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Which state does Bob Dylan come from | Bob Dylan - Biography - IMDb
Bob Dylan
Biography
Showing all 215 items
Jump to: Overview (4) | Mini Bio (1) | Spouse (2) | Trade Mark (12) | Trivia (96) | Personal Quotes (100)
Overview (4)
The Voice of a Generation
The Bard
5' 7½" (1.71 m)
Mini Bio (1)
Robert Allen Zimmerman was born 24 May 1941 in Duluth, Minnesota; his father Abe worked for the Standard Oil Co. Six years later the family moved to Hibbing, often the coldest place in the US, where he taught himself piano and guitar and formed several high school rock bands. In 1959 he entered the University of Minnesota and began performing as Bob Dylan at clubs in Minneapolis and St. Paul. The following year he went to New York, performed in Greenwich Village folk clubs, and spent much time in the hospital room of his hero Woody Guthrie . Late in 1961 Columbia signed him to a contract and the following year released his first album, containing two original songs. Next year "The Freewheelin' Bob Dylan" appeared, with all original songs including the 1960s anthem "Blowin' in the Wind." After several more important acoustic/folk albums, and tours with Joan Baez , he launched into a new electric/acoustic format with 1965's "Bringing It All Back Home" which, with The Byrds ' cover of his "Mr Tambourine Man," launched folk-rock. The documentary Bob Dylan: Dont Look Back (1967) was filmed at this time; he broke off his relationship with Baez and by the end of the year had married Sara Dylan (born Sara Lowndes). Nearly killed in a motorcycle accident 29 July 1966, he withdrew for a time of introspection. After more hard rock performances, his next albums were mostly country. With his career wandering (and critics condemning the fact), Sam Peckinpah asked him to compose the score for, and appear in, his Pat Garrett & Billy the Kid (1973) - more memorable as a soundtrack than a film. In 1974 he and The Band went on tour, releasing his first #1 album, "Planet Waves". It was followed a year later by another first-place album, "Blood on the Tracks". After several Rolling Thunder tours, the unsuccessful film Renaldo and Clara (1978) and a divorce, he stunned the music world again by his release of the fundamentalist Christrian album "Slow Train Coming," a cut from which won him his first Grammy. Many tours and albums later, on the eve of a European tour May 1997, he was stricken with histoplasmosis (a possibly fatal infection of the heart sac); he recovered and appeared in Bologna that September at the request of the Pope. In December he received the Kennedy Center Award for artistic excellence.
- IMDb Mini Biography By: Ed Stephan <[email protected]>
Spouse (2)
Lyrics about important social issues
Harmonica
Lyrics inspired by real life events
Messy Brown Hair
Often dresses entirely in Black
Often wears a stetson hat
Thin Moustache
His seemingly personal but often mysterious and nebulous lyrics
Low rasping voice
July 1966: He was in a serious motorcycle accident, and in seclusion until late 1969.
1991: Awarded a Lifetime Achievement Award at the Grammys.
5/27/97: Admitted to hospital for treatment of a "potentially life-threatening infection".
Father of the singer/songwriter Jakob Dylan of The Wallflowers .
February 1964: Dylan and three friends drove south from New York to see some of the US heartland. He insisted they stop unannounced to see poet Carl Sandburg in North Carolina. To his lasting disappointment, Dylan left after some ten minutes when he sadly realized he couldn't get the venerable man of letters to take him seriously as a fellow poet.
2000: Awarded the Polar Music Prize, the Royal Swedish Academy of Music Award.
1/30/90: Received France's highest cultural award, the Commandeur dans l'Ordre des Arts et des Lettres.
6/9/70: Awarded honorary doctorate by Princeton University, Princeton, NJ.
1/18/88: Inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame by Bruce Springsteen at the Waldorf Astoria Hotel, New York City.
1985: Daughter Desiree Gabrielle Dennis-Dylan born. Mother is gospel-rock vocalist Carol Dennis, a backup singer who formerly worked with him and who he secretly married.
At the famous "Johnny Cash at San Quentin" concert, Johnny Cash introduced a song co-written by Dylan, describing him as "...the greatest writer of our time".
Son Jesse Dylan is a director.
Early in his career used the stage name Elston Gunn.
His albums "Time Out of Mind" (1997), "Love and Theft" (2001) and "Modern Times" (2006) were voted Album of the Year in the Village Voice's annual critics' poll.
Appears on sleeve of The Beatles ' "Sgt Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band".
Borrowed lines from a Japanese book "Confessions of a Yakuza" for lyrics in the songs of his album "Love and Theft" - the author was apparently flattered by this.
Attended the University of Minnesota briefly after graduating high school; flunked out by non-participation ("refusin' to see a rabbit die" in a science class, and reading Kant instead of a required textbook), and cutting classes to frequent the local Dinkytown coffeehouses.
Hitchhiked from Minnesota to New York after leaving college, paying his way by doing odd jobs and sleeping wherever he could find space. Stopped at a courthouse along the way and legally changed his name from Zimmerman to Dylan (when asked later if his name was spelled like Dylan Thomas , he answered "No, like Bob Dylan").
1964: Introduced The Beatles to pot-smoking, during their first meeting in New York; each told the press later, "We just laughed all night.".
Dylan's father owned a furniture store when young "Bobby" was in high school, and sent him once on rounds, to collect from installment-plan customers late on their bills. When Dylan returned and told his father "Dad, those people don't have any money," his father replied "Some of those people make as much money as I do; they just don't know how to manage it." The lesson stuck with Dylan.
According to the stage manager at Hibbing High School, and a local documentary, the piano that he played on stage is currently the same one that the school uses during their drama performances.
1959: Graduated from Hibbing High School.
The town of Hibbing, Minnesota where he went to high school still acknowledges him. On Howard Street, there is a restaurant called Zimmy's taken after his real last name (Zimmerman).
June 2004: Awarded an honorary degree at the University of St. Andrews (Scotland).
Some of his biggest influences are Hank Williams , Muddy Waters , Ferdinand 'Jelly Roll' Morton , Leadbelly , Mance Lipscomb , Big Joe Williams and Woody Guthrie .
Dylan once visited artist and filmmaker Andy Warhol when he came to pick up actress/model Edie Sedgwick , whom he was dating at the time, and found himself the subject of Warhol's movie camera. Dylan responded by picking up an original Warhol painting and taking it with him "for payment" for being filmed, which he used first as a dartboard, then traded for a sofa (he apologized to Warhol in a press interview years later for his attitude).
Early 1980s: Visited Israel on what was supposed to be a private trip; this was spoiled when he was photographed at Jerusalem's Wailing Wall, and the picture made headlines around the world.
Said that when he performs "All Along the Watchtower," he thinks of it as a tribute to Jimi Hendrix . Although Dylan was the song's original writer, Hendrix's cover is the best known version of the song.
Although raised Jewish (being of fully Jewish heritage), he converted to a born-again version of Christianity in the late 1970s. He drifted away from Christianity later, though, returning to Judaism in the 1990s and 2000s by studying and attending services with an ultra-Orthodox Jewish sect, the Chabad Lubavitcher Chassids.
Although he avoids discussing religion now, Dylan said in a 1997 interview with Rolling Stone that he's no longer a follower of any organized religion.
Almost all of his studio recordings has been original songs. One exception was his self-titled debut which was comprised mainly of standards. The others were from two periods when he allegedly suffered from a case of "writer's block", the early 1970s ("Self Portrait" and "Dylan") and two from the the early 1990s ("Good As I've Been to You" and "World Gone Wrong", respectively).
Although he is often thought of as just playing guitar, harmonica, and singing, Dylan is equally skilled on the piano, and he has played most instruments at one point or another in his 40+ years in music. On the album "John Wesley Harding," for example, he played all the instruments but drums and bass on most of the tracks.
He turned down an offer to headline the legendary Woodstock Festival in 1969 ( Jimi Hendrix ultimately headlined), even though he had been living on a farm in Woodstock for many years at that point.
Although he continues to influence musicians today, perhaps his most significant influence was on other musicians of his own generation in the 1960s. Among the musicians he influenced to start writing deeper, more introspective material were The Beatles , The Rolling Stones , Jimi Hendrix , The Beach Boys , Sam Cooke , Otis Redding and Paul Simon , among many, many others. Ironically, when those he influenced were at their creative peaks in the late 1960s, Dylan himself was in seclusion (after a motorcycle accident) and he really had nothing to do with the "hippie counterculture.".
He was voted the second Greatest Rock 'n' Roll Artist of all time by Rolling Stone.
Was a member of The Traveling Wilburys with Beatle George Harrison , Tom Petty , Roy Orbison , and Jeff Lynne of Electric Light Orchestra .
Early 1980s: He studied with Lubavitch Hasidim.
Always something of a Casanova, he had his first steady girlfriend at 14 and was seeing as many as five girls at once by the time he was in college.
By the time he was ten, Bob began to get piano lessons and he was beginning to listen to the country, blues, and (a little later) the rock 'n' roll played on radio late at night in Hibbing. In his teens, Bob's father bought him an electric guitar and he started a series of rock 'n' roll cover bands with friends from school and summer camp called The Jokers, The Shadow Blasters, and, lastly, The Golden Chords. Once in college, he became so excited by the folk music of Woody Guthrie that he traded his electric guitar for an acoustic one.
In his book, "Chronicles," Dylan indicates that the reason he began starting writing songs were the works of folk-legend Woody Guthrie (he was obsessed with Guthrie's "hopped-up union meeting sermons"), mysterious blues great Robert Johnson (saying he evoked the "dark night of the soul") and certain songs by Bertolt Brecht and Kurt Weill (due to their "tough language" and their "resilience and outrageous power").
There is much myth surrounding his changing his last name. In his "Chronicles" he said that he didn't think Zimmerman would be catchy enough as a stage name and that he first considered making his last name to his middle name, Allen. He then noted that a "D" would be stronger than an "A". But rather than spell it Dillion and in tribute to one of his favorite poets, Dylan Thomas , he choose to spell it Dylan. By late in college as many people called him "Dylan" as they did "Zimmerman" or "Zimmy" and, by the time he made it to New York City, everybody called him "Dylan.".
Won an Academy Award for the song "Things Have Changed" from the Wonder Boys (2000) soundtrack. He performed the song and accepted the Oscar via satellite due to the fact that he was on tour through Germany at the time.
Although he had several stalkers over the years, perhaps the most dogged was the self-titled Dylanologist, A.J. Weberman. This obsessed fan started the "Dylan Liberation Front," protesting that Dylan had sold out and has abandoned his political causes (in reality, Dylan was never very political). Weberman staged several "protests" in front of Dylan's home, rooted through Dylan's garbage repeatedly, and accused Dylan of heroin use. After Weberman pushed aside Dylan's wife, Sara, and broke into Dylan's home, Dylan lost his patience and defeated his considerably beefier stalker in a fight.
Despite his reputation as a "protest singer", he was never very active politically and very rarely rallied for causes. Although he did some work in support of the civil right movements and often fought individual injustices (most famously, that of Rubin 'Hurricane' Carter ), many of his peers in the folk community found his apparent indifference to politics frustrating.
For the recording of the famous, rambling song "Rainy Day Women # 12 & 35" (with its chorus of "everybody must get stoned!"), Dylan took the group of mostly straight-laced, professional session musicians he was recording with, got them very drunk and had them smoke pot. When they returned, he had each man play a different instrument to what they usually played. After this went on, somebody asked Dylan when they were actually going to record the song, Dylan countered, "That was it."
His favorite movie is Shoot the Piano Player (1960) by François Truffaut .
Other bands Dylan preformed in are The Satin Stones, Elston Gunn and the Rock Boppers, and The Rockets.
At the The 40th Annual Grammy Awards (1998) he won a Grammy for best male rock singer (on "Cold Irons Bound"), best contemporary folk singer and album of the year ("Time Out of Mind").
May 1997: He was diagnosed with pericarditis, which can be lethal if it's not discovered in time.
Widely regarded as one of the greatest songwriters in the history of popular music, he holds the impressive distinction of having had his songs covered by nearly 3,000 artists. Some notable covers of his songs: "Quinn the Eskimo" - Manfred Mann ; "Mr. Tambourine Man" - The Byrds ; "All Along the Watchtower" - Jimi Hendrix ; "It Ain't Me, Babe" - Johnny Cash , The Turtles ; "Knockin' on Heaven's Door" - Eric Clapton ; as well as Guns N' Roses , "Maggie's Farm" - Rage Against the Machine , "Desolation Row" - My Chemical Romance , and there are over 100 covers of "Blowin' in the Wind". Other well known artists to cover Dylan songs include U2 , Dave Matthews Band, Sheryl Crow , Stevie Wonder , Joe Cocker , Diana Ross , Rod Stewart , Elvis Costello , Phil Collins , Bryan Ferry , Steve Hackett , Steve Howe , Emerson Lake and Palmer , The Beach Boys and Adele .
His song "Like a Rolling Stone" was named # 1 on Rolling Stone's 500 Greatest Songs of All Time (2004). Other songs listed include: "Blowin' in the Wind" (# 14), "The Times Are A-Changin'" (# 59), "Tangled Up In Blue" (# 68), "Mr. Tambourine Man" (# 106), "Desolation Row" (# 185), "Knocking on Heaven's Door" (# 190), "Positively 4th Street" (# 203), "Just Like a Woman" # (230), "Subterranean Homesick Blues" (# 332), "Highway 61 Revisited" (# 364), and "Visions of Johanna" (# 403).
Despite rumors that he hates rap music, Dylan cites several rappers as having "brilliant minds" and, in his "Chronicles" states that he is a big fan of several Old School rappers, particularly Public Enemy , who were one of his favorite artists of that era. Many see an early connection to rap in Dylan's music, particularly the song "Subterranean Homesick Blues". However, Dylan apparently dislikes the commercialism of much modern hip-hop and warned popular rappers that "sometimes less is more". When he hosted "Bob Dylan's Radio Theme Time Hour", during his "Mother's Day" hour in 2008, Dylan played "Momma Said Knock You Out" by LL Cool J and was heard to rap along with the first verse. LL Cool J himself was thrilled when he heard this.
Some notable covers of his songs: "Quinn the Eskimo" - Manfred Mann ; "Mr. Tambourine Man" - The Byrds ; "All Along the Watchtower" - Jimi Hendrix ; "It Ain't Me, Babe" - Johnny Cash , The Turtles ; "Knockin' on Heaven's Door" - Eric Clapton ; as well as Guns N' Roses , "Maggie's Farm" - Rage Against the Machine , "Desolation Row" - My Chemical Romance, and there are over 100 covers of "Blowin' in the Wind".
Rode a 500cc T100S/R Triumph Tiger motorcycle upon which he famously crashed
1959: Played piano for Bobby Vee in a make-up band booked for show left vacant by the airplane-crash death of Buddy Holly , Ritchie Valens and The Big Bopper (aka J.P. Richardson).
He has nine grandchildren - four from his step-daughter, Maria, one each from Jesse and Samuel, and three from Jakob Dylan . He also has a "World's Greatest Grandpa" bumper sticker that he proudly displays on his car.
A father of six children. His children are: Maria Lowndes Dylan (born 21 October 1961; married to Peter Himmelman and a mother of four), Jesse Byron Dylan (born 6 January 1966; married to Susan Traylor and father of William), Anna Leigh Dylan (born 11 July 1967; she is married, but has no children), Samuel Abraham Dylan (born 30 July 1968; married to Stacy Hochheiser and father of Jonah), Jakob Luke Dylan (born 9 December 1969; married to Paige and a father of three), Desiree Gabrielle Dennis-Dylan (born 31 January 1985). His eldest child, Maria, became his step-daughter when he married Sara Lowndes, and he later adopted her as his own. His youngest daughter, Desiree, was born to his second wife, Carolyn Dennis. His other four children were all with his first wife, Sara.
