with the University of Sussex since 1970; he was elected Chancellor of the University on March 20, 1998, replacing the Duke of Richmond and Gordon, who had held that post since 1985. 9/05: Attended the funeral of British film producer Lord John Brabourne . He was a close friend of the English actor Sir John Mills for many years, and gave the eulogy at his funeral in April 2005. 5/11/05: Gave a reading at a national British memorial service for the victims of the South Asian tsunami. He lost three members of his family in the tragedy. Directed 4 different performers in Oscar-nominated performances: Ben Kingsley , Denzel Washington , Robert Downey Jr. and Debra Winger . Kingsley won an Oscar for his performance in Gandhi (1982). 1978: Officially retired from acting. He agreed to make a return to acting in Jurassic Park (1993), saying he was a huge admirer of Steven Spielberg and always felt bad that Gandhi (1982) had won the best picture award instead of E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial (1982). Spielberg had previously wanted to cast him as Tootles in Hook (1991), however, he'd been busy directing Chaplin (1992) at the time. Received an honorary doctorate from Dickinson College, Pennsylvania. Originally considered for the role of Harry in The Ladykillers (1955) by director Alexander Mackendrick . The role eventually went to Peter Sellers . In 2008 the UK Regional Critics' Film Awards were renamed The Richard Attenborough Film Awards, in his honour. He was made a Fellow of the British Film Institute in recognition of his outstanding contribution to film culture. Along with Warren Beatty , Clint Eastwood , Mel Gibson , Kevin Costner and Robert Redford one of six actors to win an Academy Award for "Best Director". Was hospitalised in August 2008 when his heart stopped beating for a time, and again in December 2008 when he went into a coma for several days after suffering a fall. Is one of 9 directors to win the Golden Globe, Director's Guild, BAFTA, and Oscar for the same movie, winning for Gandhi (1982). The other directors to achieve this are Mike Nichols for The Graduate (1967), Milos Forman for One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest (1975), Oliver Stone for Platoon (1986), Steven Spielberg for Schindler's List (1993), Ang Lee for Brokeback Mountain (2005), Danny Boyle for Slumdog Millionaire (2008), Alfonso Cuarón for Gravity (2013), and Alejandro G. Iñárritu for The Revenant (2015). The last veteran of World War II to win an Oscar for Best Director. Father-in-law of Karen Lewis and Graham Sinclair . Before entrusting post-production on Jurassic Park (1993) to his friend George Lucas , Steven Spielberg thought he would have to divide his time between this and directing Schindler's List (1993). Spielberg at one point asked Attenborough, who had just appeared in Jurassic Park (1993), to serve as assistant director on Schindler's List (1993). This would have reunited Attenborough with Ben Kingsley , whom he directed in Gandhi (1982), which defeated E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial (1982) for Best Picture and Best Director. Attenborough's services turned out to be unnecessary, but he is not without his own connection to the material. While Attenborough is not himself Jewish, he does have two Jewish sisters: after World War II, his parents adopted two little girls whose parents had died in the Holocaust. According to his brother David Attenborough , Before his death, Richard was no longer able to walk and gets about in a wheelchair. However, he still had all his other faculties about him, and was still as gregarious as ever. He was a close friend of Diana, Princess of Wales, and he coached her privately to help her become more confident about speaking in public in the early years of her marriage. She always called him "Dickie". Attended Princess Diana 's funeral, with Steven Spielberg , Tom Hanks , Tom Cruise and Nicole Kidman . To date, he is the only performer to win two Golden Globes for Best Supporting Actor but not even be nominated for a corresponding Oscar. [2014] He made a cameo appearance as a lunatic wearing glasses in A Bridge Too Far (1977). This was his only acting role in a film that he directed. He died in Denville Hall care home in Northwood, London, on August 23, 2014, at lunchtime, five days before 91st birthday. He moved into the care home because of his failing health, in March 2013. His wife, Sheila, had been based there since June 2012. He was considered for the roles of Dr. Hans Fallada, Dr. Bukovsky, Sir Percy Heseltine and Dr. Armstrong in Lifeforce (1985). Laurence Olivier offered Attenborough the role of one of the murderers in Richard III (1955) but he was unavailable. He directed his brother-in-law Gerald Sim in seven films: Oh! What a Lovely War (1969), Young Winston (1972), A Bridge Too Far (1977), Gandhi (1982), Cry Freedom (1987), Chaplin (1992) and Shadowlands (1993). He died only thirteen days after his Hamlet (1996) co-star Robin Williams . He appeared in five films with John Mills : In Which We Serve (1942), Operation Disaster (1950), The Baby and the Battleship (1956), Dunkirk (1958) and Hamlet (1996). He also directed him in three films: Oh! What a Lovely War (1969), Young Winston (1972) and Gandhi (1982). In an AFI poll, he described Charles Chaplin 's film The Gold Rush (1925) as his favourite film. He appeared in three films with his wife Sheila Sim : Dancing with Crime (1947), The Outsider (1948) and The Magic Box (1951). Of the twelve films that he directed, Magic (1978), A Chorus Line (1985) and Closing the Ring (2007) were the only ones which were not based on real events. Carl Foreman was so impressed with his directorial debut Oh! What a Lovely War (1969) that he offered him the opportunity to both direct Young Winston (1972) and play Lord Randolph Churchill in the film. He declined the latter offer. He directed his former daughter-in-law Jane Seymour in two films: Oh! What a Lovely War (1969) and Young Winston (1972). Steven Spielberg offered Attenborough the role of Tootles in Hook (1991) but he had to decline as he was directing Chaplin (1992). Arthur Malet was cast instead. Spielberg later cast Attenborough as John Hammond in Jurassic Park (1993), which was his first acting role since The Human Factor (1979). He appeared in six films with his brother-in-law Gerald Sim : The Angry Silence (1960), Whistle Down the Wind (1961), Only Two Can Play (1962), Seance on a Wet Afternoon (1964), The Last Grenade (1970) and A Bridge Too Far (1977), which Attenborough also directed. He was the grandfather of Tom Attenborough . After Joseph Mazzello played his grandson in Jurassic Park (1993), Attenborough cast him as Douglas Gresham in Shadowlands (1993), his next film as a director. He was 25 when he played the 14-year-old Jack Read in The Outsider (1948). Of the twelve films that he directed, Magic (1978) and A Chorus Line (1985) were the only ones set in the present. For his work in both The Sand Pebbles (1966) and Doctor Dolittle (1967), he's one of only 6 actors to win the Golden Globe for Best Supporting Actor in a motion picture without receiving an Oscar nomination for the same performance. The other 5 are, in chronological order: Millard Mitchell in My Six Convicts (1952) , Earl Holliman in The Rainmaker (1956), Stephen Boyd in Ben-Hur (1959), Oskar Werner in The Spy Who Came in from the Cold (1965) and Richard Benjamin in The Sunshine Boys (1975). He appeared with Joseph Mazzello in Jurassic Park (1993) and later directed him in Shadowlands (1993).	The Great Escape
Of which South American country was Alberto Fujimori the President between 1990 and 2000?	The Great Escape, March 1944: Rob Davis The 1963 Film of "The Great Escape" I'd be very interested to hear from anyone involved in the making of this film, and thus recording their remembrances of the time spent with it. The real events of the film are detailed here and screen shots of some of the key sequences, shot in and around Fussen in Bavaria, are here . Fot those interested in the film-making and locations, Don Whistance has made an excellent web site on this aspect, and a link to Walter Riml's site - he was the chief of the 2nd Unit on rhe Bavarian team. A book called "Behind the Scenes -The Great Escape - Gesprengte Ketten" has recently been published, which shows documents and nearly 150 photos from the film. Details are on the web site. The feature film of the Great Escape was made by the Mirish Company and released in 1963. The director, John Sturges, had bought the rights to Paul Brickhill's book and was well known for films such as Gunfight At The OK Corrall, Bad Day at Black Rock, and The Magnificent Seven. Filming on The Great Escape began in the summer of 1962. The Internet Movie database entry is here. The screenwriter was the late James Clavell (of SHOGUN and KING RAT fame) who was himself a PoW of the Japanese during WW2. The film lasts almost three hours, although for television showing it is often cut to just over two and a half hours. In the UK there is a standing joke that the film is shown every Christmas, often on Boxing Day. There are four Youtube videos about how the film was made - here is a link to the first one - they are all well worth watching. The prisoner-of-war camp used in the film was named Stalag Luft Nord and was built amongst pine forests near Munich in Bavaria, with interiors shot at local studios. The railway station which was supposed to be near the camp was called Neustadt. One of the technical advisors was former F/Lt Wally Floody, a Canadian mining engineer and wartime Spitfire pilot, who had been responsible for the tunnel traps and their camouflage. Nearly all of the incidences, both serious and humorous, which are shown in the film are completely true, although there is some inevitable telescoping of events, and many characters are rolled into one. In particular, the method of "stooging" (keeping watch for German guards and ferrets) is well demonstrated, and the method of constructing the tunnels is extremely accurate. However, the stifling boredom of PoW life, and the extent to which the prisoners attempted to combat this by means of lessons, studying, debating, theatre, etc. is hardly shown, unless it provided a cover for illegal activities. Comments from ex-Luft III inmates range from "I suppose they did a reasonable job with the film, for Hollywood" to "it's a complete nonsense." A USAAF PoW commented "The prisoners are too fat!" Typically, the comment is that the weather is never shown as the freezing cold it often was, and that far too little prominence is given to "Roger Bartlett" the film version of Roger Bushell, with far too much importance placed on the fictional part played by Steve McQueen. One former inmate made a point of writing to his local paper, giving the true version of events, every time the film was shown at his local cinemas. But this had little or no effect. There was indeed Christmas Carol singing taking place to mask the sound of "manufacturing" and "building" whilst escape materials, air piping, and compasses were made, and concrete plinths pierced. The Germans did not seem to notice that, at the time, it was nowhere near Christmas. The trap for "Dick" in the wash-room floor is particularly well shown - the Germans never found it, because 'Dick' had a perfect disguise. In the film, whilst the escape takes place through the tunnel called 'Harry' the trap is portrayed as being in the wash-room floor, and is definitely that of 'Dick' in real life. The camouflage of the traps used for 'Tom' and 'Harry' is again extremely accurate and reflect the advice given by Wally Floody. Manners of the guards and ferrets, and even the way some of them were suborned, is again quite true to life. "S/Ldr Roger Bartlett" gives a good impression of the driving power behind Squadron Leader Roger Bushell, but his sister said that Dickie Attenborough, who played the part, looked nothing like him. Dickie even had the facial scar of Bushell, incurred in a prewar-skiing accident (he was an Olympic skier) which often caused him discomfort. "Two hundred and fifty? You're crazy. You should be locked up. You, too. Two hundred and fifty guys, just walking down the street?" Hilts ( Steve McQueen ) berates Roger Bartlett ( Richard Attenborough ) and MacDonald ( Gordon Jackson ). As if the prisoners weren't already locked up! "Group Captain Ramsey", the SBO or Senior British Officer, has the severe leg injury suffered by his real counterpart, G/C Herbert Massey, who in real life was repatriated shortly after the escape, and who was instrumental in bringing the atrocity to the attention of H.M. Government. The sequence where several prisoners hide in an outgoing lorry loaded with cut tree branches actually happened, almost exactly as shown; also, the piece where Bronson and Coburn try to escape masquerading as Russian prisoners is remarkably close to an actual escape attempt. True, too, is the scene where McQueen, having removed numerous bedboards, watches helplessly as a fellow prisoner crashes through his fatally weakened bunk and lands on the man below. McQueen's baseball-at-the-wire episode was actually effected by Jerry Sage in order to make a closer assessment of escape possibilities, using camouflage to allow them to crawl to the perimeter fence. An experiment with a home-made camouflage device showed that the idea didn't work in practice. The 'Mole' blitz escape effected by McQueen and Lennie was actually carried out by Jack Best and Bill Goldfinch, who both ended up at Colditz Castle, where they masterminded construction of the famous Colditz Glider. I visited Colditz in May 2007 and took photos and videos . I have obtained the following cast list from Microsoft's Cinemania CD-ROM database and offer the following comparisons of the real and the imagined:- Steve McQueen (Hilts, the Cooler King). Likely to be an amalgamation of several characters, he has no direct counterpart, although one likely candidate is Jerry Sage. The sequence where McQueen sees a blind spot in the guards' coverage of the perimeter wire is true; this escape was by Toft and Nichols, who cut through the wire but were soon recaptured. The motorcycle sequences are pure Hollywood and were put in at McQueen's request; he did nearly all the stunt riding himself, as the long shots show. The single motorcycle was in fact a pair of 1961 British 650cc Triumphs, mocked up in German colours; the final leap is believed to have been done by the American rider Bud Ekins , as it proved impossible for the film company to obtain insurance cover for McQueen to do it himself. For this leap, there is obviously a ramp of some sort - (either a natural land feature, or a man-made object) just out of camera frame, over which the rider launches the motorcycle to get the necessary height for the jump over the barbed wire fence. Bud Ekins died in October 2007 at the age of 77. A stunt rider re-enacted the famous motorcycle fence jump - I hope this link stays active for a long time! Here is a still from the jump. Brendan Foley says "Just a note to say how much I enjoyed your website on Stalag Luft III. I'm a screenwriter and I’m working on the life story of Bill 'Tex' Ash - one of the more colorful characters to stay in the camp on a few occasions (other than on his seven break-outs and frequent stays at camps and prisons in half of Europe). He was certainly one of the Cooler Kings, and was awarded an MBE for his escaping activities after the war. He was a American Spitfire pilot in the RCAF, joined in 1940, shot down in 1942, escaped in 1945 after the Sagan March. I think you might want to consider him as a possible additional source for the hybrid Steve McQueen character in the Great Escape movie." There was indeed a group of prisoners (headed by Jerry Sage and Davey Jones) who manufactured raisin wine and distilled raw liquor from vegetables and virtually any ingredient. The party on the 4th July actually happened, although 'Tom' was not discovered on this particular day. Internet correspondent Tom Cleaver offers the opinion that the Steve McQueen character was based on F/Lt Barry Mahon of 121 Squadron RAF -the second Eagle Squadron. Mahon was shot down on Operation Jubilee in August 1942 (where he had just become the 4th Eagle Squadron ace) and sent to Stalag Luft III where he became 'the cooler king' for his many escape attempts. He was brought in from his most recent escape just before "The Great Escape" and actually received first place to go through the tunnel, but decided against accepting, thereby saving his life. Barry later became part of the movie business and was active with the makers of "The Great Escape," and served as a technical advisor on the film. McQueen took a liking to him and had Barry's facts written into his character; Barry allegedly fought hard to get the movie as real as he could, as his own way of paying respects to the dead. Another correspondent, Bob Heffner, suggests that the McQuen character was based on John Dortch Lewis, whose exploits as a prisoner of war in Germany provided the basis for Hilts. Lewis died of pancreatic cancer on August 13th 1999 at his home in Goldsboro, N.C. He was 84. His obituary mentions his presence in Luft III. In his book "Sage", Jerry Sage describes the PoWs' early days with home-made sports equipment, using a "baseball" made of old socks stuffed into a tightly-pulled yarn cover. It bounced fairly well and he used it to bounce off the walls during his various times in the cooler. This is clearly how the Steve McQueen archetypal cooler scenes originated! McQueen's character, and that of Angus Lennie , are representative of two prisoners 'Shag' Rees and 'Red' Noble who enjoyed baiting the ferrets; consequently both spent a fair time in the cooler. Steve McQueen died of cancer in November 1980, was cremated and his ashes scattered at sea. James Garner (1928-2014) (Hendley, the Scrounger). Again, no direct counterpart, although there is some similarity with a fluent German-speaking prisoner who insisted on being known as Axel Zillessen, his "cover" name. He reckoned that if he was used to being called this, he wouldn't be caught out by checkpoint guards. He suborned one of the most dangerous ferrets, by carefully chipping away at his morale, and bribing him with chocolate and cigarettes, which were plentifully supplied by the Red Cross. James Garner died on July 19, 2014. A Daily Mail report noted that Marcel Zillessen, who was the real scrounger portrayed by Garner, died at Whitby on Jan 12th 1999. A fluent German speaker born in 1917, his father's business has involved him with frequent trips to Germany before the war, and refusing the opportunity to spy for Britain, he enrolled in the RAF and became a fighter pilot, being shot down and taken prisoner on April 6th 1943, in North Africa. Richard Attenborough (left,1923-2014) (Roger Bartlett, Big X). Squadron Leader Roger Bushell, correctly breveted and ranked, with Bushell's eye injury, fluent German, and driving determination. Attenborough died on August 24, 2014. James Donald (right, 1917 - 1993) (the SBO) . Group Captain Herbert M. Massey, age correct (Massey was a First World War career officer) correctly breveted and ranked and with Massey's badly wounded leg. Charles Bronson (Danny Velinski, Tunnel King). An amalgamation of F/Lt Wally Floody, F/Lt Ernst Valenta and F/O Danny Krol who were all tunnel specialists. Also very representative of F/O Wlodzimierz Adam Kolanowski, the architect of the tunnel traps. Kolanowski, Krol and Valenta were all shot by the Gestapo, but Floody was transferred to Belaria shortly before the escape. Bronson's character (along with that of John Leyton) reaches safety, and the two who escaped in this way were really Per Bergsland (aka Rocky Rockland) and Jens Muller. Bronson's part thus encompasses no less than five real people. Charles Bronson died on August 30th 2003. Certainly several prisoners were claustrophobic, including W/C Harry Day who never once let on about it despite frequent inspections of the tunnel and its workings. It is documented that some prisoners were refused places on the tunnelling team, due to known claustrophobia, and had to be found other escape activities to occupy them. Donald Pleasence (left) (Colin Blythe, the Forger). An amalgamation of Desmond Plunkett, the map maker, and F/Lt Gilbert "Tim" Walenn, the real forger. Pleasence had been a real-life member of wartime aircrew; he had flown as a wireless-operator with No 166 Squadron, flying Lancasters from Kirmington, being shot down on a Agenville operation on 31-Aug/1-Sep-1944, Lancaster NE112 AS:M; he died in France on 2-Feb-95. Walenn was murdered; Plunkett survived. Blythe is shot by a German sharpshooter. James Coburn (right, in light blue shirt (Sedgwick, the Manufacturer). An amalgamation of Al Hake, compass maker, and Johnny Travis, the real manufacturer. Coburn also reaches safety (although the shooting of the three German officers in the riverside cafï¿½ is ficticious), and this, the third successful escaper, was in real life Bob van der Stok, who escaped into Holland and Belgium, then over the Pyrenees into Spain and Gibraltar. The scene where Sedgwick produces a large suitcase which has to go down the tunnel is true, but the real escaper in this case was Tim Walenn, the real-life forger. Hake and Walenn were murdered; Travis did not escape. James Coburn died in November 2002. David McCallum (left), (Ashley-Pitt, Dispersal). A very close match to Peter "Hornblower" Fanshawe, a Royal Navy Fleet Air Arm pilot who was the real sand dispersal specialist. The method of sand disposal shown in the film is an exact match for the real events. Fanshawe was transferred to Belaria shortly before the escape, but Ashley-Pitt was one of the victims. Gordon Jackson (MacDonald, Security). This is a compilation of George Harsh and Tim Kirby-Green (both security) and Bernard Scheidhauer (Bushell's escaping companion). Harsh was one of those transferred to Belaria just before the escape, but Scheidhauer, a Frenchman, partnered Bushell. It was Scheidhauer, used to speaking English in the camp, who inadvertently answered a Gestapo agent in English, a mistake which led to he and Bushell being caught. This is shown very clearly in the film. Scheidhauer, Kirby-Green and Bushell were amongst the 50 victims. Gordon Jackson died on January 14, 1990 . Tom Adams, plying the part of the "diversions" officer Nimmo, died on Thursday December 11th 2014. He has also starred in The Onedin Line and General Hospital. John Leyton (Willie, tunneller). No particular representation amongst the tunnellers, but one of the two (Per Bergsland and Jens Muller) who together reached Sweden. John, until the film, was better known for his magnificent singing voice ("Johnny Remember Me") of several pop songs of the early 60s, and is still performing. Angus Lennie ((Ives, The Mole). Again no direct representation; but he is referred to by Gordon Jackson as "Piglet" at one point in the film, just before Tom is discovered. This can be no other than F/L Henry W "Piglet" Lamond, a tunneller and escapee who didn't escape in this event, but was a prolific tunneller and escaper on other occasions. As far as Lennie's character is concerned, some prisoners certainly did go 'round the bend' and tried ill-conceived or absurd escapes, sometimes with fatal consequences. Flt Lt Henry W "Piglet" Lamond was a New Zealander. In late March 2004 I was told that "I just wanted to make a couple of corrections to something on your website. They concern [my grandfather] Wing Commander Henry W "Piglet" Lamond. Firstly he is still very much alive. He is 88. Secondly, he wasn't actually one of the two hundred men originally chosen to escape. He did, however, take part in many tunnels. He, along with Jack Best & Bill Goldfinch, were the first men to build a tunnel & escape from Stalag Luft lll. They were caught about a week later where Jack & Bill were moved to Colditz (they were later involved in the glider escape that didnt actually happen due to the end of the war). My grandfather took part in all of the other tunnels built at Stalig Luft lll. He retired from the RAF in the mid 80s a Wing Commander." Angus Lennie has been in the BBC "Monarch of the Glen" series, 2000 onwards. His agent, Marilyn Collis, says "Angus Lennie was honoured and delighted to be asked to appear in the film The Great Escape and was very proud to be able to portray the essence of the spirit of those wonderfully brave men who were part of the real Escape. The film was, though, as you discuss, a fictionalised account and will, therefore, never be an exact portrayal of how things truly were. As an actor, Angus is humbled to know that you show interest in his time whilst filming but feels that the stories and remembrances of the true heroes should speak for themselves." (3rd July 2007) I am saddened to report that Angus Lennie died, aged 84, on Thursday, September 18th 2014, the day of the Scottish Referendum, without knowing of the result, which was to be announced the following day. Nigel Stock (1919 - 1986) (Cavendish). During the film interrogation of this character, the dialogue represents that between the Gestapo and one of the victims, who before his being taken away by the Gestapo, recounted his interrogation to a fellow escaper, who survived the murders. Robert Desmond (Griff, the Tailor). Obviously Tommy Guest, who was a prewar tailor and whose team made the civilian clothes from bits of blanket and uniforms. Guest did not escape. Desmond died in 2002. Hannes Messemer (1924 - 1991), left, (von Luger, the Kommandant). Oberst Friedrich Wilhelm von Lindeiner-Wildau, an excellent representation of an honourable career Luftwaffe senior officer who was a humane, and where possible, kindly man, respected by the prisoners. Arrested immediately after the escape, he developed heart trouble. He and his two immediate subordinates (Broili and Pieber) were sentenced to one year's fortress arrest. (von Lindeiner was interrogated by the RAF SIB at the London Cage, and proved extremely pro-British and very helpful.) The actual Kommandant at the time of the announcement of the murders was Oberst Braune and his demeanour at the time - one of shock, disbelief and horror - is well represented. The Gestapo man (Kuhn, played by Hans Reiser , 1919 - 1982) in the leather coat who is so nasty to Bartlett ("If you escape again and be recaptured, you will be shot") at the start of the film and the bald bespectacled Gestapo man (Preissen, played by Ulrich Beiger , 1918 - 1996) who is so delighted at the capture of most of the escapers ("Ah - Herr Bartlett! You are going to be sorry you put us to so much trouble") have no direct counterparts in real life. However, if the bounds of credibility, artistic licence and real information may be stretched, they may be interpreted as being (a) Sturmbannfuhrer Johannes Post, deputy Gestapo chief at Kiel and together with his subordinate Lux, responsible for the murders of over twenty-five of the escapers. Post and his cohorts were hanged; (b) Dr Wilhelm Scharpwinkel, or (c) Dr Leopold Spann as any of these three Gestapo men would readily fit the bill. (d) Dr Gunther Absalon is another candidate. More details of these men are on the main page. Robert Graf (1923 - 1966) was Werner the ferret. Whilst the film does suggest that the convoy of trucks carrying the captured airmen was split three ways, the actual murders were not en masse, but the captured prisoners were taken in small groups and killed whilst in transit. Details are on the main page. For Christmas 2001 my wife Sandy bought me the film on DVD and it runs to 2 hours 45 minutes, it has been interesting watching it with the French dialogue! The DVD includes a short documentary on the making of the film, with interviews of some of the actors such as David McCallum, James Garner, Donald Pleasance, James Coburn and members of Steve McQueen's family. It is not widely known that Harrison Ford is one of the passengers in the sequence where McDonald (Gordon Jackson) and Bartlett (Richard Attenborough) are seated on the train and then have their papers checked by the Gestapo. Ford is the Hitler Youth young man seated in from of of them as they sit down. If you don't believe me, try this clip . Andrew Steinmetz asks "I am fiction writer from Canada. In the film The Great Escape, there is a young Gestapo who arrives at 'Neustadt' to check for POWs on the train. This young Gestapo is played by a relative of mine, Michael Paryla. Michael Paryla is about the only actor in the film without a final credit at the end of the movie. Interestingly his mother (part Jewish) and father (Communist) were both actor and both fled Breslau in 1933. Could you direct me to a film historian who might be able to shed more light on the making of the film, and who might be interested in knowing more about Michael Paryla?" If you think you know the film wellï¿½:- 1. Which five languages are spoken in the film (one is very brief!) 2. John Leyton's character (Willie, the Tunneller) has non-standard RAF uniform. What's different about it? 3. Which Christmas carol is being sung by the unfortunate prisoner as he falls through his bunk after Hilts has removed some more bedboards? 4. Who gave who "Ten out of ten for this, old boy." ? 5. Tom was Danny's number-what tunnel? 6. When told "The photograph doesn't do you justice" who replied "I'd like to see one of you under similar circumstances." ? 7. Name the cafï¿½ in which Sedgewick contacted the Resistance. 8. What is the first German phrase spoken in the film? 9. Who, having warned an escapee about a particular danger, was subsequently caught out by it? 10. What did Ashley-Pitt (David McCallum) give as his profession when his papers were checked on the train? 11. Who was commanded to "Look sharp!" and by whom? 12. Whose job "Just didn't work out"? 13. What warning did Hendley give to Blythe when the latter was starting the training aircraft's engine? 14. Why were the ceilings in the prisoners' huts creaking? (This scene is often cut from the TV version.) 15. Who remarked dryly "I'm watching him. I'm a Lifeguard." 16. What was signified by a prisoner banging the dustbin lid? 17. What diversion made it possible for some of the prisoners to conceal themselves in the lorries carrying sawn-off tree branches? 18. At what stage does a lanius nubicus enter the story? 19. What profession was Ives before he joined the RAF, and what RAF rank was he? 20.. Which German found the concealed entrance to "Tom"? ANSWERS 1 English, French, German, Spanish and Russian. Also Latin, if you count the description of the bird during the drawing class. 2 He wears an Army khaki battledress top, but with RAF pilot insignia. 3 The Twelve Days Of Christmas. 4 Bartlett gave Hendley 10/10 for acquiring Werner the guard's wallet, with false ID papers and other useful information. 5 Seventeenth. 6 Ives said this to Strathwitz after being discovered hiding in the lorry carrying tree branches. 7 Cafe Suzette. 8 "Aussteigen!" (Disembark). 9 Macdonald had warned another prisoner not to inadvertantly respond in English whilst being questioned in German at a checkpoint. 10 Ashley-Pitt is asked "Sie reisen fur einen Firme? (You are travelling for a company?)" and he replies "Ja, fur mein Geschaft (Yes, for my business)" and hands the Gestapo man a [fake] buiness card. 11 The drill squad, by Hendley, as the cue to start dumping sand from their trouser legs. 12 Hilts commented thus to von Luger as the latter was being led away, under arrest. 13 "Don't move or you get a mouthful of propeller!" 14 The sand disposal team were concealing tunnel sand amongt the beams and rafters. 15 Sedgewick, to a ferret, as Danny was showering away tunnel dirt after a snap inspection and search. 16 Ferrets entering the camp compound for a snap search. 17 A contrived fist fight, described by Sedgwick as "knuckles". 18 The bird being described by Blythe during the bird-drawing class, which was a cover for the preparation of false documents. Note that the verbal description actually fits the ferret better than the bird shown on the blackboard! 19 Flying Officer Ives had been a jockey. 20 Werner.	i don't know
On the shores of which of the Great Lakes is Whistling Straits, the course that staged the 2015 US PGA Championship?	PGA Championship 2015: Hole-by-hole guide to Whistling Straits - National Club Golfer PGA Championship 2015: Hole-by-hole guide to Whistling Straits August 11, 2015 The Scoop A tour of the venue for the final Major of 2015 Once an anti-aircraft training base and a stretch of waste dumps, the PGA Championship is coming to Whistling Straits for the third time in the course’s 12-year history. Open, rugged and windswept, the 1998 Pete Dye design brings links-style golf to the shores of Lake Michigan and features more than 1,000 bunkers. The Wisconsin course is also preparing to stage the 2020 Ryder Cup, but in the meantime, there’s the small matter of the year’s final Major. ‘It’s a big boy golf course’ Justin Rose Course length: 7,501 yards	Michigan
Which future King became Lord of Ireland aged 10 years in 1177?	Great lakes guide sport by Cellet - issuu issuu greatlakesUSA.co.uk Sports Spectacular! Featuring: Ohio, Minnesota, Michigan, Wisconsin and Illinois PLUS Indianapolis, Springfield and a golf special GL2014 pp01 Cover.indd 1 18/10/2013 12:48 LEGENDARY BRANDS. ABUNDANT SELECTION. REAL SAVINGS. Discover an unparalleled collection of 13 outlet centers in the Great Lakes Region featuring the finest designer and name brands such as Ann Taylor Factory Store, Banana Republic Factory Store, BCBG Max Azria, Cole Haan, Kate Spade New York, Kenneth Cole, Michael Kors, Nike, Saks Fifth Avenue off 5th, Salvatore Ferragamo, Talbots, Theory, Tommy Hilfiger, True Religion Brand Jeans, Under Armour, Vera Bradley and more at savings of 25% to 65% every day . Stores vary per center. Visit premiumoutlets.com for a complete list of Premium Outlet Centers worldwide, including locations in or near Chicago, Cincinnati, Cleveland, Detroit, Huntley, Indianapolis, Milwaukee, Minneapolis, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Pleasant Prairie, The Poconos and more. premiumoutlets.com â€˘ simon.com/travel 5737_GreatLakesUSA_Ad.indd 1 GL2014 pp02-03 Intro contents map.indd 2 10/18/13 9:56 AM 21/10/2013 09:51 at October-April; Play-offs: April-June; Final: June American football (NFL): Regular season: September-December; play-offs January; Super Bowl: February Ice hockey (NHL): Regular season: January-April; Stanley Cup Play-offs: April-June; Baseball (MLB): Regular season: Aprilend of September; Play-offs and World series: October Football (MLS): Regular season: March-October; Play-offs and MLS Cup: October-December Basketball (NBA): Regular season: Golf: March-November *Only selected cites are included in the map above. Contact Cellet Travel Services Ltd (see information, right) for full driving maps of any of the Great Lakes USA states. Twitter @greatlakesusa GL2014 pp02-03 Intro contents map.indd 3 Michigan The top professional sports in the US take place at the following times: Look up greatlakesUSA.co.uk and click on the Book Your Trip link. Lake Huron in Minnesota that it is known as the Lake Detroit State of Hockey. Erie Rockford Chicago And Michigan is one of the leading Cleveland states in the country for the number of Ohio Indiana new golf courses it has. Illinois Columbus The whole of the Great Lakes Indianapolis region is ideal for playing golf, with Springfield Cincinnati literally thousands of venues to choose from (Michigan alone has more than 800 public courses, and Springfield, the capital of Illinois, has ten excellent public courses). That sheer number of courses, their top quality, the affordable cost and the weather (you don’t have to head south and be fried in the Florida sun!) make the Great Lakes just great for golf. Motor racing, too, is popular throughout ILLINOIS: All fired up at Page 4 the region, no more so than in Indianapolis, the kick-off where the Indy 500 is staged every year. SPRINGFIELD: Go public Page 7 So why not make the Great Lakes your on top ten courses destination for a great sporting holiday! When to hit the States Find a tour operator for your Great Lakes adventure Traverse City Green Bay Mi Lak ch e iga n ITH sports tourism around the world reckoned to account for 12 million international trips a year – either to watch or take part – there’s never been a better time to visit the United States … or the Great Lakes, for that matter. For, whatever sport you are interested in is there for the taking – or watching – in the states of Illinois, Michigan, Minnesota, Ohio or Wisconsin, or the cities of Indianapolis and Springfield. Chicago in Illinois, for example, is one of the few cities in the States that claims all five professional team sports – American football, baseball, basketball, ice hockey and football – and has repeatedly been called the USA’s Best Sporting City. Famous names such as the Chicago Bears, Cubs and Bulls vie for visitors’ attention in the city, as do Chicago Fire, the city’s ‘soccer’ team. Move on to Michigan and the Detroit Tigers or Lions will have you cheering with all the locals, while Wisconsin’s Green Bay Packers, four-times Super Bowl winners, draw huge crowds. And in Ohio, there are not only two American football teams to check out – the Cleveland Browns and the Cincinnati Bengals – but two baseball teams as well – the Cleveland Indians and the Cincinnati Reds. Some sports are hotter in one state than others. Ice hockey, for example, is so popular For more information in the UK and Ireland The Great Lakes USA Tourist Office, c/o Cellet Travel Services Ltd, 47 High Street, Henley-in-Arden, Warwickshire B95 5AA. Tel: 08456 020 574; Email: [email protected]. From Ireland: +44 8546 020 574. MINNESOTA: Head out to the home of hockey Page 8 WISCONSIN: Bucks were winners in name game Page 12 OHIO: Sports fans hit the jackpot Page 15 MICHIGAN: Tigers and Lions roam the Great Lakes State Page 17 GOLF SPECIAL: No wonder it’s called ‘Ryder Cup Country’ Page 20 INDIANAPOLIS: Classic race that thrills the crowds Page 22 Check out these websites For more information on the Great Lakes USA region, log on to greatlakesUSA.co.uk. To find out more about the various states, check out discoverillinois.org, discoverohio.com, travelwisconsin.com, exploreminnesota.com, michigan.org, visitindy.com and visit-springfieldillinois.com Great Lakes USA – Official UK Tourist Board 3 Fan favourite Chris Rolfe in action for Chicago Fire All fired up at the kick-off I 40% 5 famous attractions Includes: • • • • Shedd Aquarium Skydeck Chicago Fast Pass The Field Museum Your choice of Museum of Science and Industry, Chicago, OR John Hancock Observatory Fast Pass • Your choice of Adler Planetarium OR Art Institute of Chicago Buy at these attractions - Good for 9 days - Skip most ticket lines Connect for current pricing citypass.com or (888) 330-5008 Prices and programs subject to change. 