11/16/05: Inducted into the UK Music Hall of Fame for his outstanding contribution to British music and integral part of British music culture.
Son of Abraham Zimmerman and Beatrice Stone (Beatty Zimmerman).
Has a brother named David Zimmerman.
1982: Inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame.
Fan of Elvis Presley .
"All Along the Watchtower" is the song he's performed the most, with nearly 2,000 known performances. It is also, including Jimi Hendrix 's performance of the song, the song that's been most frequently featured on film and TV soundtracks.
In 1999, British progressive rock guitarist Steve Howe released "Portraits of Bob Dylan", an album consisting entirely of 12 of Dylan's songs. In 2007, British singer Bryan Ferry released "Dylanesque", an album consisting entirely of 11 of Dylan's songs.
(April 7, 2008) Awarded a special Pulitzer Prize.
Awarded a 2008 Pulitzer Prize (Special Citation "for his profound impact on popular music and American culture, marked by lyrical compositions of extraordinary poetic power"). He is the first rock or folk musical artist to win this prestigious honor.
Supported Barack Obama in the 2008 presidential election.
Resides in Malibu, California.
Voted the seventh greatest singer of the rock era in a Rolling Stone magazine poll in 2008.
Recorded "Empire Burlesque" as well as several tracks from his platinum selling "Bootleg Series" at the well-known Cherokee Studios in Hollywood.
Although he had previously disparaged the use of his likeness and music for advertisements, he has appeared in commercials for Victoria's Secret, Cadillac, Apple and Pepsi within the last 10 years (2009).
His Album "Modern Times" (2006) was voted the 8th Best Album of the Decade by Rolling Stone Magazine.
His Album "Love and Theft" (2001) was voted the 11th Best Album of the Decade by Rolling Stone Magazine.
He was awarded the American National Medal of the Arts on February 25, 2010, in Washington D.C. for his services and contributions to the arts.
Historically, he rarely fraternized or even spoke extensively with the studio band members he recorded with. The musicians would usually await instruction only from the producer at the time and were frequently rankled by Dylan's chilly behavior and lack of credit they received after recording. Recently, when Dylan has begun producing his own albums and recording with the touring band he assembled in the '80s and '90s, this has been said to have changed somewhat.
Between the ages of 10 and 18, Dylan ran away from home seven times.
He is a big fan of the films of John Ford .
He has sometimes erroneously been parodied as having lyrics that are hard to understand due to his singing voice.
According to Dylan writer Clinton Heylin , Dylan's "true story" songs were usually riddled with inaccuracies, with Dylan indifferently taking poetic license with the truth. In "The Lonesome Death of Hattie Carroll", he wrote of William Zantzinger beating Hattie Carroll to death with a cane, when in fact she died of heart failure some time after she had been verbally abused and tapped on the rear end with a toy cane by an inebriated Zantzinger. In "Hurricane" (arguably his most famous "true story" song), Dylan and Jacques Levy got several facts about the case against former boxer Rubin 'Hurricane' Carter wrong, including false accusations of police corruption in the case, claiming without evidence that the witnesses to the crime were lying and claiming that Carter was an almost saint-like figure that "coulda been the champion of the world", when in fact Carter was long past his prime as a boxer and had been known throughout the area as a bully with a brutal, hair-trigger temper. In "Joey" (about murderous mob boss Joe Gallo ) and "John Wesley Harding" (about famous western gunfighter John Wesley Hardin ), Dylan spins the title characters into Robin Hood-like do-gooders, when in fact both men were known to be sadistic killers--Hardin once emptied his pistol through a hotel-room wall because the man on the other side was snoring and keeping Hardin awake. The man died instantly--and unrepentant thieves.
Although it has been reported that Dylan renounced his faith in Christianity, he in fact has never publically renounced it and he only seemed to drift away gradually from being outspoken in regards to his religious beliefs. Despite remaining more subtle in their Christian elements, the songs recorded for the album "Infidels" (often described as the first secular album after the born-again albums) almost all contained some Bible-based material. Dylan was also observed to discuss his preoccupation with Jesus and Armageddon and engage in Christian prayers at least through the mid-1980s and still occasionally sings songs from his "born again" phase today. He also recorded a full-length album of Christmas standards, "Christmas in the Heart", including fairly religious songs, in 2009.
He refused the use of his recording of the song "Moonshiner" in the soundtrack for the film An American Werewolf in London (1981) due to his objections to the moral content of the script since he was at the height of his Christian born-again phase at that point. Ironically, several Dylan songs were used nearly 30 years later in the TV show True Blood (2008), which has similar content.
Although celebrated as one of the most original songwriters of all time, he has borrowed heavily at some points in his songwriting. In his early acoustic days (before 1964), he often put his own original lyrics to melodies and chords cribbed from traditional folk songs, which is a fairly common tradition in blues and folk music. He returned to regularly "borrowing" tunes and lyrics more recently since the late 1990s.
He no longer plays the guitar when performing live, instead either playing on the keyboards or only on his harmonica. Although this has erroneously claimed to be due to back problems, it is apparently due to his opinion of the band's sound. He has accumulated several talented guitarist in his long-time touring band who fill the void.
Parodied by 'Weird Al' Yankovic in the song "Bob", consisting of palindromes sung in a Dylan-like voice.
Awarded the Presidendial Medal of Freedom (the highest civilian award in the United States) by President Barack Obama on 29 May 2012.
He has developed the habit in recent years of making impromptu visits to the childhood homes of musical colleagues he admires. He told Rolling Stone magazine that he has visited the childhood homes of Neil Young , John Lennon and Bruce Springsteen . In Springsteen's case, some neighbors called police when they allegedly saw Dylan peering into the window of Springsteen's childhood home in Long Branch, New Jersey, He was questioned by a pair of police officers who didn't recognize him. He was not arrested.
In 2012 Dylan claimed to Rolling Stone magazine that he was a philosophical believer in transfiguration. He says he came to believe in it after reading "Hell's Angel" by Sonny Barger , former president of the notorious Hell's Angels motorcycle gang, which included a passage about Bobby Zimmerman, a Hell's Angel "president" who is erroneously reported to have died in a biking accident in 1965, coincidentally the same year Dylan was at the zenith of his fame (actually it was 1961 that the biker Zimmerman died, around the time that Dylan started getting noticed in Greenwich Village). Coincidentally, Dylan's birth name was also Robert Zimmerman, a last name also shared by the book's co-authors, Kent Zimmerman and Keith Zimmerman.
In 1963 he canceled a booking on The Ed Sullivan Show (1948) because the show's producers told him that he couldn't sing "Talking John Birch Paranoid Blues".
His songwriting is both narrative and metaphorical.
He is one of the six surviving people mentioned by name in the 1989 Billy Joel song "We Didn't Start the Fire". The other five are Doris Day , Queen Elizabeth II , Brigitte Bardot , Chubby Checker and Bernard Goetz .
Winner of the 2016 Nobel Prize in Literature, "for having created new poetic expressions within the great American song tradition".
He is widely known to be a very private person. He often wears a hoodie and/or a blonde wig when out in public, reportedly because he is very shy and likes to avoid being recognized.
Is lampooned in Seth MacFarlane's Comedy Cavalcade.
Lifelong friend of Van Morrison .
He is the first person to win the Nobel Prize in Literature despite not having written a single book.
Personal Quotes (100)
I think of a hero as someone who understands the degree of responsibility that comes with his freedom.
What's money? A man is a success if he gets up in the morning and goes to bed at night and in between does what he wants to do.
When you feel in your gut what you are and then dynamically pursue it
don't back down and don't give up - then you're going to mystify a
lot of folks.
The radio makes hideous sounds.
What good are fans? You can't eat applause for breakfast. You can't sleep with it.
Take care of all your memories. For you cannot relive them.
People today are still living off the table scraps of the '60s. They are still being passed around - the music and the ideas.
People seldom do what they believe in. They do what is convenient, then repent.
Money doesn't talk, it swears.
Just because you like my stuff doesn't mean I owe you anything.
Maybe in the '90s or possibly in the next century people will look upon the '80s as the age of masturbation, when it was taken to the limit; that might be all that's going on right now in a big way.
If I wasn't Bob Dylan, I'd probably think that Bob Dylan has a lot of answers myself.
It rubs me the wrong way, a camera . . . It's a frightening thing . . . Cameras make ghosts out of people.
I'm speaking for all of us. I'm the spokesman for a generation.
I've never written a political song. Songs can't save the world. I've gone through all that.
I think a poet is anybody who wouldn't call himself a poet.
I say there're no depressed words, just depressed minds.
I like America, just as everybody else does. I love America, I gotta say that. But America will be judged.
I define nothing. Not beauty, not patriotism. I take each thing as it is, without prior rules about what it should be.
I don't think the human mind can comprehend the past and the future. They are both just illusions that can manipulate you into thinking there's some kind of change.
Democracy don't rule the world, You'd better get that in your head; This world is ruled by violence, But I guess that's better left unsaid.
I accept chaos, I'm not sure whether it accepts me.
A poem is a naked person . . . Some people say that I am a poet.
All I can do is be me, whoever that is.
All this talk about equality. The only thing people really have in common is that they are all going to die.
I consider myself a poet first and a musician second. I live like a poet and I'll die like a poet.
Chaos is a friend of mine.
Being on tour is like being in limbo. It's like going from nowhere to nowhere.
A lot of people can't stand touring, but to me it's like breathing. I do it because I'm driven to do it.
A mistake is to commit a misunderstanding.
Being noticed can be a burden. Jesus got himself crucified because he got himself noticed. So I disappear a lot.
Basically you have to suppress your own ambitions in order to be who you need to be.
At times in my life the only place I have been happy is when I am on stage.
I've only written four songs in my whole life, but I've written those four songs a million times.
I wasn't a good husband . . . I don't even know what a good husband is.
[on his song "Everything Is Broken"] Critics usually don't like a song like this coming out of me because it didn't seem to be autobiographical. Maybe not, but the stuff I write does come from an autobiographical place.
[when asked what his songs are "about"] Oh, some are about four minutes; some are about five, and some, believe it or not, are about 11 or 12.
[from his acceptance speech for a lifetime achievement award at the Grammys in 1991] Well, my daddy, he didn't leave me much, you know he was a very simple man, but what he did tell me was this, he did say, "Son," he said, "you know it's possible to become so defiled in this world that your own father and mother will abandon you, and if that happens, God will always believe in your ability to mend your ways.
I know there are groups at the top of the charts that are hailed as the saviors of rock 'n' roll and all that, but they are amateurs. They don't know where the music comes from . . . I wouldn't even think about playing music if I was born in these times . . . I'd probably turn to something like mathematics. That would interest me. Architecture would interest me. Something like that.
They'd like to use my tunes for different beer companies and perfumes and automobiles. I get approached on all that stuff. But, shit, I didn't write them for that reason. That's never been my scene.
You can't be wise and in love at the same time.
I can move, and fake. I know some of the tricks and it all applies artistically, not politically or philosophically.
[on the legendary Woodstock Festival] I didn't want to be part of that thing. I liked the town. I felt they exploited the shit out of that, going up there and getting 15 million people all in the same spot. That don't excite me. The flower generation - is that what it was? I wasn't into that at all. I just thought it was a lot of kids out and around wearing flowers in their hair taking a lot of acid.
[on a visit to Israel in the early 1970s] There was no great significance to that visit, but I'm interested in the fact that Jews are Semites, like Babylonians, Hittites, Arabs, Syrians, Ethiopians. But a Jew is different because a lot of people hate Jews. There's something going on here that's hard to explain.
Those are songs from the Tree of Life. There's no love on the Tree of Life. Love is on the Tree of Knowledge, the Tree of Good and Evil. So we have a lot of songs in popular music about love. Who needs them? Not you, not me. You can use love in a lot of ways in which it will come back to hurt you. Love is a democratic principle. It's a Greek thing.
The bootleg records, those are outrageous. I mean, they have stuff you do in a phone booth. Like, nobody's around. If you're just sitting and strumming in a motel, you don't think anybody's there, you know . . . it's like the phone is tapped and then it appears on a bootleg record. With a cover that's got a picture of you taken from underneath your bed and it's got a striptease-type title and it costs $30. Amazing. Then you wonder why most artists feel so paranoid.
You don't necessarily have to write to be a poet. Some people work in gas stations and they're poets. I don't call myself a poet because I don't like the word. I'm a trapeze artist.
[about Woody Guthrie ] His influence on me was never in inflection or in voice. What drew me to was that hearing his voice, I could tell he was very lonesome, very alone and very lost in his time. That's why I dug him.
[1966] It's the thing to do, to tell all the teeny-boppers, "I dig The Beatles " and you sing a song like "Yesterday" or "Michelle". Hey, God knows, it's such a cop-out, man, both of those songs. If you go into the Library of Congress, you'll find stuff a lot better than that. There are millions of songs like "Michelle" or "Yesterday" written in Tin Pan Alley.
I think of myself as a song-and-dance man.
What the songwriter does is just connect the dots. The ends he sees and the ones given to him and he connects them.
Art is the perpetual motion of illusion. The highest purpose of art is to inspire. What else can you do? What else can you do for anyone but to inspire them?
My childhood is so far away . . . it's like I don't even remember being a child. I think it was someone else who was a child.
People can learn everything about me through my songs, if they know where to look.
[on his hometown of Hibbing, MN] The town didn't have a rabbi, and it was time for me to be bar mitzvahed. Suddenly a rabbi showed up under strange circumstances for only a year. He and his wife got off the bus in the middle of winter. He showed up just in time for me to learn this stuff. He was an old man from Brooklyn who had a white beard and wore a black hat and black clothes. They put him upstairs above the café, which was the local hangout. It was a rock and roll café where I used to hang out, too. I use to go up there every day to learn the stuff, either after school or after dinner. After studying with him an hour or so, I'd come down and boogie.
When I first heard [ Elvis Presley 's] voice I just knew that I wasn't going to work for anybody; and nobody was going to be my boss. Hearing him for the first time was like busting out of jail.
The closest I ever got to the sound I hear in my mind was on individual bands in the "Blonde on Blonde" album. It's that thin, that wild mercury sound. It's metallic and bright gold, with whatever that conjures up. That's my particular sound. I haven't been able to succeed in getting it all the time. Mostly I've been driving at a combination of guitar, harmonica and organ.
My friend's wife is a really bad cook. I broke a tooth on her coffee.
[on Bob Seger ] Some people think Bob is a poor man's Bruce Springsteen , but personally I always thought Bruce was the rich man's Bob Seger . Love 'em both, though.
I always thought I might want to be a doctor. Where else could you ask a woman to take off her clothes and send a bill to her husband?
I always liked songs with parentheses in the title.
The harmonica is the world's best-selling musical instrument. You're welcome.
I'm not ashamed to say that I lived my life to that code. Quite a man, that Gene Autry .
Lipstick traces on cigarettes can get you in trouble or remind you of the wonders of the night before.
Not all songs about crying are necessarily sad.
A giraffe can go a long time without water. But he wants to see the menu right away.
[on Joni Mitchell ] Joni and I go back a long ways. Not all the way back, but pretty far. I've been in a car with Joni. Joni was driving a Lincoln. Excellent driver. I felt safe.
[on Johnny Cash , in 2005] Johnny Cash was more like a religious figure to me. Just the fact that he'd sing one of my songs was unthinkable.
Things will have to change. And one of these things that will have to change: People will have to change their internal world.
I don't consider myself an educator or an explainer. You see what it is that I do, and that I've always done. But it is time now for great men to come forward. With small men, no great things can be accomplished at the moment.
[on Mark Knopfler ] He does me better than anybody.
[on Barack Obama ] Right now, America is in a state of upheaval. Poverty is demoralizing. You can't expect people to have the virtue of purity when they are poor. But we've got this guy there now who is redefining what a politician is, so we'll have to see how things play out. Am I hopeful? Yes, I'm hopeful that things might change. Some things are going to have to.
[following the death of Charlton Heston ] Charlton gets a bad rap for his strong conservative beliefs and involvement with the NRA, but truth to tell, he was a strong advocate for civil rights, many years before it became fashionable ... Never mind the fact that he's in a couple of our favorite movies, including Touch of Evil (1958), The Big Country (1958), Planet of the Apes (1968) and of course, Soylent Green (1973).
[on his songs today] I just come down the line too far to make any superfluous song. I mean, I'm sure I've made enough of them, or that I've got enough superfluous lines in a lot of songs. But I've kind of passed that point. I have to impress myself first, and unless I'm speaking in a certain language to my own self, I don't feel anything less than that will do for the public, really.
I don't break the rules, because I don't see any rules to break. As far as I'm concerned, there aren't any rules.
Genius? There's a real fine line between genius and insanity. Anybody will tell you that.
I would really like to think of myself as a poet, but I just can't because of all the slobs who are called poets.
Art, if there is such a thing, is in the bathrooms; everybody knows that.
[on Paul McCartney ] I'm in awe of McCartney. He's about the only one that I am in awe of. He can do it all. And he's never let up...he's just so damn effortless.
I don't need to be happy. Happiness is kind of a cheap word. Let's face it, I'm not the kind of cat that's going to cut off an ear if I can't do something.
What's so bad about being misunderstood?
[on the question of "message" songs] Well, first of all, anybody that's got a message is going to learn from experience that they can't put it into a song. I mean it's just not going to come out the same message. After one or two of these unsuccessful attempts, one realizes that his resultant message, which is not even the same message he thought up and began with, he's now got to stick by it; because, after all, a song leaves your mouth just as soon as it leaves your hands. Are you following me? Well, anyway, second of all, you've got to respect other people's right to also have a message themselves. Myself, what I'm going to do is rent Town Hall and put about 30 Western Union boys on the bill. I mean, then there'll really be some messages. People will be able to come and hear more messages than they've ever heard before in their life.
[on the question of "what made you decide to go the rock-'n'-roll route?"] Carelessness. I lost my one true love. I started drinking. The first thing I know, I'm in a card game. Then I'm in a crap game. I wake up in a pool hall. Then this big Mexican lady drags me off the table, takes me to Philadelphia. She leaves me alone in her house, and it burns down. I wind up in Phoenix. I get a job as a Chinaman. I start working in a dime store, and move in with a 13-year-old girl. Then this big Mexican lady from Philadelphia comes in and burns the house down. I go down to Dallas. I get a job as a "before" in a Charles Atlas "before and after" ad. I move in with a delivery boy who can cook fantastic chili and hot dogs. Then this 13-year-old girl from Phoenix comes and burns the house down. The delivery boy - he ain't so mild: He gives her the knife, and the next thing I know I'm in Omaha. It's so cold there, by this time I'm robbing my own bicycles and frying my own fish. I stumble onto some luck and get a job as a carburetor out at the hot-rod races every Thursday night. I move in with a high school teacher who also does a little plumbing on the side, who ain't much to look at, but who's built a special kind of refrigerator that can turn newspaper into lettuce. Everything's going good until that delivery boy shows up and tries to knife me. Needless to say, he burned the house down, and I hit the road. The first guy that picked me up asked me if I wanted to be a star. What could I say?
People have different emotional levels. Especially when you're young. Back then I guess most of my influences could be thought of as eccentric. Mass media had no overwhelming reach so I was drawn to the traveling performers passing through. The side show performers - bluegrass singers, the black cowboy with chaps and a lariat doing rope tricks. Miss Europe, Quasimodo, the Bearded Lady, the half-man half-woman, the deformed and the bent, Atlas the Dwarf, the fire-eaters, the teachers and preachers, the blues singers. I remember it like it was yesterday. I got close to some of these people. I learned about dignity from them. Freedom too. Civil rights, human rights. How to stay within yourself. Most others were into the rides like the tilt-a-whirl and the roller-coaster. To me that was the nightmare. All the giddiness. The artificiality of it. The sledge hammer of life. It didn't make sense or seem real. The stuff off the main road was where force of reality was. At least it struck me that way. When I left home those feelings didn't change.
I'm coming out of the folk music tradition and that's the vernacular and archetypal aesthetic that I've experienced. Those are the dynamics of it. I couldn't have written songs for the Brill Building if I tried. Whatever passes for pop music, I couldn't do it then and I can't do it now.
[on what kind of artist he is] Byronesque maybe. Look, when I started out, mainstream culture was [ Frank Sinatra ], Perry Como , Andy Williams , The Sound of Music (1965). There was no fitting into it then and of course, there's no fitting into it now. Some of my songs have crossed over but they were all done by other singers.
[on artist from the 1960s who still play songs in the same way they always have] Those guys all had conspicuous hits. They started out anti-establishment and now they are in charge of the world. Celebratory songs. Music for the grand dinner party. Mainstream stuff that played into the culture on a pervasive level. My stuff is different from those guys. It's more desperate. [ Roger Daltrey ], [ Pete Townshend ], [ Paul McCartney ], the Beach Boys, [ Elton John ], Billy Joel . They made perfect records, so they have to play them perfectly...exactly the way people remember them. My records were never perfect. So there is no point in trying to duplicate them. Anyway, I'm no mainstream artist.
Sometimes I might shift paradigms within the same song, but then that structure also has its own rules. And I combine them both, see what works and what doesn't. My range is limited. Some formulas are too complex and I don't want anything to do with them.
The myth of the starving artist is a myth. The big bankers and prominent young ladies who buy art started it. They just want to keep the artist under their thumb. Who says an artist can't have any money? Look at Picasso. The starving artist is usually starving for those around him to starve. You don't have to starve to be a good artist. You just have to have love, insight and a strong point of view. And you have to fight off depravity. Uncompromising, that's what makes a good artist. It doesn't matter if he has money or not. Look at Matisse; he was a banker. Anyway, there are other things that constitute wealth and poverty besides money.
A saint is a person who gives of himself totally and freely, without strings. He is neither deaf nor blind. And yet he's both. He's the master of his own reality, the voice of simplicity. The trick is to stay away from mirror images. The only true mirrors are puddles of water.
Politics was always one because there were people who were trying to change things. They were involved in the political game because that is how they had to change things. But I have always considered politics just part of the illusion. I don't get involved much in politics. I don't know what the system runs on. For instance, there are people who have definite ideas or who studied all the systems of government. A lot of those people with college-educational backgrounds tended to come in and use up everybody for whatever purposes they had in mind. And, of course, they used music, because music was accessible and we would have done that stuff and written those songs and sung them whether there was any politics or not. I never did renounce a role in politics, because I never played one in politics. It would be comical for me to think that I played a role. Gurdjieff thinks it's best to work out your mobility daily.
You can be a priest and be in rock 'n' roll. Being a rock-'n'-roll singer is no different from being a house painter. You climb up as high as you want to.
[on folk rock] It's all music. No more, no less. I know in my own mind what I'm doing. If anyone has imagination, he'll know what I'm doing. If they can't understand my songs they're missing something. If they can't understand green clocks, wet chairs, purple lamps or hostile statues, they're missing something too.
[on the recordings that become known as 'The Basement Tapes'] I didn't know how to record the way other people were recording, and I didn't want to. The Beatles had just released Sgt. Pepper which I didn't like at all. I thought that was a very indulgent album, though the songs on it were real good. I didn't think all that production was necessary.
I don't care what people expect of me. Doesn't concern me. I'm doing God's work. That's all I know.
If you're not fulfilled in other ways, performing can never make you happy. Performing is something you have to learn how to do. You do it, you get better at it and you keep going. And if you don't get better at it, you have to give it up...Whatever you do, you have to be the best at it-Highly skilled. It's about confidence- not arrogance. You have to know you're the best whether someone tells you that or not. And that you'll be around, in one way or another, longer than anybody else.
Folk musicians, blues musicians did write a lot of songs about the "Titanic". That's what I feel I'm best at, being a folk musician or a blue musician, so in my mind it's there to be done. If you're a folk singer, blues singer, rock & roll singer, whatever, in that realm, you oughta write a song about the "Titanic", because that's the bar you have to pass.
The Fifties were a simpler time, at least for me and the situation I was in. I didn't really experience what a lot of other people my age experienced, from the more mainstream towns and cities. Where I grew up was about as far from the cultural center as you could get. It was way out of the beaten path. You had the whole town to roam around in, though, and there didn't seem to be any sadness or fear or insecurity. It was just woods and sky and rivers and streams, winter and summer, spring, autumn. The changing of the seasons. The cultural was mainly circuses and carnivals, preachers and barnstorming pilots, hillbilly shows and comedians, big bands and whatnot. Powerful radio shows and powerful radio music. This was before supermarkets and malls and multiplexes and Home Depots and all the rest.
[on Bing Crosby] A lot of people would like to sing like Bing Crosby, but very few could match his phrasing or depth of tone. He's influenced every real singer whether they know it or not. I used to hear Bing Crosby as a kid and not really pay attention to him. But he got inside me nevertheless.
[on Gordon Lightfoot] Every time I hear a song of his, it's like I wish it would last forever.
See also
| Minnesota |
What is the action of a falcon diving on it's prey called | Bob Dylan | The Official Bob Dylan Site
Liner notes:
Produced by John Hammond
Columbia records is proud to introduce a major new figure in American folk music -- Bob Dylan.
Excitement has been running high since the young man with a guitar ambled into a Columbia recording studio for two sessions in November, 1961. For at only 20, Dylan is the most unusual new talent in American folk music.
His talent takes many forms. He is one of the most compelling white blues singers ever recorded. He is a songwriter of exceptional facility and cleverness. He is an uncommonly skillful guitar player and harmonica player.
In less than one year in New York, Bob Dylan has thrown the folk crowd into an uproar. Ardent fans have been shouting his praises. Devotees have found in him the image of a singing rebel, a musical Chaplin tramp, a young Woody Guthrie, or a composite of some of the best country blues singers.
A good deal of Dylan's steel-string guitar work runs strongly in the blues vein, although he will vary it with country configurations, Merle Travis picking and other methods. Sometimes he frets his instrument with the back of a kitchen knife or even a metal lipstick holder, giving it the clangy virility of the primitive country blues men. His pungent, driving, witty harmonica is sometimes used in the manner of Walter Jacobs, who plays with the Muddy Waters' band in Chicago, or the evocative manner of Sonny Terry.
Another strong influence on Bob Dylan was not a musician primarily, although he has written music, but a comedian -- Charlie Chaplin. After seeing many Chaplin films, Dylan found himself beginning to pick up some of the gestures of the classic tramp of silent films. Now as he appears on the stage in a humorous number, you can see Dylan nervously tapping his hat, adjusting it, using it as a prop, almost leaning on it, as the Chaplin tramp did before him.
Yet despite his comic flair, Bob Dylan has, for one so young, a curious preoccupation with songs about death. Although he is rarely inarticulate, Dylan can't explain the attraction of these songs, beyond the power and emotional wallop they give him, and which he passes on to his listeners. It may be that three years ago, when a serious illness struck him, that he got an indelible insight into what those death-haunted blues men were singing about.
-- His Life and Times --
Bob Dylan was born in Duluth, Minnesota, on May 24, 1941. After living briefly in Sioux Falls, South Dakota, and Gallup, New Mexico, he graduated from high school in Hibbing, Minnesota "way up by the Canadian border."
For six troubled months, Bob attended the University of Minnesota on a scholarship. But like so many of the restless, questioning students of his generation, the formal confines of college couldn't hold him.
"I didn't agree with school," he says. "I flunked out. I read a lot, but not the required readings."
He remembers staying up all night plowing through the philosophy of Kant instead of reading "Living With the Birds" for a science course.
"Mostly ," he summarizes his college days, "I couldn't stay in one place long enough."
Bob Dylan first came East in February, 1961. His destination: the Greystone Hospital in New Jersey. His purpose: to visit the long-ailing Woody Guthrie, singer, ballad-maker and poet. It was the beginning of a deep friendship between the two. Although they were separated by thirty years and two generations, they were united by a love of music, a kindred sense of humor and a common view toward the world.
The young man from the provinces began to make friends very quickly in New York, all the while continuing, as he has since he was ten, to assimilate musical ideas from everyone he met, every record he heard. He fell in with Dave Van Ronk and Jack Elliott, two of the most dedicated musicians then playing in Greenwich Village, and swapped songs, ideas and stylistic conceptions with them. He played at the Gaslight Coffeehouse, and in April, 1961, appeared opposite John Lee Hooker, the blues singer, at Gerde's Folk City. Word of Dylan's talent began to grow, but in the surcharged atmosphere of rivalry that has crept into the folk-music world, so did envy. His "Talkin' New York" is a musical comment on his reception in New York.
Recalling his first professional music job, Bob says:
"I never thought I would shoot lightning through the sky in the entertainment world."
In 1959, in Central City, Colorado, he had that first job, in rough and tumble striptease joint.
"I was onstage for just a few minutes with my folk songs. Then the strippers would come on. The crowd would yell for more stripping, but they went off, and I'd come bouncing back with my folky songs. As the night got longer, the air got heavier, the audience got drunker and nastier, and I got sicker and finally I got fired."
Bob Dylan started to sing and play guitar when he was ten. Five to six years later he wrote his first song, dedicated to Brigitte Bardot. All the time, he listened to everything with both ears -- Hank Williams, the late Jimmie Rodgers, Jelly Roll Morton, Woody Guthrie, Carl Perkins, early Elvis Presley. A meeting with Mance Lipscomb, Texas songster, left its mark on his work, as did the blues recordings of Rabbit Brown and Big Joe Williams. He speaks worshipfully of the sense of pace and timing the great blues men had, and it has become a trademark of his work already. His speed at assimilating new styles and digesting them is not the least startling thing about Bob Dylan.
The future:
"I just want to keep on singing and writing songs like I am doing now. I just want to get along. I don't think about making a million dollars. If I had a lot of money what would I do?" he asked himself, closed his eyes, shifted the hat on his head and smiled:
"I would buy a couple of motorcycles, a few air-conditioners and four or five couches."
-- His Songs --
The number that opens this album, "You're No Good," was learned from Jesse Fuller, the West coast singer. Its vaudeville flair and exaggeration are used to heighten the mock anger of the lyrics.
"Talkin' New York" is a diary note set to music. In May, 1961, Dylan started to hitchhike West, not overwhelmingly pleased at what he had seen and experienced in New York. At a truck stop along the highway he started to scribble down a few impressions of the city he left behind. They were comic, but tinged with a certain sarcastic bite, very much in the Guthrie vein.
Dylan had never sung "In My Time of Dyin'" prior to this recording session. He does not recall where he first heard it. The guitar is fretted with the lipstick holder he borrowed from his girl, Susie Rotolo, who sat devotedly and wide-eyed through the recording session.
"Man of Constant Sorrow" is a traditional Southern mountain folk song of considerable popularity and age, but probably never sung quite in this fashion before.
"Fixin' to Die," which echoes the spirit and some of the words of "In My Time of Dyin'," was learned from an old recording by Bukka White.
A traditional Scottish song is the bare bones on which Dylan hangs "Pretty Peggy-O." But the song has lost its burr and acquired instead a Texas accent, and a few new verses and fillips by the singer.
A diesel-tempoed "Highway 51" is of a type sung by the Everly Brothers, partially rewritten by Dylan. His guitar is tuned to an open tuning and features a particularly compelling vamping figure. Similarly up tempo is his version of "Gospel Plow," which turns the old spiritual into a virtually new song.
Eric Von Schmidt, a young artist and blues singer from Boston, was the source of "Baby, Let Me Follow You Down." "House of the Risin' Sun" is a traditional lament of a New Orleans woman driven into prostitution by poverty. Dylan learned the song from the singing of Dave Van Ronk: "I'd always known 'Risin' Sun' but never really knew I knew it until I heard Dave sing it." The singer's version of "Freight Train Blues" was adapted from an old disk by Roy Acuff.