4 Great Lakes USA – Official UK Tourist Board GL2014 pp04-07 Illinois and Springfield.indd 4 LLINOIS is a hotbed of sport so it’s quite appropriate that the state’s professional football (soccer) team are called Chicago Fire. Named after the Great Chicago Fire – which killed hundreds and decimated 3.3 square miles of the city – the club was founded on October 8, 1997, the 126th anniversary of the day the fire began. Chicago may well have two baseball teams (White Sox and Cubs), an American football team (Bears), a basketball team (Bulls) and an ice hockey team (Blackhawks), but none of them can match the start the Fire made. In their first season in Major League Soccer, they did the ‘double’ – winning both the league title and the US Open Cup. Subsequently, they won the US Open Cup in 2000, 2003 and 2006, as well as (in 2003) the MLS Supporter’s Shield, which is awarded to the team with the best regular-season (pre-play-offs) points record. The Fire (chicago-fire.com) kicked off their inaugural season at Soldier Field in Chicago and played there until 2001, followed by Cardinal Stadium in Naperville, then back to Soldier Field, before moving to their current home, Toyota Park in Bridgeview, 12 miles south-west of downtown Chicago. Soldier Field is, in fact, the home of the city’s American football team, the Chicago Bears (chicagobears.com), who were founded in 1920 as the Decatur Staleys, named after the AE Staley food-starch company in Decatur, Illinois. They moved to LEFT: The Chicago Bears were originally called the Decatur Staleys Twitter @greatlakesusa 23/10/2013 12:26 greatlakesUSA.co.uk Chicago a year later (and became the Bears in 1922) and are, along with the Arizona Cardinals (originally from Chicago), one of only two remaining franchises from the founding of the National Football League. They played their home games (North Division, National Football Conference) in Chicago’s North Side until 1971 when they moved (apart from 2002) to Soldier Field. They have won the Super Bowl once (in 1985) but have appeared in the NFL play-offs 25 times. Wrigley Field has been the home of the Chicago Cubs baseball team since 1916. The second-oldest ballpark in the majors behind Boston’s Fenway Park (1912), Wrigley has seen many historic moments, such as Babe Ruth’s ‘called shot,’ in 1932, when the slugger allegedly pointed to an area in the stands just before hitting the next pitch for a home run. The Cubs (chicago.cubs. mlb.com), who play in the Central Division of MLB’s National League, can trace their beginnings (as the Chicago White Stockings) back to 1870. By 1890, they were known as the Chicago Colts and in 1902 became the Chicago Cubs. They have won the World Series twice (in 1907 and 1908) but have not won it since. The Chicago White Sox, on the other hand, took the World Series title as recently as 2005, as well as in 1906 and 1917. Nicknamed the ‘South Siders’ because they are based in the south side of the city (at US Cellular Field), the White Sox (chicago. whitesox.mlb.com) feature fireworks when the home team makes a home run. Originally called the Chicago White Stockings (after the name was abandoned by the Cubs), they were established as a major league baseball club in 1900. After ten years at South Side Park, they moved to Comiskey Park and played there until the new Comiskey Park (now called US Cellular Field) was opened in 1991. The White Sox play in the Central Division of the American League. Chicago’s professional basketball team, the Bulls (nba.com/bulls), joined the National Basketball Association in 1966 but it wasn’t until the 1990s that they hit top form when they won six NBA Championship titles between 1991 and 1998. Twitter @greatlakesusa GL2014 pp04-07 Illinois and Springfield.indd 5 The Bulls are the only team in NBA history to win more than 70 games in a single season when, in 1995-96, they were victors in 72 games. They play their home games in the Central Division of the Eastern Conference at the United Center. So, too, do the Chicago Blackhawks, the city’s ice hockey team, who are members of the Central Division of the National Hockey League’s Western Conference. For 65 ➜ NASCAR and drag racing are top draws South-west of Chicago in Joliet, the $130-million, 1.5-mile track at Chicagoland Speedway (chicagolandspeedway.com) hosts NASCAR racing, including Sprint Cup Series, the Nationwide Series, Camping World Truck Series and ARCA Racing Series. The Route 66 Raceway (route66raceway.com) is also located on the property and is the home of drag racing’s O’Reilly Auto Parts Route 66 NHRA Nationals. LEFT: NASCAR racing at Chicagoland Speedway Benny the Bull, the mascot for the Chicago Bulls FAST FACT π Michael Jordan, largely considered the greatestever professional basketball player, played for the Chicago Bulls. He won six NBA championships. Great Lakes USA – Official UK Tourist Board 5 GL2014 pp04-07 Illinois and Springfield.indd 6 18/10/2013 12:51 greatlakesUSA.co.uk ➜ years, their home base was the Chicago Stadium, before they moved to the United Center. The Hawks (blackhawks.nhl.com), as they are known, have won the Stanley Cup Championship five times since their founding in 1926, the most recent being in 2012/13. They are one of the original six teams in the NHL. With around 640 golf courses (approximately 450 of which are public), Illinois (discoverillinois.org) is certainly golfing territory. Apart from Medinah Country FAST FACT Club (see Page 20), π In 1945, Billy three to check out are: Sianis, a local π The Conway tavern owner, was said to Farms Club have put a (conwayfarmsgolfclub. curse on the org) in Lake Forest, Chicago Cubs after being north of Chicago, asked to leave opened in 1991 and is Wrigley Field ‘designed around the because of the smell from traditions of Scottish the goat he links golf’. had brought π Cog Hill Golf for good luck. Since then, & Country Club the Cubs have (coghillgolf.com), never won a located 30 miles World Series and talk of the south-west of Chicago, ‘Curse of the has four championship Billy Goat’ golf courses, including still exists. ‘Dubsdread’, ranked among the Top 100 US courses by Golf Magazine and Golf Digest. Open to the public. π TPC DeereRun (tpc.com/ tpc-deere-run) in Silvis, west of Chicago, annually plays host to the PGA Tour John Deere Classic. Its five sets of tees on each hole make for an enjoyable round at every level. US Cellular Field, home of the Chicago White Sox SPRINGFIELD Go public on top ten courses W ITH its lush greens, lakeside tees and courses that have hosted LPGA tournaments, Springfield, the capital of Illinois, is major golfing territory. Its ten great public courses include Piper Glen (piperglen.com), which was named as one of Golf Digest’s Top 50 courses costing less than $50. The venue, which has dramatic elevation changes, eyecatching prairie grass plantings and large, undulating greens, has also been selected as the top course in central Illinois by Illinois Magazine. Also recommended is The Rail Golf Course (railgolf.com), which was home to the LPGA State Farm Classic from 1976 to 2006. Originally a sprawling, 240-acre dairy-farm site, it was converted into a golf course – with 82 sand bunkers and five lakes – by Robert Trent Jones Sr, is now rated with four-stars by Golf Digest, and is continually voted as one of the best places to play golf in central Illinois. Over the years, Springfield has had a number of minor league baseball teams, the most recent being the Springfield Sliders (springfieldsliders.com), a collegiate summer league team who play in the Prospect League at Robin Roberts Field in Lanphier Park. Springfield did have an All-American Girls Professional Baseball League team, the Springfield Sallies, but their poor performances in 1948/49 led to them being merged with the Chicago Colleens the following year. The city also has a Tier II Junior A ice hockey team, the Springfield Junior Blues (springfieldjrblues.pointstreaksites. com), who play in the North American Hockey League’s Mid-West Division at the Nelson Recreation Center. ABOVE: The Rail Golf Course was originally a 240-acre dairy-farm site RIGHT: Springfield is major golfing territory Twitter @greatlakesusa GL2014 pp04-07 Illinois and Springfield.indd 7 Great Lakes USA – Official UK Tourist Board 7 MINNESOTA Head out to the home of hockey FAST FACTS π The tiny town of Eveleth is the home of the United States Hockey Hall of Fame π Minnesota is home to the largest population of timberwolves in the lower 48 states. π Minnesota has the most golf courses per capita in the US. F OOTBALL, American-style, may well be the No 1 sport in the US but as far as Minnesota, the Land of 10,000 Lakes, is concerned, it is THE State of Hockey… ice hockey, that is. The state has produced some of the best American hockey players in the game’s history and Minnesotans love it so much they tend to eat, sleep and, in many cases, play the game. In the 1880s, children of the immigrants who settled in the northern part of the state to mine iron ore passed the time playing hockey during winters that have almost five months of skateable ice. As a result, Minnesota became the self-styled “home of hockey”. The state got its first professional National Hockey League team in 1967 when the League expanded, and the Minnesota North Stars subsequently played at the Met Center in Bloomington until 1993. When the team moved to Dallas, Minnesota was without a team until a franchise was awarded 8 Great Lakes USA – Official UK Tourist Board GL2014 pp08-09 Minnesota.indd 8 Minnesota Wings’ defenseman Ryan Suter in action in 1997. Minnesota Wild (wild.nhl.com), based at the Xcel Energy Center in St Paul, started playing in the Central Division of the Western Conference of the NHL in season 2000-01, and won through to the Conference play-off final two years later, when they lost to Anaheim’s Mighty Ducks. The Minnesota Vikings (vikings.com), the state’s American football team, first played in the National Football League in 1961 as an “expansion” (new franchise) at the Metropolitan Stadium, Bloomington, and then until 1982, when they moved to the Hubert H Humphrey Metrodome (now called Mall of America Field) in Minneapolis. Currently playing in the North Division of the National Football Conference, they are due to move into Vikings Stadium, which is scheduled to be built on the site of their current home, in 2016. Although they haven’t won a Super Bowl (they lost in all four appearances), the Vikings have one of the highest winning percentages in the NFL and are one of the few teams to win at least 15 games in a regular season. When it comes to baseball, the Minnesota Twins franchise has a history that goes back to 1901, when the team was called the Washington Senators (later to become Nationals), based in the capital and playing in the new American League. In 1960, when the franchise moved to A Minnesota Twins’ night game at Target Field Twitter @greatlakesusa 23/10/2013 12:27 greatlakesUSA.co.uk ABOVE: The Minnesota Vikings on the attack against the Buffalo Bills LEFT: Minnesota Lynx on court against Phoenix Mercury the Twin Cites – Minnesota and St Paul – rather than alienate either city, it was decided to name the baseball team after the state, hence Minnesota Twins (minnesota.twins.mlb.com) After decades playing at the Hubert H Humphrey Metrodome, the Twins – who have won the World Series twice (in 1987 and 1991), as well as once, in 1924, as the Washington Senators/Cardinals – moved to a new stadium, Target Field, in 2010. The T-Wolves or, more simply, the Wolves, are what the fans call the Minnesota Timberwolves, the state’s NBA (National Basketball Association) team, who play in the Northwest Division of the Western Conference. Founded in 1989, they used the Metrodome in Minneapolis for their first season and then switched to the Twitter @greatlakesusa GL2014 pp08-09 Minnesota.indd 9 Target Center. The Wolves (nba.com/timberwolves ) made the play-offs eight years in a row between 1997 and 2004 but haven’t done so since. The owner of the Wolves, Glen Taylor, also owns the successful Minnesota Lynx, who play in the Western Conference of the Women’s National Basketball Association. During their 15 years in the league, the Lynx (wnba.com/lynx) have qualified for the play-offs six times and won the WNBA Finals in the 2011 and 2013 seasons. Another men’s professional baseball team, the St Paul Saints (saintsbaseball.com), play at Midway Stadium, St Paul, in the North Division of the American Association of Independent Professional Baseball, which is not linked to Major League Baseball. The Saints will move into a new, state-of-the-art, stadium in St Paul’s Lowertown in the spring of 2015. Minnesota doesn’t have a Major League Soccer team, but Minnesota United play in the North American Soccer League, which has a colourful history. Launched in 1968, it ran with players such as Pele, George Best and Bobby Moore until 1984. During that period, the Minnesota Kicks played in Bloomington until they folded in 1981. They were followed, in 1994, by the Minnesota Thunder, who went under in 2009. The current club – after a couple of years as the NSC Minnesota Stars, during which time they won the NASL championship – changed its name to Minnesota United (mnunitedfc.com) in 2013. They play their games at the National Sports Center in Blaine, roughly 18 miles north of Minneapolis. When it comes to golf, Minnesota has more than 500 courses. The Brainerd Lakes Golf Trail (brainerdgolftrail.com), which offers more than 180 holes of golf and hotel-style or cabin-style lodging, has been voted ‘one of the top 50 golf destinations in the world’ by Golf Digest magazine. The same magazine ranked The Classic at Madden’s Resort, Brainerd (maddens.com), The Quarry at Giants Ridge, Biwabik (giantsridge.com) and The Wilderness at Fortune Bay, Tower (golfthewilderness.com) as the three best public courses in Minnesota. The last two also received the same accolade from golf.com. On course for some speedy action Brainerd International Raceway (brainerdraceway.com), Minnesota’s premier motorsports facility, has two championships road courses (the 3.1-mile Donnybrook and the 2.5-mile Competition) and a drag strip. The raceway features year-round motorsports, including drag racing, road racing and snocross, hosts National Hot Rod Association Nationals, Sportsman Racing and US Superbike, and is a popular racetrack for the Trans Am Series. The track opened in 1968 as Donnybrooke Speedway and, a year later, it hosted a twoheat USAC Indy Car race. In 1973, it was renamed Brainerd International Raceway. On the Doonybrook course, cars can reach speeds of almost 180mph, while nine-times NHRA Top Fuel world champion Tony Schumacher set a world record for top fuel dragsters with 337.58 mph in 2005. Great Lakes USA – Official UK Tourist Board 9 ©2012 Brand USA. All Rights Reserved. GL2014 pp10-11 Brand USA DPS.indd 12 BRANDUSA DPS FOR BUSA.indd 2-3 18/10/2013 12:52 Let the silence move you on Birch Lake, Minnesota. Discover this land, like never before. GL2014 pp10-11 Brand USA DPS.indd 13 18/10/2013 12:52 17/10/2013 11:51 The Milwaukee Bucks take on Miami Heat at BMO Harris Bradley Center Bucks were winners in name game B EFORE the Milwaukee Bucks professional basketball team played their first game in 1968, a contest was run to find a name for them. Of the 14,000 people who entered, 45 came up with the same one, ‘Bucks’ – a male deer being seen as spirited, a good jumper, fast and agile. For 20 years, the Bucks (nba.com/ bucks) played their home games at the Milwaukee Arena (also called the MECCA Arena), before switching to the BMO Harris Bradley Center in Milwaukee for their matches in the Central Division of the National Basketball Association’s Eastern Conference. They have won one league title (1971), two Conference titles 12 Great Lakes USA – Official UK Tourist Board GL2014 pp12-13 Wisconsin.indd 12 (1971, 1974) and 13 Division titles (1971-74, 1976, 1980-86 and 2001). The Green Bay Packers (packers.com), on the other hand, can date their history back to 1919, when Earl (Curly) Lambeau asked his employer, the Indian Packing Company, to sponsor a local professional (American) football team. Because the company provided uniforms and allowed the use of its athletic field for practice, the name ‘Packers’ was a natural. Packers fans are arguably the most loyal in the National Football League as the team have been a publicly-owned, nonprofit corporation since 1923. As a result, game tickets can be hard to come by. Packers fans enjoy the pre-match party tradition of ‘tailgating’ FAST FACTS π Milwaukee is the home of the Harley-Davidson motorbike and also houses the HarleyDavidson Museum (harleydavidson.com). π Green Bay, the home of the Packers NFL team, is Wisconsin’s oldest city. π The town of Prairie du Sac hosts the State Cow Chip Throwing Contest on Labor Day (first Monday in September) weekend. Twitter @greatlakesusa 23/10/2013 12:28 greatlakesUSA.co.uk The Packers, who play at Lambeau Field, Green Bay, in the North Division of the National Football Conference, have won more championships (13) than any other team in NFL history. They also won the first two Super Bowls (1966, 1967) as well as in 1996 and 2010. Miller Park – sponsored by the Miller Brewing Company – is the home of the Milwaukee Brewers, Wisconsin’s Major League Baseball team, who are members of the Central Division of the MLB’s National League. Completed in 2001, the park has a fanshaped, retractable roof (which can open and close in ten minutes), natural grass and unique, intimate proximity to the players. The Brewers (milwaukeebrewers.com) – who get their name from the city’s rich brewing history – actually started life in 1969 in Washington State as the Seattle Pilots. When the Pilots folded a year later, the franchise moved to Milwaukee and the Brewers were born. Their one appearance in the World Series was in 1982, when they lost to the St Louis Cardinals after winning the American League East Division and taking the American League Pennant. While Wisconsin doesn’t have a professional ice hockey team, it does have a college team, the Wisconsin Badgers (uwbadgers.com/sports/mhockey), who represent the University of Wisconsin-Madison and play in the Big Ten Conference at the Kohl Centre in Madison. Wisconsin doesn’t have a Major League Soccer team either but the Milwaukee Wave (milwaukeewave.com) – who play in the Major Indoor Soccer league – have been around since 1984, making them the oldest continuously-operating professional football team in North America. They play at the US Cellular Arena in Milwaukee. One of Wisconsin’s top golf courses, Whistling Straits (whistlingstraits.com) in Kohler, will host the Ryder Cup in 2020 (see Page 20) but two others to check out are: π Erin Hills Golf Course (erinhills.com) in Hartford, north-west of Milwaukee, is a natural course set in the rolling Kettle Moraine area created by glaciers. Erin Hills, a public course that will host the 2017 US Open, is regarded as one of the best natural sites in the US. π Lawsonia (lawsonia.com) at Green Lake has 36 holes of championship-quality golf. Twitter @greatlakesusa GL2014 pp12-13 Wisconsin.indd 13 Miller Park, home of the Milwaukee Brewers Miles ahead as a racing venue The Milwaukee Mile (wistatefair.com/ wsfp/milwaukee-mile-speedway-andpeck-media-center/milwaukeemile) in West Allis is one of America’s premier, tradition-laden, auto-racing venues. Motorised racing events date back to 1903, eight years before the first Indianapolis 500, making The Mile the oldest, continually-operating motor speedway in the country. The one-mile oval track hosts world-class auto racing, with the stars of the IZOD IndyCar Series and Firestone Indy Lights Heritage Father’s Day weekend. Called one of the finest and mostchallenging road courses, Road America (roadamerica.com) at Elkhart Lake, offers four miles and 14 turns of auto racing from May to September. The track features races such as the GRAND-AM Sports Car and American Le Mans series. Its Links Course features gently rolling terrain, deep rough and moderatelyfast greens surrounded by 90 steep bunkers, while the Woodlands Course has densely tree-lined fairways, guarded by a series of about 80 traps, making it much tighter. Golf Digest magazine said it is ‘one of America’s best and most-affordable public golf facilities’. Inside the Green Bay Packers’ Hall of Fame Great Lakes USA – Official UK Tourist Board 13 Sports fans hit the jackpot V ISITORS to Ohio who are keen on sport have hit the jackpot. For not only does the Buckeye State have two American football teams (the Cleveland Browns and the Cincinnati Bengals), but it also has two professional baseball teams (the Cleveland Indians and the Cincinnati Reds). The Cleveland Browns (clevelandbrowns.com) were formed in 1945 and played in the All-American Football Conference until it folded in 1949. The Browns joined the NFL and have won countless championships over the years and made the play-offs many times. They currently play in the North Division of the American Football Conference and are based at FirstEnergy Stadium in downtown Cleveland. The Cincinnati Bengals (bengals.com), who were founded in 1966 by former Cleveland Browns head coach Paul Brown, also play in the North Division of the American Football Conference. Based at Paul Brown Stadium in downtown Cincinnati, they have appeared in two Super Twitter @greatlakesusa GL2014 pp14-16 Ohio.indd 15 Bowls (1981 and 1988), losing both to the San Francisco 49ers. The Cleveland Indians (cleveland.indians.mlb.com) pro baseball team had various names, including Cleveland Lake Shores, Bluebirds, Blues and Naps, following the club’s foundation in 1901. In 1915, the club owner decided he wanted a new name and ‘Indians’ was chosen, although the ‘Tribe’ and the ‘Wahoos’ (after the club’s cartoon logo, Chief Wahoo) are popular nicknames. The Indians play in the Central Division of the Major League Baseball’s American League and are located at Progressive Field, The Cleveland Browns take on state rivals the Cincinnati Bengals at FirstEnergy Stadium, Cleveland Cleveland. Although they’ve won the Central Division title several times, they haven’t won the World Series since 1948, having lost three times, in 1954, 1995 and 1997. The Cincinnati Reds (cincinnati.reds.mlb.com), on the other hand, have won five World Series, triumphing in 1919, 1940, 1975, 1976 and 1990. The Reds – nickname the ‘Big Red Machine’ – can trace their history back to the 19th century when, in 1882, they were founder members of the American Association and subsequently, in 1890, joined the National League. They played in the National League West from 1969 to 1993 but have been in the National League Central since then. For more than 30 years, their home was the Riverfront Stadium but in 2003 they moved to the Great American Ball Park, which was built nearby. Ohio also has several Minor League Baseball teams including, among others, ➜ Progressive Field, home of the Cleveland Indians Great Lakes USA – Official UK Tourist Board 15 23/10/2013 12:43 greatlakesUSA.co.uk From superbikes to monster jams OHIO has three motor race tracks – Mid-Ohio Sports Car Course, Lexington (midohio.com), Eldora Speedway, Rossburg (eldoraspeedway.com), and New Weston Lake County Speedway, Painesville (lakecountyspeedway. com). The Lexington Course has two different track layouts, a 15-turn, 2.4-mile circuit and a 13-turn, 2.258mile circuit, and hosts vintage grand prix, superbike weekends and both IndyCar and NASCAR racing. Eldora Speedway (the ‘Big E’) claims to be the ‘world’s greatest dirt track’ and among the events it stages are the NASCAR Camping World Truck Series (racing modified production pick-up trucks) and the World of Outlaws sprint-car racing. The paved, banked oval race track at Lake Erie Speedway has been operating since 2002 and features events such as TQ Midgets, Advance Auto Parts Monster Jam and Crash-ARama as well NASCAR races. who play their home games at the Nationwide Arena in downtown Columbus, are now in the NHL’s Metropolitan Division of the Eastern Conference, having played in the Central Division of the Western Conference for the first 13 years of their existence. In 2009, they won through to the Stanley Cup play-offs for the first time. Columbus Crew – or The Crew, as the fans call them – are one of two professional the Columbus Clippers, the Toledo Mud football teams in the Great Lakes ➜ Hens, the Akron Aeros and the Dayton area (Chicago Fire are the other) who Dragons. play in Major League Soccer. One of ten Unlike the Reds or the founding clubs, Columbus Indians, the Cleveland Cavaliers Crew (thecrew.com) FAST FACTS (nba.com/cavaliers), Ohio’s played their first MLS π Canton, Ohio, is the professional National Basketball game in 1996 at Ohio home of the National Football League’s Pro Association team, can only look Stadium, an American Football Hall of Fame back to 1970, when they started (college) football stadium (profootballhof.com), life as an ‘expansion’ team. The in Columbus. partly because the American Professional only remaining founder member In 1999, they moved to Football Association, of the Central Division of the later renamed the The Pro Football Hall of Fame Eastern Conference, the Cavs, as NFL, was founded in in Canton, Ohio Canton in 1920. they are known, play their home π The Cincinnati Red games at Cleveland’s Quicken Stockings became the Loans Arena. They have appeared first all-professional in the play-offs 18 times and won baseball nine in 1869. several Division and Conference π The 24,000sq-ft Jack Nicklaus Museum titles. (nicklausmuseum.org) Columbus Blue Jackets, the is located in the Ohio state’s ice hockey team, are even State University sports complex in Columbus, newer to professional sport, Jack’s hometown. having been awarded a franchise in 2000, although they were preceded by the Columbus Chill in the East Coast Hockey League and Cleveland Barons, who had a couple of years in the NHL in the 1970s. Their name was chosen to recognise the Civil War history of both Columbus and Ohio as well as ‘patriotism and pride’. The Blue Jackets (bluejackets.nhl.com), 16 Great Lakes USA – Official UK Tourist Board Columbus Crew midfielder Tony Tchani outwits Sporting Kansas City’s Chance Myers and CJ Sapong Columbus Crew Stadium, the first soccerspecific stadium in the United States built by an MLS franchise. Since then they have won the Lamar Hunt US Open Cup (2002) and the MLS Cup (2008), as well as, in 2004, 2008, and 2009, the Supporters’ Shields, which is awarded to the team with the best regular-season points record. With more than 840 private and public courses to choose from, golfers visiting Ohio are spoilt for choice. Check out the members list at buckeyegolf.com for a breakdown of which clubs are where. Three public courses not to miss are the central-Ohio Longaberger Golf Club, Nashport (longabergergolfclub.com), the 27-hole Shaker Run Golf Club, Lebanon (shakerrungolfclub.com) and the semipublic Avalon Lakes Golf and Country Club, Warren (avalonlakes.com). Twitter @greatlakesusa MICHIGAN Detroit Tigers’ Torri Hunter hits out FAST FACTS π Detroit may have been known as the car capital of the world but it is also nicknamed Hockeytown because hockey is one of the two (along with baseball) top professional sports in Michigan. π Michigan has more public golf courses than any other state. π Gerald R Ford, the 38th president of the United States, attended the University of Michigan, where he was a football star. Tigers and Lions roam the Great Lakes State D ETROIT Tigers, the Great Lakes State’s Major League Baseball team, didn’t exactly get off to a flying start. Despite a standing-room-only crowd of 10,000 at Bennett Park on April 24, 1901, their first-ever game in the official American League had to be postponed because of the terrible weather. When it did go ahead the following day, the Tigers were 13-4 down going into the ninth inning but, following an amazing comeback, they eventually ran out winners 14-13. The Tigers (detroit.tigers.mlb.com) – the oldest, continuous one-name, one-city franchise in the American League – have gone on to win the World Series four times (in 1935, 1945, 1968 and 1984) and been runners-up eleven times, most recently in 2012. After moving in 1912 from Bennett Twitter @greatlakesusa GL2014 pp17-19 Michigan.indd 17 Park to Navin Field (subsequently renamed Briggs Stadium, then Tiger Stadium), the Tigers’ home in Michigan since 2000 has been at Comerica Park. Detroit also has a great reputation as a ‘hockey town’ – and no wonder. Of all the National Hockey League teams based in the US, the Red Wings (redwings.nhl.com/index.html) have won the Stanley Cup championship the greatest number of times (11). Only the Montreal Canadiens (24) and Toronto Maple Leafs (13) have won more. Playing in the Atlantic Division of the Eastern Conference of the NHL, the Red Wings are based at the 20,000-seater Joe Louis Arena, following more than 40 years at the Olympia Stadium. NHL hockey in Detroit was launched in 1926, when, after buying the rights to the players from the defunct Victoria Cougars, the team played until 1930 as the Detroit Cougars, became the Detroit Falcons for three years and, finally, the Red Wings in 1933. The Red Wings are one of the six original teams in the NHL. ➜ Detroit Lions’ quarterback Matthew Stafford in action Great Lakes USA – Official UK Tourist Board 17 S:190 mm S:277 mm Waterfalls. Forever flowing. Forever changing. Swift waters that stir deep reflection. Where the rush of cars becomes the rush of brilliant water. And the world slows down just enough for us to step off for a while. Feel the weight of the day cascade away. And let the current take us to Pure Michigan. GL2014 pp17-19 Michigan.indd 18 18/10/2013 13:01 greatlakesUSA.co.uk 1988) and, finally, their current home, the Palace of Auburn Hills, in a suburb of Detroit. Since the move to Detroit, the Pistons have won the NBA championships three times, in 1989, 1990 and 2004. Michigan may not have a Major League Soccer team but it more than makes up for it with the number of public golf courses (more than 800) it has scattered around the state (michigan.org/golf). Regularly named as one of the best places in the US to play golf, Michigan has championship courses that take in woods, farmlands, hills and valleys – and some great views of the Great Lakes. Three to check out are: π The Tullymore Golf Resort and St Ives Golf Club (tullymoregolf.com) in Stanwood, central Michigan, has two nationallyawarded golf courses. St Ives Golf Club and Tullymore Golf Club have unique layouts, challenging holes and stunning scenery. ABOVE: The Detroit Red Wings on the attack in the Joe Louis Arena LEFT: Action inside the Detroit Pistons’ Palace of Auburn Hills T:297 mm B:303 mm S:277 mm Detroit Lions (detroitlions.com), the city’s football team – American football, that is – began professional life as the Portsmouth Spartans in 1929. The following season they joined the National Football League but, as Portsmouth could not support a pro team, they were bought and moved to Detroit in 1934. The Lions are currently based at Ford Field in downtown Detroit and play in the North Division of the National Football Conference. Although they have won four NFL championships, they have the unenviable record of being the only franchise to have gone through a 16-game season (in 2008) without a win. Currently, they are also one of four teams never to have played in the Super Bowl. The state’s National Basketball Association team, the Detroit Pistons (nba. com/pistons), were founded in Fort Wayne, Indiana, in 1941 as the Fort Wayne Zollner Pistons, playing in the National Basketball League. The team name came from the owner, Fred Zollner, whose company, the Zollner Corporation, manufactured car ➜ Twitter @greatlakesusa GL2014 pp17-19 Michigan.indd 19 and truck pistons. In 1948, renamed the Fort Wayne Pistons, they competed in the Basketball Association of America, which – helped by Fred Zollner – then merged with the NBL to form the NBA. In 1957, Zollner moved the Pistons to Detroit, keeping the Pistons’ name because of the city’s long-held car connections. The new Pistons played in the Olympia Stadium for their first four seasons, followed by the Cobo Arena (1961-1978), the Pontiac Silverdome (1978- π The Sweetgrass Golf Club (sweetgrassgolfclub.com) in Harris, Upper Peninsula, is a par-72 masterpiece with five sets of tees to accommodate all levels. Sweetgrass is owned and operated by the Hannahville Indian Community, while holes are named after, and pay homage to, Indian legend. Both Golfweek and Golf Digest described Sweetgrass as one of ‘America’s Best New’ courses in 2009. π The Golf Club at Harbor Shores (harborshoreslife.com) in Benton Harbor, mid-west Michigan, is a Jack Nicklaus Signature course located along the shores of Lake Michigan. Three holes have sweeping views of Lake Michigan, nine border the beautiful banks of the Paw Paw River, Ox Creek and its wetlands, and six holes pass through rolling hills and ravines. Scenic site for fastest track NASCAR’S fastest track is located in the lush, scenic Irish Hills of south-eastern Michigan, where Michigan International Speedway (mispeedway.com) has been hosting America’s best racing action on its 1,400-plus acres for 43 years. The two-mile track has 18-degree banking and 73ft-wide sweeping turns. The Raceway at Belle Isle Park, located on a 982-acre island in the Detroit River between the United States mainland and Canada, is the site of the annual Chevrolet Detroit Belle Isle Grand Prix weekend event (detroitgp.com, May 30-June 1, 2014) and features cars from the IZOD IndyCar Series, the GRAND-AM Rolex Sports Car Series and the Pirelli World Challenge Championship Series on its street course. The I-500 Snowmobile Race (i-500. com) in Sault Ste Marie (Feb 4, 2014) is a 500-mile endurance race offering all the thrills of any professional racing event in the world, bar none! It is reckoned to be the largest, longest, single-day snowmobile race in the world. Great Lakes USA – Official UK Tourist Board 19 No wonder it’s called ‘Ryder Cup Country’ I F there were ever a case for tagging a particular area ‘Ryder Cup Country’, the Great Lakes is the perfect location. The connection between the Great Lakes and the world’s most-spectacular team golf competition started in 2004 when the Ryder Cup took place north of Detroit at Oakland Hills Country Club (oaklandhillscc.com) in Bloomfield, Michigan. It was the first time the cup had been contested anywhere in the Mid West, but the visiting Europeans enjoyed the occasion more than the host team and fans because Hal Sutton and his 12 players lost on home soil for only the third time. However, the Ryder Cup – which was launched in 1927 as a match between an American and a Great Britain team rather than, currently, a European one – has since returned to the Great Lakes region in an unprecedented way. It began in 2012, when Medinah Country Club in Chicago entertained the two 20 The Hazeltine National Golf Club in Chaska, Minnesota, which will host the Ryder Cup in 2016 Great Lakes USA – Official UK Tourist Board GL2014 pp20-21 Golf feature.indd 20 teams, but that was merely the first of a three-match sequence of hosting courses all in the Great Lakes area. The next two will be at Hazeltine National Golf Club in Chaska, Minnesota, in 2016, and then Whistling Straits, Kohler, Wisconsin, in 2020. Never before has one region of America staged all the US team’s matches in a single decade. However, the Great Lakes-based matches have yet to provide a home win. The European team’s stunning comeback triumph in Medinah was an echo of the Bloomfield result. The match itself set an unbeatable standard in terms of excitement as the strong US squad – including Tiger Woods, Phil Mickelson and a host of US PGA champions – somehow allowed a fourpoint lead to disappear on the final day. The drama centred on the 17th and 18th on Course No 3 at Medinah – the 193yd par 3 and the 449yd par 4 – and now both holes are on the bucket list of millions of golfers around the world. Medinah’s 87-year history is actually littered with many more high-quality championships, dating back to 1949, when Cary Middlecoff won the first of three US Opens to be staged there. Lou Graham (1974) and Hale Irwin (1990) won the others. More recently, two PGA Championships have also been played at Medinah, Ryder Cup crowds watch during the series in 2004 at Oakland Hills Country Club, Bloomfield, Michigan Twitter @greatlakesusa 23/10/2013 12:33 greatlakesUSA.co.uk play-off spot, the tall American took a few practice swings in what he thought was a waste area and touched the sand with his club. It was only in the scorer’s hut after he finished the round that Johnson was told of his mistake and he suffered a two-shot penalty. Martin Kaymer eventually won in the two-man play-off against Bubba Watson. It was the second PGA Championship to come to Sheboygan County in Wisconsin, with Vijay Singh winning the first in 2004. The tournament will return for a third time in 2015. There is a second course at Whistling Straits, the 7,201yd Irish Course, which was opened in 2000 and mimics the Ryder Cup course. The good news for visitors is that both courses are open to green fees, unlike both Medina and Hazeltine, where visitors will need to play with a member. The club house at the Medinah Country Club, where the Ryder Cup was played in 2012 Rory McIlroy, one of the victorious European team in 2012 in 1999 and in 2006, when Tiger Woods won on both occasions. All three courses at Medinah Country Club (medinahcc.org) were originally designed by the prolific Tom Bendelow, a Scottish-American who is believed to have been the architect of more than 600 courses during the first half of the 20th century. Course No 3 – now lengthened to 7,657 yards – underwent significant changes in the 1930s under the supervision of another great American course designer, AW Tillinghast. In Minnesota, Hazeltine National Golf Club (hazeltinenational.com), in the small town of Chaska, is much younger, but still has a rich history of top-class golf. The course staged two US Opens – in 1971, when England’s Tony Jacklin won, and again in 1991, when the late Payne Stewart beat Scott Simpson in a play-off. Two PGA Championships have also been held there and both times the winner was a surprise – US PGA tour journeyman Rich Beem in 2002 and South Korea’s YE Yang in 2009. The 7,678yd course was designed by Robert Trent Jones in 1962 and has undergone several upgrades since then. It is known for its narrow fairways and small greens, with the par 4 16th the pick of the holes as the drive requires a 220yd carry over Hazeltine Lake. In Kohler, Wisconsin, the two Whistling Straits courses (americanclubresort.com) are the products of one of America’s mostfamous designers, Pete Dye. It will be the youngest course to stage the Ryder Cup Twitter @greatlakesusa GL2014 pp20-21 Golf feature.indd 21 and is noted for its views of a two-mile stretch of Lake Michigan and its linkslike feel, which includes many acres of grassy dunes. And it was these dunes that caused the most controversial moment in the short history of the 7,790yd Straits Course. During the 2010 US PGA Championship, the long-hitting Dustin Johnson fell foul of the local rule about the huge sand bunkers. On the final hole, when Johnson needed a par to guarantee at least a One of the two Whistling Straits courses in Kohler, Wisconsin, which will see Ryder Cup action in 2020 Great Lakes USA – Official UK Tourist Board 21 Classic race that thrills the crowds M ENTION Indianapolis to any sports fan and they think automatically of the Indy 500, the classic 500-mile American Championship Car race that is held every year over the Memorial Day (the last Monday in May) Weekend. Thirty-three drivers battle out the Indy 500 at speeds of up to 220 mph on the iconic 2.5-mile oval of the Indianapolis Motor Speedway (indianapolismotorspeedway.com). The track also welcomes the annual NASCAR’S Brickyard 400 and Indianapolis Red Bull Moto GP (and, from 2000 to 2007, the US F1 Grand Prix). While the stage for the Indy 500 is world famous, Lucas Oil Stadium, home of the Indianapolis Colts (colts.com) American football team, is not far behind. This stadium has been voted two years in a row as having the ‘best stadium experience’ in the world by Stadium Journey magazine (albeit in a list of 101 stadiums that included Twickenham, the only non-North American entry, at no 101!). The Colts, who play in the South Division of the NFL’s American Football Conference, were founded in 1953 as the Baltimore Colts (appearing in the Super Bowl twice, winning in 1970). They moved to Indianapolis in 1984 and won the Super Bowl in 2006 against the Chicago Bears. In 2008, the Colts took up residence at Lucas Oil Stadium, which hosted the Super Bowl in 2012. The Indianapolis Pacers (nba.com/ pacers) joined the National Basketball Association when it merged Editor: Neil Murray [email protected] UK Office: +44 (0) 1403 276091 [email protected] Contributing writer (golf special): Ross Biddiscombe Advertising sales: Larry Cohen Northeast Media, Inc. +1 203 255 8800 [email protected] Published on behalf of Great Lakes USA by Phoenix International Publishing. Web site: www.phoenixip.com Publisher: Simon Todd +1 682 831 0133 [email protected] 22 Great Lakes USA – Official UK Tourist Board GL2014 pp22-24 Indianapolis.indd 22 with the American Basketball Association in 1967. They play in the Central Division of the NBA’s Eastern Conference, which they have won once. The Pacers – listed as the third-best sports franchise by ESPN The Magazine – play their home games at Bankers Life Fieldhouse in downtown Indianapolis. Indianapolis also has a Minor League Baseball team, the Indianapolis Indians (indyindians.com), whose home, Victory Field, has been named the ‘Best Minor League Ballpark in America’ by both Baseball America and Sports Illustrated magazines. And Indy Eleven (indyeleven.com), a new North American Soccer League franchise, will start their first season in 2014 at the Michael A Carroll Track & Soccer Stadium on the campus of Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis. Design: CPL (Cambridge Publishers Ltd) +44 (0) 1223 477411 [email protected]; www.cpl.co.uk ABOVE: The classic Indy 500 is held on Memorial Day Weekend LEFT: The Indianapolis Colts play at Lucas Oil Stadium Photographs courtesy of: Illinois – Illinois Office of Tourism; Chicago Fire; Bill Smith; Springfield – Springfield Illinois Convention & Visitors Bureau; Minnesota – Explore Minnesota Tourism; Bruce Kluckhohn/Minnesota Wild; Minnesota Vikings; Wisconsin – Travel Wisconsin; Visit Milwaukee; Milwaukee Bucks; Brian Malloy; Ohio – Tourism Ohio; Cody York; MLS/Columbus Crew; Michigan – Travel Michigan; NHLI/Dave Reginek; Mark Hicks; Golf feature – Explore Minnesota Tourism; DuPage Convention & Visitors Bureau; Indianapolis – Visit Indy; and Shutterstock. Although every effort has been made to ensure accuracy, the publishers cannot accept responsibility for mistakes or omissions. The publication may not be reproduced, stored or transmitted in any form or by any means without prior permission of the publishers. © Phoenix International Publishing 2013 Twitter @greatlakesusa Chicago is just minutes away when you stay on Chicago’s North Shore The most beautiful area outside of Chicago’s city center can be found twenty minutes north along Lake Michigan. Gardens, museums, shopping, restaurants and affordable first-class hotels are located on the North Shore, which is connected to Chicago’s city center by the famed elevated train system. Chicago Botanic Garden “The Magnificent Mile” Millennium Park Shopping District Bahá’í House of Worship www.visitchicagonorthshore.com Contact us: [email protected] GL2014 pp22-24 Indianapolis.indd 23 21/10/2013 09:50 Z i M M E r / M A d i c h 2013 MOA Tourism Ad \| Essentially America UK Radisson Blu Now Open always new. From fashionistas to fun seekers to food lovers, Mall of America® has something for everyone to enjoy with 520 stores, over 50 restaurants and attractions galore! Get ready to shop like a pro, brave spine-tingling rides, taste delectable dining and maybe even spot your favorite celebrity. Plus, there’s no sales tax on clothing or shoes! To receive your free Mall of America® Visitors Guide and Bloomington, Minnesota travel brochures, contact Cellet Travel Services at 08456 020 574 or [email protected] mallofamerica.com \| bloomingtonmn.org /MallofAmerica	i don't know
Who was the doctor and chief scientist on Scott’s Terra Nova Expedition to the South Pole?	Exhibition reunites artworks from Captain Scott’s final expedition – a century on - Cambridge Network Cambridge Network Exhibition reunites artworks from Captain Scott’s final expedition – a century on Exhibition reunites artworks from Captain Scott’s final expedition – a century on 2/08/2016 A new exhibition has reunited the iconic photography of Herbert Ponting with the watercolours of Edward Wilson – more than a century after the two Antarctic explorers first dreamt up their plan for a joint exhibition. By reuniting their work in this special exhibition we are pleased to give the public the opportunity to see their works together and at their best. - Julian Dowdeswell Visions of the Great White South opens at Bonhams in Bond Street today (August 2) and uses collections from the fateful Terra Nova expedition, held by the Scott Polar Research Institute at the University of Cambridge. The British Antarctic Expedition, better known by the name of its ship the Terra Nova, took place from 1910-1913. Captain Robert Falcon Scott appointed Dr Edward Wilson, a close friend and a fine watercolourist, as his chief scientist. He also invited camera artist Herbert Ponting to join the expedition as official photographer; a bold move in an era when high quality photography required great skill and careful attention in ordinary circumstances, let alone in the extreme environment of the Antarctic. Both Wilson and Ponting captured expedition life as well as keeping a visual record of scientific phenomena that the crew were studying. Making use of the Scott Polar Research Institute’s historical collections, the exhibition will also show examples of Captain Scott’s photography from the expedition in a series of beautiful new platinum prints of his work, produced by Belgian photographic publishers Salto Ulbeek in collaboration with the Scott Polar Research Institute. Scott was taught photography by Ponting during the expedition, and, in the images he produced, the influence of both Ponting and Wilson can be discerned in the ways he captured the vast and compelling landscapes of the Antarctic. Both Ponting and Wilson hoped to hold a joint exhibition. However, the catastrophic loss of the South Pole party including Scott and Wilson made that impossible. Owing to the death of Dr. Wilson his pictures could never be reproduced for sale, as he had intended. His widow, therefore, considered it better that they should be exhibited separately. The whole beautiful series of his water colours was shown at the Alpine Club, whilst my photographs were exhibited at the Fine Art Society's galleries, London. - Herbert Ponting Professor Julian Dowdeswell, Director of the Scott Polar Research Institute, said: “It is a great privilege to hold the remarkable paintings of Edward Wilson and the striking photography of Herbert Ponting in the Scott Polar Research Institute’s historic collection. By reuniting their work in this special exhibition we are pleased to give the public the opportunity to see their works together and at their best.”	Edward Wilson
George Spencer-Churchill, Marquess of Blandford is heir to which Dukedom?	Scientific Discovery during Robert Falcon Scott's Last Expedition 1910 Edward Wilson sketching at the Cape Evans hut © H Ponting photograph, Canterbury Museum, New Zealand The Worst Journey In the World In June 1911, Bowers, Cherry-Garrard and Wilson started a hellish journey to collect eggs from an emperor penguin colony at Cape Crozier, more than 100 kilometres away. A Victorian theory proposed that by studying the embryo of an organism, it was possible to learn about the evolutionary history of that species. Wilson believed penguin embryos could shed light on the evolutionary link between birds and reptiles. But emperor penguins breed in the middle of the Antarctic winter, when it is unimaginably cold and completely dark, and this would be the first substantial sledging journey ever made in these torturous conditions. For five weeks, the three men battled ferocious winds and an average temperature of -40˚C. They travelled in darkness with only scant twilight at midday and occasional moonlight. They came very close to death when their only tent blew away in a violent blizzard and it was pure luck that they found it again. When they finally reached the penguin colony, they collected five eggs with great difficulty. Only three survived the journey back. Back in Britain, the study of the embryos was delayed by the First World War and the death of the embryologist who was assigned to analyse them. Meanwhile, science had moved on and the theory of a link between embryos and evolutionary history was largely rejected. Despite this, the eggs and their embryos have scientific significance. They remain part of the Natural History Museum’s collections and, as some of the earliest examples of emperor penguin embryos, have important potential for future scientific research. "The horror of the nineteen days it took us to travel from Cape Evans to Cape Crozier would have to be re-experienced to be appreciated: and any one would be a fool who went again." - Apsley Cherry-Garrard, The Worst Journey in the World Bowers, Wilson and Cherry-Garrard before departing on the journey to Cape Crozier © H Ponting photograph, Canterbury Museum, New Zealand Edward Wilson's scientific equipment Edward Wilson took a range of scientific equipment on the journey to Cape Crozier, some of which he had to abandon on the treacherous return journey back to camp. This set of glassware was recovered in the 1950s. © Canterbury Museum, New Zealand Emperor penguin embryo slides, Aptenodytes forste Two of the three embryos collected on the winter journey to Cape Crozier were carefully cut into thin sections and mounted onto 800 glass slides. These could be studied by scientists under the microscope. They remain valuable scientific specimens. © The Natural History Museum Bat lamp from Cape Crozier This Bat brand paraffin lamp was used in the stone shelter built by the men at Cape Crozier. It was the only lamp they had, and provided an important light source in the constant darkness of the Antarctic winter. © Canterbury Museum, New Zealand Thermos flask This flask was used by Cherry-Garrard, Wilson and Bowers during their journey to Cape Crozier. Flasks were primarily used to carry hot drinks or melted water, but were occasionally used to hold marine scientific specimens to stop them freezing. © Canterbury Museum, New Zealand Cherry-Garrard's balaclava This balaclava was used by Apsley Cherry-Garrard during the winter journey. In his account of the trip, he described how they adapted their balaclavas by attaching a piece of fabric across the opening to protect their noses from the biting wind. © Canterbury Museum, New Zealand Wilson, Bowers and Cherry-Garrard back at the Cape Evans hut after their long journey © H Ponting photograph, Canterbury Museum, New Zealand The Northern Party: surviving winter alone Scott’s hut at Cape Evans was not the only camp. At Cape Adare, about 700 kilometres north, stood a second hut. It was home to a smaller group – leader Victor Campbell, geologist Raymond Priestley, surgeon Murray Levick, Petty Officers George Abbot and Frank Browning and Able Seaman Harry Dickason. Their location was less fruitful for geographical exploration than they had wished. But they did what scientific work they could – regular meteorological observations, collection of geological specimens and observations of Adélie penguins. In January 1912, they were picked up by the Terra Nova and moved to a new location along the coast for six weeks of geographical and geological exploration, with a few extra emergency provisions. But when the six weeks were up, Terra Nova was nowhere to be seen. The ship had not been able to get through the heavy pack ice, the hut was too far away and now the six men faced disaster – an Antarctic winter without shelter or enough provisions. They dug a cave in the ice for shelter and killed penguins and seals to bulk up their meagre food supplies. During the months that followed, they had tiny daily food rations and became weak, and often ill. They burnt seal blubber for warmth and cooking, and this covered everything, and everyone, in sooty fat. After more than six months they began the long walk to the main base. Incredibly, they arrived after six weeks of sledging, all alive. "Our clothes were in rags, and our only pairs of leather boots were falling to pieces on our feet." - Raymond Priestley, Antarctic Adventure: Scott’s Northern Party The Northern Party at Cape Adare Seated from left: Priestley, Campbell and Levick. Standing from left: Abbott, Dickason and Browning. © Scott Polar Research Institute, University of Cambridge The Northern Party after their long winter in the ice cave From left: Dickason, Campbell, Abbott, Priestley, Levick and Browning. © Scott Polar Research Institute, University of Cambridge	i don't know
King Power Stadium in Leicester is named after the leading travel retail company in which country?	Leicester City's 'King Power' synchronicity : Synchronicities by SyncGuy44 BACKGROUND to "The Greatest Footballing Story Of All Time" England's Leicester City (LC) and King Richard III share a very special bond, based on the fact that Richard III was buried there following the Battle of Bosworth. His remains were entombed in Greyfriars church which was demolished after 1536. A story circulated that Richard's bones were thrown into the River Soar by the nearby Bow Bridge after the demolition. For a long time this was believed to be nothing more than legend. However, by the end of the 20th century, "aided by a plaque near the Bow Bridge", this account was deemed historically correct. All of this is worth mentioning because of an excavation that took place at the site of the old church in 2012. A complete skeleton was uncovered, that of a male showing severe scoliosis and major head wounds. On February 4th in 2013 the University of Leicester confirmed that the skeleton was indeed that of Richard III. This discovery, of the remains of a major English king, made world headlines. Richard's remains were reburied in Leicester Cathedral on March 26, 2015, and here is where our story gets interesting... At the time Leicester City's soccer team was in last place in the English Premier League, (EPL). The EPL does not impose player parity as three of the four major North American major sporting leagues do with 'salary caps' (basketball, football and ice hockey). The Daily Mail later wrote about the gross inequity, writing that, "The combined cost of Leicester’s probable starting XI will be £21m. To put that into context, David Silva is the eighth most expensive player in [Manchester] City’s side, and he cost £24m. In total, City’s team cost £292.9m to assemble." When Richard III was buried the EPL was well into the 2014-15 season, and it was increasingly looking as if the last-place Foxes would be one of the teams to face relegation or demotion from the EPL. But LC's collective fate began to turn in the match which immediately followed Richard III's burial. On April 4th LC won their first match in three months. Their 2-1 home victory over West Ham, at 'King Power' Stadium was won on a goal by Andy King, his 50th with the Foxes. LC then won six of their eight remaining matches and avoided relegation. It was, by any club's standard, a very solid way to finish the season. Yet despite their very strong finish, nobody expected Leceister City to continue their winning ways the following year. Bookmakers famously gave the Foxes a 1-in-5000 chance to win the championship in 2015-16. The long odds meant that the bookies considered such an outcome virtually impossible and, by the way, perceived to be less likely than Elvis Presley being found alive that same year, or Kim Kardashian becoming US President in 2016. Nonetheless, LC continued their winning ways and a series of improbable comeback victories in the fall of 2015 saw them rise to the top of the EPL standings. APRIL 4-15, THE TURNAROUND DATE AND SYNC CONVERGENCE... To some, the longer Leceister City stayed atop the Premier League, the more significant King Richard's burial seemed to be. After all, the Foxes' run began in the very next match, after literally months of losing. Given the Richard connection, it became noteworthy that Andy 'King' had scored the winning goal in that turnaround game against West Ham. He was also the only 'King' to see playing time during the EPL's 2014-15 season, in a league that lists 500 players the member teams' rosters. With all due respect to Richard III, as far as the soccer pitch is concerned you couldn't get a better 'Leicester City' King than Andy, who has played his entire career with the club. He was also a very unlikely-improbable hero, as this was just one of two goals that King would score all season. So, there was this 'King' twist the start of LC's turnaround, but that was not only charming for reasons that had to do with the reburial of King Richard III. In yet another bizarrely improbable 'coincidence' it just so happened that the April 4th turnaround match versus West Ham took place on the 58th birthday of Leicester City's owner, Vichai Srivaddhanaprabha. Mr. Srivaddhanaprabha is also the CEO of Thailand's mighty 'King Power' International Group 0 another 'King'! The King Power corporation was granted a 'royal warrant' in 2009 for being a Thai company that has shown exemplary "transparency, virtue and trustworthiness, and one that has shown loyalty to the royal household and His Majesty 'King' Bhumibol Adulyadej." And as we shall soon see, the King Power CEO played a very integral role in what some would call the Foxes' 'spiritual' efforts. An outsider can be forgiven for thinking that the Foxes' home field is called King Power Stadium for reasons that have everything to do with Leicester City's historic connection to 'King' Richard III. In fact LC's home stadium is named after the King Power International Group, Thailand's leading travel retail group. In 2010 the Thai corporation purchased the LC Foxes. They later named LC's home King Power stadium - more than two decades after the King Power corporation and brand was founded in 1989. Therefore, King Richard's connection to Leicester and the King Power corporation's are entirely unrelated considerations. So, 'King Power' took on a folklorish meaning as the Foxes' success continued, and one that was all about mystique based on the sustained defying of the laws of probability. Was King Richard III lending good vibes to the Foxes?? asked the British media (in what was Leicester City's 111th season in the English football league system). After all, their turnaround did begin in the 4/4 match that immediately followed King Richard III's reburial. As we have seen other Kings were involved, and the idea of spiritual support was taken very seriously by Vichai Srivaddhanaprabha, the club's billionaire owner and Chairman and CEO of King Power. For some time he had been sending a revered Thai monk over from Thailand in order to 'purify' King Power Stadium. Later on the King Power CEO began having Thai monks attend home games, to bless the players before the kick-off, before spending the match deep in meditation in a specially designated room at King Power stadium. For these efforts, and thanks to the Foxes concurrent success, LC became Thailand's adopted EPL team. People waited for Leicester City's virtually impossible run to end, but end it did not. On May 2nd - or so it appeared - LC clinched the Premier League title. The news of the Foxes' ultimate victory spread across the planet . However, when all was said and done the Foxes clinched the title on April 10 in Week 33 when they earned their 72nd point in a match against Sunderland. This would be all the points they needed as second-place Arsenal finished the season with 71 points. Jamie Vardy scored the season-clinching goal in the 66th minute of the Sunderland match. The significance of the timing here is that this is the crowning moment in a very English story, "the greatest footballing story of all time," according to the Sun. '66' is a very 'English' number as it correlates to 1066 and the seminal Battle of Hastings which is also very much about the English Monarchy. (66 is 'English' in the same way that '76' is an 'American' number, that being the two-digit expression of 1776.) Vardy's historic strike also secured Leicester City its first-ever birth in the prestigious UEFA Champions League, and with it the Barclays Premier League Player of the Season and the Football writers’ Association Footballer of the Year also became the first Leicester player since Gary Lineker in the 1984–85 season to score 20 goals in the top division of English football (which was a tidy 500 years after the death of Richard III, by the way). The story of Leicester City's success made the news worldwide and for very good reason: This may very well be the only time in any major sporting league that a team has gone from being in last place one season to champions the next. Here is what Leicester City's two-year turnaround looked like, up to and including the championship clincher against Sunderland, in Wins, Draws (d)and Losses: dLdWWLdLLLLdLLLLLLWdWLLLLdLdL-----WWWWLWWdW WddWdLWdWWWWdWWWLddWdWWWLWdWWWWW The top line is the 2014-15 season, and the hyphens denote when King Richard III was buried. The information to the left of the hyphens represents the Foxes' record until then, loaded with Ls or losses, and worst in the Premier League by three points. To the right of the hyphen one sees the first W, marking the first match after Richard was buried - the turnaround win on April 4th on Andy King's match winner. The W-intensive results that follow are visually striking compared the information on the left, and they continue all the way through the bottom line which represents the 2015-16 season. 'King Power' indeed.	Thailand
Who jointly led the expedition from Melbourne to the Gulf of Carpentaria in 1860 to 1861 with Robert O’Hara Burke?	brandchannel: Leicester Wins Premier League Title and Glory for Thai Owner, King Power Leicester Wins Premier League Title and Glory for Thai Owner, King Power Posted by Dale Buss Talk about a Cinderella story! The unlikely season championship in English Premier League soccer, won inspiringly by a once-lowly team from Leicester—for the first time in 132 years—is cheering not only the team’s growing native fan base but also legions of fans halfway around the world in Thailand. That’s because King Power , a duty-free retail company based in Thailand and chaired by billionaire Vichai Srivaddhanaprabha, is the owner, naming rights and shirt sponsor of the Leicester City Football Club . Better known as the Foxes, the team has generated massive excitement in soccer-mad Thailand — and beyond, with media coverage of the team’s EPL victory in TIME and other media outlets. Leicester and the iconic Manchester United franchise played to a 1-1 draw, but soon the conclusion of another draw, between second-place Totenham Hotspur and Chelsea, handed the Foxes a title that seemed impossible after they’d struggled to survive in the top-shelf Premier League last season. The team—called the “Siamese Foxes” by some because of their huge Thai fan base—a year ago were relegated to 5,000-to-1 odds to win the Premier League title. Leicester City. Champions of England. pic.twitter.com/WRwfysTn2N — Leicester City (@LCFC) May 2, 2016 It’s not just the lucky punters who bet on Leicester to win who stand to make a windfall. According to AdNews , “UK sports marketing agency Repucom estimates the title could be worth up to £150 million ($290 million) in prize money, TV revenue, Champions League participation and boosts to ticket and hospitality sales. For the club’s major sponsors, the benefits are obvious – much greater exposure than they could have imagined. The TV audience for Premier League games is 4.7 billion.” Indeed, “As Premier League champions, Leicester’s share of next season’s $7.4 billion TV deal will be several times more than Vichai (Srivaddhanaprabha) first paid for the club,” according to The Bangkok Post . Thailand also presents an opportunity to expand the club’s brand — consider all those fans yelling “Leicester! Leicester!” in the streets of Bangkok, according to Time.com. Some no doubt believed that the Foxes’ cause had been helped by the fact that a handful of Buddhist monks traveled with Srivaddhanaprabha to the club’s King Power Stadium in England in recent months to pray over the pitch. King Power is keen to leverage the Foxes’ win at home in Thailand because of how the Leicester club has engaged Thai fans, in part as what Time.com called “a temporary respite from their country’s real-world struggles.” Among other issues, Thailand currently is enduring its worst drought in 65 years. The owner “surely will fly his squad out to Thailand this summer to show off the Premier League trophy,” the magazine said. “A sea of royal blue shirts” in the Foxes’ color “will greet them.” There are reports of a league investigation of “shady sponsorship deals” around financial fair play for the 2013-2014 season involving King Power, according to SBNation.com, but nothing that’s likely to take the sheen off the club’s sponsor. The travel retail group King Power is Leicester’s naming rights and shirt sponsor. Throughout the season, 64% of all King Power digital content engagement was down to to its relationship with Leicester City, according to Amobee Brand Intelligence data. Sentiment for the brand was 27% positive and 54% neutral, which closely matched that of Leicester City Foxes. Although this is high for a brand few know outside of Asia, because King Power is owned by Leicester’s Thai billionaire owner Vichai Srivaddhanaprabha, it’s unlikely the full value of naming rights sponsorship will be realised, says Gemba CEO Rob Mills. “There will be tactical opportunities to up sell in some sponsorship categories, but the large sustainable lifts will only come when the market is confident that the improved performance is sustainable,” he tells AdNews. Read more at http://www.adnews.com.au/news/leicester-s-epl-title-worth-290m-but-what-s-the-value-to-sponsors#xfZBFi5WIlAWcjxT.99 When Leicester announced a three-year sponsorship deal with King Power in 2010, its press release stated: As part of the sponsorship, the King Power logo will be seen all over the world, in 167 territories, via the extensive television coverage that English football enjoys. The popularity of English football has never been higher and the King Power logo will feature on the home, away and third shirts in addition to both perimeter boards and interview backdrop. King Power will in essence become a part of the fabric of the Club and the excitement about the partnership is palpable. King Power Chairman Vichai Raksriaksorn added, ‘We see this three year deal as strategic and vital for our powerful global brand. King Power is based in Thailand and our name is synonymous with quality, providing brand name products to millions of tourists at 76 outlets throughout Thailand’s main airports.’ ‘Our interest in football is well established as sponsor to the Thai national football league and this sponsorship of Leicester City illustrates our ambitions and those of the club. This is an exciting and dynamic opportunity for us and I hope a relationship which can deliver much more for all sides including the fans.’ Since then, the club’s Thai jersey and stadium sponsor has attracted more investment from Thailand, with other sponsors including the Thai tourism board, Air Asia, Singha Beer and DHL, the German parcel delivery service with a strong legacy in Asia. Still, Leicester fans still have a way to go in the slavish devotion department compared with the bonkers fans of Club Atletico Tigre, which is based in greater Buenos Aires. Dubbed “Passion Ticket,” the club has launched a promotion in which fans can have a microchip inserted under their skin that serves as a ticket to allow them entry into the stadium—without need for identification or a traditional season ticket.	i don't know
Which airline has flight FR9146 from Liverpool to Barcelona and flight FR 9862 from Liverpool to Malaga?	Ryanair Flight Tracker \| Live Flight Status & Information 17/01/17 22:30 Track your Ryanair flight Ryanair has pride of place as one of Europes most popular ultra-low cost carrier airlines. With aircrafts operating more than 1,600 daily flights from 57 locations to 180 destinations, it's a good idea to keep track of your journey. That's why Holiday Extras has created a live tracker for airlines - like Ryanair - operating in the UK. By simply finding your flight number, your flight tracker keeps you up to date with your journey including a countdown to departure and a weather report for your arrival. The trip to the airport needn't be stressful, your flight tracker keeps an eye on time and pre-holiday panics to a minimum. One simple search can see you setting off to the terminal with a cheap travel insurance policy ready to go and prepped with the best value, pre-booked airport parking. Ryanair flight arrivals and departures From Stansted to Gatwick and UK airports further afield, your live tracker keeps up to date with all aircrafts leaving and landing on UK runways. The live flight info means you're always one step ahead with a heads up to your departure time, and notification of any delays or cancellations. Travel checklist Stay organised in the run up to your trip and avoid luggage mishaps by making the most of our nifty travel checklist. Flip-flops to ski boots, swimsuit to skis, we'll make sure you've packed everything you need. Keep your checklist safe and coffee-ring free by entering your e-mail address to save your all of your flight tracker progress. Flight packages Standard Book a Standard flight with Ryanair to be assured of the best prices going. All of the companys aircrafts are leading models, and populated by spacious, comfortable seats. Priority Boarding Ryanair does not offer business or executive class packages, but customers can pay extra for Priority Boarding, which allows them to skip the queues and find their seat before the majority of passengers board the plane. An airline with an instant impact When Ryanair burst onto the scene in 1985 it immediately changed the airline industry. Charging less than half of what its rivals were for flights from Dublin to London, Ryanair broke the high cost monopoly to the delight of UK travellers. The airline grew as rapidly as you would have expected, and its passenger number of 5,000 in 1985 had jumped to more than 50 million by 2007. Ryanair still offers the lowest fares in 2013. Tried, tested and recommended We've slept in every hotel and parked in every car park we sell. We know our partners are as dedicated as we are to making your holiday hassle-free. Lowest price guarantee You can be confident that Holiday Extras prices will never be beaten but in the unlikely event you find the same product for less somewhere else, we will match the price, guaranteed. Terms and conditions apply. 4+ million bookings Over 4 million bookings last year and the number is rising. We would like to thank all of our customers who keep on returning. Expert customer service We've 150 experts in Kent whose mission is to ensure your call or live chat will be answered within 20 seconds or your email within 15 minutes. © 2017 Holiday Extras Ltd Company registered in England and Wales (01693250). Office registered at Ashford Road, Newingreen, Kent, UK, CT21 4JF. HolidayExtras.com, established in 1983, is the UK market leader in pre-booked UK airport hotels and parking. Holiday Extras prides itself on providing the best products, the best service and above all, great low prices. 1,171,364 Holiday Extras customers have given an average rating of 88% . Prices start from £33 8 days parking, £50 room with parking.	Ryanair
"Which word is missing from these lyrics? ""Thanks for the memory, Of candlelight and wine, ______ on the Rhine, The Parthenon and moments on the Hudson River Line, How lovely it was!"""	When are Ryanair summer 2017 flights released? Our experts reveal the tricks you need to know When are Ryanair summer 2017 flights released? Ryanair may be among the cheapest – and most successful – airlines in Europe but it doesn’t always make it easy for its passengers to book. Its website is notoriously painful to navigate with excessive pages to click through, poor explanations and “Captcha” codes that are impossible to decipher. It’s also easy to find yourself paying for extras you weren’t expecting. But one of the biggest gripes among customers is not knowing when its flights go on sale. Many visitors to Whentobookflights.co.uk have asked us: “When are Ryanair’s summer 2017 flights released?”. Currently, Ryanair’s summer destinations are bookable until the end of October 2017. However, it may not be a good idea to book so far ahead. In August 2016, we found a return flight from London Gatwi ck to Alicante in Spain in October 2017 for £295.98 (excluding extra charges for luggage, numbered seats, etc). Although the Ryanair website has been made a lot more user-friendly in recent months, there is no page where you can find out when the flights will be released. Why does Ryanair make this so difficult? The cynical answer is that it wants you to sign up for its email newsletters. If you go to the bottom of the homepage and click on “Register for Offers”, you will go to the signup page where the benefits are listed, starting with “Be the first to know when seat sales are released”. The downside with signing up for the newsletter is that you may be bombarded with emails trying to sell you travel insurance, hotels, car hire and so on.	i don't know
A simple statement of Boyle’s Law is that the pressure of a gas is inversely proportional to its what?	Other gas laws - Boyle's Law and Charles' Law Other gas laws - Boyle's Law and Charles' Law This page takes a simple look at Boyle's Law and Charles' Law, and is suitable for 16 - 18 year old chemistry students doing a course the equivalent of UK A level. The aim is simply to show how these laws relate to Kinetic Theory (in a non-mathematical way), and to the ideal gas equation. Before you waste time on this, be sure that you actually need to know about it. Certainly in the UK exam system, it is pretty rare for chemistry students to be expected to know either of these laws these days. They have been almost completely replaced by the ideal gas equation. Boyle's Law Statement For a fixed mass of gas at constant temperature, the volume is inversely proportional to the pressure. That means that, for example, if you double the pressure, you will halve the volume. If you increase the pressure 10 times, the volume will decrease 10 times. You can express this mathematically as pV = constant Is this consistent with pV = nRT ? You have a fixed mass of gas, so n (the number of moles) is constant. R is always constant - it is called the gas constant. Boyle's Law demands that temperature is constant as well. That means that everything on the right-hand side of pV = nRT is constant, and so pV is constant - which is what we have just said is a result of Boyle's Law. Simple Kinetic Theory explanation I'm not going to try to prove the relationship between pressure and volume mathematically - I'm just showing that it is reasonable. This is easiest to see if you think about the effect of decreasing the volume of a fixed mass of gas at constant temperature. Pressure is caused by gas molecules hitting the walls of the container. With a smaller volume, the gas molecules will hit the walls more frequently, and so the pressure increases. You might argue that this isn't actually what Boyle's Law says - it wants you to increase the pressure first and see what effect that has on the volume. But, in fact, it amounts to the same thing. If you want to increase the pressure of a fixed mass of gas without changing the temperature, the only way you can do it is to squeeze it into a smaller volume. That causes the molecules to hit the walls more often, and so the pressure increases. Charles' Law Statement For a fixed mass of gas at constant pressure, the volume is directly proportional to the kelvin temperature. That means, for example, that if you double the kelvin temperature from, say to 300 K to 600 K, at constant pressure, the volume of a fixed mass of the gas will double as well. You can express this mathematically as V = constant x T Is this consistent with pV = nRT ? You have a fixed mass of gas, so n (the number of moles) is constant. R is the gas constant. Charles' Law demands that pressure is constant as well. If you rearrange the pV = nRT equation by dividing both sides by p, you will get V = nR/p x T But everything in the nR/p part of this is constant. That means that V = constant x T, which is Charles' Law. Simple Kinetic Theory explanation Again, I'm not trying to prove the relationship between pressure and volume mathematically - just that it is reasonable. Suppose you have a fixed mass of gas in a container with a moveable barrier - something like a gas syringe, for example. The barrier can move without any sort of resistance. The barrier will settle so that the pressure inside and outside is identical. Now suppose you heat the gas, but not the air outside. The gas molecules will now be moving faster, and so will hit the barrier more frequently, and harder. Meanwhile, the air molecules on the outside are hitting it exactly as before. Obviously, the barrier will be forced to the right, and the volume of the gas will increase. That will go on until the pressure inside and outside is the same. In other words, the pressure of the gas will be back to the same as the air again. So we have fulfilled what Charles' Law says. We have a fixed mass of gas (nothing has been added, and nothing has escaped). The pressure is the same before and after (in each case, the same as the external air pressure). And the volume increases when you increase the temperature of the gas. What we haven't shown, of course, is that there is a "directly proportional" relationship. It can be done, but it needs some maths. Questions to test your understanding If this is the first set of questions you have done, please read the introductory page before you start. You will need to use the BACK BUTTON on your browser to come back here afterwards.	Volume
Which actress, who appeared in 24 of the films, played Calpurnia in Carry On Cleo?	Gas Laws, Ideal Gas Law \| Wyzant Resources Resources / Lessons / Science / Chemistry / Gas Laws Gas Laws Gas has existed since the beginning of time; oftentimes, it was referred to as “air” or “oxygen;” however, in the late 18th century, “air” became known as gas, and people were able to distinguish between different types of gas. Towards the end of the 18th century, scientists started testing and developing laws that later became known as the “gas laws.” These laws describe properties of gases, and how they react in different situations. In order to understand the gas laws, we need to define a few terms: Gas: a substance consisting of widely spread particles; it can expand indefinitely. This is also the third state of matter; it is not a solid or a liquid. Pressure: the measure of force applied by another substance (such as a gas). It is commonly abbreviated as “P” (a capital letter P). Pressure can be measured in millimeters of Mercury (mmHg), torr, atmospheres (atm), Pascals (Pa), and kilopascals (kPa). All of the following measurements are the same, just different units, so you can use them to convert from one to the other. For the ideal gas law, the pressure will need to be in atmospheres. The conversions between these are as follows: 760 mmHg = 760 torr = 1.00 atm = 101,325 Pa = 101.325 kPa If you need help setting up the conversions between pressure measurements, please refer back to the Mole section which also explains how to set up dimensional analysis. Volume: the numerical amount of space occupied by a solid, liquid, or gas. It is commonly abbreviated as “V” (a capital letter V). Volume, in this situation, will be most often measured in liters, L. Temperature: the measurement of the amount of energy seen in the motion of particles in a solid, liquid or gas. It can be measured on three scales: Fahrenheit, Celsius (sometimes referred to as Centigrade) and Kelvin. It is commonly abbreviated as “T” (a capital letter T). Temperature, in this situation, will most often be measured in Kelvin, K. n: a lowercase “n” stands for the number of moles of a gas. This is a measurement in moles, so if you are given a mass in grams or kilograms, be sure to change it to moles first. R: when dealing with gas laws, R is a constant that means .0821 (Latm)/(molK). The units are read as “liter-atmospheres per mole-Kelvin.” This label combines volume (measured in liters, L), pressure (measured in atmospheres, atm), mass (measured in moles, mol), and temperature (measured in Kelvins, K). STP: STP stands for “standard temperature and pressure” and refers to conditions of 273 K (0 degrees C) and 1 atm. Now that you are familiar with the above listed terms, we can begin studying the gas laws. We will state them in order from first discovered to most recently discovered. We will try to put them in common terms, but note that your teacher / instructor may have had a different way of presenting this, so make sure to get live help when you need it! Boyle’s Law 1622 This law is about pressure and volume relationships, therefore it assumes constant temperature, meaning the temperature does not change. The subscripts on the letters (example: P1) are important: letters with the subscript 1 mean before the change (the change refers to some part of the chemical equation changing, whether it’s a change in state or a change in amount, etc), and letters with the subscript 2 mean after the change. P1V1 = P2V2 or like this: This law states that pressure and volume are inversely proportional. That means that as one gets larger, the other gets smaller. The 1 and 2 indicate change. P1 would be before the pressure change, and P2 would be after the pressure change. This law can also be written like this: PV = k1 which means that pressure multiplied by volume gives you a constant, k. This is not the same constant for every reaction; it differs from gas to gas. Charles’s Law 1787 This law is about volume and how it relates to temperature, so constant pressure is assumed (meaning we assume that the pressure does not change). This law says that volume is directly proportional to absolute temperature. Temperature in this law is measured in Kelvins, K. The law is written in the following way: V = k2T or Simply stated, this law implies that as volume increases, temperature also increases at the same rate. The top equation shows that if you multiply T (temperature) by a constant, you will get the volume, V. The second equation is a more practical application of the law, which will help you when you’re given 3 of the 4 listed items. Gay-Lussac’s Law 1809 This law is about how pressure and temperature relate, which means the law assumes a constant volume of gas (meaning we assume the volume is not variable—it does not change). This law says that pressure is directly proportional to temperature. The given formula for this equation is: P = k3T or Simply stated, this law implies that as pressure increases, temperature also increases at the same rate. The top equation shows that if you multiply T (temperature) by a constant, you will get the pressure, P. The second equation is a practical application of the law, which will help you when you’re given 3 out of the 4 listed items; you can solve for the last value. Avogadro’s Law 1811 You may remember an earlier discussion of Avogadro in the Mole section of the Chemistry Help page. As a reminder, Avogadro’s number is 6.02 x 1023 atoms in a mole. Although it is always the same number of particles, the mass and weight vary by element with each element’s properties. The law states that the volume a gas takes up is directly proportional to the number of moles of gas there are. The equation is: V = k4n which means that the number of moles, n, multiplied by a constant, k, yields a specific volume, V. There is not another application of the law, because it does not involve changing conditions (there is no V1 and V2). Ideal Gas Law 1834, 1856 Now, after all of these laws came about, another scientist (Emile Clapeyron) decided that they could all be combined into one “ideal” gas law. This is the equation for the ideal gas law: PV = nRT In other words, pressure multiplied by volume equals the number of moles multiplied by the gas constant (R = .0821 Latm/molK) multiplied by the temperature. The ideal gas law is used when you are given 3 of the 4 variables (you always have R, so that doesn’t count as a variable). For example, you could use this equation to find pressure if you were given volume, number of moles, and temperature. The equation would look like this: This equation is easily manipulated by using some simple Algebra —just pretend like you’re solving for x, and whatever you’re looking for (in this case, pressure) is x, so you have to get it on a side by itself. Most of the time, it will simply involve multiplying and/or dividing by the other variables that you’ve been given already. As this section concludes, we want to make sure you’re aware of one more thing. All of these gas laws are based on “ideal” gases. Ideal gases have the following properties: 1. All gas molecules are in motion, and move randomly. 2. Each time the gas particles collide, kinetic energy is conserved (this is called elasticity). 3. The volume of the molecules of gas is negligible (meaning so small it’s not worth stating). 4. Gases do not attract or repel other gas molecules (there are no IMAFs). 5. The kinetic energy of a gas is directly proportional to its temperature (in Kelvins), and is the same for all gases at the same temperature. Most gases found in nature do not meet all of these qualifications for ideal gas; however, they follow the rules closely enough that we can still use all of the equations above in theory, and it will not present a significant difference from what occurs in nature. Sign up for free to access more Science resources like . Wyzant Resources features blogs, videos, lessons, and more about Science and over 250 other subjects. Stop struggling and start learning today with thousands of free resources!	i don't know
Which King was born at Dunfermline Palace in November 1600?	Famous Scots - King Charles I Famous Scots Dunfermline Palace, Birthplace of King Charles I. Early Years When Charles was born in Dunfermline Palace , on 19 November 1600, no-one knew that he would be the last king born in Scotland. He had an elder brother who was destined to be king and Charles was a frail, sickly child. Three years after the birth of Charles, his father, King James VI , became King of England also. His elder brother Henry, became Prince of Wales - an English title created by Edward I. But Henry died in 1612 and suddenly Charles became the heir apparent. But he was soon under the malign influence of the Duke of Buckingham, eight years older than Charles, who had been made a favourite of King James largely on the basis of his foppish good looks. In 1623, in pursuit of King James' plan to create an alliance with Spain, Buckingham accompanied Charles to the Iberian peninsula to arrange the marriage of the King of Spain's daughter to Charles. The plan was badly bungled (Buckingam gets the blame) and war was declared between Britain and Spain shortly after their return! As lord high admiral, Buckingham continued to mismanage various expeditions and was eventually murdered in 1628. Monarch King James died on March 27, 1625 and Charles was crowned at Westminster Abbey on February 2, 1626. With an alliance with Spain now abandoned, a French one was pursued instead, this time with a bit more success, and Charles married Henrietta Maria, the sister of King Louis XIII. His wife had an even more exaggerated view than Charles of the "Divine Right of Kings" which led him into conflict with Parliament both in Westminster and Scotland. Charles advocated the suppression of Puritanism in favour of a "high" church with richness and ceremony. He also claimed the right to raise money without the authority of Parliament. As the Members of Parliament resisted, Charles just dissolved the institution in January 1629 and ruled alone for eleven years. He was forced to raise money by devious means. Charles eventually came to Scotland in 1633 to be crowned at Holyrood . Although the Union of the Crowns had taken place in 1603, the monarch ruled two separate countries, each with their own laws - and church. In Scotland the meddling of the king in church affairs led to the signing of the National Covenant in 1638 and a call to arms. Civil War The English Parliament and the Scottish Presbyterians were now both at loggerheads with the king and civil war broke out in 1642. In Scotland, the Marquis of Montrose carried out a brilliant campaign on behalf of the King. But in England, the battle between the Royalists and the Roundheads (led by Oliver Cromwell) swung back and forwards. But with defeats at Marston Moor in 1644 and Naseby in June 1645, his cause was lost in England. Charles therefore surrendered to the Scottish army in 1646. He tried to sow dissension between the Scots and the English Parliaments but he was eventually handed over to the English Parliament. Charles continued to attempt to "negotiate" but following an attempt to escape to France, rebellions in Wales and the south-east of England and an invasion of England by the Scots in 1648, convinced the English Parliament that Charles should be tried for treason. Charles argued (with some justification) that the court was illegal but he was sentenced to death and beheaded on January 30, 1649. Despite his many failings, his refusal to compromise and save himself by accepting Presbyterianism, the illegal nature of his "trial" and his dignity at his execution, have all retrospectively provided Charles with a halo of martyrdom. Return to the Index of Famous Scots Where else would you like to go in Scotland? Links Pages	Charles I
Guitarist David Gilmour joined which rock band in 1967?	Charles I of England - New World Encyclopedia Charles I of England Painting by Anthony van Dyck , 1636 Reign March 27, 1625–January 30, 1649 Coronation St George's, England Charles I (November 19, 1600 – January 30, 1649) was King of England, King of Scotland , and King of Ireland from March 27, 1625 until his execution in 1649. He famously engaged in a struggle for power with the Parliament of England. As he was an advocate of the Divine Right of Kings , many in England feared that he was attempting to gain absolute power. There was widespread opposition to many of his actions, especially the levying of taxes without Parliament 's consent. Religious conflicts permeated Charles's reign. He married a Catholic princess, Henrietta Maria, over the objections of Parliament and public opinion. Charles further allied himself with other controversial religious figures, including the ecclesiastic Richard Montagu and William Laud , whom Charles appointed Archbishop of Canterbury . Laud produced changes in the liturgy of the Church of England which many of Charles's subjects felt brought the Church of England too close to Roman Catholicism . Charles's later attempts to force religious reforms upon Scotland led to war that weakened England and helped precipitate his downfall. Contents 14 Credits The last years of Charles's reign were marked by the English Civil War , in which he was opposed by the forces of Parliament—they challenged his attempts to augment his own power—and by Puritans, who were hostile to his religious policies and apparent Catholic sympathy. The first Civil War (1642–1645) ended in defeat for Charles, after which the parliamentarians expected him to accept their demands for a constitutional monarchy. Instead, he remained defiant, provoking a second Civil War (1648–1649). This was considered unacceptable, and Charles was subsequently tried, convicted, and executed for high treason. The monarchy was then abolished and a republic called the Commonwealth of England was declared. Charles's son, Charles II , became king after restoring the monarchy in 1660. Charles is also the only person to be canonized by the Church of England since the English Reformation. Early Life The second son of James VI, King of Scots and Anne of Denmark, Charles was born at Dunfermline Palace, Fife, on November 19, 1600. He was an underdeveloped child (he is listed in the Guinness Book of Records as the nation's shortest king) who was still unable to walk or talk at the age of three. When Elizabeth I died in March 1603 and James VI became King of England as James I, Charles was originally left in Scotland in the care of nurses and servants because it was feared that the journey would damage his fragile health. He did make the journey in July 1604 and was subsequently placed under the charge of Alletta (Hogenhove) Carey, the Dutch-born wife of courtier Sir Robert Carey, who taught him how to walk and talk and insisted that he wear boots made of Spanish leather and brass to help strengthen his weak ankles. As an adult Charles was 5 feet 4 inches (162 cm) tall. Charles was not as well-regarded as his elder brother, Henry Frederick Stuart, Prince of Wales; Charles himself adored Henry and tried to emulate him. In 1605, as was then customary in the case of the Sovereign's second son, he was made Duke of York in England. Two years before, in 1603, he was made Duke of Albany in Scotland. When his elder brother died of typhoid in 1612, Charles became heir apparent and was subsequently made the Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester in November 1616. His sister Elizabeth married in 1613 to Frederick V, Elector Palatine and moved to Heidelberg. The new Prince of Wales was greatly influenced by his father's favorite courtier, George Villiers, First Duke of Buckingham, who took him on an expedition to Spain in 1623 to look for a suitable bride, and settled on the daughter of the Spanish King Philip III, Infanta Maria Anna of Spain. No marriage occurred, however, as the Spanish demanded the Prince of Wales's conversion to Roman Catholicism. Upon their return in October, both the Prince of Wales and the Duke of Buckingham demanded that James I declare war on Spain. British Royalty Henrietta, Duchess of Orléans Princess Elizabeth With the encouragement of his Protestant advisors, James summoned Parliament so that he could request subsidies for his war effort. James also requested that Parliament sanction the marriage between the Prince of Wales and Princess Henrietta Maria of France, whom Charles met in Paris while en route to Spain. It was a good match since she was a sister of Louis XIII (their father, Henry IV of France, had died during Henrietta Maria’s childhood). Parliament agreed to the marriage, but was extremely critical of the prior attempt to arrange a marital alliance with Spain. James was growing senile and as a result was finding it extremely difficult to control Parliament—the same problem would later haunt Charles during his reign. During the last year of his reign, actual power was held not by him but by his eldest son and the Duke of Buckingham. Early Reign Charles ascended the throne on March 27, 1625 and on June 13 of that year was married to Henrietta Maria, nine years his junior, by proxy. His first Parliament, which he opened in May, was opposed to his marriage to Henrietta Maria, a Roman Catholic, because it feared that Charles would lift restrictions on Roman Catholics and undermine the official establishment of Protestantism . Although he agreed with Parliament that he would not relax restrictions relating to recusants, he promised to do exactly that in a secret marriage treaty with Louis XIII. The couple was married on June 13, 1625, in Canterbury. Charles was crowned on February 2, 1626 at Westminster Abbey , but without his wife at his side due to the controversy. They had nine children, with three sons and three daughters surviving infancy. [[Image:Van Dyck Charles I.jpg\|thumb\|200px\|[[Charles I painted around 1635 by Sir Anthony Van Dyck.]] Distrust of Charles's religious policies was increased by the controversy surrounding the ecclesiastic Richard Montagu. In a pamphlet, Montagu argued against the teachings of John Calvin , immediately bringing himself into disrepute amongst the Puritans. A Puritan member of the House of Commons, John Pym, attacked Montagu's pamphlet during debate, prompting Montagu to request the aid of Charles I in a pamphlet entitled Appello Caesarem (Latin "I appeal to Caesar," a reference to an appeal against Jewish persecution made by Saint Paul the Apostle ). Charles I offered the cleric his protection, leading many Puritans to take a hostile view toward him. Charles's primary concern during his early reign was foreign policy. Frederick V, Elector Palatine, his sister Elizabeth's husband, had lost his hereditary lands in the Electoral Palatinate to the Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II, leading to the Thirty Years' War. Originally only a war to keep the Catholic Habsburgs hegemonic as the elected Kings of Bohemia , it spiraled out of control into a civil and confessional war between Protestants and Catholics in Europe. Charles was committed to help his brother-in-law regain the Palatinate by waging a war with the Catholic Spanish King Philip IV, whom he hoped he could force to intercede with the Emperor on his behalf. Parliament