"Song to Woody," is another original by Bob Dylan, dedicated to one of his greatest inspirations, and written much in the musical language of his idol.
Ending this album is the surging power and tragedy of Blind Lemon Jefferson's blues -- "See That My Grave Is Kept Clean." The poignance and passion of this simple song reveals both the country blues tradition -- and its newest voice, Bob Dylan -- at their very finest.
-- Stacey Williams
"Bob Dylan: A Distinctive Folk-Song Stylist"
From the "New York Times," Friday, September 29, 1961
by Robert Shelton
A bright new face in folk music is appearing at Gerde's Folk City. Although only 20 years old, Bob Dylan is one of the most distinctive stylists to play in a Manhattan cabaret in months.
Resembling a cross between a choir boy and a beatnik, Mr. Dylan has a cherubic look and a mop of tousled hair he partly covers with a Huck Finn black corduroy cap. His clothes may need a bit of tailoring, but when he works his guitar, harmonica or piano and composes new songs faster than he can remember them, there is no doubt that he is bursting at the seams with talent.
Mr. Dylan's voice is anything but pretty. He is consciously trying to recapture the rude beauty of a Southern field hand musing in melody on his porch. All the "husk and bark" are left on his notes and searing intensities pervades his songs.
Mr. Dylan is both comedian and tragedian. Like a vaudeville actor on the rural circuit, he offers a variety of droll musical monologues: "Talking Bear Mountain" lampoons the overcrowding of an excursion boat, "Talkin' New York" satirizes his troubles in gaining recognition and "Talking Havah Nageilah" burlesques the folk-music craze and the singer himself.
In his serious vein, Mr. Dylan seems to be performing in a slow-motion film. Elasticized phrases are drawn out until you think they may snap. He rocks his head and body, closes his eyes in reverie and seems to be groping for a word or a mood, then resolves the tension benevolently by finding the word and the mood.
Mr. Dylan's highly personalized approach toward folk song is still evolving. He has been sopping up influences like a sponge. At times, the drama he aims at is off-target melodrama and his stylization threatens to topple over as a mannered excess.
But if not for every taste, his music-making has the mask of originality and inspiration, all the more noteworthy for his youth. Mr., Dylan is the more noteworthy for his youth. Mr. Dylan is vague about his antecedents and birthplace, but it matters less where he has been than where he is going, and that would seem to be straight up.
Show all
| i don't know |
Which is the most widely spread bird in the world found on every continent except Antarctica | Whooo's in There? Images of Amazing Owls
Whooo's in There? Images of Amazing Owls
By Live Science Staff |
April 26, 2011 03:33pm ET
MORE
Barn Owl
Credit: Thomas G. Barnes | U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Like the osprey, the barn owl (Tyto alba) is found on all continents except Antarctica. It prefers to live near grassy fields and meadows, where it hunts mice, bats and even skunks. Its white face is framed by a heart-shaped facial disk, and its tawny body is flecked with small black-and-white spots. The barn owl doesn't make the expected "hoot" sound, instead producing a high-pitched scream that sounds like a screeching cat.
Tracking Bird Flight
Credit: DLR
German scientists are using an eight-camera device to record the flight movements and changing wing shape of Happy, one of a pair of barn owls at RTWH Aachen University being studied.
Northern hawk owl
A Northern hawk owl (Surnia ulula) in Manitoba, Canada. The owl gets its name from its relatively flat head, long tail, hawklike flight pattern and its daytime hunting, according to the Minnesota Department of Natural Resources.
Great gray owl
The great gray owl's head never turns away from the scurrying rodent under the snow, according to photographer Ann Cook.
Prey captured
At this stage, the prey is firmly gripped in the powerful talons of this great gray owl.
Sexy big spots
Credit: Dreamstime.
The most widely spread of any owl species, barn owls are found on every continent except Antarctica. They are solitary, or found in pairs. It turns out, female barn owls with larger spots up their sexy quotient, and have greater success in mating, according to a study published in 2010 in the Biological Journal of the Linnean Society.
Boreal owl
| Barn owl |
What is an eagle's nest called | Whooo's in There? Images of Amazing Owls
Whooo's in There? Images of Amazing Owls
By Live Science Staff |
April 26, 2011 03:33pm ET
MORE
Barn Owl
Credit: Thomas G. Barnes | U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Like the osprey, the barn owl (Tyto alba) is found on all continents except Antarctica. It prefers to live near grassy fields and meadows, where it hunts mice, bats and even skunks. Its white face is framed by a heart-shaped facial disk, and its tawny body is flecked with small black-and-white spots. The barn owl doesn't make the expected "hoot" sound, instead producing a high-pitched scream that sounds like a screeching cat.
Tracking Bird Flight
Credit: DLR
German scientists are using an eight-camera device to record the flight movements and changing wing shape of Happy, one of a pair of barn owls at RTWH Aachen University being studied.
Northern hawk owl
A Northern hawk owl (Surnia ulula) in Manitoba, Canada. The owl gets its name from its relatively flat head, long tail, hawklike flight pattern and its daytime hunting, according to the Minnesota Department of Natural Resources.
Great gray owl
The great gray owl's head never turns away from the scurrying rodent under the snow, according to photographer Ann Cook.
Prey captured
At this stage, the prey is firmly gripped in the powerful talons of this great gray owl.
Sexy big spots
Credit: Dreamstime.
The most widely spread of any owl species, barn owls are found on every continent except Antarctica. They are solitary, or found in pairs. It turns out, female barn owls with larger spots up their sexy quotient, and have greater success in mating, according to a study published in 2010 in the Biological Journal of the Linnean Society.
Boreal owl
| i don't know |
Which two colours are on the beak of a bewick swan | Swan Species
Swan Species
THE SEVEN SPECIES OF SWANS
Mute Swans originated in Europe and
Asia
and are the most common captive swans found on lakes and ponds in private settings such as resorts, zoos, parks and estates. Mute Swans are not really mute. They are less vocal than other species of swans due to the anatomy of their trachea, which goes straight into the lungs instead of being embedded in the sternum.
The English Mute and the Polish Mute Swans look very similar. The difference is in the coloring of their bills and feet. The English Mute have reddish orange bills and jet black feet. The Polish Mute is a pure white version of the Mute Swan. They have bright orange bills and light buff-colored/ grayish colored feet.
Mute Swans produce a clutch of young once a year. Mute Swans typically have between 5-10 eggs and typical brood sizes are from 1-9 cygnets. Incubation is between 30-40 days.
Captive male Mute Swans typically weigh between 24-30 pounds with the females weighing approximately 17-23 pounds. Mute Swans’ wingspans average 78 inches.
Australian Black Swans
Australian Black Swans originated in the Botany Bay and
Perth
areas of
Australia
. The black swans are typically more aggressive than other swan species especially during mating and nesting seasons. This species is highly aggressive and will actively seek out predators or intruders.
The Black Swan is black in color with white tips on its wings. The bird’s red bill has a pale band at the tip. The male black swan’s red eyes will turn white during mating season.
Captive male Black Swans typically weigh between 13-14 pounds with the females weighing approximately 11-12 pounds. Black Swans’ wingspans average 77 inches.
Black Swans typically have between 1-9 eggs. Typical brood sizes are 1-5 cygnets. Incubation is approximately 36 days. Black Swans produce two clutches of young a year.
The Whooper Swan is the national bird of
Finland
. This Old World swan is a very rare visitor to
Alaska
and
Korea
. The Whooper Swan is a white swan with a yellow bill. Average wingspan is 72 inches.
Nesting begins as soon as the ice melts in early March or April. Nests are built on small islets surrounded by water. Clutch size for a Whooper Swan is about 4-6 white-colored eggs. Incubation lasts about 34-36 days.
Whooper Swans are social birds that are extremely noisy. Whoopers like cold weather but have been successfully raised and bred in the hot, humid climate of the southeastern United States.
North American Trumpeter Swans
The Trumpeter Swan is indigenous to North America. The Trumpeter is know for its unique “trumpeting” call. The bird is pure white with a jet-black bill with a red border on the lower mandible.
Average wingspan is 70-84 inches. These birds are the largest waterfowl in the United States and the largest swan species. Males can weigh up to 35 pounds.
Nesting begins in late March through early May. The pen will lay from 3-9 eggs. Incubation is done only by the pen and lasts for about 33-35 days.
North American Tundra Swans
The Tundra Swan has been called the “American or Whistling” Swan and is indigenous to North America. It gets its name from the “whistling” sound made by the slow, powerful beating of its wings in flight. The Tundra Swan has a black bill with a yellow lore below the eye. Like the Trumpeter, the Tundra Swan may have a red lower mandible. Tundras can be distinguished from Trumpeter Swans by their higher pitched, more soft, and melodious calls.
The Tundra Swan is a much smaller bird. Average wingspan is 62 inches with a body length of 45 inches. Nesting begins in late May or early June. Clutch size is about 4-6 eggs and the egss are cream-colored. Only the pen incubates the eggs and the incubation lasts about 32 days.
These swans like cold weather and live on the tundra in North American, hence their name. However, this species has been successfully raised and bred in the hot, humid climate of the southeastern United States.
Bewick Swans: (Eurasian Sub-species of the North American Tundra Swans)
The Eurasian sub-species of the Tundra Swans, the Bewick Swans, are found in Russia and migrate to parts of Japan. The Bewick Swan is a close relative to the Tundra Swan and has not been recognized as a separate, distinct species of swans.
This swan has a higher, straighter, yellow and black bill, which is more angular near the base and has a longer yellow patch . The pattern of black and yellow bills of the Bewick and Whooper Swans’ are unique to each bird and can be easily misidentified.
Average body length is 48 inches long with a 64 inch wingspan. The Bewick usually has a clutch of 3-4, off-white colored eggs. The clutch size is the smallest of all swan species. Incubation lasts about 30 days.
South American Black-Necked Swans
The South American Black-Necked Swan is the most delicate of the swan species and the most expensive. These birds must be protected from extreme cold climates.
The plumage on this species feature a white body and wings with a black neck and very distinctive and noticeable pink-colored feet. The birds have a gray bill with a bright red lobe on the base of the bill.
The legs of this species are set farther back than other swan species, which makes exiting the water for these birds rather difficult. For this reason, these swans stay in the water for greater periods of time and prefer larger bodies of water for their food supply.
In the United States, the Black-Necked Swans can begin laying eggs in late January, so care must be taken that cold weather does not freeze the eggs. Nests are built in thick vegetation near the water. Their breeding season begins in July and can extend through November. This species of swans does not like other swans around during breeding season. Otherwise, they are socially compatible with other waterfowl.
Clutch sizes range from 3 to 7 eggs and are incubated by only the pen for about 36 days. Black-Necks also have a greater propensity to carry their young on their back than other swans.
South American Coscoroba Swans
The Coscoroba Swan looks like a small goose or duck. The birds have pure white feathers with a coral-colored beak and coral-colored legs. Average wing span is 37 inches with a body length of 35 inches.
The Coscoroba Swan species is now a protected species under the Washington Convention and in the Chilean Red Book.
Nesting occurs in the late spring. Average clutch size is 4-7 eggs. Incubation of the eggs is done by the pen and lasts about 35 days. Rain seems to be an important factor determining clutch sizes.
| Black and Yellow |
What is the collective noun for lapwings | Swan Species
Swan Species
THE SEVEN SPECIES OF SWANS
Mute Swans originated in Europe and
Asia
and are the most common captive swans found on lakes and ponds in private settings such as resorts, zoos, parks and estates. Mute Swans are not really mute. They are less vocal than other species of swans due to the anatomy of their trachea, which goes straight into the lungs instead of being embedded in the sternum.
The English Mute and the Polish Mute Swans look very similar. The difference is in the coloring of their bills and feet. The English Mute have reddish orange bills and jet black feet. The Polish Mute is a pure white version of the Mute Swan. They have bright orange bills and light buff-colored/ grayish colored feet.
Mute Swans produce a clutch of young once a year. Mute Swans typically have between 5-10 eggs and typical brood sizes are from 1-9 cygnets. Incubation is between 30-40 days.
Captive male Mute Swans typically weigh between 24-30 pounds with the females weighing approximately 17-23 pounds. Mute Swans’ wingspans average 78 inches.
Australian Black Swans
Australian Black Swans originated in the Botany Bay and
Perth
areas of
Australia
. The black swans are typically more aggressive than other swan species especially during mating and nesting seasons. This species is highly aggressive and will actively seek out predators or intruders.
The Black Swan is black in color with white tips on its wings. The bird’s red bill has a pale band at the tip. The male black swan’s red eyes will turn white during mating season.
Captive male Black Swans typically weigh between 13-14 pounds with the females weighing approximately 11-12 pounds. Black Swans’ wingspans average 77 inches.
Black Swans typically have between 1-9 eggs. Typical brood sizes are 1-5 cygnets. Incubation is approximately 36 days. Black Swans produce two clutches of young a year.
The Whooper Swan is the national bird of
Finland
. This Old World swan is a very rare visitor to
Alaska
and
Korea
. The Whooper Swan is a white swan with a yellow bill. Average wingspan is 72 inches.
Nesting begins as soon as the ice melts in early March or April. Nests are built on small islets surrounded by water. Clutch size for a Whooper Swan is about 4-6 white-colored eggs. Incubation lasts about 34-36 days.
Whooper Swans are social birds that are extremely noisy. Whoopers like cold weather but have been successfully raised and bred in the hot, humid climate of the southeastern United States.
North American Trumpeter Swans
The Trumpeter Swan is indigenous to North America. The Trumpeter is know for its unique “trumpeting” call. The bird is pure white with a jet-black bill with a red border on the lower mandible.
Average wingspan is 70-84 inches. These birds are the largest waterfowl in the United States and the largest swan species. Males can weigh up to 35 pounds.
Nesting begins in late March through early May. The pen will lay from 3-9 eggs. Incubation is done only by the pen and lasts for about 33-35 days.
North American Tundra Swans
The Tundra Swan has been called the “American or Whistling” Swan and is indigenous to North America. It gets its name from the “whistling” sound made by the slow, powerful beating of its wings in flight. The Tundra Swan has a black bill with a yellow lore below the eye. Like the Trumpeter, the Tundra Swan may have a red lower mandible. Tundras can be distinguished from Trumpeter Swans by their higher pitched, more soft, and melodious calls.
The Tundra Swan is a much smaller bird. Average wingspan is 62 inches with a body length of 45 inches. Nesting begins in late May or early June. Clutch size is about 4-6 eggs and the egss are cream-colored. Only the pen incubates the eggs and the incubation lasts about 32 days.
These swans like cold weather and live on the tundra in North American, hence their name. However, this species has been successfully raised and bred in the hot, humid climate of the southeastern United States.
Bewick Swans: (Eurasian Sub-species of the North American Tundra Swans)
The Eurasian sub-species of the Tundra Swans, the Bewick Swans, are found in Russia and migrate to parts of Japan. The Bewick Swan is a close relative to the Tundra Swan and has not been recognized as a separate, distinct species of swans.
This swan has a higher, straighter, yellow and black bill, which is more angular near the base and has a longer yellow patch . The pattern of black and yellow bills of the Bewick and Whooper Swans’ are unique to each bird and can be easily misidentified.
Average body length is 48 inches long with a 64 inch wingspan. The Bewick usually has a clutch of 3-4, off-white colored eggs. The clutch size is the smallest of all swan species. Incubation lasts about 30 days.
South American Black-Necked Swans
The South American Black-Necked Swan is the most delicate of the swan species and the most expensive. These birds must be protected from extreme cold climates.
The plumage on this species feature a white body and wings with a black neck and very distinctive and noticeable pink-colored feet. The birds have a gray bill with a bright red lobe on the base of the bill.