preferred an inexpensive naval attack on Spanish colonies in the New World, hoping that the capture of the Spanish treasure fleets could finance the war. Charles, however, preferred more aggressive (and more expensive) action on the Continent. Parliament only voted to grant a subsidy of £140,000; an insufficient sum for Charles. Moreover, the House of Commons agreed to allow the king to collect tonnage and poundage (two varieties of customs duties), but only for a period of one year, although previous Sovereigns since 1414 had been granted the right for life. In this manner, the House of Commons hoped to keep a check on Charles's power by forcing him to seek the renewal of the grant each year. Charles's allies in the House of Lords, led by the Duke of Buckingham, refused to pass the bill. Although no Parliamentary authority for the levy of tonnage and poundage could be obtained, Charles continued to collect the duties anyway. Tyranny or Personal Rule? In January 1629 Charles opened the second session of the Parliament which had been prorogued in June 1628. Charles saw a conspiracy at work, due to the recent assassination of Buckingham, calling his commons “seditious.” Members of the House of Commons began to voice their opposition in light of the Rolle case. Rolle was an MP who had his goods confiscated for not paying tonnage and poundage. This was seen by many MPs as a breach of the Petition of Right, who argued that the freedom from arrest privilege extended to goods. When he requested a parliamentary adjournment in March, members held the Speaker, John Finch, down in his chair while three resolutions against Charles were read aloud. The last of these resolutions declared that anyone who paid tonnage or poundage not authorized by Parliament would "be reputed a betrayer of the liberties of England, and an enemy to the same." Though the resolution was not formally passed, many members declared their approval. The fact that a number of MPs had to be detained in Parliament is relevant in understanding that there was no universal opposition toward the king. Afterward, when the Commons passed further measures displeasing to Charles, he dissolved parliament. Charles resolved not to be forced to rely on Parliament for further monetary aid. Immediately, he made peace with France and Spain. The following 11 years, during which Charles ruled without a Parliament, have been known as both the Eleven Years’ Tyranny and simply as the Personal Rule. (Charles's rule without Parliament constituted a valid but nevertheless exceptional exercise of the royal prerogative. In former times such rule would have been considered just but by the middle of the seventeenth century it was held by many to be an exercise of absolute power). Sir Anthony van Dyck, Charles I's court painter, created the famous Charles I, King of England, from Three Angles, commonly known as the Triple Portrait. This oil painting, done around 1636, was created so that the Italian sculptor, Bernini, could create a marble bust of Charles. Even without Parliament Charles still had to acquire funds in order to maintain his treasury. Thus, relying on an all but forgotten feudal statute called “The Distraint of Knighthood” passed in 1278, requiring anyone who earned £40 or more each year to present himself at the King's coronation so that he may join the royal army as a knight, Charles fined all individuals who failed to attend his coronation in 1626. He also reintroduced the obsolete feudal tax known as ship money which was even more unpopular. A writ issued in 1634 ordered the collection of ship money in peacetime, notwithstanding statutes of Edward I and Edward III that had prohibited the levying of such a tax except during wars. This first writ of 1634, however, did not encourage much opposition on legal grounds, but a second writ of 1635 did. Charles's third writ demanding ship money, issued in 1636, made it clear that the ancient prohibition on collecting ship money during peacetime had been swept away. Many attempted to resist payment, but Charles's judges, whose tenure depended on his "good pleasure," declared that the tax was within the king's prerogative. This action of demanding ship money to be raised in peacetime was a major cause of concern among the ruling class; however, it must be noted that it was the attempted enforcement of the Anglican and increasingly Arminian styled prayer book under Laud that precipitated the rebellion in Scotland, which ended Personal Rule in 1640. [1] Religious Conflicts Charles wished to move the Church of England away from Calvinism in a more traditional and sacramental direction. This goal was shared by his main political adviser, Archbishop William Laud . Laud was appointed by Charles as the Archbishop of Canterbury in 1633 and started a series of unpopular reforms in the Church to make it more ceremonial. Laud attempted to ensure religious uniformity by dismissing non-conformist clergymen and closing Puritan organizations. This was actively hostile to the Reformist tendencies of many of Charles’s English and Scottish subjects. His policy was obnoxious to Calvinist theology, and insisted that the Church of England's liturgy be celebrated with all of the ceremony and vestments called for by the Book of Common Prayer . Laud was also an advocate of Arminian theology, a view in which emphasis on the ability to reject salvation was viewed as heretical and virtually "Catholic" by strict Calvinists. To punish those who refused to accept his reforms, Laud used the two most feared and arbitrary courts in the land, the Court of High Commission and the Court of Star Chamber. The former could compel individuals to provide self-incriminating testimony, while the latter could inflict any punishment whatsoever (including torture), with the sole exception of death. The lawlessness of the Court of Star Chamber under Charles I far exceeded that under any of his predecessors. Under Charles's reign, defendants were regularly hauled before the court without indictment, due process of the law, or the right to confront witnesses, and their testimonies were routinely extracted by the king and his courtiers through extensive torture. The first years of the Personal Rule were marked by peace in England, to some extent due to tighter central control. Several individuals opposed Charles's taxes and Laud's policies, but the overall trend of the early Personal Rule period is one of peace. When, however, Charles attempted to impose his religious policies in Scotland, he faced numerous difficulties. The king ordered the use of a new Prayer Book modeled on the English Book of Common Prayer , which, although supported by the Scottish Bishops, was resisted by many Presbyterian Scots, who saw the new Prayer Book as a vehicle for introducing Anglicanism to Scotland. When the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland abolished Episcopalian government (that is, governance of the Church by Bishops) in 1638, replacing it with Presbyterian government (that is, governance by Elders and Deacons), Charles sought to put down what he saw as a rebellion against his authority. In 1639, when the First Bishops' War broke out, Charles sought to collect taxes from his subjects, who refused to yield any further. Charles's war ended in a humiliating truce in June of the same year. In the Pacification of Berwick, Charles agreed to grant his Scottish subjects civil and ecclesiastical freedoms. Charles's military failure in the First Bishops' War in turn caused a financial and military crisis for Charles, leading to the end of Personal Rule. Due to his financial weakness, Charles was forced to call Parliament into session by 1640 in an attempt to raise funds. While the ruling class grievances with the changes to government and finance during the Personal Rule period were a contributing factor in the Scottish Rebellion, it was mainly due to the key issue of religion that Charles was forced to confront the ruling class in Parliament for the first time in 11 years. In essence, it was Charles's and Laud's confrontational religious modifications that ended what the Whig historians refer to as "The Eleven Years of Tyranny." The "Short" and "Long" Parliaments Disputes regarding the interpretation of the peace treaty between Charles and the Church of Scotland led to further conflict. To subdue the Scots, Charles needed more money; therefore, he took the fateful step of recalling Parliament in April 1640. Although Charles offered to repeal ship money, and the House of Commons agreed to allow Charles to raise the funds for war, an impasse was reached when Parliament demanded the discussion of various abuses of power during the Personal Rule. As both sides refused to give ground on this matter, Parliament was dissolved in May 1640, less than a month after it assembled. Thus, the Parliament became known as the "Short Parliament." In the meantime, Charles attempted to defeat the Scots, but failed miserably. The humiliating Treaty of Ripon, signed after the end of the Second Bishops' War in October 1640, required the king to pay the expenses of the Scottish army he had just fought. Charles took the unusual step of summoning the magnum concilium, the ancient council of all the Peers of the Realm, who were considered the king's hereditary counselors. The magnum concilium had not been summoned for centuries. On the advice of the peers, Charles summoned another Parliament, which, in contrast with its predecessor, became known as the “Long Parliament.” Equestrian portrait of Charles I with Seignior de St Antoine by Sir Anthony van Dyck. The Long Parliament assembled in November 1640 under the leadership of John Pym, and proved just as difficult for Charles as the Short Parliament. Although the members of the House of Commons thought of themselves as conservatives defending the king, Church, and Parliamentary government against innovations in religion and the tyranny of Charles's advisors, Charles viewed many of them as dangerous rebels trying to undermine his rule. To prevent the king from dissolving it at will, Parliament passed the Triennial Act, to which the Royal Assent was granted in February 1641. The Act required that Parliament was to be summoned at least once every three years, and that if the king failed to issue proper summons, the members could assemble on their own. In May, he assented to an even more far-reaching act, which provided that Parliament could not be dissolved without its own consent. Charles was forced into one concession after another. He agreed to bills of attainder authorizing the executions of Thomas Wentworth and William Laud. Ship money, fines in destraint of knighthood and forced loans were declared unlawful, and the hated Courts of Star Chamber and High Commission were abolished. Although he made several important concessions, Charles improved his own military position by securing the favor of the Scots. He finally agreed to the official establishment of Presbyterianism; in return, he was able to enlist considerable anti-parliamentary support. Henrietta Maria (1633) by Sir Anthony van Dyck In November 1641 the House of Commons passed the Grand Remonstrance, denouncing all the abuses of power Charles had committed since the beginning of his reign. The tension was heightened when the Irish rebelled against Protestant English rule and rumors of Charles's complicity reached Parliament. An army was required to put down the rebellion but many members of the House of Commons feared that Charles might later use it against Parliament itself. The Militia Bill was intended to wrest control of the army from the king, but Charles refused to agree to it. However, Parliament decreed the Protestation as an attempt to lessen the conflict. When rumors reached Charles that Parliament intended to impeach his Catholic Queen, Henrietta Maria, he took drastic action. His wife persuaded him to arrest the five members of the House of Commons who led the anti-Stuart faction on charges of high treason, but, when the king had made his decision, she made the mistake of informing a friend who in turn alerted Parliament. Charles entered the House of Commons with an armed force on January 4, 1642, but found that his opponents had already escaped, he inquired to the Speaker, William Lenthall, as to their whereabouts, to which Lenthall famously replied: "May it please your Majesty, I have neither eyes to see nor tongue to speak in this place but as the House is pleased to direct me, whose servant I am here." By violating Parliament with an armed force, Charles made the breach permanent. Many in Parliament thought Charles's actions outrageous as did the corporation and City of London which moved firmly behind Parliament. Charles no longer felt safe in London and he went north to raise an army against Parliament. The Queen, at the same time, went abroad to raise money to pay for it. English Civil War The English Civil War had not yet started, but both sides began to arm. After futile negotiations, Charles raised the royal standard (an anachronistic medieval gesture) in Nottingham on August 22, 1642. He then set up his court at Oxford, whence his government controlled roughly the north and west of England, with Parliament remaining in control of London and the south and east. Charles raised an army using the archaic method of the Commission of Array. The Civil War started on October 25, 1642 with the inconclusive Battle of Edgehill and continued indecisively through 1643 and 1644, until the Battle of Naseby tipped the military balance decisively in favor of Parliament. There followed a great number of defeats for the Royalists, and then the Siege of Oxford, from which Charles escaped in April 1646. He put himself into the hands of the Scottish Presbyterian army at Newark, England, and was taken to nearby Southwell, Nottinghamshire while his "hosts" decided what to do with him. The Presbyterians finally arrived at an agreement with Parliament and delivered Charles to them in 1647. He was imprisoned at Holdenby House in Northamptonshire, until cornet George Joyce took him by force to Newmarket in the name of the New Model Army. At this time, mutual suspicion had developed between the New Model Army and Parliament, and Charles was eager to exploit it. He was transferred first to Oatlands and then to Hampton Court Palace, where more involved but fruitless negotiations took place. He was persuaded that it would be in his best interests to escape—perhaps abroad, perhaps to France, or perhaps to the custody of Colonel Robert Hammond, Parliamentary Governor of the Isle of Wight. He decided on the last course, believing Hammond to be sympathetic, and fled on November 11. [2] Hammond, however, was opposed to Charles, whom he confined in Carisbrooke Castle. [3] From Carisbrooke, Charles continued to try to bargain with the various parties, eventually coming to terms with the Scottish Presbyterians that he would allow the establishment of Presbyterianism in England as well as Scotland for a trial period. The Royalists rose in July 1648 igniting the Second Civil War, and as agreed with Charles the Scots invaded England. Most of the uprisings in England were put down by forces loyal to Parliament after little more than skirmishes, but uprisings in Kent, Essex, and Cumberland, the rebellion in Wales, and the Scottish invasion involved the fighting of pitched battles and prolonged sieges. But with the defeat of the Scots at the Battle of Preston (1648), the Royalists lost any chance of winning the war. Trial and Execution Charles was moved to Hurst Castle at the end of 1648, and thereafter to Windsor Castle . In January 1649 in response to Charles's defiance of Parliament even after defeat, and his encouraging the second Civil War while in captivity, the House of Commons passed an Act of Parliament creating a court for Charles's trial. After the first Civil War, the Parliamentarians still accepted the premise that the king, although wrong, had been able to justify his fight, and that he would still be entitled to limited powers as king under a new constitutional settlement. It was now felt that by provoking the second Civil War even while defeated and in captivity, Charles showed himself incorrigible, dishonorable, and responsible for unjustifiable bloodshed. The idea of trying a king was a novel one; previous monarchs had been deposed, but had never been brought to trial as monarchs. The High Court of Justice established by the act consisted of 135 Commissioners (all firm Parliamentarians). The prosecution was led by Solicitor General John Cook. Charles’s trial on charges of high treason and "other high crimes" began on January 20, 1649, but Charles refused to enter a plea, claiming that no court had jurisdiction over a monarch. He believed that his own authority to rule had been given to him by God when he was crowned and anointed, and that the power wielded by those trying him simply grew out of a barrel of gunpowder. The court, by contrast, proposed that no man is above the law. Over a period of a week, when Charles was asked to plead three times, he refused. It was then normal practice to take a refusal to plead as pro confesso: an admission of guilt, which meant that the prosecution could not call witnesses to its case. However, the trial did hear witnesses. On January 29, 1649 59 of the Commissioners signed Charles's death warrant. After the ruling, he was led from St. James's Palace, where he was confined, to the Palace of Whitehall, where an execution scaffold had been erected in front of the Banqueting House. This contemporary German print depicts Charles I's decapitation. When Charles was beheaded on January 30, 1649, it is reputed that he wore a heavy cotton shirt as to prevent the cold January weather causing any noticeable shivers that the crowd could have been mistaken for fear or weakness. He put his head on the block after saying a prayer and signaled the executioner he was ready; he was then beheaded with one clean stroke. Phillip Henry records that moments after the execution, a moan was heard from the assembled crowd, some of whom then dipped their handkerchiefs in his blood, thus starting the cult of the Martyr King. However, no other eyewitness sources, including that of Samuel Pepys, record this. Henry's account was written during the Restoration, some 12 years after the event. Henry was 19 when the king was executed and he and his family were Royalist propaganda writers. [4] There is some debate over the identity of the man who beheaded the king, for the executioner was masked at the scene. It is known that the Commissioners approached Richard Brandon, the common Hangman of London, but that he refused, and contemporary sources do not generally identify him as the king's headsman. Ellis's Historical Inquiries, however, names him as the executioner, contending that he stated so before dying. It is possible he relented and agreed to undertake the commission, but there are others who have been identified. An Irishman named Gunning is widely believed to have beheaded Charles, and a plaque naming him as the executioner is on show in Galway, Ireland . William Hewlett was convicted of regicide after the Restoration. [5] In 1661 two people identified as "Dayborne and Bickerstaffe" were arrested but then discharged. Henry Walker, a revolutionary journalist, or his brother William, were suspected but never charged. Various local legends around England name local worthies. An examination performed in 1813 at Windsor suggests that the execution was done by an experienced headsman. It was common practice for the head of a traitor to be held up and exhibited to the crowd with the words "Behold the head of a traitor!" Although Charles's head was exhibited, the words were not used. In an unprecedented gesture, one of the revolutionary leaders, Oliver Cromwell , allowed the king's head to be sewn back on his body so the family could pay its respects. Charles was buried in private and at night on February 7, 1649, in the Henry VIII’s vault inside St George's Chapel in Windsor Castle. The king's son, King Charles II, later planned an elaborate royal mausoleum, but it was never built. Ten days after Charles's execution, a memoir purporting to be from Charles's hand appeared for sale. This book, the Eikon Basilike (Greek: the "Royal Portrait"), contained an apologia for royal policies, and proved an effective piece of Royalist propaganda. William Levett, Charles's groom of the bedchamber, who had accompanied Charles on the day of his execution, would later swear in a statement that he had witnessed the king writing the Eikon Basilike. John Cooke published the speech he would have delivered if Charles had entered a plea, while Parliament commissioned John Milton to write a rejoinder, the Eikonoklastes ("The Iconoclast"), but the response made little headway against the pathos of the Royalist book. Various prodigies were recorded in the contemporary popular press in relation to the execution—a beached whale at Dover died within an hour of the king, a falling star appeared that night over Whitehall, and a man who had said that the king deserved to die had his eyes pecked out by crows. Legacy Memorial to Charles I at Carisbrooke Castle, Isle of Wight. With the monarchy overthrown, power was assumed by a Council of State, which included Oliver Cromwell, then Lord General of the Parliamentary Army. The Long Parliament (known by then as the Rump Parliament) which had been called by Charles I in 1640 continued to exist until Cromwell forcibly disbanded it in 1653. Cromwell then became Lord Protector of England, Scotland, and Ireland; a monarch in all but name: he was even "invested" on the royal coronation chair. Upon his death in 1658, Cromwell was briefly succeeded by his son, Richard Cromwell. Richard Cromwell was an ineffective ruler, and the Long Parliament was reinstated in 1659. The Long Parliament dissolved itself in 1660, and the first elections in 20 years led to the election of a Convention Parliament which restored Charles I's eldest son to the monarchy as Charles II . Upon the Restoration, Charles II added a commemoration of his father—to be observed on January 30, the date of his execution—to the Book of Common Prayer. In the time of Queen Victoria this was however removed due to popular discontent with the commemorating of a dead monarch with a major feast day of the Church; now, January 30 is only listed as a "Lesser Festival." There are several Anglican/Episcopal churches dedicated to Charles I as "King and Martyr" in England, Canada , Australia , and the United States . The Society of King Charles the Martyr was established in 1894 by Mrs. Greville-Negent, assisted by Fr. James Fish, rector of St. Margaret Pattens, London. The objectives of the SKCM include prayer for the Church of England and the Anglican Communion, promoting a wider observance of January 30 in commemoration of Charles's "martyrdom," and the reinstatement of his feast day in the Book of Common Prayer. King Charles is regarded as a martyr by some Anglicans for his notion of "Christian Kingship," and as a "defender of the Anglican faith." The Colony of Carolina in North America was named for Charles I. Carolina later separated into North Carolina and South Carolina , which eventually declared independence from England during the formation of the United States. To the north in the Virginia Colony, Cape Charles, the Charles River, Charles River Shire, and Charles City Shire were named for him. Charles City Shire survives almost four hundred years later as Charles City County, Virginia. The Virginia Colony is now the Commonwealth of Virginia (one of the four U.S. states that are called commonwealths), and retains its official nickname of "The Old Dominion" bestowed by Charles II because it had remained loyal to Charles I during the English Civil War. Style and Arms The official style of Charles I was "Charles, by the Grace of God, King of England, Scotland, France and Ireland, Defender of the Faith, etc." (The claim to France was only nominal, and was asserted by every English King since Edward III , regardless of the amount of French territory actually controlled.) The authors of his death warrant, however, did not wish to use the religious portions of his title. It only referred to him as "Charles Stuart, King of England." Whilst he was king, Charles I's arms were: Quarterly, I and IV Grandquarterly, Azure three fleurs-de-lis Or (for France) and Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for England); II Or a lion rampant within a tressure flory-counter-flory Gules (for Scotland); III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent (for Ireland). Ancestry and Descent Elizabeth of Denmark Marriage and Issue Painting of Charles I's children. The future Charles II is depicted at center, stroking the dog. Charles was father to a total of nine legitimate children, two of whom would eventually succeed him as king. Several other children died in childhood. Charles is also believed to have had a daughter prior to his marriage with Henrietta Maria. Her name was Joanna Brydges, born 1619-1620, the daughter of a Miss Brydges ("a member of a younger branch of the ancient Kentish family of that name"), possibly from the line of Brydges of Chandos and Sudeley. Joanna Brydges, who was provided for by the estate of Mandinam, Carmarthenshire, was brought up in secrecy at Glamorgan, Wales. She went on to become second wife to Bishop Jeremy Taylor, author of "Holy Living" and "Holy Dying" and chaplain to both Archbishop Laud and Charles I. The Bishop and his wife Joanna Brydges left for Ireland, where Jeremy Taylor became Bishop of Down, Connor, and Dromore in 1660. Joanna Brydges and Jeremy Taylor had several children, including two daughters, Joanna Taylor (Harrison) and Mary Taylor (Marsh). [6] Name ↑ Hartigan, Rev. Allen Stewart, The Family of Pollock of Newry and Descendants. Retrieved August 13, 2007; Wheaton College, A Sketch of the Life and Times of Bishop Taylor. Retrieved August 13, 2007; Kiefer, James, Jeremy Taylor, Bishop and Theologian (13 August 1667). Retrieved August 13, 2007. References Gardiner, Samuel Rawson, ed. The Constitutional Documents of the Puritan Revolution 1625–1660. 3rd Revised Edition. Oxford: Oxford University. 1906. ISBN 9780198226291 Kishlansky, Mark A. "Charles I: A Case of Mistaken Identity." Past and Present. no. 189. Nov. 2005. pp. 41–80. Murphy, Derrick, ed. Britain 1558-1689. 1st Edition. London: HarperCollins Publishers. 2002. pp. 211-235. ISBN 0-00-713850-4 Robertson, Geoffrey. The Tyrannicide Brief: The Man Who Sent Charles I to the Scaffold. Chatto & Windus. 2005. ISBN 0-7011-7602-4 Williamson, D. The Kings and Queens of England. London: National Portrait Gallery 1998. ISBN 1-85514-228-7 External Links	i don't know
Which battle took place on August 22nd 1485?	Battle of Bosworth Field (Aug. 22, 1485) [Wars of the Roses] Search THE BATTLE OF BOSWORTH FIELD (Aug. 22, 1485), was fought between Richard III and Henry, Earl of Richmond, afterwards Henry VII . On August [7], Henry landed at Milford Haven and passed on without opposition to Shrewsbury, being joined by a large number of Welshmen. He then marched on to Tamworth, where he arrived on the 18th. On the 20th he was at Atherstone, where he was met by Lord Stanley and by Sir William Stanley , who both promised to desert Richard during the battle. Meanwhile Richard, having mustered his forces at Nottingham, marched to Leicester and encamped at Bosworth on the 21st. On the next morning the two armies met between Bosworth and Atherstone at a place known as Whitemoors, near the village of Sutton Cheneys. The battle was mainly a hand-to-hand encounter, the Stanleys for some time keeping aloof from the fight till, at a critical moment, they joined Richmond. Richard, perceiving that he was betrayed, and crying out, "Treason, treason!" endeavoured only to sell his life as dearly as possible, and refused to leave the field till, overpowered by numbers, he fell dead in the midst of his enemies. The crown was picked up on the field of battle and placed by Sir William Stanley on the head of Richmond, who was at once saluted king by the whole army. Among those that perished on Richard's side were the Duke of Norfolk , Lord Ferrers, Sir Richard Ratcliffe , and Sir Robert Brackenbury, while the only person of note in Henry's army who was slain was his standard-bearer, Sir William Brandon, who is said to have been killed by Richard himself. The Dictionary of English History. Sidney J. Low and F. S. Pulling, eds. London: Cassell and Company, Ltd., 1910. 198. THE BATTLE OF BOSWORTH By C. Oman At last on August 1 Henry of Richmond set sail from Harfleur; the Regent Anne of France had lent him 60,000 francs, and collected for him 1,800 mercenaries and a small fleet. The adventurer was accompanied by his uncle, Jasper Tudor , the Earl of Oxford , Sir Edward Woodville, Sir John Welles, heir of the attainted barony of Welles, Sir Edward Courtenay, who claimed the earldom of Devon, his kinsman the Bishop of Exeter [Peter Courtenay], Morton, Bishop of Ely , and some scores of exiled knights and squires, among whom Yorkists were almost as numerous as Lancastrians. The French auxiliaries were under a Savoyard captain named Philibert de Chaundé. The Marquis of Dorset and Sir John Bourchier had been left at Paris in pledge for the loan made by the French government. Richmond did not desire to have the marquis with him, for he had been detected in correspondence with his mother the queen-dowager , who urged him to abandon conspiracy and submit to King Richard . Stealing down the Breton coast, so as to avoid the English fleet, Richmond turned northward when he had passed the longitude of Lands End, and came ashore in Milford Haven on August 7. He had selected this remote region as his landing point both because he knew that he was expected to strike at the English south coast, and because he had assurance of help from many old retainers of his uncle the Earl of Pembroke . He was himself a Welshman and could make a good appeal to the local patriotism of his countrymen. On landing he raised not only the royal banner of England but the ancient standard of Cadwallader, a red dragon upon a field of white and green, the beast which was afterwards used as the device of the house of Tudor, and the sinister supporter of their coat-of-arms. For a few days Henry received but trifling reinforcements, but he struck into the Cardiganshire mountains, a district where, if his adherents were slow to join him, he might hope to maintain an irregular warfare in the style of Owen Glendower . After a short delay the Welsh gentry began to come in to his aid; the wealthiest and most warlike chief Rhys ap Thomas consented to put himself at their head, after he had been promised the justiciarship of South Wales. Sir Walter Herbert had charge of the district in King Richard's name, but the levies that he called out melted away to the invader's camp, and he himself was suspected of half-heartedness. Richmond met no resistance as he conducted his ever-growing host across Cardiganshire toward the upper Severn. By way of Newtown and Welshpool he came down on Shrewsbury, which opened its gates on August 15 after one day's parleying; this was a good omen, for hitherto the earl had received no help save from the Welsh. On the next day but one Sir Gilbert Talbot, uncle and guardian of the young Earl of Shrewsbury , joined him with 500 of the retainers of his old Lancastrian house. From this moment onward English malcontents with small bodies of recruits kept pouring into Richmond's camp, but though he advanced boldly into the midlands, making directly towards Richard's post at Nottingham, his whole force was still small; he had not more than 5,000 men at the decisive battle that gave him the crown. His confidence was due to the fact that he had secret promises of aid from all sides; the Stanleys had let him pass Shrewsbury unmolested, and had sent him word that they would place the forces of Cheshire and Lancashire at his disposition when they had got Lord Strange [son of Thomas, Lord Stanley ] out of the king's hands. Many other magnates had already given similar assurances. Meanwhile Richard had received the news of the invader's landing somewhat later than he had expected, owing to the remoteness of Milford Haven. When he learnt that Richmond was marching straight towards him, he ordered out all the shire levies which had been so long ready, and summoned in his most trustworthy adherents in the baronage. Norfolk , Northumberland , and some twenty more of the peers rallied to his standard at Leicester within a few days,1 but the lords of the extreme south and west were still absent when the crisis came. Lord Stanley , who had been summoned with the rest, sent a futile excuse, yet raised all Cheshire and Lancashire under his own banner and advanced as far as Lichfield. His son Strange made an attempt to escape from custody and join him, whereupon Richard put him in irons, and sent word to his father that if he turned traitor his son should be beheaded without a moment's delay. This did not prevent Sir William Stanley , who commanded a part of the Cheshire levies, from visiting Richmond's camp at Stafford, and pledging himself to join him on the battlefield; but the head of the house hung back as long as possible, to save the life of his heir. On August 20 the earl's army advanced from Tamworth to Atherstone, while the king had gathered his forces at Leicester. On the 21st the one moved forward from Atherstone to the White Moor, a few miles south-west from Bosworth, while the other marched out from Leicester to Sutton Cheney; only two miles divided their camps, and it was obvious that a decisive engagement must take place next day. The host of the Stanleys, with Sir William leading its vaward, and Lord Stanley keeping discreetly to the rear, was near Bosworth that same evening, equidistant from the two hostile armies. Both the king and Richmond were aware of its approach, and neither was pleased, for Richard apprehended treason, and his rival had hoped to be openly joined by these cautious allies before the battle began. The king was well aware that the spirit of his troops was unsatisfactory; his confidential advisers had warned him that treachery was on foot; and unless he could bear down the enemy by his first onset, his superior numbers—he had two men to Richmond's one—were not likely to avail him much. But he trusted to his own energy and military skill, and hoped to conquer despite the lukewarmness of the majority of his followers. Nevertheless he had dismal forebodings; his rest was broken by horrible dreams, and he showed next morning a face not only haggard, but disfigured with a death-like pallor.2 But his courage was unbroken, and he promised victory to his doubting captains in words of haughty confidence. His position was excellent; the army was drawn out in the usual three divisions on the slopes of Ambion Hill, a well-marked rising ground two miles south of Bosworth. It was partly divided from the enemy by marshy fields formed by the little river Sence. The king led the main battle, the Duke of Norfolk the vaward or right wing, the Earl of Northumberland the rear. His adversaries, on the other side of the marsh, had formed their smaller host in two divisions only; the Earl of Oxford led the vaward, while the main battle was under Richmond's own command. Contrary to what might have been expected, they took the offensive, reckoning, no doubt, on treachery in the king's ranks. They moved off eastward, Oxford's corps leading, till they had circumvented the marshy ground, and faced the royalists with the sun at their backs and the wind also behind them—advantages of no mean importance in the archery-fight which always opened an English engagement. When they had cleared the boggy tract, and began to advance up the slopes of Ambion Hill, with their western flank still covered by the impassable marsh, the king first opened upon them with his artillery, and then charged down upon them. Norfolk 's corps came into collision with that of Oxford , while Richard attacked the earl's main body. Northumberland , on the other wing of the royal host, deliberately held back and would not get into action. Before ordering the line to advance, the king had sent orders to Lord Stanley to draw in to his banner, and, when he made no movement issued a command for the instant execution of his son Strange. But those charged with the matter wisely deferred obedience till the battle should be over, and the young man escaped with his life. When the two armies came into close contact it was at once evident that many of the king's men were not inclined to fight. They hung back, kept up a feeble archery fire from a distance, and refused to close. Oxford , who had halted to receive the attack, bade his banner go forward again, and began to mount the slopes. On this more serious fighting began, for Norfolk with his son Surrey , and some others of the king's adherents, tried to do their duty, and fell hotly upon the earl's front. At the same moment Richard himself, having marked the position of Richmond in the hostile line, charged at the head of his bodyguard, broke into the Lancastrian main body and seemed for a moment likely to prevail. He slew with his own hand, as it is said, Sir William Brandon, Richmond's standard-bearer, and encountered the earl hand to hand for a short space. But by this moment the battle was lost, for Sir William Stanley , who had been drawing nearer ever since the fighting began, now fell upon Richard's host in flank and rear. With a cry of treason the royalist main body broke up and fled. The Stanleys took up the pursuit, which passed away to the east with no great slaughter, for the pursuers understood that the vanquished had no heart in the struggle and had deliberately given them the victory. King Richard , however, refused to fly, though faithful friends brought him his horse, and bade him escape while they held back the enemy for a moment. The usurper replied that at least he would die King of England, and plunged back into the fight. A moment later, shouting "Treason! treason!" as he laid about him with his battle-axe, he was ringed round by many foes and hewn down; his helmet was battered through and his brains beaten out. It was the end of a brave man, and his courage touched the heart even of those who remembered his crimes. The finest stanzas written in fifteenth century England were given to his memory by an admiring enemy, a retainer of the Stanleys, who wrote the Ballad of Lady Bessie:— Then a knight to King Richard gan say—good Sir William Harrington— He saith " all wee are like this day to the death aoone to be done; There may no man their strokes abide, the Stanleys' dints they be so stronge. Yee may come back at another tide, methinks yee tarry here too longe. Your home at your hand is ready, another day you may worshipp win And come to raigne with royaltye, and weare your crown and be our king". "Nay, give me my battle-axe in my hand, sett the crowne of England on my head so high, For by Him that made both sea and land, King of England this day I will dye. One foot I will never flee whilst the breath is my brest within." As he said so did it be—if hee lost his life he died a king.3 The battered crown which had fallen from Richard 's helmet was found in a hawthorn bush, where it had probably been hidden by a plunderer, and set on the head of Richmond by Lord Stanley , while all the victorious army hailed the earl by his new title of Henry VII . Along with the king there fell his chief supporter, John Duke of Norfolk ; the Lord Ferrers of Chartley, Sir Richard Ratcliffe , his well-known councillor, Sir Robert Brakenbury, lieutenant of the Tower of London, Sir Robert Percy, controller of the royal household, Sir William Conyers, and about 1,000 others, as was reported, probably with some exaggeration, for the battle had not been hot nor the pursuit merciless. The victors lost not above 100 men, of whom the only personage of note was the standard-bearer Sir William Brandon. The Earl of Surrey was taken prisoner, grievously wounded, and lodged in prison. Catesby was captured in the flight, and executed along with two yeomen of the king's chamber—a father and son named Breacher. These were the only lives taken in cold blood by Henry of Richmond. The corpse of Richard was stripped and carried to Leicester across the back of a horse in unseemly fashion, with head and arms hanging down. It was exposed to the public view for two days, and then decently buried in the church of the Greyfriars. His monument was destroyed and his bones scattered at the dissolution of the monasteries . 1. If the Ballad of Bosworth Feilde can be trusted, there were with the king the following peers: Norfolk , Kent , Surrey , Lincoln , Northumberland , Westmorland [Ralph Neville, 3rd Earl], Zouch [John la Zouche, 7th Baron], Maltravers [Thomas Fitzalan, 7th Baron], Arundel , Grey of Codnor [Henry Grey, 7th Baron], Audley [James Touchet, 6th Baron], Berkeley [William, 1st Viscount Berkeley], Ferrers of Chartley [Walter Devereux, 7th Baron] and Ferrers of Groby [John Bourchier, 6th Baron], Fitzhugh [Richard, 6th Baron], Dacre [Thomas, 2nd Baron Dacre of Gillesland], Scrope of Bolton [John, 5th Baron], Scrope of Upsal [Ralph, 9th Baron], Lumley [George, 3rd Baron], and Greystock [Ralph de Greystoke, 5th Baron Greystoke]. Lovel seems to have been still with the fleet in the Channel. The list cannot be trusted for all the names. 2. Continuator of the Croyland Chronicle, Fulman, 1684, p. 374. 3. I have corrected some obvious verbal errors in Lady Bessie mainly from the parallel passage—nearly the same in wording—in Bosworth Feilde. See Percy Folio MS., iii., 257 and 362. Oman, C. The History of England. London: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1906. 491-6. Other Local Resources:	Battle of Bosworth Field
Which battle that took place on December 2nd 1805 is also known as the Battle of the Three Emperors?	The Battle of Bosworth - History Learning Site Home » Tudor England » The Battle of Bosworth The Battle of Bosworth Citation: C N Trueman "The Battle of Bosworth" historylearningsite.co.uk. The History Learning Site, 16 Mar 2015. 16 Aug 2016. The Battle of Bosworth was fought on August 22nd 1485. Henry Tudor had marched with his force from Milford Haven in Wales where he had landed with about 2000 men. The Battle of Bosworth is one of England’s defining battles as it ended the reign of Richard III and led to Henry Tudor becoming Henry VII, the first of the Tudor monarchs, a dynasty that lasted to 1603 and included the reign of two of England’s most famous monarchs – Henry VIII and his daughter Elizabeth I. To launch his campaign against Richard III, Henry needed money. This he got from Charles VIII of France who hoped that a conflict in England would suitably distract any attention away from his wish to take Brittany. Henry sailed from Harfleur on August 1st with a force of between 400 and 500 loyal followers and about 1500 French soldiers. The force landed at Milford Haven on August 7th and marched north along the Cardigan coastline before turning inland towards the Cambrian Mountains and then the River Severn which he followed to the English border. By August 12th, Henry had won the support of the most influential landowner in South Wales – Rhys ap Thomas – who had been promised the Lieutenancy of Wales if Henry won. However, regardless of his support in Wales, Henry needed more support in England. He turned to his step-father Lord Stanley and his brother Sir William Stanley. They owned large areas of land in north Wales and in the Border region. Both men secretly gave money to Henry – Lord Stanley’s eldest son was being held prisoner by Richard III as an insurance of good behaviour. The uncle of the Earl of Shrewsbury, Gilbert Thomas, also gave his support to Henry along with 500 men. Richard III was at Nottingham Castle when he learned about Henry’s invasion. He did nothing as he assumed that the major landowners of Wales would see Henry as a threat and group their forces together and attack him. When he realised that he had made a mistake, Richard marched his forces to Leicester. The two armies fought two-and-a-half miles south of Market Bosworth. Henry had a force of about 5000 men while Richard’s army probably was nearer 12,000. However, 4,000 of these soldiers belonged to the Stanley family and no one was sure if the Stanley’s could be trusted. It is thought that Richard did not trust Lord Stanley as he had a reputation of fighting for whoever he felt was going to be the most generous in victory. For Richard it was to be a shrewd judgement of character – and one that led to his death. The fighting began early in the morning of August 22nd. The two Stanley armies stayed away from the actual fighting at this stage so that the contest was literally a battle between Richard’s and Henry’s forces. Richard held the crest of Ambien Hill with Henry at the bottom in more marshy land. When Henry’s men charged up the hill, they sustained heavy casualties. However, Henry had recruited long bow men while in Wales and these inflicted equally severe wounds on the forces of Richard as being at the top of a hill did not protect them from a deluge of long bow arrows. Though there are no contemporary accounts of the battle, it is generally accepted that it lasted about two to three hours. Casualties on both sides were heavy. What turned the battle seems to have been a decision made by Richard III to target Henry himself. Henry was seen making a move to where Lord Stanley was almost certainly with the intent to urge Stanley to use his forces on Henry’s side. With some trusted men Richard charged at Henry. He nearly succeeded in getting to Henry, and Tudor’s standard bearer, William Brandon, who was very near his leader, was killed. However, Henry’s bodyguards closed ranks and the future king was saved. For the duration of the battle, the forces of the Stanley family had stood by the sides – therefore fulfilling what Richard believed – but at this critical moment the army of Sir William Stanley attacked Richard, seemingly coming to the aid of Henry. Richard was killed and his forces broke up and fled. Lord Stanley picked up the slain Richard’s crown and placed it on Henry’s head. Richard’s naked body was put over a mule and taken to Leicester to be buried. The defeat of Richard ended the reign of the Plantagenet’s and introduced the reign of the Tudors. By marrying Elizabeth of York, Henry unified both houses of Lancaster and York.	i don't know