The legs of this species are set farther back than other swan species, which makes exiting the water for these birds rather difficult. For this reason, these swans stay in the water for greater periods of time and prefer larger bodies of water for their food supply.
In the United States, the Black-Necked Swans can begin laying eggs in late January, so care must be taken that cold weather does not freeze the eggs. Nests are built in thick vegetation near the water. Their breeding season begins in July and can extend through November. This species of swans does not like other swans around during breeding season. Otherwise, they are socially compatible with other waterfowl.
Clutch sizes range from 3 to 7 eggs and are incubated by only the pen for about 36 days. Black-Necks also have a greater propensity to carry their young on their back than other swans.
South American Coscoroba Swans
The Coscoroba Swan looks like a small goose or duck. The birds have pure white feathers with a coral-colored beak and coral-colored legs. Average wing span is 37 inches with a body length of 35 inches.
The Coscoroba Swan species is now a protected species under the Washington Convention and in the Chilean Red Book.
Nesting occurs in the late spring. Average clutch size is 4-7 eggs. Incubation of the eggs is done by the pen and lasts about 35 days. Rain seems to be an important factor determining clutch sizes.
| i don't know |
Complete the proverb, Don't make a mountain out of | make a mountain out of a molehill Meaning in the Cambridge English Dictionary
› to make a slight difficulty seem like a serious problem :
You're making a mountain out of a molehill . You wrote one bad essay - it doesn't mean you're going to fail .
(Definition of “make a mountain out of a molehill” from the Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary & Thesaurus © Cambridge University Press)
"make a mountain out of a molehill" in American English
| Molehill |
According to the proverb what is too much for one enough for two but not enough for three | Make a mountain out of a molehill - Idioms by The Free Dictionary
Make a mountain out of a molehill - Idioms by The Free Dictionary
http://idioms.thefreedictionary.com/make+a+mountain+out+of+a+molehill
Related to make a mountain out of a molehill: snake in the grass , make the feathers fly
make a mountain out of a molehill
Cliché to make a major issue out of a minor one; to exaggerate the importance of something. Come on, don't make a mountain out of a molehill. It's not that important. Mary is always making mountains out of molehills.
make a mountain out of a molehill
also make a molehill into a mountain
to cause something simple to seem much more difficult or important McAleer knows there's a mistake in the book and promised to correct it, but Rosen continues to complain about it - she's really trying to make a mountain out of a molehill. Clever lawyers can make a molehill into a mountain.
Usage notes: sometimes used in the form make a molehill out of a mountain (to cause something difficult to be much easier): By dividing up a big assignment and working on it a little bit every day, you can make a molehill out of a mountain.
See also: make , mountain , of , out
make a mountain out of a molehill
to make a slight difficulty seem like a serious problem (usually in continuous tenses) You're making a mountain out of a molehill. You wrote one bad essay - it doesn't mean you're going to fail your degree.
See also: make , mountain , of , out
make a mountain out of a molehill
Exaggerate trifling difficulties, as in If you forgot you racket you can borrow one-don't make a mountain out of a molehill. This expression, alluding to the barely raised tunnels created by moles, was first recorded in John Fox's The Book of Martyrs (1570).
make a mountain out of a molehill
To exaggerate a minor problem.
| i don't know |
Which four words complete the proverb, No bees, no honey | Complete list insect proverbs and quotes
A coconut shell full of water is a sea to an ant.
Indian
A coconut shell full of water is an ocean to an ant.
An ant can do more than an ox that is lying down.
An ant guarding a mango
Used for a boy who is careful not to let other boys near his girlfriend
An ant hole may collapse an embankment.
Japanese
An ant is over six feet tall when measured by its own foot-rule.
Slovenian
An ant may work its heart out, but it can’t make money.
An ant on the move does more than a dozing ox.
Mexican
An ant watching over a bunch of mangoes
Worrying about something you will not get any benefit from
An ant’s nest could bring down a hill.
Japanese
Ants can attack with a grain of rice.
Madagascar
Ants live safely till they have gotten wings.
Ants never lend, ants never borrow.
Any spoke will lead the ant to the hub.
At high tide fish eat ants; at low tide ants eat fish.
Thailand
Be thine enemy an ant, see in him an elephant.
Turkish
Better an ant’s head than a lion’s tail.
Maltese
Better to be an ant’s head than a lion’s tail.
Armenian
Caution is not cowardice; even the ants march armed.
Ugandan
Don’t even step on an ant.
Greek
Even an ant can hurt an elephant.
Proverb
Even the ant has his bite.
Turkish
Even the sharpest ear cannot hear an ant singing.
Sudanese
Even the wishes of a small ant reach heaven.
Japanese
Every ruler sleeps on an anthill.
Afghani
For an ant to have wings would be his undoing.
Iranian
Go to the ant thou sluggard; consider her ways, and be wise.
Bible: Proverbs 6:6
Go to the ant you sluggard
Bible: Proverbs 6:6 A warning against laziness.
He who cannot pick up an ant, and wants to pick up an elephant will some day see his folly.
African
He who runs from the white ant may stumble upon the stinging ant.
Nigeria
He who storms in like a whirlwind returns like an ant.
Borneo
If they are offered winged ants, people will eat them.
African
In a battle between elephants, the ants get squashed
Thailand
In an ant colony dew is a flood.
Afghan
In every enemy that is an ant, behold an elephant.
Turkish
Many ants kill a camel.
Turkish
None preaches better than the ant, and she says nothing.
She’s got ants in her pants
A state of restless impatience.
Stir up an ant’s nest.
The ambitious one makes friends with the elephant, then tramples upon the ant.
Indian
The constant creeping of ants will wear away the stone.
The eyeless ant asked God: Give me eye-lashes.
Georgian
The little ant at its hole is full of courage.
African
The tiny ant dares to enter the lion’s ear.
Armenian
The world flatters the elephant and tramples on the ant.
Indian
Though your enemy is the size of an ant, look upon him as an elephant.
Danish
To the ant, a few drops of dew is a flood.
Iranian
When an ant gets wings, it loses its head.
Bosnian
When the ant grows wings it is about to die.
Arabic
When the water rises the fish eat the ants, when the water falls the ants eat the fish
Where the sugar is, there will the ant be also.
Philippines
Where there is sugar, there are bound to be ants.
Malay
An elephant may be big, but it falls on its face more often than an ant.
“Semut diseberang lautan terlihat, gajah didepan mata tidak” – An ant across the ocean is seen, but not the elephant nearby
Malay / Indonesian This is a proverb for a person who sees faults in others while not seeing obvious faults in themselves
A bee in (one’s) bonnet
An impulsive, often eccentric turn of mind; a notion.
A bee was never caught in a shower.
English
A dead bee will make no honey.
English
A hive of bees in May is worth a load of hay.
As busy as a bee.
Bees do not become hornets.
French
Bees that have honey in their mouths have stings in their tails.
English
Better a handful of bees than a basket full of flies.
Moroccan
Better have one bee than a host of flies.
Italian
Bless the flowers and the weeds, my birds and bees.
Boys avoid the bees that stung’em.
English
Every bee’s honey is sweet.
English
From the same flower the bee extracts honey and the wasp gall.
He who would gather honey must bear the sting of the bees.
He’s like the master bee that leads forth the swarm.
English
If a bee didn’t have a sting, she couldn’t keep her honey.
If a bee stings you once, it’s the bee’s fault; if a bee stings you twice, it’s your own damn fault.
If you let the bee be, the bee will let you be.
In that day the LORD will whistle for flies from the distant streams of Egypt and for bees from the land of Assyria.
Bible: Isaiah 7:18
Its the roving bee that gathers honey.
No bees, no honey; no work, no money.
Old bees yield no honey.
One bee is as good as a handful of flies.
German
One bee is better than a thousand flies.
Spanish
She thinks she’s the bee’s knees
She has a very high opinion of herself.
Sweet as honey.
The bee stays not in a hive that has no honey.
Turkish
The bee that makes the honey doesn’t stand around the hive, and the man who makes the money has to worry, work, and strive.
The bee works all summer and eats honey all winter.
The bee’s knees
An excellent or the best person or thing.
The bees make honey but cannot eat it; the sea-swallows build nests but cannot live in them.
Vietnamese
The buzzing of the flies does not turn them into bees.
Georgian
The drone bee dies soon after the wedding night.
The three most difficult to understand; the mind of a woman, the labor of the bees and the ebb and flow of the tide.
The wise bee does not sip from a flower that has fallen.
China
When bees are old they yield no honey.
English
When the bee sucks, it makes honey; when the spider, poison.
Where bees are there is honey.
English
Where there are bees, there is honey.
While honey lies in every flower, it takes a bee to get the honey out.
The beetle is a beauty in the eyes of its mother.
Arabian, Egyptian
The beetle is a bride in the arms of its mother.
Arabian
The dung beetle, seeing its child on the wall, thinks it sees a pearl on a thread.
Arabic
When a blind beetle crawls over the surface of the globe, he doesn’t realize that the track he has covered is curved. I was lucky enough to have spotted it.
Albert Einstein
When they started to shoe the Sultan’s horse, the beetle stretched out its leg.
Arabic
Without guilt / What is a man? An animal, isn’t he? / A wolf forgiven at his meat, / A beetle innocent in his copulation.
Archibald MacLeish
Do you dare to die? The sense of death is most in apprehension, and the poor beetle that we tread upon feels a pang as great as when a giant dies.
William Shakespeare
Whenever I hear of the capture of rare beetles, I feel like an old war-horse at the sound of a trumpet.
Charles Darwin
A fault in a machine (computer)
As snug as a bug in a rug.
Very snug. Warm and comfortable.
Bug-eyed
With eyes that stick out (e.g. bugeyed with fright)
Bug-hunter
Entomologist
Bugs are bugs whether they bite or not.
Bugs are not going to inherit the earth. They own it now. So we might as well make peace with the landlord.
T. Eisner
Literature and butterflies are the two sweetest passions known to man.
Vladimir Nabokov
Put a bug in (someone’s) ear.
To impart useful information to (another) in a subtle, discreet way.
The best way to put an end to the bugs is to set fire to the bed.
Mexican
To bug (1)
To bother, to say something more than once as a reminder and thereby annoy the listener
To bug (2)
To fit a room or telephone with a hidden microphone. To listen secretly to a conversation
You can’t have more bed-bugs than a blanket-full.
Spanish
Big black bugs bleed blue black blood but baby black bugs bleed blue blood
Tongue Twister
A big black bug bit a black dog on his big black nose
Tongue twister
Have butterflies in one’s stomach
To have a nervous feeling in one’s stomach. Being in love.
Proverbs are like butterflies, some are caught, some fly away
Take not a musket and kill a butterfly.
The butterfly often forgets it once was a caterpillar.
Swedish
The butterfly that flies among the thorns will tear its wings.
African
The butterfly that settles on a branch is afraid that he will break it.
Armenian
The great Taoist master Chuang Tzu once dreamt that he was a butterfly fluttering here and there. In the dream he had no awareness of his individuality as a person. He was only a butterfly.Suddenly, he awoke and found himself laying there, a person once again. But then he thought to himself, ‘Was I before a man who dreamt about being a butterfly, or am I now a butterfly who dreams about being a man?’
Chuang Tzu
You are like the butterfly that flies from flower to flower.
My pleasures are the most intense known to man: writing and butterfly hunting.
Vladimir Nabokov
Love is like a butterfly, hold it to tight it will crush, hold it to loose, it will fly.
Flies like a butterfly, stings like a bee.
Mohammad Ali: boxer
We will all laugh at gilded butterflies
Shakespeare
Butterflies forget that they were once caterpillars.
Swedish
Even caterpillars can fly if they would just lighten up.
I cannot persuade myself that a beneficent and omnipotent God would have designedly created parasitic wasps with the express intention of their feeding within the living bodies of caterpillars.
Charles Darwin
If caterpillars were meant to fly, God would have given them wings.
If only I were a bird! Ah, but eating caterpillars?
Palestinian
Two caterpillars are conversing and a beautiful butterfly floats by. One caterpillar turns and says to the other: ‘You’ll never see me flying like one of those butterflies.’
What the caterpillar calls the end of the world the master calls a butterfly.
Richard Bach
What the caterpillar calls the end, the butterfly calls the beginning.
Teaching a child not to step on a caterpillar is as valuable to the child as it is to the caterpillar.
Bradley Millar
The butterfly often forgets it once was a caterpillar.
Swedish
There is nothing in a caterpillar that tells you it’s going to be a butterfly.
R. Buckminster Fuller
What the caterpillar calls the end of the world, the master calls a butterfly.
Richard Bach
A bell cricket is kept in its cage because of its song.
Japanese
All flying insects that walk on all fours are to be detestable to you. There are, however, some winged creatures that walk on all fours that you may eat: those that have jointed legs for hopping on the ground.Of these you may eat any kind of locust, katydid, cricket or grasshopper. But all other winged creatures that have four legs you are to detest.
Bible: Leviticus 11
It is not summer until the crickets sing.
Greek
The cricket cries, the year changes.
Cameroonian
Until the crickets sing it is not summer
Greek
You can catch a cricket in your hand but its song is all over the field.
Madagascar
You don’t teach a cricket to jump
To have a cricket on the hearth, is the luckiest thing in all the world!
Charles Dickens
Fireflies shine only when in motion.
The light of the firefly is sufficient for itself only.
The man who has been beaten by a firebrand runs away at the sight of a firefly.
Unlike the singing cicadas, the silent fireflies burn themselves.
Japanese
Flea
A dog in a kennel barks at his fleas — a hunting dog does not feel them.
China
A dog’s fleas are its jewels.
Malta
A flea can trouble a lion more than the lion can harm a flea.
Kenya
A flea on top of a bald head.
China
A flea-bitten horse never tires.
A reasonable amount of fleas is good for a dog. They keep him from broodin’ on being a dog.
A single finger cannot catch fleas.
Haitian
Ambition and fleas jump high.
German
An elephant does not feel a flea bite.
English
An Englishman will burn his bed to catch a flea.
Turkish
Better the wolves eat us than the fleas.
Do not flay a flea for hide and tallow.
Don’t look for fleas on others to get them on your own head
Mind your own business
Don’t strike a flea on a tiger’s head.
China
Don’t throw your blanket in the fire just because it has one flea in it.
Romanian
Dust does not rise because a dog-flea hops.
Myanmar
Even a flea can bite.
Even good dogs have fleas.
Russian
Even the lion has to defend himself against flies.
German
A seedy, rundown hotel or other lodging place
Flea-bite
Openair market selling cheap and secondhand goods
Fleapit
Have patience, fleas, the night is long!
Nicaragua
He avenged himself on fleas, and burned up his bed.
Yiddish
If a flea had money, it would buy its own dog.
Jamaican
If you lie down with dogs, you’ll get up with fleas.
In a garment made of silk there are no fleas.
Estonian
It is easier to guard a bushel of fleas than a woman.
German
It is easier to guard a sack full of fleas than a girl in love.
Jewish
It is easier to watch over one hundred fleas than one young girl.
Polish
It’s not the fleas of the dog that make the cat meow.
China
Money begets money, and fleas beget fleas.
Malta
Nothing in haste but catching fleas.
Dutch
Nothing should be done in haste but gripping a flea.
German
Nothing should be done in a hurry except catching fleas
Only fleas are to be caught quickly.
Russian
Temple dogs are always looking for a place with no fleas, not realising they are carrying them with them as they go
The brave flea dares to eat his breakfast on the lip of a lion.
The death throes of an elephant are not so annoying as a living flea.
Zanzibar
The dog in the doghouse barks at his fleas, the dog that hunts does not feel them.
The earth does not shake when the flea coughs.
Austrian
The fatter the flea, the leaner the dog.
German
The lean dog is all fleas.
The loudest bark rids not a dog of his fleas.
The more hair a dog has, the more fleas he will have.
Netherlands Antillean
The skinnier the dog, the more fleas he has.
German
Those who sleep with dogs gets up with fleas.