Who was the US Secretary of State between 2001 and 2005?	Colin Luther Powell - People - Department History - Office of the Historian Colin Luther Powell - People - Department History Biographies of the Secretaries of State: Colin Luther Powell (1937–) Introduction Colin L. Powell was appointed Secretary of State by George W. Bush on January 20, 2001, after being unanimously confirmed by the U.S. Senate. He served for four years, leaving the position on January 26, 2005. He was the first African-American to serve as Secretary of State. Colin Luther Powell, 65th Secretary of State Rise to Prominence Powell was born on April 5, 1937, in the New York City neighborhood of Harlem. The son of two Jamaican immigrants, he was raised in the South Bronx. He attended City College of New York, and it was there that he began his military service, joining the Reserve Officer Training Corps (ROTC). After his graduation in 1958, Powell was commissioned a second lieutenant in the U.S. Army. During his 35 years in the Army he served two tours in Vietnam, was stationed in West Germany and South Korea, and acted as President Ronald Reagan's National Security Advisor from 1987 until 1989. In 1989 he was promoted to the rank of general, and was appointed by President George H.W. Bush to the position of Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. In the four years Powell served in that capacity, he oversaw 28 crises, including Operation Desert Storm in 1991. After his retirement in 1993, he founded America's Promise, an organization which helps at-risk children. He was nominated for Secretary of State by President George W. Bush on December 16, 2000. Influence on U.S. Diplomacy At the beginning of his term, Powell placed an emphasis on reaffirming diplomatic alliances throughout the world, supporting a national missile defense system, working towards peace in the Middle East, and prioritizing sanctions instead of force in potential hot spots such as Iraq. He also focused on reinvigorating U.S. diplomacy through reforms in the Department of State’s organizational culture and an infusion of resources for personnel, information technology, security, and facilities. Powell's term, however, was soon dominated by the challenges the Bush Administration faced after the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks. Powell was one of the foremost supporters of taking swift military action against al-Qaeda and demanded immediate cooperation from Afghanistan and Pakistan in the U.S. search for those who were complicit in the attacks. When the Administration's attention shifted to Iraq and the possibility that Saddam Hussein was manufacturing weapons of mass destruction (WMD), Powell pressed to have UN inspectors investigate. In February 2003, Powell presented intelligence to the UN that supported the claim that Iraq had weapons of mass destruction and could produce more. Subsequently, the Administration moved quickly toward preemptive military action against Iraq, despite Powell’s advice that war should not begin until a large coalition of allies and a long-term occupation plan were in place. In 2004, some of the intelligence that Powell had brought before the UN in 2003 was found to be erroneous. Although Afghanistan and Iraq demanded a great deal of Powell’s attention during his tenure, he pursued other important U.S. foreign policy initiatives and grappled with various crises that arose between 2001 and 2005. After initially difficult Administration interactions with Russia and China, Powell worked to improve both bilateral relationships. Prominent among these efforts were management of U.S. withdrawal from the U.S.-Russian Anti-Ballistic Missile treaty and the signing of the Moscow Treaty on Strategic Offensive Reductions in May 2002. In the area of foreign aid, Powell pushed the Administration to increase its commitment to the international fight against AIDS, and oversaw a doubling of development assistance funding. He also pressed for international cooperation to halt the nuclear weapons programs of North Korea and Iran, and the Administration achieved an important nonproliferation success when Libya agreed to give up its weapons programs in 2003. Powell confronted a variety of international crises as well, including a near war between nuclear powers India and Pakistan in 2001-2002, domestic turmoil in Liberia (2003) and Haiti (2004), and the Indian Ocean tsunami in 2004. His continued belief that Middle East stability required a resolution of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict led him to advocate the 2002 “Road Map” that aimed at creating an independent Palestinian state at peace with Israel. Although President Bush endorsed the plan, Powell was not able to persuade the Administration to make a strong commitment to its implementation. On November 15, 2004, Powell announced his resignation. After stepping down as Secretary of State, he returned to a busy life in the private sector continuing his work with America's Promise Alliance. He serves on the Boards of Directors of the Council on Foreign Relations, the Eisenhower Fellowship Program, and the Powell Center at the City College of New York. Born 1937 Entry on Duty: January 20, 2001 Termination of Appointment: January 25, 2005	Colin Powell
Who was the drummer with Led Zeppelin who died in 1980?	Condoleezza Rice - People - Department History - Office of the Historian Condoleezza Rice - People - Department History Biographies of the Secretaries of State: Condoleezza Rice (1954–) Introduction Condoleezza Rice was nominated for Secretary of State by George W. Bush on November 14, 2004, and assumed office on January 26, 2005. She served for four years, leaving the position on January 20, 2009. She was the first African-American woman to serve as Secretary of State. Condoleezza Rice, 66th Secretary of State Rise to Prominence Rice was born on November 14, 1954, in Birmingham, Alabama. She earned her bachelor of arts in political science in 1974 from the University of Denver, her master's degree in political science from the University of Notre Dame in 1975, and her doctorate in political science from the Graduate School of International Studies at the University of Denver in 1981. After her graduation, Rice accepted a position at Stanford University as a professor of political science. In 1987 she served as an advisor to the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and in 1989 was appointed director of Soviet and East European Affairs on the National Security Council. Rice returned to Stanford in 1991 and from 1993 until 1999 she served as Stanford's Provost. In 2001 she was appointed National Security Advisor by President George W. Bush, and succeeded Colin Powell as Secretary of State in 2005. Influence on U.S. Diplomacy As Secretary of State, Rice supported the expansion of democratic governments, and championed the idea of "Transformational Diplomacy," which sought to redistribute U.S. diplomats to areas of severe social and political trouble, address such issues as disease, drug smuggling and human trafficking, and reemphasize aid through the creation of the position of Director of Foreign Assistance. Rice helped successfully negotiate several agreements in the Middle East, including Israeli withdrawal from and the opening of the Gaza border crossings in 2005 and the August 14, 2006 ceasefire between Israel and Hezbollah forces in Lebanon. Rice organized the Annapolis Conference of November 27, 2007, which focused on finding a two-state solution to the Israeli-Palestinian problem. Rice also worked actively to improve human rights issues in Iran and supported the passage of a United Nations Security Council Resolution for sanctions against the country unless its uranium enrichment program was curtailed. Another major concern for Rice was North Korea's nuclear program, and its subsequent testing of a nuclear weapon. Rice was firmly against holding bilateral talks with North Korea, although she welcomed their participation in the Six Party Talks between China, Japan, Russia, North Korea, South Korea, and the United States. In October 2008, one of Rice's most successful negotiations came to fruition, with the signing of the U.S.-India Agreement for Cooperation Concerning Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy (123 Agreement), which would allow civil nuclear trade between the two countries. Shortly after her term as Secretary of State ended in January 2009, she announced plans to write a book about her diplomatic career. Rice was succeeded as Secretary of State by former First Lady and New York Senator Hillary Rodham Clinton . Born 1954 Entry on Duty: January 26, 2005 Termination of Appointment: January 20, 2009 Under Secretary for Political Affairs William J. Burns served as Acting Secretary of State, January 20-21, 2009.	i don't know
Which city is the capital of Tanzania?	Dar es Salaam, Tanzania's capital city, East Africa Work and Volunteering in Africa - Finding a Job in Africa Updated February 16, 2016. Dar es Salaam is Tanzania's capital city and the largest city in the country. Located in southern Tanzania on coast of the Indian Ocean, Dar is a bustling, chaotic place, filled with life and color. Get your facts and information about Dar es Salaam below the image. Dar es Salaam is primarily a port city in southern Tanzania , located on a huge natural harbor. "Dar es Salaam" means "haven of peace", but you'll find with almost 3 million people calling the city home, it's not exactly tranquil. Dar es Salaam it is the economic heart of the country, the high rise business district buzzes with activity throughout the day. The government was officially moved to Dodoma in the center of Tanzania in the 1970's, but Dar es Salaam is the true capital and the central government by and large still operates from here. Visitors to Dar es Salaam are usually en route to Tanzania's fantastic southern national parks including the Selous and Ruaha, or catching a ferry to the exotic Zanzibar archipelago. The best time to visit Dar es Salaam is during the dry season from June - October, otherwise temperatures can get very hot and humid (but you can always dip in the Ocean). Dar es Salaam's Top Attractions The easiest way to see Dar es Salaam's attractions is by taxi, unless you've been in the country a while and know how to figure out the mini-bus taxi system which is cheaper. There aren't a lot of major attractions, but if you've been on the road for a while, Dar offers the chance to get some good food, stock up on supplies and swim in a nice hotel pool. Take a walk in the older parts of town to check out the German and British colonial buildings. Shopping for cloth and t-shirts is fun in the Asian district northwest of the main drag Samora Avenue. Arts and craft shops are plentiful too, check out Nyumba ya sanaa (the Mwalimu Nyerere Cultural Center). For some original Tingatinga paintings, head to the Tingatinga Center on Haile Selassie Road. The Mwenge Carver's Market is great if you like wood carvings. The National Museum - From fossils to cars, this museum has a little bit of everything that touches upon Tanzania's history. Some of the early hominid findings courtesy of the Leakeys are on display here (some from the Olduvai site in Northern Tanzania). There are also cultural displays from the various tribes that make up modern Tanzania. Kariakoo market - Lively central market that takes up several city blocks, with people selling everything from vegetables to school bags. Fish Market - Guaranteed to be a lively morning when you head to the fish market and watch the daily catch come in. If you'd like to escape town and snorkel in the Ocean, check out Bongoyo Island, part of a marine reserve. You can catch a boat out to the island (30 minutes) from the Mashua Waterfront Bar & Grill at Slipway, north of the city center in the Msasani Peninsula. It's wonderful for snorkeling and chilling on the beach. Where To Stay in Dar es Salaam There are plenty of hotels in the city center to choose from. If you'd prefer to be out of the urban hubbub, check out the luxurious Ras Kutani just south of the city on the coast, or the Amani Beach Hotel . Just north of the city, have a peek at The Retreat , a very nice boutique hotel on the beach.	Dodoma
On show in the Louvre, who painted The Raft of the Medusa?	What is the Capital of Tanzania? - Capital-of.com Dates of religious and Civil holidays around the world. www.when-is.com Capital of Tanzania The Capital City of Tanzania (officially named United Republic of Tanzania) is the city of Dar es Salaam. The population of Dar es Salaam in the year 2009 was 40,000,000. Tanzania is a Swahili and English speaking country on the coasts of the Indian Ocean. Additional Information	i don't know
Give a year in the life of prison reformer Elizabeth Fry.	Regency History: Elizabeth Fry - prison reformer (1780-1845) Elizabeth Fry - prison reformer (1780-1845) by Elizabeth Fry from Elizabeth Fry, the angel of the prisons by LE Richards (1916) Profile Elizabeth Fry (née Gurney) (21 May 1780 – 13 October 1845) was a Quaker minister famous for her pioneering work in prison reform. She is currently depicted on the British £5 note. An unhappy childhood Elizabeth Gurney was born in Norwich, Norfolk, on 21 May 1780, one of the 12 children of John Gurney and Catherine Bell. Both her parents were from families that belonged to the Religious Society of Friends, more commonly referred to as the Quakers. John Gurney was a wealthy businessman operating in the woollen cloth and banking industries. Elizabeth, known as Betsy, was moody, often unwell and tormented by numerous fears. She was dubbed stupid by her siblings for being slow to learn, but was most probably dyslexic. In 1792, Betsy was devastated when her mother died. Conversion Betsy’s family were ‘gay’ Quakers as opposed to ‘plain’ Quakers. Though they attended the weekly Quaker meetings, they did not abstain from worldly pleasures like the theatre and dancing or wear simple clothes as ‘plain’ Quakers did. In 1798, an American Quaker named William Savery visited the Friends’ Meeting House in Goat Lane where the Gurneys worshipped. Betsy had a spiritual experience which was strengthened later that year when she met Deborah Darby, a Quaker minister, who prophesied that Betsy would become “a light to the blind, speech to the dumb and feet to the lame”. (1) Betsy gradually adopted the ways of a plain Quaker, wearing the simple dress and Quaker cap in which she is depicted on the British £5 note. In 1811, Betsy became a minister for the Religious Society of Friends and started to travel around the country to talk at Quaker meetings. Elizabeth Gurney from Elizabeth Fry, the angel of the prisons by LE Richards (1916) Marriage and family On 19 August 1800, Betsy married Joseph Fry, a plain Quaker whose business was tea and banking. They went to live in Mildred’s Court in Poultry, Cheapside, London, which was also the headquarters for Joseph’s business. In 1808, Joseph inherited the family estate at Plashet in East Ham, further out of London. It was a fruitful marriage though not always a harmonious one. Joseph and Betsy had 11 children: Katherine (1801), Rachel (1803), John (1804), William (1806), Richenda (1808), Joseph (1809), Elizabeth (1811), who died young, Hannah (1812), Louisa (1814), Samuel Gurney (1816) and Daniel Henry (1822). Betsy’s prison ministry Throughout her life, Betsy was active in helping others. At Plashet, she established a school for poor girls, ran a soup kitchen for the poor in cold weather and was the driving force behind the programme for smallpox inoculation in the parish. In 1813, while living at Mildred's Court, she visited the women’s wing of nearby Newgate Prison for the first time. Betsy was filled with compassion for the awful state of the women and took flannel clothes with her to dress their naked children. The front of Newgate Prison from Old and New London Vol II by Walter Thornbury (1872) Over the next few years, Betsy’s life was absorbed by family issues, but in 1816, she resumed her visits to the women in Newgate Prison. With the support of the female prisoners, she set up the first ever school inside an English prison and appointed a schoolmistress from among the inmates. Encouraged by her success, Betsy set out to help the women themselves. She read the bible to them and set up a workroom where the women could make stockings. All the female prisoners agreed to abide by Betsy’s rules. Against all odds, the scheme was successful. The women became more manageable and the atmosphere of the prison was transformed. Elizabeth Fry in Newgate Prison from Elizabeth Fry, the angel of the prisons by LE Richards (1916) Fame and influence News of Betsy’s success spread and she was inundated with requests for advice from prison authorities and ladies who wanted to set up prison visiting. Over the years that followed, Betsy visited prisons up and down the country, in Scotland, Ireland and on the continent. She became one of the foremost authorities on prison conditions and twice spoke as an expert witness on the subject to Parliamentary Select Committees – in 1818 and again in 1835. Many of Betsy’s recommendations were included in the Prison Act of 1823 and in 1827 she published Observations on the Visiting, Superintendence and Government of Female Prisoners which became a manual for good management of prisons and prison visiting. Family problems Betsy found it hard to balance family life with her extensive ministry. She was plagued continuously with ill health and oscillated between periods of intense activity and times of nervous exhaustion and depression. She often had to delegate her domestic responsibilities to her husband and other family members whilst she devoted herself to good works. Although Joseph always supported his wife, he sometimes complained that she neglected him. The Frys were often forced to economise because of financial problems with Joseph’s business. Betsy’s brothers repeatedly came to their rescue, but in 1828, Joseph was declared bankrupt. They had to move permanently to a much smaller house in Upton Lane, Essex, and Joseph was expelled from the Society of Friends in disgrace. Other areas of ministry As well as her prison work, Betsy was able to improve the lot of women being transported to Australia for their crimes, providing them with a bundle of belongings to help each woman make a fresh start after their long voyage. She instigated a project to provide libraries of books for the coastguards whose chief role of preventing smuggling made them isolated and unpopular. This was so successful that the government took over the project and extended it to the navy. Betsy also set up the first nursing academy, to train nurses who could go into private homes and provide care for those who could not normally afford it. A fitting end Betsy died on 13 October 1845 whilst on a holiday in Ramsgate. Her funeral was held at the Friends’ Meeting House in Barking on 20 October. The funeral procession from her house to Barking was over half a mile long. Even more mourners waited in Barking to celebrate the life of this remarkable woman. In 1914, a marble statue of Elizabeth Fry was erected inside the Old Bailey in London, on the site of the Newgate Prison where her prison ministry had begun. Notes (1) From the journal of Elizabeth Fry, 4 September 1798, as recorded in Life of Elizabeth Fry: compiled from her journal, as edited by her daughters, and from various other sources by Susanna Corder (1853). (2) Corder, De Haan, Hatton and Isba all record Elizabeth Fry's death as the 13 October 1845, but some sources state the 12th. Sources used include: Corder, Susanna, Life of Elizabeth Fry: compiled from her journal, as edited by her daughters, and from various other sources (1853) De Haan, Franciscas, Fry (née Gurney) Elizabeth (1780-1845), Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford University Press, 2004; online edn May 2007, accessed 24 Aug 2015) Hatton, Jean, Betsy - the dramatic biography of prison reformer Elizabeth Fry (2005) Isba, Anne, The Excellent Mrs Fry - unlikely heroine (2010)	1780 1845
Which city is the capital of Nigeria?	Elizabeth Fry biography -Biography Online About Elizabeth Fry Biography Elizabeth Fry (1780-1845) was a pioneering campaigner for better conditions in prisons during the Victorian Period. She was a middle class Quaker who sought to highlight the squalid and unsanitary conditions in British prisons and provide practical solutions to help improve conditions and reform prisoners. Gaining the support of prominence members of society, such as Queen Victoria and Florence Nightingale , she played in important role in later legislation which improved conditions in prisons. Short Bio Elizabeth Fry Elizabeth Gurney was born, 21 May, 1780, in Norwich, Norfolk to a prominent Quaker family. Her father was a partner in Gurney bank, and her mother was a relative of the Barclays, who founded Barclays bank. After her mother died when she was 12, she took an active role in bringing up her other siblings. She also became friendly with Amelia Alderson, whose family were active in the movement for universal suffrage. Thus, as a young adult, Fry became acquainted with liberal and reforming ideas, such as the works of Thomas Paine and Mary Wollstonecraft as well as her own Quaker religion. When Elizabeth was 18, she was influenced by the humanitarian message of William Savery, an American Quaker who spoke of the importance of tackling poverty and injustice. She became inspired to be involved in helping local charities and at a local Sunday School, which taught children to read. When she was 20 she married Joseph Fry, who was also a banker and Quaker. They moved to London and lived in the City of London and later (from 1809 – 1829) in East Ham. They had eleven children, five sons and six daughters. Elizabeth was a strict Quaker; she was a Quaker Minister and didn’t engage in any activities like dancing and singing. However, she was well connected in London society, and often met influential members of the upper-middle classes of London. The infamous Newgate prison before demolition Around 1812, she made her first visit to Newgate prison, which housed both men and women prisoners, some of who were awaiting trial. Fry was shocked at the squalid and unsanitary conditions she found the prisoners in. The prisons were overcrowded and dirty, and Fry felt this fermented both bad health and fighting amongst the prisoners. Writing in 1813, she wrote: “All I tell thee is a faint picture of reality; the filth, the closeness of the rooms, the furious manner and expressions of the women towards each other, and the abandoned wickedness, which everything bespoke are really indescribable.” She even spent the night in prison to get a better idea of what conditions were like. She sought to improve conditions by bringing in clean clothes and food. She also encouraged prisoners to look after themselves better; for example, she would suggest rules that they would vote on themselves. She felt her mission was: ” … to form in them, as much as possible, those habits of sobriety, order, and industry, which may render them docile and peaceable while in prison, and respectable when they leave it.” She would put a better educated prisoner in charge and encourage them to cooperate in keeping their cells cleaner and more hygienic. Fry felt one of the most important things was to give prisoners a sense of self-respect which would help them to reform, rather than fall into bad habits and become re-offenders. She wrote a book Prisons in Scotland and the North of England (1819) and encouraged her fellow society friends to go and visit the prison to see conditions for themselves. “It must indeed be acknowledged, that many of our own penal provisions, as they produce no other effect, appear to have no other end, than the punishment of the guilty. Extract from Prisons in Scotland and England She wrote in 1817, that even small efforts helped to change the atmosphere in prisons. “Already, from being like wild beasts, they appear harmless and kind.” In 1817, she founded the Association for the Reformation of the Female Prisoners in Newgate, this later became the British Ladies’ Society for Promoting the Reformation of Female Prisoners. It was one of the first nationwide women’s organisation in Britain. The aims of the organisation were: “to provide for the clothing, the instruction, and the employment of these females, to introduce them to knowledge of the holy scriptures, and to form in them as much as lies in our power, those habits of order, sobriety, and industry which may render them docile and perceptible whilst in prison, and respectable when they leave it.” In 1818, Fry became the first women to give evidence at a House of Commons committee, during an inquiry into British prisons. In 1825, she published an influential book. “Observations of the Siting, Superintendence and Government of Female Prisoners.” – which gave detail for improving penal reforms. Fry’s unique contribution was the willingness to raise an unpopular topic, others would rather leave untouched; but also look at practical steps to improve conditions in prisons. Humanitarian Work As well as campaigning for better prisons, Fry also established a night shelter for the homeless, giving the homeless a place to stay. This was motivated by seeing a young boy dead on the street. In 1824, she instituted the Brighton District visiting society, which arranged for volunteers to visit the homes of the poor to offer education and material aid. She was supported in her work by her husband, but after he went bankrupt in 1828, her brother, also a banker stepped in to provide funds and support. Fry became well known in society, she was granted a few audiences with Queen Victoria who was a strong supporter of her work. Another royal admirer was Frederick William IV of Prussia; in an unusual move for a visiting monarch, he went to see Fry in Newgate prison and was deeply impressed by her work. The Home office Minister Robert Peel was also an admirer. In 1823, he passed the Gaol Act which sought to legislate for minimum standards in prisons. This went some way to improve conditions in prison in London, but was not enforced in debtors prisons or local gaols around the country. At the time, it was unusual for a woman to have a strong public profile and move out of the confines of the home. Especially in the early years, Fry was criticised for neglecting her role as mother and housewife. Lord Sidmouth, the home secretary preceding Peel, rejected her criticisms of the prisons. In this regard, she can be seen as an important figure in giving women a higher profile in public affairs. She could be seen as an early feminist and fore-runner of the later suffragists, who campaigned for women to be given the vote. She also established a nursing school, which later inspired Florence Nightingale to take a team of nurses, trained by Fry’s school, to the Crimea. She suffered a stroke and died in Ramsgate, England on 12 October 1845. After her death, the Lord Mayor of London helped to establish an asylum for the destitute. It opened in 1849, in the London Borough of Hackney. Citation : Pettinger, Tejvan . (G+) “Biography of Elizabeth Fry”, Oxford, www.biographyonline.net , 16th Dec. 2012 Books on Elizabeth Fry	i don't know
In which county is the Thames-side town of Marlow?	Towns & Cities on the River Thames - River Thames Email Page Towns & Cities on the River Thames The rural River Thames winds its way across the counties of Wiltshire, Gloucestershire, Oxfordshire, Berkshire, Buckinghamshire, Surrey and through The Chilterns , an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. After Teddington it widens and deepens as it becomes the tidal river flowing through the heart of London. From its source in the Cotswolds to the outskirts of London , there are many towns and villages to visit along the river, each with their own character and the landscapes provide a calm and rural backdrop. As it flows through London the nature of the river changes and it becomes the river of trade and where many of the cities architectural monuments and the seat of Parliament can be found. Outside of London, discover the royal River Thames with sophisticated Windsor , home to Windsor Castle, Eton College and LEGOLAND Windsor. Enjoy walks and tours, boat trips, events and excellent dining. With a pleasant mix of ancient and modern, there's plenty to do in the city of Oxford . Dubbed ‘The City of Dreaming Spires’, the city has been home to royalty and scholars for over 800 years. And Reading is famed for its annual music festival. Henley-on-Thames - home of the famous royal regatta, has so much to offer visitors. A charming Georgian town, with one of the oldest bridge along the Thames, has plenty of ‘not-on-the-high street’ shops. Henley is also home to the River & Rowing Museum and one of the oldest boat operators on the Thames Hobbs of Henley. Marlow - set amongst the rich meadows of the river valley and alongside the woodlands of the Chiltern Hills is a charming Georgian market town . Spend an afternoon wandering its historic streets with an abundance of boutique shops, restaurants, cafes and bistros or stroll down to the suspension bridge which spans the River Thames and joins the counties of Buckinghamshire and Berkshire. Explore the historic towns of Henley on Thames, Marlow, Cookham or Windsor and Eton in a fun-filled and challenging game – A Scavenger Challenge organised by Team Activity Group. Teams of up to six people are challenged to reach certain goals by performing various missions around the town. Find out more... As well as the major towns, there are many places where you can relax and enjoy a slower pace too, whether it’s the beautiful countryside around Cricklade , the historic Saxon town of Wallingford , historic market town of Abingdon or Faringdon , with its panoramic views over the Cotswolds. Or stay in Streatley-on-Thames where the river runs through a gap in the Chiltern Hills and the Berkshire Downs and enjoy beautiful views from the top of Streatley Hill.	Buckinghamshire
Who created the private detective Philip Marlowe?	Towns & Cities on the River Thames - River Thames Email Page Towns & Cities on the River Thames The rural River Thames winds its way across the counties of Wiltshire, Gloucestershire, Oxfordshire, Berkshire, Buckinghamshire, Surrey and through The Chilterns , an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. After Teddington it widens and deepens as it becomes the tidal river flowing through the heart of London. From its source in the Cotswolds to the outskirts of London , there are many towns and villages to visit along the river, each with their own character and the landscapes provide a calm and rural backdrop. As it flows through London the nature of the river changes and it becomes the river of trade and where many of the cities architectural monuments and the seat of Parliament can be found. Outside of London, discover the royal River Thames with sophisticated Windsor , home to Windsor Castle, Eton College and LEGOLAND Windsor. Enjoy walks and tours, boat trips, events and excellent dining. With a pleasant mix of ancient and modern, there's plenty to do in the city of Oxford . Dubbed ‘The City of Dreaming Spires’, the city has been home to royalty and scholars for over 800 years. And Reading is famed for its annual music festival. Henley-on-Thames - home of the famous royal regatta, has so much to offer visitors. A charming Georgian town, with one of the oldest bridge along the Thames, has plenty of ‘not-on-the-high street’ shops. Henley is also home to the River & Rowing Museum and one of the oldest boat operators on the Thames Hobbs of Henley. Marlow - set amongst the rich meadows of the river valley and alongside the woodlands of the Chiltern Hills is a charming Georgian market town . Spend an afternoon wandering its historic streets with an abundance of boutique shops, restaurants, cafes and bistros or stroll down to the suspension bridge which spans the River Thames and joins the counties of Buckinghamshire and Berkshire. Explore the historic towns of Henley on Thames, Marlow, Cookham or Windsor and Eton in a fun-filled and challenging game – A Scavenger Challenge organised by Team Activity Group. Teams of up to six people are challenged to reach certain goals by performing various missions around the town. Find out more... As well as the major towns, there are many places where you can relax and enjoy a slower pace too, whether it’s the beautiful countryside around Cricklade , the historic Saxon town of Wallingford , historic market town of Abingdon or Faringdon , with its panoramic views over the Cotswolds. Or stay in Streatley-on-Thames where the river runs through a gap in the Chiltern Hills and the Berkshire Downs and enjoy beautiful views from the top of Streatley Hill.	i don't know
What is vitamin B2 also known as?	Riboflavin Deficiency - Vitamin B2 \| Dr. Weil Vitamin B2 for Adrenal Health What is vitamin B2? Vitamin B2, also called riboflavin, is a water-soluble vitamin present in most animal and plant tissues. Riboflavin is one of the essential B vitamins, known to help support adrenal function, help calm and maintain a healthy nervous system, and facilitate key metabolic processes, including helping to turn food into energy. Why is vitamin B2 necessary? Riboflavin is involved in vital metabolic processes in the body, and is necessary for energy production and normal cell function and growth. VItamin B2 is also crucial in helping other B vitamins undergo the chemical changes that make them useful. Emerging research shows that riboflavin/vitamin B2 can act as an antioxidant, potentially helping to prevent cancer and prohibit cholesterol buildup by controlling the proliferation of harmful molecules known as free radicals. Common diseases and illnesses that may be prevented or alleviated via riboflavin supplementation include neonatal jaundice , anemia , anorexia/bulimia, cataracts, cognitive function (thinking and memory), depression , and migraines . What are the signs of a riboflavin deficiency? Riboflavin deficiency (called ariboflavinosis) can appear at intakes of less than 0.5-0.6 mg/day. Too little riboflavin can cause weakness, throat swelling/soreness, a swollen tongue, skin cracking (including cracked corners of the mouth), dermatitis, and anemia. Riboflavin/vitamin B2 deficiency can also affect vision, including blurred vision and itching, watering, sore, or bloodshot eyes, as well eyes becoming light-sensitive and easily fatigued. Particular groups may be especially susceptible to riboflavin deficiency, including the elderly, the chronically ill and alcoholics. Women who take birth control pills may also benefit from supplementation – the body’s ability to absorb riboflavin is reduced when taking birth control pills. How much, and what kind, of vitamin B2, does an adult need? According to the National Institutes of Health (NIH), the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for is 1.0 mg for female adolescents between the ages of 14-18 years; 1.3 mg for male adolescents 14-18 years of age; 1.1 mg for female adults older than 18 years; and 1.3 mg for male adults older than 18 years. Pregnant women are recommended to take 1.4 mg, and women who are breast feeding should take 1.6 mg. People who are at a higher risk for riboflavin deficiency (see above) should talk with a physician for adequate dosages. Dr. Weil recommends 50 mg as part of a B-50 complex in a daily multivitamin. How much riboflavin does a child need? The NIH says the RDA of riboflavin for infants and children is 0.3 mg for 0-6 months old; 0.4 mg for 7-12 months old; 0.5 mg for 1-3 years old; 0.6 mg for 4-8 years old; and 0.9 mg for 9-13 years old. Dr. Weil recommends 1.7 mg as part of a children’s daily multivitamin, but you should always speak with your pediatrician regarding supplements. How do you get enough vitamin B2 from foods? Healthy individuals who eat a balanced diet may not need to supplement with riboflavin. Dietary sources of riboflavin include: dairy products (such as milk, cheese and yogurt), eggs, enriched or fortified cereals and grains, meats, liver, dark greens (such as asparagus, broccoli, spinach and turnip greens), fish, poultry, and buckwheat . Keep in mind that riboflavin is easily destroyed by exposure to light, so buy milk and yogurt in paper cartons or containers. Are there any risks associated with too much vitamin B2? Excess riboflavin is excreted through the urine (often temporarily causing urine to turn a bright yellow color several hours after taking it), so there is no common risk for an overdose. However, extremely high doses may result in an increased risk of kidney stones . Sensitivity to light, itching, numbness, and burning/prickling sensations may also occur at high dosages. Allergy and anaphylaxis (severe, whole-body allergic reaction) have also been reported, though rarely. Advertisement	Riboflavin
Film-maker and screenwriter Jill Craigie was the wife of which politician?	Riboflavin: MedlinePlus Supplements The following doses have been studied in scientific research: BY MOUTH: For treating low levels of riboflavin (riboflavin deficiency) in adults: 5-30 mg of riboflavin (Vitamin B2) daily in divided doses. For preventing migraine headaches: 400 mg of riboflavin (Vitamin B2) per day. It may take up to three months to get best results. For preventing cataracts: a daily dietary intake of approximately 2.6 mg of riboflavin (Vitamin B2) has been used. A combination of 3 mg of riboflavin (Vitamin B2) plus 40 mg of niacin daily has also been used. The daily recommended dietary allowances (RDAs) of riboflavin (Vitamin B2) are: Infants 0-6 months, 0.3 mg; infants 7-12 months, 0.4 mg; children 1-3 years, 0.5 mg; children 4-8 years, 0.6 mg; children 9-13 years, 0.9 mg; men 14 years or older, 1.3 mg; women 14-18 years, 1 mg; women over 18 years, 1.1 mg; pregnant women, 1.4 mg; and breastfeeding women, 1.6 mg. Other names B Complex Vitamin, Complexe de Vitamines B, Flavin, Flavine, Lactoflavin, Lactoflavine, Riboflavina, Riboflavine, Vitamin B-2, Vitamin G, Vitamina B2, Vitamine B2, Vitamine G. Methodology To learn more about how this article was written, please see the Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database methodology . References Lakshmi, A. V. Riboflavin metabolism--relevance to human nutrition. Indian J Med Res 1998;108:182-190. View abstract . Pascale, J. A., Mims, L. C., Greenberg, M. H., Gooden, D. S., and Chronister, E. Riboflaven and bilirubin response during phototherapy. Pediatr.Res 1976;10:854-856. View abstract . Madigan, S. M., Tracey, F., McNulty, H., Eaton-Evans, J., Coulter, J., McCartney, H., and Strain, J. J. Riboflavin and vitamin B-6 intakes and status and biochemical response to riboflavin supplementation in free-living elderly people. Am J Clin Nutr 1998;68:389-395. View abstract . Sammon, A. M. and Alderson, D. Diet, reflux and the development of squamous cell carcinoma of the oesophagus in Africa. Br J Surg. 1998;85:891-896. View abstract . Mattimoe, D. and Newton, W. High-dose riboflavin for migraine prophylaxis. J Fam.Pract. 1998;47:11. View abstract . Solomons, N. W. Micronutrients and urban life-style: lessons from Guatemala. Arch.Latinoam.Nutr 1997;47(2 Suppl 1):44-49. View abstract . Wadhwa, A., Sabharwal, M., and Sharma, S. Nutritional status of the elderly. Indian J Med Res 1997;106:340-348. View abstract . Spirichev, V. B., Kodentsova, V. M., Isaeva, V. A., Vrzhesinskaia, O. A., Sokol'nikov, A. A., Blazhevvich, N. V., and Beketova, N. A. [Vitamin status of the population from regions suffering from the accident at the Chernobyl power plant, and its correction with multivitamins "Duovit" and "Undevit" and multivitamin premix 730/4 of the firm "Roche"]. Vopr.Pitan. 1997;:11-16. View abstract . D'Avanzo, B., Ron, E., La, Vecchia C., Francaschi, S., Negri, E., and Zleglar, R. Selected micronutrient intake and thyroid carcinoma risk. Cancer 6-1-1997;79:2186-2192. View abstract . Kodentsova, V. M., Pustograev, N. N., Vrzhesinskaia, O. A., Kharitonchik, L. A., Pereverzeva, O. G., Iakushina, L. M., Trofimenko, L. S., and Spirichev, V. B. [Comparison of metabolism of water-soluble vitamins in healthy children and in children with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus depending upon the level of vitamins in the diet]. Vopr.Med Khim. 1996;42:153-158. View abstract . Bates, C. J. Bioavailability of riboflavin. Eur.J Clin Nutr 1997;51 Suppl 1:S38-S42. View abstract . Wynn, M. and Wynn, A. 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Pharmacokinetics of orally and intravenously administered riboflavin in healthy humans. Am J Clin Nutr 1996;63:54-66. View abstract . Rosado, J. L., Bourges, H., and Saint-Martin, B. [Vitamin and mineral deficiency in Mexico. A critical review of the state of the art. II. Vitamin deficiency]. Salud Publica Mex. 1995;37:452-461. View abstract . Powers, H. J. Riboflavin-iron interactions with particular emphasis on the gastrointestinal tract. Proc.Nutr Soc 1995;54:509-517. View abstract . Heseker, H. and Kubler, W. Chronically increased vitamin intake and vitamin status of healthy men. Nutrition 1993;9:10-17. View abstract . Igbedioh, S. O. Undernutrition in Nigeria: dimension, causes and remedies for alleviation in a changing socio-economic environment. Nutr Health 1993;9:1-14. View abstract . Ajayi, O. A., George, B. O., and Ipadeola, T. Clinical trial of riboflavin in sickle cell disease. East Afr.Med J 1993;70:418-421. View abstract . Zaridze, D., Evstifeeva, T., and Boyle, P. Chemoprevention of oral leukoplakia and chronic esophagitis in an area of high incidence of oral and esophageal cancer. Ann.Epidemiol 1993;3:225-234. View abstract . Chen, R. D. [Chemoprevention of cervical cancer--intervention study of cervical precancerous lesions by retinamide II and riboflavin]. Zhonghua Zhong.Liu Za Zhi 1993;15:272-274. View abstract . Rosin, M. P. Genetic alterations in carcinogenesis and chemoprevention. Environ.Health Perspect. 1993;101 Suppl 3:253-256. View abstract . Bates, C. J., Prentice, A. M., and Paul, A. A. Seasonal variations in vitamins A, C, riboflavin and folate intakes and status of pregnant and lactating women in a rural Gambian community: some possible implications. Eur.J Clin Nutr 1994;48:660-668. View abstract . Toh, S. Y., Thompson, G. W., and Basu, T. K. Riboflavin status of the elderly: dietary intake and FAD-stimulating effect on erythrocyte glutathione reductase coefficients. Eur.J Clin Nutr 1994;48:654-659. View abstract . Martini, M. C., Lampe, J. W., Slavin, J. L., and Kurzer, M. S. Effect of the menstrual cycle on energy and nutrient intake. Am J Clin Nutr 1994;60:895-899. View abstract . Goldsmith, G. A. Vitamin B complex. Thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, folic acid (folacin), vitamin B12, biotin. Prog.Food Nutr Sci 1975;1:559-609. View abstract . van der Beek, E. J., van, Dokkum W., Wedel, M., Schrijver, J., and Van den Berg, H. Thiamin, riboflavin and vitamin B6: impact of restricted intake on physical performance in man. J Am Coll Nutr 1994;13:629-640. View abstract . Trygg, K., Lund-Larsen, K., Sandstad, B., Hoffman, H. J., Jacobsen, G., and Bakketeig, L. S. Do pregnant smokers eat differently from pregnant non-smokers? Paediatr.Perinat.Epidemiol 1995;9:307-319. View abstract . Benton, D., Haller, J., and Fordy, J. Vitamin supplementation for 1 year improves mood. Neuropsychobiology 1995;32:98-105. View abstract . Bates, C. J., Prentice, A. M., Watkinson, M., Morrell, P., Sutcliffe, B. A., Foord, F. A., and Whitehead, R. G. Riboflavin requirements of lactating Gambian women: a controlled supplementation trial. Am J Clin Nutr 1982;35:701-709. View abstract . Belko, A. Z., Obarzanek, E., Kalkwarf, H. J., Rotter, M. A., Bogusz, S., Miller, D., Haas, J. D., and Roe, D. A. Effects of exercise on riboflavin requirements of young women. Am J Clin Nutr 1983;37:509-517. View abstract . Schindel, L. The placebo dilemma. Eur.J Clin Pharmacol 5-31-1978;13:231-235. View abstract . Belko, A. Z., Obarzanek, E., Roach, R., Rotter, M., Urban, G., Weinberg, S., and Roe, D. A. Effects of aerobic exercise and weight loss on riboflavin requirements of moderately obese, marginally deficient young women. Am J Clin Nutr 1984;40:553-561. View abstract . Cherstvova, L. G. [Biological role of vitamin B2 in iron deficiency anemia]. Gematol.Transfuziol. 1984;29:47-50. View abstract . Riboflavin deficiency inhibits multiplication of malarial parasites. Nutr Rev. 1984;42:195-196. View abstract . Bates, C. J., Flewitt, A., Prentice, A. M., Lamb, W. H., and Whitehead, R. G. Efficacy of a riboflavin supplement given at fortnightly intervals to pregnant and lactating women in rural Gambia. Hum.Nutr Clin Nutr 1983;37:427-432. View abstract . Varma, S. D., Chand, D., Sharma, Y. R., Kuck, J. F., Jr., and Richards, R. D. Oxidative stress on lens and cataract formation: role of light and oxygen. Curr Eye Res 1984;3:35-57. View abstract . Bamji, M. S. Vitamin deficiencies in rice-eating populations. Effects of B-vitamin supplements. Experientia Suppl 1983;44:245-263. View abstract . Rettenmaier, R. and Vuilleumier, J. P. A simple method for the determination of riboflavin in human milk. Int J Vitam.Nutr Res 1983;53:32-35. View abstract . Ramakrishnan, P. and Sheth, U. K. Serum flavin levels and urinary excretion of riboflavin and riboflavin tetrabutyrate--a comparative evaluation. Indian J Med Res 1977;66:618-626. View abstract . Levy, G. and Hewitt, R. R. 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H., Gelman, W., and Webb, E. Effect of supplementary vitamins and iron on malaria indices in rural Gambian children. Trans.R.Soc.Trop.Med.Hyg. 1987;81:286-291. View abstract . Powers, H. J., Bates, C. J., Downes, R., Brubacher, D., Sutcliffe, V., and Thurnhill, A. Running performance in Gambian children: effects of water-soluble vitamins or iron. Eur.J.Clin.Nutr. 1988;42:895-902. View abstract . Kabat, G. C., Miller, A. B., Jain, M., and Rohan, T. E. Dietary intake of selected B vitamins in relation to risk of major cancers in women. Br.J.Cancer 9-2-2008;99:816-821. View abstract . McNulty, H., Pentieva, K., Hoey, L., and Ward, M. Homocysteine, B-vitamins and CVD. Proc.Nutr Soc. 2008;67:232-237. View abstract . Stott, D. J., MacIntosh, G., Lowe, G. D., Rumley, A., McMahon, A. D., Langhorne, P., Tait, R. C., O'Reilly, D. S., Spilg, E. G., MacDonald, J. B., MacFarlane, P. W., and Westendorp, R. G. Randomized controlled trial of homocysteine-lowering vitamin treatment in elderly patients with vascular disease. Am.J Clin.Nutr 2005;82:1320-1326. View abstract . Modi, S. and Lowder, D. M. Medications for migraine prophylaxis. Am Fam.Physician 1-1-2006;73:72-78. View abstract . Woolhouse, M. Migraine and tension headache--a complementary and alternative medicine approach. Aust Fam.Physician 2005;34:647-651. View abstract . Premkumar, V. G., Yuvaraj, S., Sathish, S., Shanthi, P., and Sachdanandam, P. Anti-angiogenic potential of CoenzymeQ10, riboflavin and niacin in breast cancer patients undergoing tamoxifen therapy. Vascul.Pharmacol. 2008;48(4-6):191-201. View abstract . Tepper, S. J. Complementary and alternative treatments for childhood headaches. Curr Pain Headache Rep. 2008;12:379-383. View abstract . Rogovik, A. L., Vohra, S., and Goldman, R. D. Safety considerations and potential interactions of vitamins: should vitamins be considered drugs? Ann.Pharmacother. 2010;44:311-324. View abstract . Roje, S. Vitamin B biosynthesis in plants. Phytochemistry 2007;68:1904-1921. View abstract . Said, H. M. and Mohammed, Z. M. Intestinal absorption of water-soluble vitamins: an update. Curr.Opin.Gastroenterol. 2006;22:140-146. View abstract . Said, H. M. Recent advances in carrier-mediated intestinal absorption of water-soluble vitamins. Annu.Rev.Physiol 2004;66:419-446. View abstract . Kamangar, F., Qiao, Y. L., Yu, B., Sun, X. D., Abnet, C. C., Fan, J. H., Mark, S. D., Zhao, P., Dawsey, S. M., and Taylor, P. R. Lung cancer chemoprevention: a randomized, double-blind trial in Linxian, China. Cancer Epidemiol.Biomarkers Prev. 2006;15:1562-1564. View abstract . Sun-Edelstein, C. and Mauskop, A. Foods and supplements in the management of migraine headaches. Clin J Pain 2009;25:446-452. View abstract . Shargel L, Mazel P. Effect of riboflavin deficiency on phenobarbital and 3-methylcholanthrene induction of microsomal drug-metabolizing enzymes of the rat. Biochem Pharmacol. 1973;22:2365-73. View abstract . Fairweather-Tait SJ, Powers HJ, Minski MJ, et al. Riboflavin deficiency and iron absorption in adult Gambian men. Ann Nutr Metab. 1992;36:34-40. View abstract . Leeson LJ, Weidenheimer JF. Stability of tetracycline and riboflavin. J Pharm Sci. 1969;58:355-7. View abstract . Pringsheim T, Davenport W, Mackie G, et al. Canadian Headache Society guideline for migraine prophylaxis. Can J Neurol.Sci 2012;39:S1-59. View abstract . Holland S, Silberstein SD, Freitag F, et al. Evidence-based guideline update: NSAIDs and other complementary treatments for episodic migraine prevention in adults: Report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology and the American Headache Society. Neurology 2012;78:1346-53. View abstract . Jacques PF, Taylor A, Moeller S, et al. Long-term nutrient intake and 5-year change in nuclear lens opacities. Arch Ophthalmol 2005;123:517-26. View abstract . Maizels M, Blumenfeld A, Burchette R. A combination of riboflavin, magnesium, and feverfew for migraine prophylaxis: a randomized trial. Headache 2004;44:885-90. View abstract . Boehnke C, Reuter U, Flach U, et al. High-dose riboflavin treatment is efficacious in migraine prophylaxis: an open study in a tertiary care centre. Eur J Neurol 2004;11:475-7. View abstract . Sandor PS, Di Clemente L, Coppola G, et al. Efficacy of coenzyme Q10 in migraine prophylaxis: A randomized controlled trial. Neurology 2005;64:713-5. View abstract . Hernandez BY, McDuffie K, Wilkens LR, et al. Diet and premalignant lesions of the cervix: evidence of a protective role for folate, riboflavin, thiamin, and vitamin B12. Cancer Causes Control 2003;14:859-70. View abstract . Skalka HW, Prchal JT. Cataracts and riboflavin deficiency. Am J Clin Nutr 1981;34:861-3.. View abstract . Bell IR, Edman JS, Morrow FD, et al. Brief communication. Vitamin B1, B2, and B6 augmentation of tricyclic antidepressant treatment in geriatric depression with cognitive dysfunction. J Am Coll Nutr 1992;11:159-63.. View abstract . Negri E, Franceschi S, Bosetti C, et al. Selected micronutrients and oral and pharyngeal cancer. Int J Cancer 2000;86:122-7.. View abstract . Vir SC, Love AH. Riboflavin nutriture of oral contraceptive users. Int J Vitam Nutr Res 1979;49:286-90.. View abstract . Hamajima S, Ono S, Hirano H, Obara K. Induction of the FAD synthetase system in rat liver by phenobarbital administration. Int J Vit Nutr Res 1979;49:59-63.. View abstract . Ohkawa H, Ohishi N, Yagi K. Hydroxylation of the 7- and 8-methyl groups of riboflavin by the microsomal electron transfer system of rat liver. J Biol Chem 1983;258:5629-33.. View abstract . Pinto J, Huang YP, Pelliccione N, Rivlin RS. Adriamycin inhibits flavin synthesis in heart: possible relation to cardiotoxicity of anthracyclines (abstract). Clin Res 1983;31;467A. Raiczyk GB, Pinto J. Inhibition of flavin metabolism by adriamycin in skeletal muscle. Biochem Pharmacol 1988;37:1741-4.. View abstract . Ogura R, Ueta H, Hino Y, et al. Riboflavin deficiency caused by treatment with adriamycin. J Nutr Sci Vitaminol 1991;37:473-7.. View abstract . Lewis CM, King JC. Effect of oral contraceptive agents on thiamin, riboflavin, and pantothenic acid status in young women. Am J Clin Nutr 1980;33:832-8.. View abstract . Roe DA, Bogusz S, Sheu J, et al. Factors affecting riboflavin requirements of oral contraceptive users and non-users. Am J Clin Nutr 1982;35:495-501.. View abstract . Newman LJ, Lopez R, Cole HS, et al. Riboflavin deficiency in women taking oral contraceptive agents. Am J Clin Nutr 1978;31:247-9.. View abstract . Briggs M. Oral contraceptives and vitamin nutrition (letter). Lancet 1974;1:1234-5. View abstract . Ahmed F, Bamji MS, Iyengar L. Effect of oral contraceptive agents on vitamin nutrition status. Am J Clin Nutr 1975;28:606-15.. View abstract . Dutta P, Pinto J, Rivlin R. Antimalarial effects of riboflavin deficiency. Lancet 1985;2:1040-3. View abstract . Raiczyk GB, Dutta P, Pinto J. Chlorpromazine and quinacrine inhibit flavin adenine dinucleotide biosynthesis in skeletal muscle. Physiologist 1985;28:322. Pelliccione N, Pinto J, Huang YP, Rivlin RS. Accelerated development of riboflavin deficiency by treatment with chlorpromazine. Biochem Pharmacol 1983;32:2949-53.. View abstract . Pinto J, Huang YP, Pelliccione N, Rivlin RS. Cardiac sensitivity to the inhibitory effects of chlorpromazine, imipramine, and amitriptyline upon formation of flavins. Biochem Pharmacol 1982;31:3495-9.. View abstract . Pinto J, Huang YP, Rivlin RS. Inhibition of riboflavin metabolism in rat tissues by chlorpromazine, imipramine and amitriptyline. J Clin Invest 1981;67:1500-6. View abstract . Jusko WJ, Levy G, Yaffe SJ, Gorodischer R. Effect of probenecid on renal clearance of riboflavin in man.J Pharm Sci 1970;59:473-7. 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Diet and cataract: the Blue Mountains Eye Study. Ophthalmology 2000;10:450-6. View abstract . Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine. Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6, Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline . Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 2000. Available at: http://books.nap.edu/books/0309065542/html/. Kulkarni PM, Schuman PC, Merlino NS, Kinzie JL. Lactic acidosis and hepatic steatosis in HIV seropositive patients treated with nucleoside analogues. Natl AIDS Treatment Advocacy Project. Dig Disease Week Liver Conf, San Diego,CA. 2000;May 21-4:Rep11. Sperduto RD, Hu TS, Milton RC, et al. The Linxian cataract studies. Two nutrition intervention trials. Arch Ophthalmol 1993;111:1246-53. View abstract . Wang GQ, Dawsey SM, Li JY, et al. 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On the Plimsoll Line what doers F denote?	What is a Plimsoll line? Home Ocean Facts What is a Plimsoll line? What is a Plimsoll line? A commercial ship is properly loaded when the ship’s waterline equals the ship’s Plimsoll line. Plimsoll mark on the hull of a floating ship. The Plimsoll line is a reference mark located on a ship’s hull that indicates the maximum depth to which the vessel may be safely immersed when loaded with cargo. This depth varies with a ship’s dimensions, type of cargo, time of year, and the water densities encountered in port and at sea. Once these factors have been accounted for, a ship’s captain can determine the appropriate Plimsoll line needed for the voyage (see above image): TF = Tropical Fresh Water W = Winter WNA = Winter North Atlantic AB = Letters indicating the registration authority (American Bureau of Shipping in the image shown; the circle with the line through it indicates whether or not the cargo is loaded evenly) Samuel Plimsoll (1824–1898) was a member of the British Parliament who was concerned with the loss of ships and crews due to vessel overloading. In 1876, he persuaded Parliament to pass the Unseaworthy Ships Bill, which mandated marking a ship's sides with a line that would disappear below the waterline if the ship was overloaded. The line, also known as the Plimsoll mark, is found midship on both the port and starboard hulls of cargo vessels and is still used worldwide by the shipping industry. Search Our Facts	Fresh Water
How many centimetres in diameter is a standard C.D.	Plimsoll Mark Looking for more? Search for Articles on the Nauticapedia Site. Plimsoll’s Line (aka the International Load Line) – Saves Lives by John M. MacFarlane 2013 Plimsoll Mark / Line on the side of a ship (Photo courtesy of the Murray Polson collection) The first modern loading standards were introduced by Lloyd’s Register of British and Foreign Shipping in 1835. In early days, overloaded ships were known as ‘coffin ships’ referring to the increased risk of sinking due to the loss of freeboard from being heavy laden. Overloaded ships were often over–insured, yielding a large profit for greedy owners on the loss of the ship and crew. In the 1860s, after increased loss of ships due to overloading government regulations were proposed by Samuel Plimsoll, a British Member of Parliament. Samuel Plimsoll was known as ‘The Sailor’s Friend’ and was elected as the Member of Parliament for Derby in 1868. He had been a brewery manager and London coal dealer. His early attempts at reform were unsuccessful, and a bill he introduced to mitigate improve the danger of over loading was defeated. He published "Our seamen" detailing the hard and dangerous conditions that British seamen had to endure in their work. Plimsoll was re–elected to Parliament in 1880 but resigned to become the President of the Sailor’s and Fireman’s Union. The Plimsoll Mark or Plimsoll Line was adopted in 1876. Since that time every vessel was required to have a line painted amidships on both sides of the hull to act as a visual indicator of the limit to which ships could be loaded. It is a circle with a horizontal line drawn through it. This has, over time, become adopted worldwide. Displacement tonnages are calculated in relation to draught and the statutory free board that must be shown on the ship’s side. The more cargo weight that is loaded the more water a ship displaces and the lower in the water she will lay. At some point the vessel will ride so low in the water as to be dangerous to its stability (and possibly sink). The original Plimsoll Mark was a circle with a horizontal line through it to indicate the maximum draft of a particular ship. Here is a typical Load Limit/Plimsoll Mark on a hull. Some Plimsoll Marks are difficult to read from any distance. (Murray Polson photo) The marks (also known as Plimsoll Lines) are required to be placed amidships. Various lines indicating the level of the ship in various conditions (based on the specific gravity of the water) are indicated. (A ship will sink deeper in the water in warm areas of the tropics than in winter conditions in the North Atlantic.) Warm water provides less buoyancy as it is less dense than cold water and fresh water is less dense than salt water so it provides less buoyancy. Load limits are calculated for each type of operating environment. LR – the name of the authority setting the load limit (in this case the LR stands for Lloyd’s Register) TF – tropical freshwater W – winter salt water WNA – winter North Atlantic The load limit is required to be painted amidships but on a surface that is still visible if the paint is worn off. This prevents unscrupulous owners from overloading vessels when the paint is gone. It provides inspectors an easy reference point to ensure that loads meet certificated limits. Because of its placement anyone (casual observer to crew member) can check the status at any time. Classification Societies (such as Lloyds of London) issue the certificates. Their initials bracket the plimsoll mark (as above). The commonly seen initial letters include: BV - Bureau Veritas NV - Det Norske RI - Registro Italiano Navale American ships use the ABS mark of the American Bureau of Shipping - four lines amidships that show maximum loading conditions in freshwater, and saltwater in summer and winter. There are sometimes other marks visible on the hulls of some vessels. This one warns nearby vessels of the presence of a bow thruster (usually a propellor) which could potentially be a hazard to tugs or other vessels closely approaching the hull (Photo from MacFarlane collection.). The draught lines are slightly different from Plimsoll Lines and indicate the loading of the vessel and its position relative to the sea surface. This gives an indication to ship’ officers of the amount of water being drawn by their vessel (usually on a non–freight carrying vessel). (Photo from MacFarlane collection.) To quote from this article please cite: MacFarlane, John M. (2013) Plimsoll’s Mark. Nauticapedia.ca 2013. http://nauticapedia.ca/Articles/Plimsoll_Mark.php New Nauticapedia Book Just Published! Volume Four in series	i don't know
What was the first hit for Roxy Music	Greatest Hits - Roxy Music \| Songs, Reviews, Credits \| AllMusic Greatest Hits google+ AllMusic Review by Dave Thompson The first Roxy Music hits collection, released during the hiatus that divided Siren from Manifesto, was a straightforward rendering of all but one ("Both Ends Burning") of the band's UK hits, buoyed by an intelligent selection of key album tracks - US radio fave "Do The Strand", the pulsating "Editions Of You" and so on. Divided neatly between the Eno and Eddie Jobson eras of the band, Greatest Hits was most valuable at the time for finally placing "Virginia Plain" and "Pyjamarama" on a British album release (the former was included on the American edition of the band's debut) - hopes that the set might also find room for the string of non-album b-sides that graced the band's 45s were, however, dashed as Greatest Hits went for the commercial, rather than the collectible jugular. Still, it's a nice introduction for those who needed one, a smart souvenir for everyone else, and a vivid reminder that, for five years through the early-mid 1970s, Roxy really did release some phenomenal 45s. Track Listing	Virginia Plain
Who appeared in the Spencer Davis Group, Blind Faith and Traffic	Roxy Music - Listen to Free Music by Roxy Music on Pandora Internet Radio more Roxy Music Evolving from the late-'60s art-rock movement, Roxy Music had a fascination with fashion, glamour, cinema, pop art, and the avant-garde, which separated the band from their contemporaries. Dressed in bizarre, stylish costumes, the group played a defiantly experimental variation of art rock which vacillated between avant-rock and sleek pop hooks. During the early '70s, the group was driven by the creative tension between Bryan Ferry and Brian Eno , who each pulled the band in separate directions: Ferry had a fondness for American soul and Beatlesque art-pop, while Eno was intrigued by deconstructing rock with amateurish experimentalism inspired by the Velvet Underground . This incarnation of Roxy Music may have only recorded two albums, but it inspired a legion of imitators -- not only the glam-rockers of the early '70s, but art-rockers and new wave pop groups of the late '70s. Following Eno 's departure, Roxy Music continued with its arty inclinations for a few albums before gradually working in elements of disco and soul. Within a few years, the group had developed a sophisticated, seductive soul-pop that relied on Ferry 's stylish crooning. By the early '80s, the group had developed into a vehicle for Ferry , so it was no surprise that he disbanded the group at the height of its commercial success in the early '80s to pursue a solo career. The son of a coal miner, Bryan Ferry (vocals, keyboards) had studied art with Richard Hamilton at the University of Newcastle before forming Roxy Music in 1971. While at university, he sang in rock bands, joining the R&B group the Gas Board, which also featured bassist Graham Simpson. Ferry and Simpson decided to form their own band toward the end of 1970, eventually recruiting Andy Mackay (saxophone), who had previously played oboe with the London Symphony Orchestra . Through Mackay, Brian Eno joined the band. By the summer of 1971, the group -- had originally been called "Roxy" but a name change was necessary after the discovery of an American band called Roxy -- had recruited classical percussionist Dexter Lloyd and guitarist Roger Bunn through an ad in Melody Maker; both musicians left within a month, but they did record the group's initial demos. Another ad was placed in Melody Maker, and this time the group landed drummer Paul Thompson and guitarist Davy O'List, who had previously played with the Nice . O'List left by the beginning of 1972 and was replaced by Phil Manzanera , a former member of Quiet Sun . Prior to recording their first album, Simpson left the band. Roxy Music never replaced him permanently; instead, they hired new bassists for each record and tour, beginning with Rik Kenton, who appeared on their eponymous debut for Island Records. Produced by Peter Sinfield of King Crimson , Roxy 's self-titled debut climbed into the British Top Ten in the summer of 1972; shortly afterward, the non-LP single "Virginia Plain" rocketed into the British Top Ten, followed by the non-LP "Pyjamarama" in early 1973. While Roxy Music had become a sensation in England and Europe due to their clever amalgamation of high and kitsch culture, they had trouble getting a foothold in the United States. Both the first album and the follow-up, 1973's For Your Pleasure (recorded with bassist John Porter), were greeted with enthusiasm in the U.K., but virtually ignored in the U.S. Frustrated with Ferry 's refusal to record his compositions, Eno left the band after the completion of For Your Pleasure. Before recording the third Roxy Music album, Ferry released a solo album, These Foolish Things, which was comprised of pop/rock covers. Released in December of 1973, Stranded became the band's first number one album in the U.K. Stranded was recorded with new Roxy member Eddie Jobson , a multi-instrumentalist who previously played with Curved Air ; it was also the first record to feature writing credits for Manzanera and Mackay. The album received a warmer reception in the U.S. than its two predecessors, setting the stage for the breakthrough of Country Life in late 1974. Sporting a controversial cover of two models dressed in see-through lingerie -- the cover was banned in several stores, and it was eventually replaced with a photo of a forest in the U.S. -- Country Life was the first Roxy album to break the U.S. Top 40 and became their fourth British Top Ten album. Following a tour with bassist John Wetton , the group recorded Siren. Featuring their first American Top 40 hit, the disco-flavored "Love Is the Drug," Siren was another British Top Ten hit; in the U.S., it was moderate hit, peaking at number 50. Following the tour for Siren, the band members began working on solo projects -- Manzanera formed the prog-rock group 801 , and Mackay and Ferry both began recording solo albums -- and announced in the summer of 1976 that they were temporarily breaking up. The live album Viva Roxy Music! was released shortly after the announcement of the group's hiatus. Roxy Music regrouped in the fall of 1978 after spending 18 months on solo projects. Ferry , Manzanera , Mackay and Thompson added former Ace keyboardist Paul Carrack to the band's lineup and hired Gary Tibbs, formerly of the Vibrators, and ex- Kokomo Alan Spenner as studio bassists; Jobson and Wetton , who were not asked to rejoin the band, formed UK . Roxy Music's comeback effort, Manifesto, was released in the spring of 1979, and it boasted a sleek, disco-influenced soul-pop sound that was markedly different from and more accessible than their earlier records. Manifesto confirmed their British popularity, reaching the Top Ten, and became their highest-charting U.S. record, peaking at number 23 on the strength of the single "Dance Away." Roxy Music supported the album with an international tour that featured Carrack and Tibbs; prior to the tour's start, Thompson left the band after breaking his thumb in a motorcycle accident. Flesh + Blood, the follow-up to Manifesto, was recorded just by Ferry , Manzanera and Mackay, and a host of studio musicians. Released in the summer of 1980, Flesh + Blood became Roxy 's second British number one album on the strength of the Top Ten single "Over You"; in America, the album reached the American Top 40. In the spring of 1981, the band's non-LP cover of John Lennon 's "Jealous Guy," recorded as a tribute to the slain singer, became the group's only British number one single. Nearly two years later, Roxy Music returned in the summer of 1982 with Avalon. Marking a new level in the group's production and musical sophistication, Avalon became their biggest album, spending three weeks at the top of the British charts and 27 on the U.S. charts, generating the British hits "More Than This" and "Take a Chance With Me." It became the group's only American gold album, and over the years, it worked its way to platinum status. Following a successful supporting tour for Avalon, the group released the live EP Musique/The High Road in the spring of 1983. The Avalon tour turned out to be Roxy Music's final activity as a group. Ferry began to concentrate on his solo career, beginning with 1985's Boys and Girls. Manzanera and Mackay formed a band called the Explorers in 1985; the pair would record under a variety of guises, as well as pursue solo careers, over the next 15 years. The compilation Street Life: 20 Great Hits, which also featured Ferry 's solo hits, was released in 1989. A year later, Heart Still Beating, a live album documenting a 1982 concert, was released. ~ Stephen Thomas Erlewine	i don't know
Which actress enjoyed the Good Life then went Solo	BBC - Comedy - The Good Life The Good Life The Good Life Created by John Esmonde and Bob Larbey, The Good Life's four series from 1975-8 are remembered, according to the Britain's Greatest Sitcom poll, as our 9th favourite laugh. Constantly available on UKTV, it's a must visit for anyone interested in British sitcom. On his 40th birthday to be precise, Tom Good decides that he's had enough of the rat race and that he and wife Barbara will become self-sufficient. The pair convert their garden into a farm, get in the pigs and chickens, grow their own crops and on one memorable occasion, try to dye their own wool with nettles. Tom and Barbara would just be lone loons were it not for their neighbours, the henpecked Jerry Leadbetter and wife Margot, a social climber who cannot bear chickens wandering the back garden. The Good Life attacked the middle class and the 'alternative' lifestyle at once, showing Margot's snobbishness as blindness, and Tom's fanatical self-sufficiency as going too far. Examples of Tom's pursuit of natural alternatives leading down the wrong path include his attempts to make a methane-powered car that continually breaks down, as well as the problems Barbara and Tom have trying to kill their chicken, forcing them through pride to make a 'sumptuous feast' of a single egg. The Good Life was remarkable for the consistent characterisation. Though initially dominated by Tom, Barbara was soon balancing his mad schemes with pragmatism and comforting his occasional lapses into depression. Jerry's mocking derision of Tom's step sideways become grudging respect, and even snobbish Margot was human and real. The series showcased the talents of Richard Briers, Felicity Kendal, Penelope Keith and Paul Eddington and made all three of the latter into solo stars afterwards, with Kendal becoming a sex-symbol (still is, let’s face it), while Keith in To The Manor Born and Eddington in Yes Minister created roles that were to become even better known than their Good Life creations. Briers went on to create possibly the saddest small-screen comic character of all time, Martin Brice in Ever Decreasing Circles. The thirty episodes of The Good Life became household favourites, and are still enduring icons of their time. In a good-natured, light-hearted way, they showed how hard it was, and is, to be different to those around you, and the kind of courage it takes to be so.	Felicity Kendal
Who played the part of Miss Kitty in Gunsmoke	BBC - Comedy - The Good Life The Good Life The Good Life Created by John Esmonde and Bob Larbey, The Good Life's four series from 1975-8 are remembered, according to the Britain's Greatest Sitcom poll, as our 9th favourite laugh. Constantly available on UKTV, it's a must visit for anyone interested in British sitcom. On his 40th birthday to be precise, Tom Good decides that he's had enough of the rat race and that he and wife Barbara will become self-sufficient. The pair convert their garden into a farm, get in the pigs and chickens, grow their own crops and on one memorable occasion, try to dye their own wool with nettles. Tom and Barbara would just be lone loons were it not for their neighbours, the henpecked Jerry Leadbetter and wife Margot, a social climber who cannot bear chickens wandering the back garden. The Good Life attacked the middle class and the 'alternative' lifestyle at once, showing Margot's snobbishness as blindness, and Tom's fanatical self-sufficiency as going too far. Examples of Tom's pursuit of natural alternatives leading down the wrong path include his attempts to make a methane-powered car that continually breaks down, as well as the problems Barbara and Tom have trying to kill their chicken, forcing them through pride to make a 'sumptuous feast' of a single egg. The Good Life was remarkable for the consistent characterisation. Though initially dominated by Tom, Barbara was soon balancing his mad schemes with pragmatism and comforting his occasional lapses into depression. Jerry's mocking derision of Tom's step sideways become grudging respect, and even snobbish Margot was human and real. The series showcased the talents of Richard Briers, Felicity Kendal, Penelope Keith and Paul Eddington and made all three of the latter into solo stars afterwards, with Kendal becoming a sex-symbol (still is, let’s face it), while Keith in To The Manor Born and Eddington in Yes Minister created roles that were to become even better known than their Good Life creations. Briers went on to create possibly the saddest small-screen comic character of all time, Martin Brice in Ever Decreasing Circles. The thirty episodes of The Good Life became household favourites, and are still enduring icons of their time. In a good-natured, light-hearted way, they showed how hard it was, and is, to be different to those around you, and the kind of courage it takes to be so.	i don't know
What was the first name of Terry Collier's often seen sister in The Likely Lads	whatever happened to the likely lads : definition of whatever happened to the likely lads and synonyms of whatever happened to the likely lads (English) Website Whatever Happened to the Likely Lads? is a 1970s British situation comedy broadcast between 9 January 1973 and 9 April 1974 on BBC1 . It was the colour sequel to the mid-1960s hit The Likely Lads . It was created and written, as was its predecessor, by Dick Clement and Ian La Frenais . There were 26 television episodes over two series; and a subsequent 45-minute Christmas special was aired on 24 December 1974. The cast were reunited in 1975 for a BBC radio adaptation of series 1, transmitted on Radio 4 from July to October that year. In 1976 a feature film spin-off was made. Around the time of its release, however, Rodney Bewes and James Bolam fell out over a misunderstanding involving the press and have not spoken since. This long-suspected situation was finally confirmed by Bewes while promoting his autobiography in 2005. Unlike Bewes, Bolam is consistently reluctant to talk about the show, and has vetoed any attempt to revive his character.[ citation needed ] Contents The series Bob and Terry set off on a bicycle race and both cheat The show followed the friendship, resumed after five years apart, of two working-class young men, Bob Ferris ( Rodney Bewes ) and Terry Collier ( James Bolam ). Set in Northeast England , humour was based on the tension between Terry's firmly working-class outlook and Bob's aspirations to join the middle class , through his new white-collar job, suburban home, and impending marriage to prissy librarian Thelma Chambers ( Brigit Forsyth ). Since the ending of the original series, in 1966, Bob has left factory life behind for an office job with his future father-in-law's building firm (something which leaves Bob even more desperate to retain favour with Thelma and her family). But what Bob does for a living is not a major factor in the show; more important is the fact that he is now a white-collar worker, and (at Thelma's urging) is joining badminton clubs, attending dinner parties, and — in all sorts of ways — appearing to Terry as aspiring to join the middle class. Terry thus sees his own army experience and solid working class ethos as giving him moral superiority over Bob. But he finds it hard to adjust to all the changes which have occurred in the five years he's been away. As implied in the lyrics to the programme's theme song, the 1970s series plays on both lads' feelings of nostalgia for the lost days of their innocent and reckless youth. Both characters are depressed by the demolition being carried out on the landmarks of their youth, but Bob, who works for a development agency, puts forward that it can be seen as progress. Bob also lives in his own semi-detached house on a recently-built estate, whereas Terry lives with his mother in a 19th century house, which he claims has far more charm than the one owned by Bob, where "The only thing that tells you apart from your neighbours is the colour of your curtains." Indeed, in the opening credits shots of Terry show him along with the older and more industrial buildings of the city, with Bob displayed along with modern, less attractive development. The word "likely" in the title referred, in the 1960s series, to those showing promise, but also those likely to get up to well-meaning mischief; but, as the 1970s title implied, the mischief days were (or at least, perhaps, should have been) behind them now. Yet, in reality, life was still seen by both Bob and Terry as something in which the only things that really mattered were beer, football and sex — though not necessarily in that order. As Terry says at one point, in disbelief, "After all, there are some people who don't like football!" The conflict between what Bob had become, and what he saw himself as, led him to be impulsively inclined to follow the lead set by the more headstrong Terry (especially after a heavy drinking session), who led them recklessly into one scrape after another. Terry frequently behaved badly, his working class instincts dominating Bob's better judgement. Whatever the plan, they rarely got away with it. Nemesis, in the shape of Thelma (and to a lesser extent, Terry's sister Audrey) was usually waiting just around the corner. Indeed the battle of the sexes was a frequent theme of the series. Bob usually blamed his drinking, heavy smoking, poor diet and reckless behaviour on Terry: a view which Audrey and Thelma only too willingly agreed with. This may have been true in part but actually Bob needed little persuasion to stay out drinking with Terry or to behave accordingly. The show was firmly based in the tradition of Northern comedy, in that much of the humour arose from the fact that Bob and Terry were living in a matriarchal society. They were surrounded by a sea of women. Bob was henpecked alternately by Thelma and by Thelma's mother and Terry was henpecked by his own mother and his sister Audrey and by the women he dated. There were no male influences in either Bob or Terry's life: neither Bob's father nor Terry's ever appeared and on the few occasions that we saw Thelma's father he was usually being henpecked by either Thelma or her mother. The thirteen episodes of Series 1, aired in 1973, had a loose narrative thread. The earlier ones feature Terry's attempts to settle down again following his discharge from the Army, but later the emphasis shifts to the preparations for the wedding of Bob and Thelma. Series 2 episodes the following year were mostly self-contained. However it begins with a two-part story concerning a romance between Terry and Thelma's sister, and a story is developed over four episodes beginning in "Affairs and Relations". Terry and Bob are arrested in One for the Road. The show's catchy theme song, "Whatever Happened to You", was written by Mike Hugg (of Manfred Mann ) and La Frenais and performed by Hugg's session band, featuring session singer Tony Rivers supplying the lead vocals. A group named Highly Likely subsequently appeared on Top of the Pops to promote the song, and participated in a short UK tour as a result, but Rivers was not involved in these appearances. The song made the lower reaches of the UK Top 40 in 1973. Mike Hugg also wrote the theme tune to the spin-off 1976 feature film, entitled "Remember When". The complete first and second series of the 1970s show (including the Christmas special) are available in the UK on Region 2 DVD. Changes in format and style from The Likely Lads Although Whatever Happened to the Likely Lads? was a continuation of the earlier series and even though some of the same characters remained, the style and format had changed. Unlike the original show, Whatever Happened to the Likely Lads? was broadcast in colour . Also, The Likely Lads had been quite 'stagy' (in the theatrical sense) in its format: being studio bound, with little in the way of location filming. In terms of humour, the two shows are different. The Likely Lads had been a broad comedy, full of obvious gags, whereas Whatever Happened to the Likely Lads? used subtler humour, derived from the dialogue and characterisation, often interspersed with sentimentality (as the Lads mourned their lost past) and even touches of pathos . The latter aspect was usually a consequence of one of the Lads, often the more sentimental Bob, reflecting on the past. The Lads frequently did ask each other the question in the show's title, Whatever happened to us? - particularly during their more mellow moments in the pub, over a pint of beer. Regular cast Ronald Lacey (Ernie: Audrey's husband) Elizabeth Lax (Wendy: Bob's secretary at work) Christopher Biggins (Podge Rowley: Bob and Terry's friend) Julian Holloway (Alan Boyle: Bob's friend from Surrey) Unseen characters Cyril Collier (Terry and Audrey's dad) Leslie Ferris (Bob's dad) (Note: It was established in the 1960s series that Bob's father was in fact deceased) Linda Collier (Terry and Audrey's sister) Frank Clark (Bob's original choice for best man) Nigel "Little Hutch" Hutchinson (a sex-mad pal who always has a racing tip ready for Terry) Hugh and Janey (Bob and Thelma's new middle-class friends) Jutta Baumgarten (Terry's German wife, from whom he's separated) Maurice 'Memphis' Hardaker (a member of a skiffle group called Rob Ferris And The Wildcats, he was also mentioned in the original 60s series as work colleague Morrie Hardaker) Deirdre Birchwood, an ex-girlfriend of Bob's, frequent references to her became a running gag in the first series Wendy Thwaite, another ex-girlfriend of Bob's with whom he had his first sexual experience. Episode guide 1. Strangers on a Train The lads are reunited by chance, after five years, aboard a homeward-bound train. Unfortunately for Bob, he inadvertently becomes stranded at Doncaster railway station , with fiancée Thelma waiting for him on the platform at Newcastle. 2. Home Is The Hero Terry, newly demobbed from the Army, finds it hard to adjust to all the changes which have occurred in his home town during the five years he's been away. 3. Cold Feet Due to a misunderstanding, Terry causes havoc between Bob and Thelma, leading Bob to get cold feet about the wedding. 4. Moving On A depressed Terry decides to go around the world with his old army pal, Hughie McClaren, who's living conveniently nearby in Berwick upon Tweed . 5. I'll Never Forget Whatshername Terry, now back home again, looks up some of his old flames. His lack of success with them makes him self-pitying and Bob smug, until it emerges that Terry may once have had a drunken fling with Thelma on a coach trip to Blackpool Illuminations . 6. Birthday Boy Terry becomes depressed when he thinks everyone has forgotten his birthday. A surprise party organised by Bob goes wrong when someone else is accidentally invited to it instead but when he finally arrives, Terry manages inadvertently to offend most of the other guests. 7. No Hiding Place The Lads try to avoid learning the result of an England football match before the TV highlights are shown that evening. Flint ( Brian Glover ) tries to spoil it for them, having bet them £10 that they won't get through the day without learning the result. The Lads get to the TV highlights none the wiser about the score, except for Terry seeing a newspaper headline that says "England F...". When Flint tracks them down to Bob's new house, an angry Terry pays him off with £10 (borrowed from Bob). After all that, the match turns out to have been postponed due to a waterlogged pitch: "England - flooded out..." This episode was remade by Ant & Dec for ITV in 2002, featuring a cameo appearance by Rodney Bewes as the old newspaper seller. 8. Guess Who's Coming To Dinner? Concerned about Terry's lack of social activities, Bob invites him to a posh dinner party at Alan and Brenda's. The occasion turns into a disaster, with Terry inadvertently causing havoc; resulting in Bob and Thelma falling out with Alan and Brenda (who later reappear in the episode The Ant and the Grasshopper). 9. Storm In A Tea Chest Thelma forces Bob to throw out all his treasured childhood possessions (kept in two battered old tea chests) while hypocritically hanging on to all of hers. 10. The Old Magic At a posh restaurant, the Lads test out whether they still have 'the old magic' and can still 'pull' the birds... but they end up with a date with a girl who they certainly didn't expect! 11. Count Down The countdown to Bob's wedding-day begins. Terry, who despises the over-elaborate wedding preparations, finds an unexpected ally in Thelma's dad George, a staunchly working-class builder. Stirred up by Terry's ridicule, the three men decide to rebel... 12. Boys Night In The night before the wedding: Bob refuses to have an old-fashioned stag night, preferring a quiet night in with a cup of cocoa and a game of Ludo . Terry tries to get him in the party mood nonetheless; and as a result, they end up in a police cell. 13. End Of An Era Bob and Thelma are finally married. Things will never be the same again: old ways, old days, gone for ever. Or are they? Series 2 14. Absent Friends Terry looks after Bob's new house while Bob and Thelma are on honeymoon, and romances Thelma's younger sister, Susan. This picks up some of the threads from the episode "The Old Magic". 15. Heart to Heart Bob and Thelma return from honeymoon, and Susan decides to leave Terry and return to Peter in Canada , a decision which Terry agrees with after a heart-to-heart chat between them. 16. The Ant and the Grasshopper An overworked Bob grows increasingly tired of funding Terry's lazy lifestyle; the allusion in the episode title is to Bob being as busy as a worker ant, and Terry being as lazy and feckless as a grasshopper. Uniquely, there is no dialogue in the first three minutes, where a montage of scenes show Bob frantically busy and Terry lazing around. 17. One for the Road Bob is caught drink-driving . Terry, in the same cell for football hooliganism , attempts to help him out. 18. The Great Race The Lads relive their active youth, with a bicycle race to Berwick-upon-Tweed , but cheat each other to a standstill. Unfortunately, they're unable to return home by train, so have to cycle all the way back too. 19. Some Day We'll Laugh About This Bob and Thelma go away for a weekend's skiing in Scotland. In their absence, Terry romances Bob's bored neighbour, Sandra, whilst doing some building work at Bob's new house. The episode features a cheeky milkman called Les and sight-gags of people falling through floors. 20. In Harm's Way Terry reluctantly takes a job as a hospital porter: thereby causing a series of disasters, the victim of each one of which is Bob. This picks up from the previous episode, with the injured leg Bob sustained in falling through a floor putting him in hospital, and into the path of nemesis... 21. Affairs And Relations Our heroes, gone fishing, catch Thelma's dad 'playing away' with his blonde secretary at the Barrasford Arms Hotel in the village of Barrasford in Northumberland . Then Thelma turns up unexpectedly and thinks the blonde is with Bob. As an added complication, the hotel's attractive barmaid is attempting to seduce Terry; but though he's far from indifferent, the situation between Bob and Thelma results in the encounter being fruitless. 22. The Expert Thelma leaves Bob, due to his supposed infidelity in the previous episode. Terry offers his help as an expert on marriage guidance - despite the disaster which was his own marriage! 23. Between Ourselves Terry moves in with a depressed Bob and amusingly plays housewife in Thelma's absence, while Bob tries (unsuccessfully) to conceal from their friends and neighbours that Thelma has left him. Terry finds Thelma sympathetic for once, as they finally discover they have something in common: they both find Bob impossible to live with! 24. The Go-Between Terry tries to fix things up between Bob and Thelma, but Bob ends up with his head in a gas oven. This episode brings to a conclusion the 'on/off' storyline between Bob and Thelma which began in "Affairs and Relations". 25. Conduct Unbecoming Both of the Lads end up in court on separate assault charges involving the same local ruffian, Dougie Scaife (played by Alun Armstrong ). Armstrong also played Terry's milkman in the 1976 feature film spin-off, "The Likely Lads", although it's unclear whether that character is supposed to be Scaife. 