American
Those who sleep with dogs will rise with fleas.
Italian
‘We have rowed well’ said the flea as the fishing boat arrives at its mooring.
Latvian
Where there are dogs there are fleas
Where there is smoke there is fire
Who does not think that his fleas are gazelles?
Arabic
Who play wid de puppy get bit wid de fleas.
British Guiana
With a flea in one’s ear
With severe and clearly expressed anger and disapproval from somebody; With an annoying hint or a stinging rebuke
You can only know the fleas in the bed you have slept in.
African
A closed mouth catches no flies.
French
A cow that has no tail should not try to chase away flies.
Guinean
A drop of honey catches more flies than a hogshead of vinegar.
Proverb
A fly can drive away horses.
Greece
A fly does not mind dying in coconut cream.
Africa, Swahili
A fly in the ointment
A detrimental circumstance or detail; a drawback
A fly is nothing; yet it creates loathsomeness.
Egypt
A fly may conquer a lion.
A fly on the wall
A person who watches others without being noticed
A fly to a fly.
A fly will not get into a closed mouth.
Moroccan
A person is not a fly.
A shut mouth catches no flies.
A spoonful of honey will catch more flies than a gallon of vinegar.
Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790)
An eagle does not catch flies.
Proverb
And the LORD did this. Dense swarms of flies poured into Pharaoh’s palace and into the houses of his officials, and throughout Egypt the land was ruined by the flies.
Bible: Exodus 8:24
and the LORD did what Moses asked: The flies left Pharaoh and his officials and his people; not a fly remained.
Bible: Exodus 8:31
As dead flies give perfume a bad smell, so a little folly outweighs wisdom and honor.
Bible: Ecclesiastes 10:1
Better a handful of bees than a basket full of flies.
Moroccan
Better have one bee than a host of flies.
Italian
Big flies break the spider web.
Italian
But on that day I will deal differently with the land of Goshen, where my people live; no swarms of flies will be there, so that you will know that I, the LORD, am in this land.
Bible: Exodus 8:22
To die in very large numbers
Do not compare a fly with an elephant.
Greek
Do not draw your sword to kill a fly.
Korean
Do not make an elephant out of a fly.
Russian
Do not remove a fly from your friend’s forehead with a hatchet.
China
Do not use a hatchet to remove a fly from your friend’s forehead.
China
Do what we can, summer will have its flies.
Dying flies spoil the sweetness of the ointment.
Eagles don’t catch flies.
Even a fly has its anger.
Italian
Even a fly has its spleen.
English
Even if a chef cooks just a fly, he would keep the breast for himself.
Polish
Every fly has its shadow.
Portuguese
Fine fruit will have flies about it.
New England
Flies and priests can enter any house.
Russian
Flies are caught more readily with a single drop of honey than with a cask of vinegar.
Turkish
Flies come to feasts unasked.
English
Flies do not swarm on a new pot.
India, Tamil
Flies flock to the lean horse.
Italian
Flies go to lean horses.
English
Flies know well the sweet seller’s beard.
Lebanese
Flies never bother a boiling pot.
Flies swarm where there is honey.
India, Tamil
Flies will easily fly into the honey — their problem is how to get out.
Iranian
Flies will never leave the shop of a sweet-maker.
Iranian
Flies will not land on a boiling pot.
Flies will tickle lions being dead.
English
Foul-smelling objects swarm with flies.
Japanese
Haste is good only for catching flies.
Russian
He does not harm a fly
He is kind and gentle
He sent swarms of flies that devoured them, and frogs that devastated them.
Bible: Psalm 78:45
He spoke, and there came swarms of flies, and gnats throughout their country.
Bible: Psalm 105:31
Hungry flies bite sore.
English
If you are looking for a fly in your food it means that you are full.
South African
If you do not let my people go, I will send swarms of flies on you and your officials, on your people and into your houses. The houses of the Egyptians will be full of flies, and even the ground where they are.
Bible: Exodus 8:21
In that day the LORD will whistle for flies from the distant streams of Egypt and for bees from the land of Assyria.
Bible: Isaiah 7:18
In times of emergency the devil eats flies.
German
Into a closed mouth no fly will enter.
Moroccan
Into a shut mouth flies fly not.
It’s easier to catch flies with honey than with vinegar
Laws are like cobwebs where the small flies are caught and the big ones break through.
Laws catch flies but let hornets go.
English
Laws catch flies, but let hornets go free.
Scottish
Laws, like the spider’s web, catch the fly and let the hawk go free.
Spanish
Let every one keep off the flies with his own tail.
Italian
Lift up your eyes to the heavens, look at the earth beneath; the heavens will vanish like smoke, the earth will wear out like a garment and its inhabitants die like flies. But my salvation will last forever, my righteousness will never fail.
Bible: Isaiah 51:6
Make yourself all honey and the flies will devour you.
English
More courtship lives in carrion flies than Romeo
William Shakespeare. Romeo & Juliet
More flies are caught with a drop of honey than a barrel of vinegar.
Danish
More flies are caught with a spoonful of syrup than a cask of vinegar.
Dutch
More flies are caught with a spoonful of syrup than with a barrel full of vinegar.
Dutch
More flies are caught with honey than with vinegar.
French
Moses answered, ‘As soon as I leave you, I will pray to the LORD, and tomorrow the flies will leave Pharaoh and his officials and his people.Only be sure that Pharaoh does not act deceitfully again by not letting the people go to offer sacrifices to the LORD.’
Bible: Exodus 8:29
No flies get into a shut mouth.
Spanish
No flies land on a boiling pot.
Spanish
No fly dares to get near a boiling kettle.
Mexican
One bee is as good as a handful of flies.
German
One bee is better than a thousand flies.
Spanish
One catches more flies with a spoonful of honey than with twenty casks of vinegar.
French
One dead fly spoils much good ointment.
New England
People seek out big shots as flies seek out the elephant’s tail.
Indonesian
The biting fly gets nothing by alighting on the back of the tortoise.
African
The biting fly has no one to come to his aid in trouble.
African
The busy fly is in every man’s dish.
Spanish
The buzzing of the flies does not turn them into bees.
Georgian
The eagle does not catch flies.
Romanian
The eagle does not feed on flies.
Turkish
The flight of the eagle will not stop that of the sand fly.
African
The fly does not kill, but it does spoil.
Hebrew
The fly flutters around the candle till at last it gets burnt.
Dutch
The fly flutters around the candle till it gets burnt.
Dutch
The fly has no pity for the thin man.
Congolese
The fly heeds not death; eating is all to him.
African
The fly on the back of a water buffalo thinks that it’s taller than the buffalo.
Filipino
The fly sat upon the axle of the chariot-wheel and said: ‘What a lot of dust I raise!’
Greek
The fly that bites the tortoise breaks its beak.
Italian
The fly that stands on the carabao’s (water buffalo) back thinks that it is taller than the carabao.
Philippines
The idiot who has his eye on your wife is like a blood sucking fly.
Egyptian
The most fragrant of flowers are eaten by the green-fly.
Malawi
The spider and the fly can’t make a deal.
Jamaican
The spiders web lets the rat escape and catches the fly.
Spanish
There are no flies on him
He is not a fool, he cannot be tricked
They are flies that are born of a wasp.
Indonesian
Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like a banana.
Groucho Markx
To a boiling pot flies come not.
English
To be as small as a vinegar fly and want to shit like an elephant
Too big for your boots
When a fly does not get up off a dead body, he is buried with it.
African
Where there is butter there are flies.
Polish
With honey you can catch more flies than with vinegar.
Yiddish
You can catch more flies with honey than vinegar.
You can catch more flies with molasses than vinegar.
You must lose a fly to catch a trout.
English
He spoke, and there came swarms of flies, and gnats throughout their country.
Bible: Psalm 105:31
Human knowledge will be erased from the world’s archives before we possess the last word that a gnat has to say to us.
Henri Fabre
Grasshopper
All flying insects that walk on all fours are to be detestable to you. There are, however, some winged creatures that walk on all fours that you may eat: those that have jointed legs for hopping on the ground.Of these you may eat any kind of locust, katydid, cricket or grasshopper. But all other winged creatures that have four legs you are to detest.
Bible: Leviticus 11
Different fields, different grasshoppers; different seas, different fish.
Indonesian
If the hill is on fire the grasshoppers are roasted.
Madagascar
Knee-high to a grasshopper
A very small child
One can’t give a grasshopper to a child if one has not caught it yet.
Madagascar
Riding an elephant to catch grasshoppers
Using a sledge hammer to crack a nut
Most Internet users seem to have the attention span of grasshoppers
Stephen King
All flying insects that swarm are unclean to you; do not eat them.
Bible: Deuteronomy 14
All flying insects that walk on all fours are to be detestable to you. There are, however, some winged creatures that walk on all fours that you may eat: those that have jointed legs for hopping on the ground.Of these you may eat any kind of locust, katydid, cricket or grasshopper. But all other winged creatures that have four legs you are to detest.
Bible: Leviticus 11
Even a one-inch insect has a five tenths of a soul.
Japanese
He’s an insect
An insignificant or contemptible person.
I always felt that insects are the general rule, and everything else is a special case.
Paul Bystrak
Kill a small insect to let live a big one.
Japanese
One tiny insect may be enough to destroy a country.
Ancient Arabic
The big fish eat the little fish, the little fish eat the water-insects, and the water-insects eat the weeds and mud.
China
The hinge of a door is never crowded with insects.
China
The smallest insect may cause death by its bite.
The summer insect cannot talk of ice; the frog in the well cannot talk of heaven.
China
The summer insect knows not ice.
Japanese
To a rough approximation and setting aside vertebrate chauvinism, it can be said that essentially all organisms are insects.
R.M. May
The mortal enemies of man are not his fellows of another continent or race; they are the aspects of the physical world which limit or challenge his control, the disease germs that attack him and his domesticated plants and animals, and the insects that carry many of these germs as well as working notable direct injury. This is not the age of man, however great his superiority in size and intelligence; it is literally the age of insects.
W.C. Allee
These sprays, dusts, and aerosols are now applied almost universally to farms, gardens, forests, and homes — nonselective chemicals that have the power to kill every insect, the “good” and the “bad,” to still the song of birds and the leaping of fish in the streams, to coat the leaves with a deadly film, and to linger on in soil — all this though the intended target may be only a few weeds or insects. Can anyone believe it is possible to lay down such a barrage of poisons on the surface of the earth without making it unfit for all life? They should not be called “insecticides,” but “biocides.”
Rachel Carson (in “Silent Spring”)
Insects do not nest in a busy door-hinge.
Around a flowering tree, there are many insects.
Even a one-inch insect has a half-inch soul.
It’s not the monkey on top that make a tree fall but it’s the work and effort of numerous small insects and ants.
The insect that eats the leaf is under the leaf.
Katydid
All flying insects that walk on all fours are to be detestable to you. There are, however, some winged creatures that walk on all fours that you may eat: those that have jointed legs for hopping on the ground.Of these you may eat any kind of locust, katydid, cricket or grasshopper. But all other winged creatures that have four legs you are to detest.
Bible: Leviticus 11
Locust
All flying insects that walk on all fours are to be detestable to you. There are, however, some winged creatures that walk on all fours that you may eat: those that have jointed legs for hopping on the ground.Of these you may eat any kind of locust, katydid, cricket or grasshopper. But all other winged creatures that have four legs you are to detest.
Bible: Leviticus 11
And a locust unto Mahomet said: ‘We are the army of the great God; we produce ninety-nine eggs; if the hundred were completed, we should consume the whole earth and all that is in it.’
Arab legend
Don’t try to get blood from a locust; God didn’t put it in there.
African
The locust flies with the wings of a falcon.
Saudi Arabian
The locust lives only a little while, but it does great damage.
Rumanian
The locusts have no king, yet go they forth all of them by bands.
Bible: Proverbs 30:27
The mantis seizes the locust but does not see the yellow bird behind him.
China
When the mantis hunts the locust, he forgets the shrike that’s hunting him.
China
A louse cannot lift the eiderdown.
China
A louse in the cabbage is better than no meat at all.
Proverb
Active people never have louse bites.
China
Don’t draw a sword against a louse.
China
He can see a louse as far away as China but is not aware of an elephant on his nose.
Malawi
In every little house there is a little louse.
Polish
A mean or despicable person.
Lousy
Nasty, unpleasant, inferior, worthless, bad
Lousy with money
One finger alone cannot even kill a louse.
Kenyan
One thumb alone does not kill a louse.
Palestinian
To spoil or ruin something
A cunning person’s kiss is like that of a mosquito.
Rumanian
A fig tree with figs turned out to be a ruin with mosquitoes.
Moroccan
As different as an elephant and a mosquito
Do not be like the mosquito that bites the owner of the house.
Malawi
He can swallow a camel but chokes on a mosquito.
Lebanese
In heaven you won’t hear the mosquitoes.
Finnish
The mosquito is more dangerous than the tiger
The mosquito is small — but when he sings, your ears are full of him.
Mauritius
The mosquito is without a soul, but its whizzing vexes the soul.
Turkish
Their mosquito won’t bite me.
Proverb from Cote d’Ivoire
When mosquitoes work, they bite and then they sing.
Malian
Having thin long bent lines like a spider’s legs
Big flies break the spider web.
Italian
Laws, like the spider’s web, catch the fly and let the hawk go free.
Spanish
The spider and the fly can’t make a deal.
Jamaican
The spider taketh hold with her hands, and is in kings’ palaces.
Bible: Proverbs 30:28
The spiders web lets the rat escape and catches the fly.
Spanish
To destroy the cobweb, destroy the spider.
Maltese
When spiders unite, they can tie down a lion.
Ethiopian
When spiders’ webs unite, they can tie up a lion.
Ethiopian
When the bee sucks, it makes honey; when the spider, poison.
Where the girls are there are no spider’s webs.
Catalonian
Words are like the spider’s web: a shelter for the clever ones and a trap for the not-so-clever.
Madagascar
You must kill the spider to get rid of the cobweb.
Maltese
A wasp stings the crying face.
Japanese
Anger is as a stone cast into a wasp’s nest.
Proverb
For every grape a hundred wasps.
Persian
From the same flower the bee extracts honey and the wasp gall.
He dreads a moth who has been stung by a wasp.
Albanian
Let each person drive away his own wasps.
Japanese
Sit on a wasp’s nest and say ‘God wills it!’
Lebanese
The better the fruit, the more wasps to eat it.
German
The fangs of the green snake and the sting of a wasp don’t really make poison — that is only to be found in a woman’s heart.
China
They are flies that are born of a wasp.
Indonesian
Do not lean on a worm-eaten staff.
Greek
Don’t feed a silkworm that’s sleeping
Let sleeping dogs sleep
Even a worm will turn.
Proverb
Every cider apple has a worm.
Every worm has its hole.
Yiddish
God gives every bird his worm, but he does not throw it into the nest.
Swedish
Never look for a worm in the apple of your eye.
Proverb
No apple tree is immune from worms.
Russian
Quiet worms will bore a hole in the wall.
Japanese
Salt will never be worm-eaten.
Saudi Arabian
Silent worms dig holes in the walls.
Japanese
Sorrow is to the soul what the worm is to wood.
Turkish
The early bird catches the early worm.
Proverb
The early bird catches the worm.
Proverb
The early bird gets the worm.
American
The most beautiful fig may contain a worm.
Zulu
The rose has its thorn, the peach its worm.
We are all worms, but I do believe that I am a glow-worm.
Winston Churchill
What is good of a red apple if it has a worm.
When the earth is hot, the worm stays in the ground.
Native American
With money, a dragon, without it, a worm.
China
Worms don’t like the robin’s song.
Native American
Worms eat you up dead and worries eat you up alive.