26. The Shape Of Things To Come Bob, worried that Terry is ruining his life, just as Terry's recently-deceased Uncle Jacob did to his own best friend, decides to sever their ties. As ever, though, he finds he can't escape, and Terry emerges triumphant as always. We see in Uncle Jacob and his best friend a picture of how Bob and Terry will be in forty years time, bringing the second series to a humorous conclusion. In 1974, all 26 episodes from series 1 and 2 were repeated on BBC 1 in a continuous 26 week run leading up to Christmas, culminating in a new Christmas Special: 27. Christmas Special 1974 Amongst other adventures (including Terry passing his driving test and Bob growing a scary beard) Terry drives Bob and Thelma to a Christmas party as their minicab driver, and waits for them outside; leading to further misunderstandings, and more accusations from Thelma. (First broadcast on Christmas Eve 1974) Radio series The 13 episodes of Series 1 were adapted for radio, with the original television cast, and broadcast on Radio 4 in 1975, from 30 July to 22 October. This series is periodically re-broadcast in the "classic comedy" hour on digital radio channel BBC Radio 4 Extra . Context Before the Seventies series was made, the cast had already been re-united twice, in 1967 and 1968, to record sixteen of the original television scripts for two series (of eight episodes each) on BBC radio, the scripts for which were adapted for radio by James Bolam. To emphasise continuity, the opening section of the title credits at the start of each Seventies episode includes a short montage of black-and-white stills photos of Bob and Terry in scenes from the 1960s series, presented as if in a photograph album. The leather-bound photo album which Bob gives Terry before the wedding, in the episode "End Of An Era", is also the one seen in the opening credits. To avoid bad feeling over billing, Rodney Bewes and James Bolam were alternated in the opening credits, so that one week Bewes was billed first and the following week Bolam was. In the closing credits the billing was reversed, with whoever had been billed second in the opening credits being billed first. Bewes maintained his connections with The Likely Lads, appearing in a cameo role as the old newspaper seller in a 2002 ITV re-make of the series' most popular episode, "No Hiding Place", starring Tyneside presenters/actors/entertainers Ant and Dec , which aired under the title "A Tribute to the Likely Lads". In 1995 and 1996 the series was repeated in its entirety on BBC 2 . It went on to become a short-term staple of cable channels, and was again shown on satellite and cable TV in 2008/9, but has not featured on terrestrial TV in the UK since 2000. It has, however, been released on DVD. And the movie spin-off usually appears at least once a year on TV, around Christmas. One of the most notable continuity points about the show is that Terry has been away in the Army for "five years". However, there was a real-life gap of seven years between the end of the original series in 1966 and the sequel in 1973. Also, there are numerous references in the Seventies show to the Lads' shared adventures in 1967, plus citations of that year as the time when Terry was last in town. And, from the audience's point of view, Terry was last seen in the radio series which was broadcast during 1967 and 1968. Taken all together, it suggests Terry's army service lasted for the five years from 1968 (i.e. the end of the radio series) to 1973. Terry's full name is Terence Daniel Collier, born 29 February 1944. Bob's full name is Robert Andrew Scarborough Ferris, born a week earlier. These dates can be worked out from dialogue in the episode "Birthday Boy". The 'Scarborough' in Bob's name is because he was conceived there (although this is contradicted in the opening flashback sequence in the 1976 feature film). Terry's 'silver tankard' joke in his best man's speech at the end of Season 1 (in the episode "End Of An Era") also seems to imply that he, not Bob, turned 21 first. Terry is younger than his sisters Audrey ( Sheila Fearn ) and Linda (who is never seen). Their parents are Edith and Cyril Collier. Terry's father is not featured in either series of this show; neither is Bob's father, Leslie. Bob's mother, Alice, occasionally appears. Bob's father had died 12 years previously (as established in the Sixties episode "Friends and Neighbours"), so wasn't around when Bob - an only child - was growing up. Terry's dad is neither dead nor absent: he is continually referred to in the Seventies series, and also in the feature film, but is never actually seen (although, in the opening flash-back in the film, a back view of him is briefly visible, which is clearly James Bolam; and Bolam also provides the voice-over dialogue in that scene). Thelma's full maiden name is Thelma Ingrid Chambers. Thelma's father, played by Bill Owen , is George Chambers. Her younger sister is Susan, who lives in Toronto, Canada with her accountant fiancé Peter. The lads attended Park Infants School, Park Junior School, and Park Secondary Modern. Thelma was with them for infants and juniors, but then went to the grammar school. Notable school romances for the Lads included the revered (but sadly never seen) Deirdre Birchwood, who was the basis of a running joke in Series 1, where any mention of her (or of any other former girlfriend of Bob's) was guaranteed to upset Thelma. (A Deidre Birchwood actually appears in an episode of the Bewes vehicle, Dear Mother...Love Albert , and is referred to in many episodes of that programme. Her name comes from a little girl Bewes knew in real life, he was re-united with her on This is Your Life .) The lads also were in the Scouts together. Bob lost his virginity to Wendy Thwaite, according to the Series 1 episode "I'll Never Forget Whatshername", who scored 8 stars (out of 7!) on his scoring system. Terry's never-seen German wife is called Jutta (pronounced Uta) Baumgarten. They married in November 1969, but split up seven months later, in June 1970, when West Germany defeated England in the 1970 FIFA World Cup . Confusingly, Terry later says they were married for two years "on and off", which further clouds the continuity issue of Terry's time away. She was due to appear in the episode "End Of An Era", played by April Walker, but the scenes featuring her were omitted from the broadcast version. Terry's address is given in the dialogue as 127 Inkerman Terrace ("No Hiding Place"); but external shots (in "The Ant and the Grasshopper") clearly show a different house number. Bob and Thelma live at Number 8 of an unspecified avenue on the Elm Lodge Housing Estate (The house in the opening titles is on Agincourt at the Highfields estate in Killingworth). Bob's immediate neighbours at his new house are the Lawsons and the Jeffcotes, again never actually seen in the show. A couple called the Nortons are also later referred to as living next door. It is revealed (in the episode "Storm in a Tea Chest") that the boys used to be in a skiffle group called Rob Ferris And The Wildcats. Other group members included Maurice 'Memphis' Hardaker, named after a real-life friend of the show's co-creator and co-writer Ian La Frenais . The Lads' workmate from the 1960s series, Cloughie (played by Bartlett Mullins ), does not feature, other than a passing mention in the first episode that he now runs a newsagents. Two running jokes in the show are never fully explained: Terry's supposedly injured leg, which he claims to have injured in the Army ("I never talk about it"), and his aggressive preoccupation with being referred to as 'wiry' rather than as 'thin' or 'slim'. The latter is, in fact, a continuation of a running gag in the original 1960s series, in which Terry was paranoid about being thought weedy. The pubs frequented by the lads include The Black Horse (which is their most regular 'local', featuring buxom barmaid Gloria), The Fat Ox, The Drift Inn and The Wheatsheaf. Others mentioned in passing include The Swan, The Ship, and the Institute. Friends of the Lads who are regularly spoken of but never seen include Frank Clark (Bob's original choice for best man, who had the same name as a Newcastle United F.C. player of the time), and Nigel "Little Hutch" Hutchinson (a sex-mad pal, who frequently has a racing tip for Terry). Bob's new middle-class friends who we hear of but do not appear include Hugh and Janey; but a new pal we do meet (in "Guess Who's Coming to Dinner" and "The Ant and the Grasshopper") is affable Londoner Alan Boyle ( Julian Holloway ). The episodes "I'll Never Forget Whatshername" and "Storm in a Tea Chest" were based in part on elements in the 1960s episode "Where Have All The Flowers Gone?" The titles for the 1974 Christmas Special call the show simply The Likely Lads. The opening scenes are set in late September, on the day of Terry's successful driving test. Exterior shots were filmed on Tyneside and around the North East, while interiors were shot at the BBC Television Centre in London. The genuine affection held by Clement and LaFrenais for the golden age of movies is reflected in the show. For instance, nearly all of the episode titles (from "Strangers on a Train" to "The Shape of Things to Come") are based on the titles of well known films; and the script frequently features jokes about popular movies (such as Terry's dig at Bob, on learning that he's becoming middle-class, that his new friends include 'Bob and Carole, and Ted and Alice' - a reference to the 1969 film of that name). The BBC decided not to commission a third series of the show, partly because Dick Clement and Ian LaFrenais had written a pilot script for another 1973 series, entitled Seven of One, in which Ronnie Barker appeared in seven different situations from different writers, each of which was a try-out for a possible series. The BBC decided they liked best the one by Clement and LaFrenais, who found themselves suddenly offered a new series, starring Ronnie Barker, which became the television comedy Porridge. Writing and production for the new show, which debuted in the autumn of 1974 and ran for three series, made it impossible to schedule a further series of The Likely Lads. Instead, Clement and LaFrenais began to develop a one-off script, which became the Likely Lads feature film, which was eventually made in 1976. Feature film Main article: The Likely Lads (film) In 1976 a feature-length movie was released, written by Clement and La Frenais, which was directed by Michael Tuchner. By this time both lads had moved house (Bob and Thelma to a detached house, and Terry to a high-rise); and Terry now had a Finnish girlfriend called Christina ("Chris"), played by Mary Tamm . The movie opened with the Lads lamenting the demolition of their favourite pub, The Fat Ox. It then did what so many film spin-offs in the Seventies did, taking the regulars out of their normal environment and sending them off on holiday. The result is a caravanning holiday for Bob and Terry, accompanied by Thelma and Chris. The complications resulting from the trip lead to Terry and Chris splitting up, as a result of which Terry decides to go away, signing on as a crewman on a cargo ship. Bob and Terry sneak one last late-night drink together aboard Terry's ship, anchored in the docks; but Terry has second thoughts the morning after and elects to stay at home. Bob, however, awakes - hung over - aboard the ship, as it sails for Bahrain. This was an ironic reversal of the ending of the original Sixties show (where Terry, missing Bob - who had joined the Army - joined up too, only to discover that Bob had been discharged with flat feet ). Ian McDiarmid , who went on to play the Emperor Palpatine / Darth Sidious in four Star Wars movies, made his film debut here, playing a vicar. Future 1980s sitcom icons Vicki Michelle and Linda Robson also had small parts. Vicki Michelle had already appeared, as a different character, in the second series of the Seventies show (in the episode "The Ant and the Grasshopper"). Any future plans for the lads were never announced; but if they existed they were scuppered by Bewes and Bolam falling out. Stage version In 2008, The Gala Theatre in Durham staged the world premiere of "The Likely Lads", adapted for the stage by Dick Clement and Ian LaFrenais and directed by Simon Stallworthy. The title roles of Bob and Terry were played by David Nellist and Scott Frazer respectively. In May 2011 The Tynemouth Priory Theatre, in Tynemouth, Tyne and Wear, were granted the rights to become the first non professional company to stage the production. It became one of the theatre's most attended productions, selling out well in advance for all performances. Terry was played by Brendan Egan and Bob by Stu Bowman. In popular culture The song "It Could Be You" by the Britpop band Blur contains a reference to the Likely Lads at the start of the second verse: "The likely lads are picking up the uglies. Yesterday they were just puppies." The title song "What Happened to You?" was recorded and released as a single, sung by Highly Likely. It was also released as a single by the British punk band Snuff , entitled "Christmas Single". The characters of Bob and Terry appear in the Kim Newman short story anthology Back in the USSA , in the story "Teddy Bears' Picnic". See also	Audrey
You have all heard of Route 66 in America but which two cities does it link up	Whatever Happened To The Likely Lads? - Context Whatever Happened To The Likely Lads? - Context Context Before the Seventies series was made, the cast had already been re-united twice, in 1967 and 1968, to record sixteen of the original television scripts for two series (of eight episodes each) on BBC radio, the scripts for which were adapted for radio by James Bolam . To emphasise continuity, the opening section of the title credits at the start of each Seventies episode includes a short montage of black-and-white stills photos of Bob and Terry in scenes from the 1960s series, presented as if in a photograph album. The leather-bound photo album which Bob gives Terry before the wedding, in the episode "End Of An Era", is also the one seen in the opening credits . To avoid bad feeling over billing, Rodney Bewes and James Bolam were alternated in the opening credits, so that one week Bewes was billed first and the following week Bolam was. In the closing credits the billing was reversed, with whoever had been billed second in the opening credits being billed first. Bewes maintained his connections with The Likely Lads , appearing in a cameo role as the old newspaper seller in a 2002 ITV re-make of the series' most popular episode, "No Hiding Place", starring Tyneside presenters/actors/entertainers Ant and Dec, which aired under the title "A Tribute to the Likely Lads". In 1995 and 1996 the series was repeated in its entirety on BBC 2. It went on to become a short-term staple of cable channels, and was again shown on satellite and cable TV in 2008/9, but has not featured on terrestrial TV in the UK since 2000. It has, however, been released on DVD. And the movie spin-off usually appears at least once a year on TV, around Christmas. One of the most notable continuity points about the show is that Terry has been away in the Army for "five years". However, there was a real-life gap of seven years between the end of the original series in 1966 and the sequel in 1973. Also, there are numerous references in the Seventies show to the Lads' shared adventures in 1967, plus citations of that year as the time when Terry was last in town. And, from the audience's point of view, Terry was last seen in the radio series which was broadcast during 1967 and 1968. Taken all together, it suggests Terry's army service lasted for the five years from 1968 (i.e. the end of the radio series) to 1973. Terry's full name is Terence Daniel Collier, born 29 February 1944. Bob's full name is Robert Andrew Scarborough Ferris, born a week earlier. These dates can be worked out from dialogue in the episode "Birthday Boy". The 'Scarborough' in Bob's name is because he was conceived there (although this is contradicted in the opening flashback sequence in the 1976 feature film ). Terry's 'silver tankard' joke in his best man's speech at the end of Season 1 (in the episode "End Of An Era") also seems to imply that he, not Bob , turned 21 first. Terry is younger than his sisters Audrey (Sheila Fearn) and Linda (who is never seen). Their parents are Edith and Cyril Collier. Terry's father is not featured in either series of this show ; neither is Bob's father, Leslie. Bob's mother, Alice, occasionally appears. Bob's father had died 12 years previously (as established in the Sixties episode "Friends and Neighbours"), so wasn't around when Bob - an only child - was growing up. Terry's dad is neither dead nor absent: he is continually referred to in the Seventies series, and also in the feature film, but is never actually seen (although, in the opening flash-back in the film, a back view of him is briefly visible, which is clearly James Bolam; and Bolam also provides the voice-over dialogue in that scene). Thelma's full maiden name is Thelma Ingrid Chambers. Thelma's father, played by Bill Owen, is George Chambers. Her younger sister is Susan, who lives in Toronto, Canada with her accountant fiancé Peter. The lads attended Park Infants School, Park Junior School, and Park Secondary Modern. Thelma was with them for infants and juniors, but then went to the grammar school. Notable school romances for the Lads included the revered (but sadly never seen) Deirdre Birchwood, who was the basis of a running joke in Series 1, where any mention of her (or of any other former girlfriend of Bob's) was guaranteed to upset Thelma. (A Deidre Birchwood actually appears in an episode of the Bewes vehicle, Dear Mother...Love Albert, and is referred to in many episodes of that programme. Her name comes from a little girl Bewes knew in real life , he was re-united with her on This is Your Life.) The lads also were in the Scouts together. Bob lost his virginity to Wendy Thwaite, according to the Series 1 episode "I'll Never Forget Whatshername", who scored 8 stars (out of 7!) on his scoring system. Terry's never-seen German wife is called Jutta (pronounced Uta) Baumgarten. They married in November 1969, but split up seven months later, in June 1970, when West Germany defeated England in the 1970 FIFA World Cup. Confusingly, Terry later says they were married for two years "on and off", which further clouds the continuity issue of Terry's time away. She was due to appear in the episode "End Of An Era", played by April Walker, but the scenes featuring her were omitted from the broadcast version. Terry's address is given in the dialogue as 127 Inkerman Terrace ("No Hiding Place"); but external shots (in "The Ant and the Grasshopper") clearly show a different house number. Bob and Thelma live at Number 8 of an unspecified avenue on the Elm Lodge Housing Estate (The house in the opening titles is on Agincourt at the Highfields estate in Killingworth). Bob's immediate neighbours at his new house are the Lawsons and the Jeffcotes, again never actually seen in the show. A couple called the Nortons are also later referred to as living next door. It is revealed (in the episode "Storm in a Tea Chest") that the boys used to be in a skiffle group called Rob Ferris And The Wildcats. Other group members included Maurice 'Memphis' Hardaker, named after a real-life friend of the show's co-creator and co-writer Ian La Frenais. The Lads' workmate from the 1960s series, Cloughie (played by Bartlett Mullins), does not feature, other than a passing mention in the first episode that he now runs a newsagents. Two running jokes in the show are never fully explained: Terry's supposedly injured leg, which he claims to have injured in the Army ("I never talk about it"), and his aggressive preoccupation with being referred to as 'wiry' rather than as 'thin' or 'slim'. The latter is, in fact, a continuation of a running gag in the original 1960s series, in which Terry was paranoid about being thought weedy. The pubs frequented by the lads include The Black Horse (which is their most regular 'local', featuring buxom barmaid Gloria), The Fat Ox, The Drift Inn and The Wheatsheaf. Others mentioned in passing include The Swan, The Ship, and the Institute. Friends of the Lads who are regularly spoken of but never seen include Frank Clark (Bob's original choice for best man, who had the same name as a Newcastle United F.C. player of the time), and Nigel "Little Hutch" Hutchinson (a sex-mad pal, who frequently has a racing tip for Terry ). Bob's new middle-class friends who we hear of but do not appear include Hugh and Janey; but a new pal we do meet (in "Guess Who's Coming to Dinner" and "The Ant and the Grasshopper") is affable Londoner Alan Boyle (Julian Holloway). The episodes "I'll Never Forget Whatshername" and "Storm in a Tea Chest" were based in part on elements in the 1960s episode "Where Have All The Flowers Gone?" The titles for the 1974 Christmas Special call the show simply The Likely Lads. The opening scenes are set in late September, on the day of Terry's successful driving test. Exterior shots were filmed on Tyneside and around the North East, while interiors were shot at the BBC Television Centre in London. The genuine affection held by Clement and LaFrenais for the golden age of movies is reflected in the show. For instance, nearly all of the episode titles (from "Strangers on a Train" to "The Shape of Things to Come") are based on the titles of well known films; and the script frequently features jokes about popular movies (such as Terry's dig at Bob, on learning that he's becoming middle-class, that his new friends include 'Bob and Carole, and Ted and Alice' - a reference to the 1969 film of that name). The BBC decided not to commission a third series of the show, partly because Dick Clement and Ian LaFrenais had written a pilot script for another 1973 series, entitled Seven of One, in which Ronnie Barker appeared in seven different situations from different writers, each of which was a try-out for a possible series. The BBC decided they liked best the one by Clement and LaFrenais, who found themselves suddenly offered a new series, starring Ronnie Barker, which became the television comedy Porridge. Writing and production for the new show, which debuted in the autumn of 1974 and ran for three series, made it impossible to schedule a further series of The Likely Lads. Instead, Clement and LaFrenais began to develop a one-off script, which became the Likely Lads feature film, which was eventually made in 1976.	i don't know
In which British city is Waverley Railway Station	Edinburgh Waverley railway station - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Edinburgh Waverley railway station Jump to: navigation , search Edinburgh Waverley The main pedestrian entrance to the station (now barred to traffic), including the entrance ramp and Balmoral Hotel behind Location North Bridge built by NBR [1] 17 May 1847 General Station built by E&GR [1] 17 May 1847 Canal Street built by EL&NR [1] April 1866 NBR demolished existing stations and replaced them with Edinburgh Waverley [1] 18 April 1966 Renamed Edinburgh by British Railways [1] ???? UK Railways portal Edinburgh Waverley railway station, [2] often simply referred to as Waverley, is the main railway station in the Scottish capital Edinburgh . Covering an area of over 25 acres (10 ha) in the centre of the city, it is the second-largest main line railway station in the United Kingdom in terms of area, the largest being London Waterloo ; and is both a terminal station and a through station, in contrast to the majority of central London stations. Ticketing generally regards Waverley and Haymarket as interchangeable subject to operator validity. It is one of 19 stations managed by Network Rail . [3] It is the northern limit of the East Coast Main Line to Network Rail infrastructure definition, but through-services operate to Glasgow , Dundee , Aberdeen , Perth and Inverness . There are many local services operated by Abellio ScotRail , including the four routes to Glasgow, the Fife Circle , and services to Stirling / Dunblane / Alloa / North Berwick / Dunbar , and the station is the terminus of the Edinburgh leg of the West Coast Main Line served by Virgin Trains and First TransPennine Express . Long distance inter-city trains to England are operated by CrossCountry to destinations such as York , Leeds , Sheffield , Derby , Birmingham New Street , Bristol Temple Meads , Exeter St Davids and Plymouth . Waverley is the second busiest railway station in Scotland after Glasgow Central and the 5th busiest in the United Kingdom outside London. Contents Location[ edit ] View from Scott Monument of Waverley Station roof, prior to restoration, between Waverley Bridge (bottom right) and North Bridge, and Arthur's Seat in the background Waverley station is situated in a steep, narrow valley between the medieval Old Town and the 18th century New Town . Princes Street , the premier shopping street, runs close to its north side. The valley is bridged by the North Bridge , rebuilt in 1897 as a three-span iron and steel bridge, on huge sandstone piers. This passes high above the station's central section, directly over the central booking hall (which cleverly hides one of the main stone piers within its bulk). Waverley Bridge lies to the west side of the station (though platforms extend below it) and it is this road which, by means of ramps, formerly afforded vehicular access to the station and still provides two of the six pedestrian entrances to the station. The valley to the west, formerly the site of the Nor Loch , is the public parkland of Princes Street Gardens . History[ edit ] Location of Waverley and (former) lines emanating from the station Edinburgh's Old Town, perched on a steep-sided sloping ridge, was bounded on the north by a valley in which the Nor Loch had been formed. In the 1750s overcrowding led to proposals to link across this valley to allow development to the north. The "noxious lake" was to be narrowed into "a canal of running water", with a bridge formed across the east end of the loch adjacent to the physic garden . This link was built from 1766 as the North Bridge and at the same time plans for the New Town began development to the north, with Princes Street to get unobstructed views south over sloping gardens and the proposed canal. The loch was drained as work on the bridge proceeded. In 1770 a coachbuilder began work on properties feued at the corner between the bridge and Princes Street, and feuers on the other side of the street strongly objected to this construction blocking their views to the south. A series of court cases ended with the decision that the buildings nearing completion could stay, immediately to the west of that some workshops would be allowed below the level of Princes Street, and further west a park would be "kept and preserved in perpetuity as pleasure ground" in what became Princes Street Gardens. [4] In the mid 1830s proposals for a railway from Glasgow running along the gardens to a station at the North Bridge were set out in a prospectus with assurances that the trains would be concealed from view, and smoke from them "would scarcely be seen". An association of "Princes Street Proprietors" who had feued houses in the street, and had spent large sums turning the "filthy and offensive bog" of the Nor Loch into quiet gardens, strongly opposed the railway and in late 1836 put forward their case against the Act of Parliament for the railway. The Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway opened in 1842 with its terminus at Haymarket railway station, stopping short of Princes Street. In the Railway Mania of the 1840s, the railway sought another Act of Parliament allowing access along the gardens, and at the same time two other railways proposed terminus stations at the North Bridge site. By then several of the Princes Street properties were shops or hotels with an interest in development, and agreement was reached in 1844 on walls and embankments to conceal the Edinburgh and Glasgow railway line in a cutting , with compensation of almost £2,000 for the proprietors. [5] The North Bridge station was opened on 22 June 1846 by the North British Railway as the terminus for its line from Berwick-upon-Tweed . The Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway's General station opened on 17 May 1847, on the same day as the Canal Street station of the Edinburgh, Leith and Newhaven Railway , serving Leith and Granton via a long rope-hauled tunnel under the New Town. The collective name "Waverley", after the Waverley novels by Sir Walter Scott , was used for the three from around 1854 when the through 'Waverley' route to Carlisle opened. Canal Street station was also known as Edinburgh Princes Street, [1] not to be confused with the Caledonian Railway railway station later built at the West End which was named Princes Street station from 1870. In 1868 the North British Railway acquired the stations of its rivals, demolished all three, and closed the Scotland Street tunnel to Canal Street. The present Victorian station was built on the site, and extended in the late 19th century. Waverley has been in continual use since, under the auspices of the North British, the LNER , British Railways (rebranded as British Rail after 1965), Railtrack and latterly Network Rail . From its opening in its current form by the eastward tunnelled extension from Haymarket, Waverley has been the principal railway station in Edinburgh. From 1870 to 1965 the city had a second major station, Princes Street , operated by the rival Caledonian Railway , but this was never as important as Waverley. Former North British Hotel above the station As at other large railway stations of the Victorian and Edwardian eras, the railway company constructed a grand station hotel beside their station. The North British Hotel, adjacent to the station at the corner between Princes Street and North Bridge (on the site of the coachworks [4] ) opened in 1902. In 1983 British Rail sold it to the Forte hotel group . In 1988 Forte closed the hotel for a year to extensively remodel and update what had become something of a faded jewel. When it reopened it was rechristened The New Balmoral Hotel , maintaining the "NB" initials in what has proved to be an astute marketing move, despite the hotel being 115 miles (185 km) from Balmoral Castle . Subsequently, "New" was dropped from the name. The hotel enjoys commanding views over central Edinburgh and is one of the most luxurious (and expensive) hotels in the UK. There is no longer a direct entrance from the station. Aberdeen express leaving Edinburgh Waverley in 1957 British Rail brought railway electrification in 1991 with electric trains on the East Coast Main Line to Glasgow Central and via York to London King's Cross . The station's large size and the unusual topography of its surroundings mean that it contains a large amount of valuable centrally located land. The station's successive owners, British Rail , Railtrack and its current owner Network Rail have been unfairly criticised for underutilising the valuable city-centre spaces available within, there being a legal covenant preventing any upwards extension, which would obstruct the view of Arthur's Seat from Princes Street. The elevated walkway linking the Waverley Steps (from Princes Street to Market Street) has been upgraded with the recommissioning of the suburban platforms (at the south) and provision of additional through platforms to the north to serve the increased proportion of through rail traffic. Princes Mall (formerly the Waverley Shopping Centre), which occupies a column of space (formerly Waverley Market, a live cattle market) nestling between Waverley Station, Waverley Bridge, and Princes Street, opened in 1985. This mall has benefited from the installation of escalators on the Waverley Steps to Princes Street in 2011. Recent developments[ edit ] During 2006 and 2007 parts of Waverley were extensively refurbished, including two new through platforms and the electrification of Platforms 12 to 18 in preparation for electric trains from the Airdrie-Bathgate Rail Link and future lines in Scotland to be electrified by the current (2012) EGIP (Edinburgh/Glasgow Improvement Project). [6] From 2010 to 2012, the glazing of the roof of Waverley station was entirely replaced with new strengthened clear glass panels, replacing the old 34,000 m2 of mixed surfaces including felt, cloudy wired glass and plastic sheet. Part of a £130 million upgrade, this has greatly increased the amount of natural light in the station. [7] [8] [9] From 2012 to 2014 improvements included: a new set of covered escalators leading to Princes Street (replacing the huge set of previously wind-swept steps); a rebuilt and widened entrance from Market Street; a rebuilding of the canopies on the southern "suburban line"; a restoration of the central space in the ticket hall; and major improvements to the Calton Road access. Internally several new lifts and escalators have greatly aided circulation. [10] Waverley concourse at night, 2011 The booking hall at Waverley station, prior to restoration Trains leave Waverley in two directions: Eastbound: following a series of closures culminating in that of the Waverley Route in 1969, the only services departing from the east end of Waverley were East Coast Main Line expresses (primarily to London King's Cross and Birmingham New Street ), and local trains to North Berwick and Dunbar . Recently, the Edinburgh Crossrail scheme has seen a short stub of the Waverley Route reopened to Newcraighall , and the forthcoming partial reopening of the Waverley Route proper will see trains running to Tweedbank in the Scottish Borders . Westbound: the line passes through Princes Street Gardens to Haymarket station . From here, the line to Carstairs and the West Coast Main Line to Carlisle and the South as well as the Edinburgh-Glasgow via Shotts line to Glasgow Central diverges to the south. The next line to diverge is the line for the Forth Bridge and Fife to the north, with services to Glenrothes, Dundee , Perth , Aberdeen and Inverness . The Edinburgh-Glasgow via Bathgate line diverges to the south at Newbridge Junction, carrying services for Milngavie and Helensburgh Central via Glasgow Queen Street low level. Finally, at Polmont Junction, the main Edinburgh-Glasgow line splits from the Stirling and Dunblane line. The former is served almost exclusively by Abellio ScotRail 's main Glasgow service (via Falkirk High ) and the latter by services for Dunblane, Alloa and Perth. Virgin Trains East Coast operates a half-hourly service to London King's Cross, one fast and one semi-fast, throughout the day with all trains calling at Newcastle Central and most at York . Services to London on average take four hours and twenty minutes (fast), or four hours and forty-five minutes (semi-fast). The exception to this is the 05:40 Flying Scotsman service which only calls at Newcastle and completes the journey to London in four hours. In the other direction, through services extend to Aberdeen (4 each way per day), Inverness (1 per day) and Glasgow (1 per day). Other long-distance to Glasgow Central are operated by CrossCountry (every two hours). CrossCountry operate an hourly service to Plymouth via Leeds , Sheffield , Birmingham , Bristol and Exeter . Some services extend to Penzance and on summer weekends, Paignton and Newquay . Northbound a couple of services extend to Dundee or Aberdeen . Westbound this is extended to Glasgow Central every two hours. There is also one train per day to Reading . Winter 2008[ edit ] On 14 December 2008, Virgin Trains withdrew its daily Edinburgh Waverley to London Euston service and First ScotRail Newcraighall trains ceased to continue onto the Bathgate Line and were extended to the Fife Circle Line instead, in anticipation of the electrification of the Bathgate services (Airdrie-Bathgate Project, completed 2010) and implementation of the Borders rail project to Tweedbank which will use diesel trains (scheduled operation from 2015). Winter 2013[ edit ] From 8 December 2013, Virgin Trains introduced regular links to London Euston with the combination of the existing two-hourly WCML service to Birmingham New Street via Preston with the Wolverhampton to Euston service. Routes - past and present[ edit ] Preceding station Layout[ edit ] A total of 24 platforms have existed at Waverley, but not more than 21 at any one time. Prior to incremental rationalisation of the east end in the 1960s-80s there were 21 platforms. The main station was effectively a large 'island' with through lines on the outside, and terminating platforms at both ends in between. In December 2006, a partial renumbering of platforms took place to reflect the construction of three new platforms. At the north side of the station is the former Up Main through platforms, a very long platform with the tracks having a crossover to a parallel line in the centre, numbered 19 (west end) and 2 (formerly 1) (east end). The east end terminating platforms have undergone significant rationalisation. From north to south these comprised: former Platforms 2 and 3, which were latterly used for parcels/mail traffic only and were removed in the 1980s when a new Royal Mail facility was built on their site; former Platforms 4 and 5 were also retained for parcels/mail traffic until this ceased; Platform 5 was reopened to passengers in 2006 as the new Platform 3; former platforms 6 and 7, of which only the latter survives, now numbered 4; and former Platforms 8 and 9, which were substantially shortened for use as a Motorail terminus, the infilled area becoming a car park; since the demise of Motorail services these platforms are used only for locomotive stabling, although the numbers 5/6 were reserved for them in the 2006 renumbering. These are to be extended as full length platforms to accommodate terminating CrossCountry and Virgin Trains East Coast services with the taxi rank closed in June 2014 to make way for these works. [11] [12] The former Down Main through Platforms 7 (east end) and 8 (west end) are at the south side of the main station, and comprise a single very long platform with a crossover in the centre. They are numbered 7 (formerly 10, east end) and 11 (west end). At the west end there has been little change to the terminating platforms, apart from widening them by removing disused centre-road tracks. The platforms comprise (south-north) numbers 12/13, 14/15, 16/17 and bay Platform 18. These were not affected by the 2006 platform renumbering scheme. The only platforms outwith Waverley's overall roof are the former 'Suburban' Platforms 8 and 9 (formerly 21 and 20), a lengthy island platform. These are on the southern edge of the station, adjacent to the east to the former freight depot (now a car park and offices) and with direct access to Market Street, which runs parallel to the railway to the immediate south. A need to increase capacity for through and west-end traffic led to three new platforms being built in 2006, on land formerly occupied by disused sidings and bypass lines within the main part of the station. Platform 10 is a through platform at the west end, facing Platform 11. Platforms 1 and 20 are a single long through platform facing Platforms 2 and 19. All are linked by the upgraded north-south overhead walkway linking the Waverley Steps (escalators) to Market Street.	Edinburgh
Which car manufacturer make the Fabia	Edinburgh \| ScotRail Edinburgh Monday to Friday: 05:00 to 23:59 Saturday: 05:00 to 23:59 Note: Advanced Tickets can only be purchased between 09:30 and 18:30 Monday-Sunday. Pre-purchase collection Passenger services Customer service information Please ask a welcome host or at the travel centre / mobility assistance room or at the customer information point in the centre of the main concourse Left luggage Virgin Trains East Coast lounge is opposite platform 4 Tickets Accepted in Virgin Trains East Coast First Class Lounge Fully inter-available First Class Season Ticket (i.e. tickets not specific to one train company) Any First Class Anytime ticket valid for travel on the Virgin Trains East Coast route Virgin Trains First Class tickets for travel on the West Coast route Any Virgin Trains East Coast First Class packages First Advance (routed VTEC & connections) VTEC First Class Reader Offer (routed VTEC & connections) VTEC First Class Flat Fare (routed VTEC & connections) VTEC Rewards First Class Leisure Single (routed VTEC & connections) VTEC Self-Print First Class Upgrade voucher (routed VTEC & connections) Inclusive Tour Tickets (eg. Superbreak) Weekend First Restricted tickets All First Class tickets valid only on other train operators Assistance dogs and other well behaved dogs on leads will be permitted in all Virgin Trains East Coast First Class Lounges. Facilities Toilets/Fax/Printer/Meeting rooms, TV, newspapers, screens with updated train information, fax, telephone Refreshments Complimentary: tea/coffee/hot chocolate/orange juice/water/ biscuits Wi-Fi	i don't know
La Presse is a best selling daily newspaper in which country	La Presse to end weekday printed paper in new year \| Montreal Gazette La Presse to end weekday printed paper in new year More from The Canadian Press Published on: September 16, 2015 \| Last Updated: September 16, 2015 5:29 PM EST A tablet is seen on the paper edition of La Presse Wednesday, September 16, 2015 in Montreal. The Montreal-based daily newspaper announced that it will scrap its print edition from Monday to Friday starting in January 1, 2016. Paul Chiasson / THE CANADIAN PRESS Share Adjust Comment Print By Ross Marowits MONTREAL — Another alarm bell sounded Wednesday for the future of print newspapers in Canada when one of the country’s largest and oldest dailies announced the end of its printed weekday edition nearly three years after introducing its free digital tablet edition. Montreal La Presse, owned by Power Corp., announced Wednesday that the print edition of the 131-year-old French-language paper will only be available on Saturdays after Jan. 1. Publisher Guy Crevier says the paper will become the world’s first major daily to go completely digital on weekdays as it responds to a permanent shift in advertising spending. The North American newspaper sector has lost 63 per cent of its revenues — or $29 billion — over the past decade, Crevier said in an interview. “There is nobody who can survive in an environment like that,” he said. His newspaper’s digital edition — called La Presse+ — is more successful than the print edition just 30 months after it was introduced. More than 460,000 people read the digital paper weekly, Crevier said, adding it’s also a big hit with advertisers. The number of paid print subscribers decreased to 81,000 from 161,000 when the tablet was launched. Most of the remaining readers are expected to go digital. Three quarters of La Presse’s advertising revenues are expected to flow from the tablet in December, plus 10 per cent from its other mobile and web platforms. Crevier said there are no plans to end the Saturday print edition, which attracts more advertising and different readers. Mike Gasher, a journalism professor at Concordia University, said La Presse is leading a “wave of the future” in the newspaper industry. “It’s certainly a bold move,” he said, adding that while some older readers may prefer the printed paper, younger people want to get their news digitally. Gasher believes there’s still a place for printed newspapers — although like television, radio and cinema before it, they need to evolve and find their niche. Jacques Nantel, a marketing professor at the University of Montreal’s business school, said La Presse is ending the printed edition because it’s now confident that advertisers will follow to the tablet. He expects the newspaper will now essentially force reluctant advertisers to come on board. Nantel said La Presse’s move is a sign of changes to come in Canada. “La Presse is certainly a beacon that other editors are watching very closely,” he said, noting that the Toronto Star, Le Devoir and Montreal Gazette are pursuing their own tablet editions. “It’s only a matter of time now. They’re really trendsetters by doing that.” Indeed, the decision to end the weekday paper comes a day after the Toronto Star launched its own free digital tablet with the help of La Presse . In a joint statement issued Wednesday afternoon, La Presse’s unions demanded more transparency about the paper’s finances from its owner. “The unions … were important partners in the digital shift taken since 2010,” the statement said. “For five years, the many concessions agreed to by all employees allowed La Presse to invest $40 million in the digital project that led to La Presse+. “Unfortunately, despite all the efforts of the unions over the years, La Presse’s finances are still very opaque. Power Corp. and La Presse have always refused to open their books to their principal partners in this adventure: the employees of La Presse.” La Presse’s union contracts end on Dec. 31, and the five unions representing 600 employees in editorial, distribution, information technology and other business functions said they want negotiations on a new contract to be based on transparency. “That’s not just a line in a financial report presented to two union representatives bound by a non-disclosure agreement,” said spokesperson Charles Côté. The Star and La Presse also announced Wednesday that Olive Media, their digital advertising joint venture, will cease operations in January after nine years. Digital advertising sales will return to the respective paper groups Toronto Star Newspapers Ltd. and Square Victoria Digital Properties Inc. The shutdown of Olive Media will affect about 70 employees in Toronto and 12 employees in Montreal. Some Toronto employees will be absorbed by Star Metro Media and the entire Montreal staff will be absorbed by La Presse. The job losses related to La Presse’s change to one print edition a week are not yet known. The unions say employees are working through a “climate of insecurity” as they wait until next week to find out how this will affect their jobs. Despite all the changes, Nantel believes there will continue to be a few printed newspapers in 50 years, but they will be considered luxury products with high prices. He also doesn’t see anything unique about Quebec’s newspaper market compared to English Canada. “Editors have been trying to find the right recipe to make money by selling news … I think La Presse, because they’re backed up by a powerful financial group, has been able to do that experiment, but you could have seen the same experience in Toronto through the Globe and Mail or in Calgary.” Torstar and the parent company of La Presse hold investments in The Canadian Press as part of a joint agreement with a subsidiary of the Globe and Mail. The Montreal Gazette contributed to this report.	Canada
In which newspaper does the cartoon dog Fred Basset appear	Montreal’s La Presse to end weekday printed paper in new year \| Financial Post Montreal’s La Presse to end weekday printed paper in new year StumbleUpon MONTREAL — Another alarm bell sounded Wednesday for the future of print newspapers in Canada when one of the country’s largest and oldest dailies announced the end of its printed weekday edition nearly three years after introducing its free digital tablet edition. Montreal La Presse, owned by Power Corp., announced Wednesday that the print edition of the 131-year-old French-language paper will only be available on Saturdays after Jan. 1. Publisher Guy Crevier says the paper will become the world’s first major daily to go completely digital on weekdays as it responds to a permanent shift in advertising spending. The North American newspaper sector has lost 63 per cent of its revenues — or $29 billion — over the past decade, Crevier said in an interview. “There is nobody who can survive in an environment like that,” he said. His newspaper’s digital edition — called La Presse Plus — is more successful than the print edition just 30 months after it was introduced. Related Table for two, with an iPad? How tablets and mobile apps are transforming the restaurant business More than 460,000 people read the digital paper weekly, Crevier said, adding it’s also a big hit with advertisers. The number of paid print subscribers decreased to 81,000 from 161,000 when the tablet was launched. Most of the remaining readers are expected to go digital. Three quarters of La Presse’s advertising revenues are expected to flow from the tablet in December, plus 10 per cent from its other mobile and web platforms. Crevier said there are no plans to end the Saturday print edition, which attracts more advertising and different readers. Mike Gasher, a journalism professor at Concordia University, said La Presse is leading a “wave of the future” in the newspaper industry. “It’s certainly a bold move,” he said, adding that while some older readers may prefer the printed paper, younger people want to get their news digitally. Gasher believes there’s still a place for printed newspapers — although like television, radio and cinema before it, they need to evolve and find their niche. Jacques Nantel, a marketing professor at the University of Montreal’s business school, said La Presse is ending the printed edition because it’s now confident that advertisers will follow to the tablet. He expects the newspaper will now essentially force reluctant advertisers to come on board. Nantel said La Presse’s move is a sign of changes to come in Canada. “La Presse is certainly a beacon that other editors are watching very closely,” he said, noting that the Toronto Star, Le Devoir and Montreal Gazette are pursuing their own tablet editions. “It’s only a matter of time now. They’re really trendsetters by doing that.” Indeed, the decision to end the weekday paper comes a day after the Toronto Star launched its own free digital tablet with the help of La Presse. The Star and La Presse also announced Wednesday that Olive Media, their digital advertising joint venture, will cease operations in January after nine years. Digital advertising sales will return to the respective paper groups Toronto Star Newspapers Ltd. and Square Victoria Digital Properties Inc. The change will affect about 70 employees in Toronto and 12 employees in Montreal. Some Toronto employees will be absorbed by Star Metro Media and the entire Montreal staff will be absorbed by La Presse. Despite all the changes, Nantel believes there will continue to be a few printed newspapers in 50 years, but they will be considered luxury products with high prices. He also doesn’t see anything unique about Quebec’s newspaper market compared to English Canada. “Editors have been trying to find the right recipe to make money by selling news … I think La Presse, because they’re backed up by a powerful financial group, has been able to do that experiment, but you could have seen the same experience in Toronto through the Globe and Mail or in Calgary.” Torstar and the parent company of La Presse hold investments in The Canadian Press as part of a joint agreement with a subsidiary of the Globe and Mail. The Canadian Press	i don't know
In which Sunday newspaper do The Broons and Oor Wullie appear	Oor Wullie and The Broons set to appear on limited edition Royal Mail stamps - Sunday Post Oor Wullie and The Broons set to appear on limited edition Royal Mail stamps Murray Scougall OOR WULLIE and The Broons have spent a historic 80 years in the Sunday Post – but now they’re about to appear in a different type of post. Don’t worry, you’ll still be able to read their adventures in these pages every week, but from tomorrow these two Scottish icons are to replace Her Majesty by appearing on a limited- edition range of stamps. Only the most important people are chosen to have their faces stuck on envelopes, and who fits the bill better than the famous residents of Auchentogle and Auchenshoogle? Only 10,000 of the sheets will be made and each set features classic images of the characters and their renowned sayings, alongside 10 first class Scottish Saltire stamps. The Queen approves all UK stamp designs before they are printed. As you would imagine, Maw Broon is fair delighted. “Michty, whit an honour it is tae be the face o’ a special set o’ Royal Mail stamps!” she smiled. “We’ve seen a richt amount o’ change in the world during oor 80 years in The Sunday Post, but the joy o’ receivin’ a letter frae a loved one still brings a smile tae your face. “We’re lookin’ forward tae delivering happiness through the letterboxes o’ friends an’ family across the country.” Paw is equally pleased but warned: “As long as they’re no’ used tae post bills.” Oor Wullie’s press officer Fat Boab spoke yesterday from their HQ in Wullie’s shed. “Oor Wullie is delighted with being on sic a braw set of stamps, especially them being in colour – a’ the fowk that read The Sunday Post think Wullie is jist black and white and awfy peely-wally,” he said. “His Ma says it shows up the dirt on his face but what would she ken, she’s only his Ma. “The Auchenshoogle polisman, PC Murdoch, said it is very fitting as somebody has been needing tae stamp on Wullie’s bad behaviour for years. Wullie’s poems aboot the officer’s size 22 feet are legendary aroond here. “If ye are wanting a set of the stamps ye’ll hae tae be quick – Primrose Paterson, who fancies Wullie like mad, is planning tae buy them all and stick them on her wall. That’s lassies for ye.” Each sheet is housed in a specially-designed folder bearing the respective tartans of the comic strips and featuring reproductions of original illustrations from throughout the years. You can also read the back story of the two series and each folder contains the first strip to be published in the Sunday Post on March 8, 1936. Julie Pirone of Royal Mail said: “Ask anyone who spent their childhood in Scotland and they’ll tell you how they grew up with Oor Wullie and The Broons. Opening your annual is still a Christmas tradition that’s been handed down through generations of Scottish families. “We are delighted to be celebrating these iconic characters with their own sets of stamps in their 80th anniversary year and hope they will bring back some happy memories for everyone sending and receiving mail with them.” The stamp sets are available from tomorrow at the DC Thomson website or by freephone on 0800 318846. From overseas, call +44 1382 575580. They will also be on sale at selected Post Offices across Scotland. READ MORE	The Sunday Post
Who took over as captain of England from Nasser Hussain for the one day series against Sri Lanka in 2001	If you do one thing this weekend...visit the Oor Wullie and The Broons Exhibition \| Press and Journal Subscribe today from as little as 99p Scotland’s best-loved family, The Broons, and the nation’s favourite son, Oor Wullie, have reached the ripe old age of 80, and their popularity shows no sign of slowing down. First appearing in the Sunday Post on March 8, 1936, these iconic Scottish cartoon characters are being celebrated in a remarkable art exhibition at the Eduardo Alessandro Studios in Broughty Ferry during March. The cartoons were drawn originally by legendary draftsman Dudley D. Watkins, who continued to draw the characters until his death in 1969. They are still appearing every week in The Sunday Post and continue to be loved by new readers as well as generations of older readers who still enjoy a laugh with naughty schoolboy Wullie and the Broon family, made up of granpaw, paw and maw, Hen, Joe, Daphne, Maggie, Horace, the twins and the bairn. Printmaker John Patrick Reynolds grew up being inspired by the world-renowned comic and newspaper cartoons which have entertained three generations of readers, and has created a collection of new handmade limited-edition screenprints of our favourite cartoon characters, Oor Wullie and The Broons, which will be seen for the first time at the Dundee show. “I especially enjoy using Watkins’s panels in my screenprints as they were drawn so well; he took great pains to give each panel a well-balanced composition. And with just a few lines he was able to give a huge range of expressions to his characters.” Reynolds is the only artist to be officially endorsed by publishers D.C. Thomson and has access to its unrivalled archive of iconic comic heroes and heroines. He has also produced artwork based on Dennis the Menace and Beano favourites Desperate Dan and Minnie the Minx. Sandro Paladini, exhibition curator at Eduardo Alessandro Studios, said: “The Broons and Oor Wullie are known to virtually every Scot, wherever they might live, and there is a huge emotional tie to the characters. We regard them as extended members of our families. The wonderful and inventive stories packed with glorious Scottish language generate a warmth and nostalgia which still resonates today, and has led to considerable interest in this exhibition from expats around the world.” Oor Wullie and The Broons – An 80th Anniversary Exhibition can be seen at the Eduardo Alessandro Studios, Gray Street, Broughty Ferry, until Thursday, March 31. The gallery is open Monday to Saturday. The exhibition can also be viewed online at www.EAStudios.com Meanwhile, Dundee is preparing to be invaded by not one, not two, but dozens of giant Oor Wullie sculptures to wreak havoc and mischief as Oor Wullie’s Bucket Trail, the biggest mass-participation public art event ever seen in the region, which is set to arrive in the City of Discovery this summer. Organisers The ARCHIE Foundation, D.C. Thomson and Wild In Art are hoping to see more than 50 individually designed Oor Wullie sculptures beautifully decorated by an array of local and national artists. After 10 weeks of posing for selfies and making thousands of new pals, each Oor Wullie sculpture will be sold at a special auction in Dundee, with all the proceeds going to the ARCHIE Foundation’s Tayside Appeal to raise funds to create a brand-new twin theatre suite for the Tayside Children’s Hospital at Ninewells. To find out more about Oor Wullie’s Bucket Trail, visit www.oorwulliebuckettrail.com	i don't know
Who beat Chris Eubank in two World Title fights in 1995	Collins wanted £1m after beating Eubank to take world title, manager tells court Collins wanted £1m after beating Eubank to take world title, manager tells court Wed, Oct 22, 1997, 01:00 A £1 million "next fight" fee was sought by the Dublin boxer Steve Collins after he beat Chris Eubank for the world title at Millstreet in March 1995, the High Court was told yesterday. Mr Justice O'Sullivan heard that when the boxer first approached the British promoter-manager, Mr Barry Hearn, he was considering retiring and was "on his backside". Mr Hearn later agreed under cross-examination that it was probably an exaggeration to say that Mr Collins was "broken down" when he came to him. He said he could not recall saying to the Millstreet arena owner, Mr Noel C. Duggan, that Chris Eubank would "play around with Paddy" for five rounds and then cut him up so badly that Mr Collins would not know what was happening to him. Yesterday was the third day of an action brought by Mr Hearn, of Romford, Essex, and his company, Matchroom Boxing Ltd, against Mr Collins, of Pine House, Navan Road, Dublin, for alleged breach of contract. Mr Hearn claims a one-year management agreement between him and the boxer was extended for a further year from May 1995. Mr Collins denies the claim. Concluding his direct evidence yesterday, Mr Hearn said that about two weeks after the Millstreet fight he came to Dublin to pay Mr Collins his purse of about £145,000 net. He gave Mr Collins two cheques, one for £125,000 which was payable to himself, and one for £20,000 payable to a company. The meeting was held in Mr Collins's house and lasted several hours, with a break for lunch. They had had a social chat after the big win. Mr Collins said he was looking for advice about land and building a house. Then the conversation had turned to his boxing career. Mr Hearn said the reality of the situation was dawning. Mr Collins had made it clear he wanted at least £1 million for his next fight. He had initially sought such a sum after the Millstreet contest. ADVERTISEMENT The entire conversation centred on money, Mr Hearn said. Mr Collins had obviously wanted to get as much as he could for his next fight. They had discussed whom Mr Collins would fight, and a return fight with Chris Eubank was uppermost in the champion's mind. They agreed that the next fee could be for a rematch between the two men. Mr Collins asked him to go away and consider what money might be offered for the contest. Cross-examined by Mr Colm Allen SC, for Mr Collins, Mr Hearn said it was probably an exaggeration to say that Mr Collins was "broken down" when he initially approached him. He believed Mr Collins, who had lost two fights, was considering retiring from boxing. Mr Hearn agreed that at the time he was probably the "number one" boxing promoter. His job was to get Mr Collins to number one as a boxer. At the time Mr Collins was worthless as a boxing asset, not as a financial person. He did not know what Mr Collins's financial position was but assumed that he was probably better off than Mr Collins. He was aware Mr Collins was living in rented accommodation at the time and was not a house owner. Asked if he would accept that Mr Collins was "on his backside" and that he was at his pinnacle as a boxing promoter, Mr Hearn said he would. Asked if he did not sign a contract with Mr Collins in 1993 because he (Mr Hearn) did not want to, Mr Hearn said a contract was not necessary and was not an issue between them at that stage. When it came to the point of winning a world title, Mr Hearn said, he felt he needed a contract. Mr Hearn said that while Matchroom Boxing lost £27,000 on the Millstreet promotion, he had received 25 per cent of Mr Eubank's purse on the management side. That was not promotional. Twenty-five per cent of Mr Eubank's £700,000 purse was about £175,000. Asked how much the trainer, Mr Freddy King, was paid, Mr Hearn said that in 1995 he would have earned in the region of £100,000. Mr Eubank had been beaten by a better boxer on the night and was making excuses after being beaten and losing his title. At the time he had a £6 million eight-fight deal with Sky Sports in respect of Mr Eubank, of which he would get 25 per cent and ancillary rights. When Mr Eubank lost to Mr Collins, the Sky Sports deal was halved in respect of the next two Eubank fights. He had suffered financially as a result of the Eubank defeat but had probably gained financially overall, Mr Hearn said. He no longer had any world champions on his books. The trial continues today.	Steve Collins
Who was the last team to win the FA Cup with 11 Englishmen	Recalling the 5 Defeats Chris Eubank Suffered During His Professional Career \| Bleacher Report Recalling the 5 Defeats Chris Eubank Suffered During His Professional Career By Rob Lancaster , Featured Columnist Mar 18, 2015 Use your ← → (arrow) keys to browse the slideshow Holly Stein/Getty Images Comments Chris Eubank provided British boxing with some great nights. Some found the flashy ring walks and fancy clothes too much to take. Others loved the two-weight world champion for his showmanship as much as his skills. Either way, Eubank was involved in some classic fights. He twice went to war with Nigel Benn, defeating his rival the first time before the rematch ended in a draw. However, the Dulwich-born fighter did not always come out on top. On March 18, 1997, Eubank was beaten for the first time as a professional. Steve Collins not only took away his WBO title that night in Ireland but also erased Eubank's perfect record. To mark the 20th anniversary of that first loss, we look back at the bouts when the man nicknamed "Simply the Best" came out on the wrong side of the result. Tweet Chris Eubank boasted a 41-0-2 record when he travelled to Ireland to face Steve Collins. Having beaten Henry Wharton on points the previous December, Eubank held the WBO super-middleweight belt ahead of the bout at the Green Glens Arena in the village of Millstreet. However, despite heading to the ring on a Harley Davidson motorcycle, the champion never moved through the gears against Collins. The challenger dropped the Englishman in the eighth round, and although Eubank returned the favour in the 10th, it was not enough to spare him from a first defeat. The judges scored it 116-114, 114-113 and 115-111 in the home fighter's favour. Collins had spoken before the bout about using a hypnotist to help him become immune to pain, per Glynn Evans of BoxNation . Eubank admitted afterward that the issue had played on his mind. He revealed in a television interview later that he was seriously worried he would "kill" Collins, according to SportsHypnosis.co.uk , after knocking him down. Tweet After tasting defeat for the first time, Chris Eubank quickly got back to work with the aim of reclaiming his WBO belt. He put away both Bruno Ruben Godoy and Jose Ignacio Barruetabena in a hurry, beating both men inside a round, to pave the way for a rematch with Collins. The second bout between the pair was staged at Pairc Ui Chaoimh in Cork, Ireland, in September, 1995. Unlike their first meeting, both fighters managed to stay on their feet for the full 12 rounds. In the end the judges were needed again to decide the winner, with Collins getting the verdict via a split decision to retain the title. The Irishman later admitted in an interview with Ring Magazine that Eubank was the strongest opponent he faced: "I always wanted to be in punching range against Chris, but he was the toughest, most durable man I ever met." Eubank announced his retirement the following month, though he didn't hang up the gloves for too long. Tweet Chris Eubank did not fight for another 13 months after his second loss at the hands of Steve Collins. The retirement plan soon went out the window as he decided to carry on boxing, though he was made to travel on his return to action. He defeated Luis Dionisio Barrera in Cairo, Egypt, and then also saw off the challenge of Camilo Alarcon in Dubai. The WBO belt he had previously held became available again after champion Collins decided to call it a day. Eubank took on Joe Calzaghe, with the unbeaten Welshman quickly giving the former titleholder an idea of his abilities by dropping him in the very first round. However, he could not find a way to put Eubank away and was instead pushed hard through to the final bell. For the first time in his career Calzaghe was taken the distance, getting the nod from the judges by scores of 118-109, 118-110 and 116-111. The new champion confessed he had been made to work for the victory, per BBC Sport : "Physically and mentally, the Eubank fight drained me." Tweet Having failed to become a world champion again at super-middleweight, Chris Eubank decided to move on up in his bid for further glory. He headed to cruiserweight and was given the chance to challenge for the WBO belt held by fellow Brit Carl Thompson. The bout, staged in Manchester, was an absorbing battle between two experienced fighters. Eubank scored a knockdown in the fourth. He could not, though, find a way to finish Thompson, with BBC Sport suggesting he tired as the rounds wore on. Thompson went on to retain his crown with a unanimous points triumph—two judges had it 114-113 in his favour, with the other scoring the contest 116-113 to the champion. The spectacle put on by the pair set the scene perfectly for a rematch, and the pair agreed to do it all again just three months later. Tweet Sheffield was the venue for the rematch between Chris Eubank and Carl Thompson. Thompson had won the first bout on points to retain his WBO cruiserweight belt, but he would not need the judges to triumph the second time around. Eubank started impressively enough, per BBC Sport's fight report , but suffered damage to his left eye. The same issue had bothered him in the first meeting , and by the end of the ninth the injury was so severe his eye had swollen shut. The ringside doctor inspected Eubank, and referee Paul Thomas called a halt to the proceedings. For the first time in his long and distinguished career, Eubank had been stopped inside the distance. It was also the final outing for the two-weight world champion. Eubank ended his career with a 45-5-2 (23 KOs) record. What made the loss even tougher to take for the Brighton-based boxer was he was actually ahead on two of the scorecards at the time the bout was waved off.	i don't know
Where in the body would you find the mount of Apollo	Apollo Mount : Palmistry Illustrated guide - Auntyflo.com Apollo Mount Home › Palmistry › Apollo Mount Apollo is the Roman god of the sun who stands for light and truth, healing and beauty, poetry and art. The mount of Apollo is located at the base of the ring finger and is associated with all the positive attributes of the Roman god. If the Apollo mount is of good size this denotes that the bearer is outgoing and enthusiastic, talented and creative, lively and positive. For this mount to be raised, (compared to the other mounts on the hand) means that this person will have a good sense of humour. For the triradii to be positioned in the centre of the Apollo mount means that this person is logical, versatile and has understanding of the hidden things in life, but normally has a desire to lead others. This leadership may make this person unpopular. Your love for self expression, beauty and creativity may be observed in your hobbies of cooking, crafts, fashion. Those with lines going vertically downwards have a deep interest in the occult. On turning the hand sideways if the Apollo mount is protruding outwards (compared to the other mounts) this person will possesses the above qualities but to the extreme. Such a person may come across as being loud, and this person will exhibit behaviour which is quite intense. This person maintain a hedonistic lifestyle. This results in burning the candle at both ends! If the mount is not well-defined this means the person lacks talent. This person maybe dull and insensitive to the finer things in life. This person tends to be secretive and hate being in the spotlight, and not ready to face the outside world. If the mount of Apollo veers toward Saturn the bearer will be creative but in a less flamboyant way. This person likes self-help books plus romance novels. Creativity is of great importance to this person. Keeping organized by either creating an epic poem or writing will keep this person occupied for many hours. A mount of Apollo that veers toward Mercury: stands for a love of art. Material success will be achieved through artistic skills. Markings on the Apollo mount: any positive markings like triangles or squares on the mount will result in material wealth for the bearer. A square on the mount of Apollo is indicative of improved level of protection against bad reputation as well as the loss of property and other material possessions of individuals. There are some few cases in which one small vertical line that appears above the line of heart is indicates of good retiring life. If there are three vertical lines that are running parallel to each other, then one will be happy and wealthy in their life. Having a trident rearing towards the right means fame. Negative markings on the Apollo mount: if the Apollo mount has negative markings such as islands, crosses, and grilles, there may be some misfortune, see the markings below:	on hand
Which member of the cuckoo family can run at 15 m.p.h.	Palmistry- Mounts guide for PALM READING - Palmistry online PALMISTRY - MOUNTS Mounts have a special significance in the study of palms because different lines are formed and developed due to mounts. Mounts have been named after the planets and the special features of the planets are revealed in the corresponding mounts. It has been found that the planet which is more prominent in the horoscope is also prominent in the palm. The different types of mounts are: The Mount of Jupiter This is situated at the base of the index finger and above the Mount of Mars. It represents god power, leadership, organisation and authority. The Mount of Jupiter is said to be very helpful in life and moves the person towards progress. If the Mount of Jupiter is well developed and prominent, then such a person is said to possess godly qualities. Such persons try to save their self-respect. They are learned and are always prepared to help others. They don't get disturbed under difficult conditions. All the Justices of High courts and high authorities are found to have well-developed Mount of Jupiter. They have the quality to change the public in their favor and are also mostly religious-minded. If the Mount is less prominent or under -developed then there is a genreal deficiency of the above qualities of the person.Physically such persons are of ordinary body, healthy and have smiling faces. They are experts in delivering lectures.They are kind at heart. They are more inclined towars attainment of respect and good reputation rather than wealth. They have a soft corner for the opposite sex. If the Mount is developed more than necessary then such a person is found to be selfish, proud and self-willed. If the Mount is absent in a person, then there is want of self-respect in him. They get very little patronage from their parents. They are found in the company of lower-class people always. The Mount of Saturn This Mount has its base at the root of the finger of Saturn. The development of this Mount on the palm is indicative of extra-ordinary tendencies. If the Mount is fully developed then the person is highly fortunate and rises very high in life with his own efforts. But such a person likes to remain aloof and constantly moves towards his goal. He gets totally engrossed in his work, that he neglects his family. By nature they are irritating and suspicious.Persons with prominent Mount of Saturn are Wizards, Engineers, Scientists, Literary men or Chemists. If this Mount is very much developed, then the person commits suicide in his life. This Mount is prominenet in the hands of dacoits, cheats and robbers. The mount in such cases are yellowish or pale. If there are more than necessary lines on the Mount then such a person is a coward and very licentious. If the Mount is missing in the palm, then such a person's life has no importance. But he might get a special kind of success or respect in life. If the Mount is protruded ordinarily then the person has more than necesary faith in fate and shall succeed in his plans. Such persons have very few friends. The Mount of Sun or Apollo The Mount of Sun is situated at the base of the finger of Apollo and on the upper part of the heartline.This Mount is indicative of the success of the individual. With the prominence of this Mount, the man becomes a genius and famous. A person reaches a very high status in life if the mount is well-developed and pink in color. Such persons are of cheerful nature and work in close co-operation with friends. Such persons are successful as Artists, Expert Musicians and Painters. They are inborn genius. They are honest in their delaings and are completely materialistic. Very well developed Mount indicates self-confidence, gentlemanness, kindness and grandeur. If the Mount is not prominent then the person would be intersted in beauty. But he would not be able to succeed in this field. If the Mount is developed more than necessary then such a person would be very proud and a flatterer. He would be having friends from the lower sections. They are extravagant and quarrelsome and never succeed in life. If the Mount is absent, then the person leads a very ordinary life. He would be a dull-minded and foolish fellow. The Mount of Mercury The prominenet part on the base of the finger of Mercury is called the Mount of Mercury. This Mount shows matrialistic prosperity and afflunce. But much importance is not attached to this Mount of late. Persons with greatly developed Mount are clever and crafty and are adept in cheating. If the Mount is ordinarily developed and has a square mark on it then such a person would be a criminal of higher order. Such persons believe in breaking the law. Persons with prominent Mount are experts in Psychology and know how to influence others. They gain success in business. If the Mount is very much protruded then such persons are after money and the main aim of their lives is to amass wealth. If the Mount is absent in the palm of a person then the person passes his life in poverty. If the Mount is ordinarily prominent then he would be interested in inventions and scientific works. The Mount of Venus The spot beneath the second phalange of the thumb and surrounded by the age line is called the Mount of Venus. Only persons with prominenet Mount of Venus can only recognise the world properly and enjoy it. Persons having this Mount of very high order are beautiful and civilized. They are vey healthy and are able fo influence others. They do not lack courage. If the Mount is less prominent in a person's hand then he would be a coward and weak-natured. Persons with very prominent Mount of Venus are licentious and always covet for the opposite sex. Such a person would be brilliant and handsome.Others are attracted to them. They suffer from diseases of the throat. They do not have any faith in God. If the Mount is absent in one's hand then he lives the life of an ascetic and has no interest in family life. The person's life would be full of troubles and miseries. The Mount of Mars There are two Mars on the palm. They are known as Progressive Mars and Regressive Mars. The Surrounded portion beneath the starting point of the Lifeline and above the Mount of Venus is called the Mount of Mars. Bascially, this Mount is indicative of war. A man becomes corageous, fearless and frank by the presence of the Mount of Mars. Persons with prominent Mount of Mars are courageous, fearless and powerful. They are neither cowards nor can be subdued. They have a firmness and a balance in life. If the Mount turns out to be very rpominent then the person would be a villain, tyrant and a criminal. He would be the first in all anti-social activities. If the Mount of Mars is quite developed and the palm is reddish in color then the person shall reach greater heights in life. He gets complete success in life. If a cross sign is found on the Mount of Mars then the person shall meet his death in war or while fighting with others. If a zig-zag line is found then the person is likely to die in an accident. A perosn can be considered as a coward if the Mount of Mars is absent in his palm. The Mount of Luna or the Mount of Moon The mount of Moon is formed on the palm on the left of the lifeline and below the bracelet, also below the area of Neptune where it joins the life line. The presence of the Mount of Moon on a palm makes a man imaginative, a lover of beauty and very emotional. Persons with fully developed Mount of Moon are lovers of nature and beauty. They remain in the dream world. There is no lack of imagination in ther lives. Such persons are high class Artists, Musicians and Men of Letters. They are full of religious ideas. If the Mount is fairly developed then the person is imaginative and makes castles in the air. He makes many plans but none of them are completed , some not even started. They are too emotional. Persons not having the Mount of Moon are hard-hearted and fully materialistic. They have fighting as their main trait. If zig-zag lines are found on this Mount then the person shall go on voyages several times in life. If a circle is found on the Mount, then such a person shall go to foreign countires for political reasons. If this Mount is more than developed, then that person is found to be fickle-minded, suspicious or mad. He suffers from headache all the time. Harshala This planet is more powerful and exerts more influence in comparison with the other planets. It has its area of influence on the palm between the Heart and the Head lines. Its area is a little below the little finger and the Mount of Mercury. This planet influences the heart and the brain. A man having this Mount below the Mount of Mercury and between the heart and the head lines becomes a world-famous Scientist or Mathermatician. They become successful dealing with atoms, televisions and other intricate items. If this Mount is less prominent then such a person takes interest in the works connected with machines. He becomes famous throughout the world if a line comes form Harshal and goes towards the fingers of Apollo. The Mount of Neptune The area of this planet on the palm is below the head line and above the Mount of Moon. A man becomes an eminent Musician, Poet or Writer if this Mount is very prominent. If a line is seen on this Mount and this line meets the fate line a little ahead, the person gets some post of great importance. If this Mount is develpepd more than enough then such a person's life would be full of grief and his family life would be spoilt. They are maniacs, suspicious and cruel. The Mount of Pluto Its area on the palm is below the heart line and above then head line and is situated between the Mounts of Harshal and Jupiter. This Mount can be clearly seen on the hand of every person. Its influence can be seen only in the old age. If this Mount is very prominent, then the person passes his old age happily. If a cross sign is found on this Mount, the person will die before th age of 45 in an accident. If the Mount is too prominenet then the person would be rude, illiterate and prodigal and has to face many difficulties in life. He would not get any co-operation from his family and friends. If the Mount is not prominent then the person would be unlucky. His nature turns irritable and troublesome. The Mount of Dragon's Head Its area is situated below the headline, surrounded by the Mounts of Moon , Mars and Venus. The fate line passes over this Mount while going towards the Mount of Saturn. If the Mount is prominent and protruded then the person would be very fortunate. If the fate line is deep and clear while passing over the prominent Mount of Pluto then he would be a genius, religious-minded and shall enjoy all wordly comforts. If the Mount is prominent and the fate line is broken then the person shall get wealthy suddenly and also fall down suddenly in life. If the Mount is less protruded then the person would be a restless character and will lose all his wealth. The Mount of Dragon's Tail The place of this Mount is a little above the bracelets, dividing the Mounts of Venus and Moon and is near the starting point of the fate line. This planet shows its influence from the 5th year to the 20th year of age. If the Mount is ordinarily prominent and protruded and the fate line is deep and clear, the person would be fortunate and shall enjoy all pleasures in his lifetime. If the Mount is unusually protruded and the fate line is weak then he has to expereince hardships in his young age. The financial position of his family also gets worser day by day. A man can advance in life only when the Mount of Dragon's Tail is prominent and the fate line is clear and prominent.	i don't know
What is the largest of Saturn's moons	Titan: Facts About Saturn's Largest Moon Titan: Facts About Saturn's Largest Moon By Nola Taylor Redd, Space.com Contributor \| June 30, 2016 04:56pm ET MORE This view shows a close up of toward the south polar region of Saturn's largest moon, Titan, and show a depression within the moon's orange and blue haze layers near the south pole. NASA’s Cassini spacecraft snapped the image on Sept. 11, 2011 and it was released on Dec. 22. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/Space Science Institute Titan is Saturn's largest moon and the second largest in the solar system (after Ganymede of Jupiter). It is the only moon in the solar system with clouds and a dense, planet-like atmosphere. Scientists believe that conditions on Titan are similar to Earth's early years (the main difference is that, because it is closer to the sun, Earth has always been warmer). According to NASA , "In many respects, Saturn's largest moon, Titan, is one of the most Earth-like worlds we have found to date." Titan stats Diameter: 3,200 miles (5,150 kilometers), about half the size of Earth and almost as large as Mars Surface temperature: minus 290 Fahrenheit (minus 179 degrees Celsius), which makes water as hard as rocks and allows methane to be found in its liquid form Surface pressure: Slightly higher than Earth's pressure. Earth's pressure at sea level is 1 bar while Titan's is 1.6 bars. Orbital period: 15,945 days NASA's Cassini spacecraft peers through the murk of Titan's thick atmosphere in this view, taken with Cassini's narrow-angle camera on Sept. 25, 2008. Credit: NASA/JPL/Space Science Institute Other Titan facts Titan's name comes from Greek mythology. The Titans were elder gods who ruled the universe before the Olympians came to power, according to the Theoi Project website. The moon was discovered by Dutch astronomer Christiaan Huygens in 1655. The Huygens lander probe sent to the moon aboard NASA's Cassini spacecraft by the European Space Agency is named in his honor. Huygens was the first human-built object to land on Titan's surface. [ Amazing Photos of Titan ] Titan's diameter is 50 percent larger than that of Earth's moon . Titan is larger than the planet Mercury but is half the mass of the planet. Titan's mass is composed mainly of water in the form of ice and rocky material. Titan has no magnetic field. Atmosphere of Titan Titan is surrounded by an orange haze that kept its surface a mystery for Earth's scientists until the arrival of the Cassini mission. Titan's atmosphere extends about 370 miles high (about 600 kilometers), which makes it a lot higher than Earth's atmosphere. Because the atmosphere is so high, Titan was thought to be the largest moon in the solar system for a long time. It wasn't until 1980 that Voyager was close enough to discover it was actually smaller than Ganymede. Titan's atmosphere is active and complex , and it is mainly composed of nitrogen (95 percent) and methane (5 percent). Titan also has a presence of organic molecules that contain carbon and hydrogen, and that often include oxygen and other elements similar to what is found in Earth's atmosphere and that are essential for life. There is an unsolved mystery surrounding Titan's atmosphere: Because methane is broken down by sunlight, scientists believe there is another source that replenishes what is lost. One potential source of methane is volcanic activity, but this has yet to be confirmed. Titan's atmosphere may escape to space in a similar way that Earth's atmosphere does . The Cassini spacecraft has detected polar winds that draw methane and nitrogen (charged with interactions with light) out along Saturn's magnetic field and out of the atmosphere. A similar process is believed to happen on Earth with our own magnetic field. Magic Island There is an abundance of methane lakes , which are mainly concentrated near its southern pole. In 2014, scientists found a transient feature they playfully referred to as " Magic Island ." It's possible that nitrogen bubbles formed in Titan's oceans sit on the surface for a period of time, creating a temporary island that eventually dissipates. "What I think is really special about Titan is that it has liquid methane and ethane lakes and seas, making it the only other world in the solar system that has stable liquids on its surfaces," Jason Hofgartner, a planetary scientist at Cornell University, told Space.com in 2014. "It not only has lakes and seas, but also rivers and even rain. It has what we call a hydrological cycle, and we can study it as an analog to Earth's hydrological cycle — and it's the only other place we know of where we can do that." Large areas of Titan's surface are covered with sand dunes made of hydrocarbon. Dunes on Titan may resemble the Namibian desert in Africa. Because methane exists as a liquid on Titan, it also evaporates and forms clouds, which occasionally causes methane rain . Clouds of methane ice and cyanide gas float over the moon's surface. "Titan continues to amaze with natural processes similar to those on the Earth, yet involving materials different from our familiar water," Cassini deputy project scientist Scott Edgington, of NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California, said in a statement . Sunlight is quite dim on Titan, and climate is driven mostly by changes in the amount of light that accompanies the seasons.	Titan
If you suffer from dipsomania what are you obsessed by	NASA - Saturn and its Largest Moon Reflect Their True Colors Saturn and its Largest Moon Reflect Their True Colors 08.29.12 A giant of a moon appears before a giant of a planet undergoing seasonal changes in this natural color view of Titan and Saturn from NASA's Cassini spacecraft. Image credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/SSI › Full image and caption Saturn's rings obscure part of Titan's colorful visage in this image from NASA's Cassini spacecraft. Image credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/SSI › Full image and caption PASADENA, Calif. -- Posing for portraits for NASA's Cassini spacecraft, Saturn and its largest moon, Titan, show spectacular colors in a quartet of images being released today. One image captures the changing hues of Saturn's northern and southern hemispheres as they pass from one season to the next. The images can be found at http://www.nasa.gov/cassini , http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov and http://ciclops.org . A wide-angle view in today's package captures Titan passing in front of Saturn, as well as the planet's changing colors. Upon Cassini's arrival at Saturn eight years ago, Saturn's northern winter hemisphere was an azure blue. Now that winter is encroaching on the planet's southern hemisphere and summer on the north, the color scheme is reversing: blue is tinting the southern atmosphere and is fading from the north. The other three images depict the newly discovered south polar vortex in the atmosphere of Titan, reported recently by Cassini scientists. Cassini's visible-light cameras have seen a concentration of yellowish haze in the detached haze layer at the south pole of Titan since at least March 27. Cassini's visual and infrared mapping spectrometer spotted the massing of clouds around the south pole as early as May 22 in infrared wavelengths. After a June 27 flyby of the moon, Cassini released a dramatic image and movie showing the vortex rotating faster than the moon's rotation period. The four images being released today were acquired in May, June and July of 2012. Some of these views, such as those of the polar vortex, are only possible because Cassini's newly inclined -- or tilted -- orbits allow more direct viewing of the polar regions of Saturn and its moons. Scientists are looking forward to seeing more of the same -- new phenomena like Titan's south polar vortex and changes wrought by the passage of time and seasons -- during the remainder of Cassini's mission. "Cassini has been in orbit now for the last eight years, and despite the fact that we can't know exactly what the next five years will show us, we can be certain that whatever it is will be wondrous," said Carolyn Porco, imaging team lead based at the Space Science Institute in Boulder, Colo. Launched in 1997, Cassini went into orbit around Saturn on July 1, 2004. It is in its second mission extension, known as the Solstice Mission, and one of its main goals is to analyze seasonal changes in the Saturn system. "It is so fantastic to experience, through the instruments of Cassini, seasonal changes in the Saturn system," said Amanda Hendrix, deputy project scientist, based at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, Calif. "Some of the changes we see in the data are completely unexpected, while some occur like clockwork on a seasonal timescale. It's an exciting time to be at Saturn." The Cassini-Huygens mission is a cooperative project of NASA, the European Space Agency and the Italian Space Agency. JPL, a division of the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena, manages the Cassini-Huygens mission for NASA's Science Mission Directorate, Washington. The Cassini orbiter and its two onboard cameras were designed, developed and assembled at JPL. The imaging team is based at the Space Science Institute in Boulder, Colo.	i don't know

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