Yiddish
| no work no money |
In which of the United States would you find the Colorado Desert | honeybee famous quotes sayings famous people
Pure Raw Natural Honey Varietals All Natural & Organic Skin Care
Quotes from famous (and not so famous) people about honeybees :D
* "If the bee disappeared off the surface of the globe, then man would only have four years of life left." - Albert Einstein
* "The fruit of bees is desired by all, and is equally sweet to kings and beggars and it is not only pleasing but profitable and healthful; it sweetens their mouths, cures their wounds, and conveys remedies to inward ulcers." - Saint Ambrose
* "Tart words make no friends; a spoonful or honey will catch more flies than a gallon of vinegar." - Benjamin Franklin
* No bees, no honey; no work, no money. - Proverb
* "The only reason for being a bee that I know of is to make honey.... And the only reason for making honey, is so as I can eat it." - Winnie the Pooh
* "For the rest, whatever we have got has been by infinite labor, and search, and ranging through every corner of nature; the difference is that instead of dirt and poison, we have rather chosen to fill our hives with honey and wax, thus furnishing mankind with the two noblest of things, which are sweetness and light." - Jonathan Swift
* "We're all busy little bees, full of stings, making honey day and night, aren't we honey?" - Bette Davis
* �I'll be floating like a butterfly and stinging like a bee.� - Muhammad Ali
* "If you want to gather honey, don't kick over the beehive." - Abraham Lincoln
* "The secret of my health is applying honey inside and oil outside." - Democritus (contemporary of Hippocrates, who lived to the ripe age of 109)
* "This is the story of the little bee whose sex is very hard to see. You cannot tell the he from the she but she can tell, and so can he. The busy bee is never still and has no time to take the Pill. And that is why, in times like these, there are so many sons of bees." - Unknown
* �The bee is more honored than other animals, not because she labors, but because she labors for others� - Saint John Chrysostom - (archbishop of Constantinople, 347-407)
* �What a kid I got, I told him about the birds and the bees and he told me about the butcher and my wife.� - Rodney Dangerfield
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In which country would you be if you were trudging over the Atacama Desert | North and the Atacama Desert | Chile Travel
North and the Atacama Desert
Valle de la Luna y Marte
Area
North and the Atacama Desert
Under a sky with infinite stars lies the world’s driest desert waiting for the anticipated blooming.
Plan your trip to Chile quickly and simply
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2
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Tourism Directory
North and the Atacama Desert
Far from being a desolate, arid wilderness, the Atacama desert is overflowing with life. Its ancient cultures offer a warm welcome to modern travellers, and fertile oases sustain an astonishing diversity of life here in the world’s driest desert.
On the high Andean plateau, you’ll find small villages at up to 4,000 meters above sea level where timeless traditions linger in extreme and wonderfully photogenic settings.
Visit San Pedro de Atacama and explore its singular landscapes, quite unlike anywhere else on earth. Vast salt flats, active geysers and intense blue lagoons are just a few of the extraordinary features of this region.
Journey to the stars and learn more about the constellations in one of the many famed astronomical observatories in the northern half of Chile.
If you’re a fan of water sports or simply enjoy soaking up the sun, don’t miss the northern coastal region, with its exquisite sandy beaches, crystal clear waters and exquisite seafood.
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In which desert do Kalmucks and Mongols live | Causes of Aridity, and Geography of the World�s Deserts
Causes of Aridity, and Geography of the World�s Deserts
Study a physical map of the world. As you follow the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, thirty degrees on either side of the equator, you will see, distributed with suspicious regularity, a brown band of drylands circling the planet, a sere belt warding off greener climes: the deserts of the world. They lie in the so-called Horse Latitudes, where constant high-pressure systems drive away the rain clouds, and swirl above the earth to the music of global temperature variations and the Coriolis Effect produced by the earth�s rotation in space.
Most deserts are hot. Within the latitudes of the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, the sun appears directly overhead at
noon
on at least one day of the year. To the north or south of them, the sun is never directly overhead, and not as concentrated as the beam that reaches the tropical areas.
Deserts are not scattered haphazardly over the earth; the pattern of their occurrence is shaped by the factors that produced them. The major world deserts occur in these two discontinuous belts ringing the globe. Because more land surface occurs in the Northern Hemisphere in the latitudes described, more deserts occur in the Northern than the Southern Hemisphere.
Not all deserts are hot. Some of these drylands, like the Atacama of Chile, the Namib and Kalahari of southern
Africa
, and the western Australian desert, are the result of cold oceanic currents that divert rain-laden air away from coastlines.
, and the deserts of central and eastern
Australia
are caused by the �rainshadow effect�, through which coastal mountains milk rain from the air before it passes inland.
and Takla Makan deserts of
Mongolia
and
China
, are simply so far away from the ocean that the winds lose any moisture they may hold long before reaching the far off continental interior, even what little moisture remains in the Indian-born clouds after they have scraped over the jagged
Himalayas
1.� Atmospheric high pressure zones (Hadley Cells)
Earth�s atmosphere moves in general, somewhat predictable patterns that are largely driven by the sun�s rays and the earth�s rotation.
At the Equator, the sun�s rays are perpendicular with the Earth�s surface; solar heating is intense.
Air is heated at the equator, ascends, and is replaced by inrushing air.
As the heated air moves upward, it is gradually cooled.
Cool air, with a lower saturation point, is capable of holding less moisture within than warm air. (Equatorial air is very moist).
(Oceans cover most of the equator and the high equatorial surface temperature allows large amounts of water to evaporate. So it is not simply warm air that rises at the equator; it is warm, moist air.
As the air cools, it releases the excess moisture it contains, helping to produce the moist tropics.
i. As the air rises, it cools; the water condenses and precipitation is common. Water returns to the surface as rain.
ii. (Deserts do not occur near the Equator, tropics occur there).
Higher in the atmosphere, the now cold, dry air rises and moves away from the equator.
At about 30 degree latitudes in both hemispheres (north and south), the air descends.
As it does, it warms.
As it warms, the air expands, condensation and precipitation are infrequent. (Horse latitudes).
To the north and south of these desert latitudes, the air once again ascends, producing moisture for the land; finally, over the poles, the air descends again��
Desert formation in these particular latitudes is primarily due to complex global air-circulation patterns caused by the rotation of the earth on its axis (earth moves at great speed near the equator and slowly near the poles), the seasonal tilting of the earth in relation to the sun, and other factors.
2. Continentality or (Distance from oceans) �
a. Most water in atmosphere is evaporated from the sea, and this water eventually precipitates on land.
b. Land closer to the sea generally receives much of this moisture.
c. As air moves inland, it gets depleted of moisture and precipitation drops. �
d. Areas lying deep within a continent may become desert simply because air currents reaching them have already traversed vast land distances; by the time they arrive over the deserts, these currents have already lost the moisture they once carried.
e. This is true of some of the Asian deserts., the
Gobi
, 500 miles inland, receives still less, 11� annually.
Coastal Cooling:� Deserts may result if air is cooled, and then rewarmed, prior to reaching the region.
a. Cool air holds less moisture than warm air.
b. When warm, moist air is cooled, excess water condenses and falls as precipitation. If it is subsequently re-warmed, it will be drier than it was previously.
1. Air at 30 C (86 F) can hold 30.4 grams of water per cubic meter (m3).
2. If saturated air (100% relative humidity) was cooled from 30 C to 10 C (50 F), 21 grams of water would condense and precipitate because this cold can only hold 9.4 grams of water per cubic meter.
3. If the air were then re-warmed to 30 C, it would have just a fraction (31%) of the moisture it did originally.
4. (31% relative humidity is fairly dry, and further precipitation is unlikely).
5. Winds that blow onshore tend to do so across cold currents produced by movement of water from high latitudes (poles) to low latitudes (equator), and associated with the upwelling of cold waters from the ocean's depth.
6. Cold or cool winds have relatively small moisture-bearing capacity and, when warmed during their passage over the land, they become stable and, thereby, reinforce the stability produced by the global stability of these latitudes. (Subtropical highs).
c. This occurs along coastal areas where there are cold coastal seas (
Baja
CA
), and in rain shadows (adiabatic heating and cooling).
d. Air moving across the frigid currents is cooled to a low temperature; thus the air holds little moisture when it arrives over land, where it may provide fog or mist, but rarely rain. (Namib and Atacama).
4. Rainshadow effects
��������� a. Moisture-laden air encounters a mountain mass and is moved upward.
��������� b. The ascending air is cooled and releases moisture on the windward side of the range.
��������� c. Once over the summit, the air descends the lee side of the range, warming as it does so, and hence increasing its evaporative power.
��������� d. The windward side of a range may support a heavy well-watered forest, while the leeward side and the area far below it, robbed of moisture, is occupied by a desert or steppe plant community.
The rain-shadow effect produced by great mountains can create arid areas in the lee of the mountains even when continentality is not particularly marked, such as in
Patagonia
Why are deserts hotter than tropics?� (Specific heat capacity).
1. Sand and rock heat up much more rapidly than water, and they also lose heat more quickly.
a. On a hot summer day in the
Sahara
, sand and rock can heat up to 170o F).
2. When a substance is exposed to heat, its surface temperature rises, but different substances heat up at different rates.
3. The amount of heat that must be applied to a substance to make its temperature rise by 1o is called the specific heat capacity (shc) of that substance.
a. the specific heat capacity of water at 59 F is 4.19.
b. the specific heat capacity of sand and most solid rocks between 68-212 F, is about 0.8.
c. This mean it requires more than 5 times more heat energy to raise the temperature of water 1o than to raise the temperature of rock or sand by the same amount.
4. As the sun climbs higher in the sky, the dry ground heats much faster than water, and much faster than the ground would if it were wet. (Its s.h.c. would then be 1.48).
5. Sand and rock heat more quickly than water, and for the same reason, it cools more quickly, also.
6. The ground temperature falls sharply, reaching a minimum shortly before dawn, but the temperature of water falls much more slowly.
7. Over the ocean in subtropical latitudes, the difference in day and night air temperatures (diurnal temperature range) is about 0.4 F (0.2C). Over the desert at the same latitude the diurnal temperature range is about 72 F (40C).
Sand is a poor conductor of heat (many air spaces), as is air.� Radiant heat raises the surface temperature, but heat is not conducted very far below the surface. The upper, heated layer gets continually hotter, while just below the surface the temperature changes very little.
Some heat is conducted below the surface, but at a very slow rate. Heat reaches a certain depth before the daily peak temperature is passed. Beyond this depth, the temperature does not alter. This is called the damping depth.
��������� In dry sand it is about 3� (7.6 cm) below the surface. Because heat penetrates so slowly, the peak temperature is reached at the damping depth several hours later than it is reached at the surface.
Microclimates
1. Conditions (climates) below ground are very different from those at the surface.
2. A local climate of this type is called a microclimate, within the macroclimate of the region as a whole.
a. Many living organisms exploit the advantages afforded by microclimates.
3. The subsurface climate is not the only desert microclimate.
a. Hollows that are shaded most of the time are cooler than exposed, sun-lit surfaces
b. Shelter from (or exposure to) prevailing winds can also create microclimates.
c. Above ground air is much cooler than surfaces of sand or rack. At a height of 6.5� (2m) the
midday
temperature may be 55 F (30 C) lower than the temperature at ground level.
4. Fertile islands
Desert Geography
Study a physical map of the world. As you follow the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, thirty degrees on either side of the equator, you will see, distributed with suspicious regularity, a brown band of drylands circling the planet, a sere belt warding off greener climes: the deserts of the world. They lie in the so-called Horse Latitudes, where constant high-pressure systems separate the westerlies and trade winds, driving away the rain clouds, swirling above the earth to the music of global temperature variations and the Coriolis effect produced by the earth�s rotation in space.
Some of these drylands, like the Atacama of Chile, the Namib and Kalahari of southern
Africa
, and the western Australian desert, are the result of cold oceanic currents that divert rain-laden air away from coastlines.
Others, like the Mojave and
Sonoran
of the American southwest, and
Mexico
are caused by the �rainshadow effect�, through which coastal mountains milk rain from the air before it passes inland.
Mountains
, an extinct volcano, rises to 10,712� (3,265m).
5. At various times what is now desert lay beneath ancient seas. This led to a deposition of sand and calcareous deposits that now form sandstone and limestone.
6.
Sahara
is a hot desert, with summer daytime temperatures exceeding 90F for 8 months of the year, and often exceeding 100F.
a. The high temperature record, recorded at Al-Aziziya in northern
Libya
, reached 1236.4F (58C).
b. At night the temperatures drop sharply, by as much as 50F: nights can be cold and temperatures often fall below freezing in winter.
c. Precipitation � rainfall is sparse, <2� per year.
7. There are 3 types of lands surfaces in the
Sahara
: erg, reg, and hammada.
a. erg � �sand seas�, composed of dunes that have formed basins and depressions from the sand carried into them by rivers of earlier times.
i. The large area of dunes are in the northern
Sahara
Egypt
.
ii. Surface temperatures can reach 180 F (85C) Air heated by contact with the surface expands and rises. This produces an area of low pressure near ground level. Denser air rushes in to compensate and its movement causes strong, gusty winds. These are called thermal winds because they are caused by temperature differences.
b. Reg � name given to ground covered by boulders and gravel. The reg is fairly level, and the areas are generally bleak, windswept, and monotonous.
i. Reg is formed by wind action. Small particles are blown from around and between the larger, heavier stones, in a process called �deflation�.
ii. The wind keeps the surface clean, and the finest particles are carried very long distances: Saharan dust has been identified in the
United States
.
c. Hammada � is the rocky desert.
i. No sand or small particles on the surface � just rock, either as large boulders or bedrock.
ii. Hammadas are found in northern
Libya
, and there resembles a vast and uneven parking lot. Probably the most inhospitable type of desert surface. Very little can live on it.
8. Vegetative cover very sparse.
a. Susceptibility to wind erosion is very high,
b. Water infiltration rates are good, depressions fill with saline water.
c. Herbs, small shrubs,with larger shrubs and trees where moisture is abundant (oases).
d. Succulents not common.
Iran
);
a. An empty quarter in the southern part of the desert is too hot and dry even for desert nomads (similar to the
Sahara
i. Includes the largest sand desert in the world (south of
Najd
), called the Rub� al-Khali (the empty quarter), covering 230,000 square miles (595,700 sq kilometers).
ii. Despite its name, it includes many watering holes and, is therefore, �crossable� to those familiar with the desert.
b. Arid or extremely arid, < 4� per year.
a. Hot desert, averaging between 100-107 F from May-Sept.
b. �Most of the plants are annuals; most of the perennials are halophytes.
The Saharan and Arabian deserts lie mainly within the Tropics. They are hot deserts produced by descending air on the poleward side of Hadley cells, producing a belt of fairly permanent high pressure. Farther north, the deserts of
Central Asia
are also caused by persistent high pressure, but they are well-clear of the Tropics and much cooler.
South Africa
.
2. Very dry (much drier than its inland neighboring desert, the Kalahari), but not too hot because of coastal fog.
3. High humidity and fog (like Atacama), with less than 2� (51 mm) annual precipitation.
4. Very little vegetation: Lichens on the leeward side of rocks, leafless, stem-succulent plants, and halophytes.
5. The Benguela Current, is a cold current that flows northward along the coast. It flows from the edge of the
Antarctic Ocean
as a stream of water blown in an easterly direction by the West Wind Drift and turning north just south of the southern African continent.
6. Despite having crossed the ocean, winds and air bring no rain because it was chilled as it crossed the cold water of the Benguela Current and its water condensed. It condenses as low clouds and fog, rather than rain and fog.
� covers an area of about 275,000 sq. miles (712,250 sq. kilometers).
1. Inland desert from the Namib; southwestern
Botswana
2. Notable for its deep subsurface sands.
3. Landscape dominated by gentle dunes.
4. Precipitation in the northern Kalahari reaches 25� annually; precipitation in the southern Kalahari, 10� annually.
5. The rate of evaporation is high enough to remove much of the surface water before it can be absorbed by the ground.
6. Temperatures range from 90F (32C) in summer to 70 F (21C) in winter, but frosts are common in winter nights.
� 140,000 sq miles (363,000 sq kilometers) in northern
Chile
. The Tropic of Capricorn passes thru its center.
1. Narrow strip, 600 miles along (parallel to) coast of
Chile
.
2. World's driest coastal desert; 0.04" (10 mm) precipitation; most of it from coastal condensation (fog). Rain can be expected no more than 2-4 times per century. Rain is rare, but the relative humidity is 75% - bare iron rust rapidly there.
3. Coastal cooling: Air reaching the coast from the ocean loses most of its moisture at sea, where it is chilled. It is dry when arrives on land. Any remaining moisture is lost as the air rises to cross the coastal ranges, forming clouds that rarely bring rain, although may be low enough to be called� fog.
4. Air from the southwest crosses South American continent, then loses the moisture it carries during its ascent over the
Andes
Mountains
. The combination of coastal cooling from the west, and rainshadow from the southwest accounts for the extreme aridity of the Atacama.
5. Average elevation is about 2,000�; its height contributing to its moderate temperature.
6. A cool (little seasonal variation � about 65 F), very dry climate in a coastal region suggests the presence of a cool ocean current.
South America
fought over part of the
Atacama Desert
. The War of the pacific lasted from 1879-1884, and ended with
Chile
in control of the area, and made
Bolivia
i. The desert has rich deposits of sodium nitrate and copper.
ii. Sodium nitrate is the raw material for commercial fertilizer and explosive manufacture.
� occupying the whole of
Argentina
; 300,000 sq miles (770,000 sq kilomteres)
1. Cold, rainshadow desert, average annual temperature is 7C.
2. Average rainfall < 10� annually.
3. There is no other desert in the world lying on the eastern side of the continent in a latitude north of 40d S.
4. Highest precipitation in the winter, April - Aug.
5. Bleak desert, but in the north there are tough grasses and shrubs; the grasses providing pasture for sheep.
6. Little vegetation farther south, where climate is colder and drier.
1. The Tropic of Capricorn passes thru the center of
Australia
. This means the country lies close enough to trade wind latitudes for the prevailing winds� to be from the southeast. These bring maritime conditions, with abundant rain, to the coast of
New South Wales
Queensland
.
2. Inland lies the Great Dividing Range, a mountain range running the length of the country parallel to the east coast.
3. Lands to the west of the mountains lie in a rain shadow.
4. 40% of
Australia
�s land mass is classified as desert (3.4 million square miles). Of all the continents,
Australia
Australia
is alarge island with a continental climate).
5. No succulents, very few spiny plants. Prevalent desert plants are the perenial evergreen tussock grasses (spinifex) and small trees or shrubs belonging to the genus Acacia.
6.
has 5 deserts: 4 on the west side, one in the center.
a.
� southeast corner of the
Northern Territories
; < 500� asl; stony desert
b. Great
� north part of
western Australia
; < 600� above sea level.
c. Great
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In which country is the Simpson Desert | Simpson Desert Conservation Park and Regional Reserve - National Parks South Australia
National Parks South Australia
Simpson Desert Conservation Park and Regional Reserve
Campfires Permitted
Alerts 1
Full park closure
The whole of the Simpson Desert Conservation Park and Regional Reserve will be closed from 6pm on Wednesday 30 November 2016 until 6pm on Wednesday 15 March 2017.
Details >
Seasoned 4WD travellers can explore the endless landscape and the ever-changing environment of the Simpson Desert. Red dunes, salt-crusted lakes, vast stretches of grasslands, dense scrubland and tall stands of hakea and gidgee. Visit after the rains to see the spectacular colour show as the wildflowers bloom across the sand dunes.
Please note, it is mandatory to purchase a Desert Parks Pass to enter and camp in Simpson Desert Conservation Park and Simpson Desert Regional Reserve.
Tag your Instagram pics with #simpsondesert to see them displayed on this page.
Fees
Seasoned 4WD travellers can explore the endless landscape and the ever-changing environment of the Simpson Desert. Red dunes, salt-crusted lakes, vast stretches of grasslands, dense scrubland and tall stands of hakea and gidgee. Visit after the rains to see the spectacular colour show as the wildflowers bloom across the sand dunes.
Please note, it is mandatory to purchase a Desert Parks Pass to enter and camp in Simpson Desert Conservation Park and Simpson Desert Regional Reserve.
Tag your Instagram pics with #simpsondesert to see them displayed on this page.
About
Located within the driest region of the Australian continent, the Simpson Desert Conservation Park is in the centre of the Simpson Desert, one of the world's best examples of parallel dunal desert.
The Simpson Desert's sand dunes stretch over hundreds of kilometres and lie across the corners of three states - South Australia, Queensland and the Northern Territory.
The Simpson Desert Regional Reserve, just outside the Conservation Park, features a wide variety of desert wildlife preserved in a landscape of varied dune systems, extensive playa lakes, spinifex grasslands and acacia woodlands. The reserve links the Simpson Desert Conservation Park to Witjira National Park.
Simpson Desert parks in South Australia and Queensland are closed in summer from 1 December to 15 March. Vehicles are required to have high visibility safety flags attached to the front of the vehicle.
Open 24 hours a day, seven days a week.
Simpson Desert Conservation Park and Regional Reserve are closed from 1 December to 15 March each year.
Access may be restricted due to local road conditions. Please refer to the latest Desert Parks Bulletin for current access and road condition information.
This park is closed on days of Catastrophic Fire Danger and may be closed on days of Extreme Fire Danger.
Listen to the local area radio station for the latest updates and information on fire safety.
Natural Resource Centre - Port Augusta
Phone: (+61 8) 8648 5300
When to visit
The most enjoyable times to visit the Simpson Desert are autumn, winter and spring. Simpson Desert Regional Reserve and Conservation Park are closed annually between 1 December and 15 March. This closure is to ensure public safety as temperatures can exceed 50˚. A breakdown during this time could be fatal.
Simpson Desert Conservation Park is located 957km north of Port Augusta. Access may be restricted due to local road conditions. Please refer to the latest Desert Parks Bulletin for current access and road condition information.
It is accessible via the following routes:
From Kulgera: Travel via Finke to New Crown Station, then via Charlotte Waters to Mount Dare Homestead in Witjira National Park, through Dalhousie Springs and Spring Creek to Purni Bore.
From Oodnadatta: Travel via Hamilton Station and Dalhousie Springs, Spring Creek then Purni Bore.
From Birdsville: Enter via the QAA line to Poeppel Corner. Depending on the road conditions, the 160km journey from Birdsville to Poeppel Corner may take you 6-8 hours as it travels over some of the biggest sand dunes in the desert. Allow plenty of time. Travel via the Shire road which leaves the inside Birdsville Track just southwest of Birdsville. This joins the QAA Line at Big Red sand dune 33km from Birdsville and heads west into the park.
If you are travelling through this area for the first time, it is recommended that you cross the reserves from west to east to take advantage of the gentler upsweep to most dunes. Reserves of fuel, water and food, as well as basic vehicle spare parts and recovery equipment, must be carried.
Traditional owners
In the 19th century, most Simpson Desert Aboriginal groups were concentrated around the watercourses on the desert boundaries. Prior to this time, the Wangkangurru actually lived in the desert; and to the west of their traditional boundary the Lower Southern Arrernte lived on the edge and partly in the desert. Family groups were generally concentrated around native wells, or ‘Mikiri’ which provided the only permanent source of water.
In good seasons, they could spread out away from these sites, taking advantage of groundwater and the flush of new life that rain brings to the desert.
Aboriginal groups living in this area were hunters and gatherers, but they also traded extensively with groups to the north and south. Ground-edge axes from quarries in Queensland were traded, as were sandstone grinding stones and ochre from the North Flinders Ranges. Some stone implements and workings can be seen in the park, but are not common. All Aboriginal sites are protected, so please do not disturb them.
Aboriginal South Australians are the first peoples of our State and have occupied, enjoyed and managed these lands and waters since the creation. For SA's First Peoples, creation ancestors laid down the laws of the Country and bestowed a range of customary rights and obligations to the many Aboriginal Nations across our state.
Aboriginal peoples' oral histories and creation stories traverse the length and breadth of Australia’s lands and waters, including South Australian Parks. These stories interconnect land and waters with complex meaning and values and hold great cultural significance. We recognise and respect Aboriginal people's ownership of their stories and that they hold rights and obligations to care for Country. It is through these rights and cultural obligations and a shared goal to protect the environment for generations to come that DEWNR is committed to meaningful collaboration and involvement with Aboriginal peoples in the management of our shared parks.
History
European settlement brought about the decline of Aboriginal occupation of the desert. White settlers introduced influenza to the Aboriginal groups, decimating the population. Groups were displaced as pastoral properties took over their land, while other Aboriginal people were attracted to work on properties and to towns and communities.
The first European to see the grandeur of the Simpson Desert was the explorer Charles Sturt in 1845, but the desert was not fully recognised and named until the 1930s when another explorer and geologist, Cecil Thomas Madigan, named it after Allen Simpson, the sponsor of his subsequent expedition and then president of the Royal Geographical Society of Australasia (South Australian Branch). The explorers who came after Sturt, mainly government surveyors, named a number of the familiar landmarks in the area.
Notable among the early surveyors was Augustus Poeppel who surveyed the junction of the borders of Northern Territory, Queensland and South Australia in 1880. The original peg marking Poeppel Corner was removed to Adelaide for preservation in 1962 by Dr Reg Sprigg and now forms part of the History Trust of South Australia's Historic Relics Collection. On 25 August 1968, Bill Haylock of the SA Geodetic Survey placed the current steel and concrete post to mark Poeppel Corner. In 1989, the Friends of the Simpson Desert Parks erected a red gum replica of the original peg near the corner post.
The first successful European crossing of the desert was in 1936 and is credited to E. A. Colson, who, with Peter Ains (an Aboriginal companion) and five camels, travelled from Mount Etingambra eastwards via Poeppel Corner to Birdsville. Geologist Reg Sprigg and his family completed the first motorised crossing in 1962, with Dr Sprigg’s Geosurveys of Australia company.
In 1936, the French Petroleum Company was contracted to conduct seismic surveys and explore for oil and gas deposits. These workers spent months at a time in the desert, building what are now known as the French and QAA lines, Rig Road and other tracks, thus opening up the desert for other explorers, pastoralists and tourists to follow.
The Simpson Desert Conservation Park was originally proclaimed as a national park in 1967, but changed to conservation park classification in 1972. The regional reserve was established in 1988, linking the conservation park with Witjira National Park. The enormous size of the parks (the regional reserve covers 29 191 sq km, the conservation park, 6 881 sq km) allows a wide cross-section of diverse flora, fauna and sand ridge formations to be protected.
See and do
Rangers recommend
We have picked the brains of our park rangers to find out what they would recommend you see and do whilst visiting this park.
Visiting the lone gum - the thriving Coolabah that stands alone alongside the Rig Road. The solitary tree, far from the nearest watercourse, generally grows in heavy clay soils. There is no other tree of its kind in the region, how it comes to be here still remains a mystery.
Photographing the Approdinna Attora Knolls - the rare gypsum outcrops which were once the highest dune crests in the area. Due to fragility and great scientific importance, management works have been undertaken to protect them from the impacts of vehicles and animals.
Standing in three different states at the same time at Poeppel Corner, in the Simpson Desert Conservation Park. A replica of Augustus Poeppel's original marker stands near the current surveyors peg (the original is now in Adelaide, as part of the South Australian Historical Relics Collection) where these three states meet. Not far away you might find some of Poeppel's original mileposts and historic markers.
4WDriving
Cross the Simpson Desert and explore parallel red sand ridges that extend across an area of up to 500 km. The best time to cross the Simpson is from mid-March to mid-August when the temperature is milder.
Vehicle flags are now mandatory in this park. Read more about park safety requirements under the Safety tab.
You must have a Desert Parks Pass to do this trip.
Stay in the park
Camp out under the stars and experience the beauty of the outback. The best camping spots are towards the salt lakes in the central region where gidgee woodlands provide shade, shelter and soft ground for pitching a tent. You can camp within 50 metres of the public access tracks in the Simpson Desert, but there are no facilities.
A separate camping permit is required if you intend to camp in Queensland en route to Birdsville through Munga-Thirri National Park .
There are no services between Oodnadatta and Birdsville, unless you take a detour to Mount Dare Homestead. A campground with toilets and showers is available at Dalhousie Springs and Purnie Bore in Witjira National Park.
Important information for campers:
Flora
On the crests of the sand dunes small grasses and herbs, such as Sandhill Cane-grass thrive, while on the more stable sands Triodia species like Lobed Spinifex and other small grasses and shrubs dominate. These spinifex tussocks can often grow to form large donut-like shapes as the centre of the plant dies out, while new growth continues at the outer edges.
Desert vegetation depends on seasonal conditions. Many plants have short life cycles, growing, flowering and setting seeds within a couple of months of rain. After rain the sand dunes can become covered in a veritable carpet of wildflowers, as the long dormant seeds of Poached-egg Daisies and Fleshy Groundsel spring into life.
The swales between the sand dunes collect more water and nutrients than the sand dunes and so can support larger shrubs such as eremophila, grevillea and acacias like Mulga and Gidgee – particularly around Poeppel Corner where low open woodlands of Gidgee spread out to the horizon. The playa lakes in these swales also support small clumps of salt-tolerant samphire and other herbaceous plants around their periphery.
Fauna
More than 150 species of birds inhabit the Simpson Desert. Common birds include crested pigeons and zebra finches, while galahs and corellas are often seen congregating away from the midday sun in a tree overlooking a waterhole. The desert is home to several species of birds of prey such as the mighty wedge-tailed eagle (often seen soaring on the desert thermals), as well as black kites, nankeen kestrels and brown falcons.
Look carefully for the eyrean grasswren on the slopes of sand dunes, scurrying from one sandhill canegrass clump to another. Following a good season, the Simpson Desert can become a birdwatcher’s paradise as flocks of birds arrive to take advantage of the water and abundant food, particularly around the playa lakes and temporary waterholes. Watch out for waterbirds, chats and the rare Australian Bustard. To escape the searing heat of the day, many of the Simpson Desert’s mammal inhabitants only come out at night. Small marsupials including dunnarts and ampurta come out to feast on insects, while Dingoes are out searching for bigger prey such as rabbits. If you’ve got a good field guide handy, try to identify the different tracks on the sand dunes in the morning. The desert is also home to feral animals including rabbits, camels and foxes.
As you drive, remain on the lookout for some of the reptilian inhabitants of the desert. Australia's biggest lizard, the perentie, can be found out here as well as the more common sand goanna. painted and central bearded dragons can be found sunning themselves next to the track, while the desert python (the woma) and smaller beaked geckos and desert skinks may be seen if you take the time to look.
Camping
When camping in a National Park, it's important to remember the following:
Always let someone responsible know your travel plans, especially when travelling in remote areas. It's a good idea to let them know when you expect to return.
Check the weather forecast before you leave, including overnight temperatures on the Bureau of Meteorology . Even during very mild weather, the nights can get very cold.
The quality and quantity of water cannot be guaranteed within parks. Please bring plenty of water and food to be self-sufficient.
Always camp in designated sites (where applicable) - do not camp beneath trees with overhanging branches, as they can drop without warning. It's also a good idea to check that there no insect nests nearby.
Check to make sure you're not camping in a natural waterway, flash floods can happen anytime.
If camp fires are permitted, you must bring your own firewood, as the collection of firewood within National Parks is prohibited. Extinguish your camp fire with water (not sand or dirt) until the hissing sound stops.
Ensure that you are familiar with the fire restrictions for this park.
This park is closed on days of Catastrophic Fire Danger and may be closed on days of Extreme Fire Danger.
Listen to the local area radio station for the latest updates and information on fire safety.
CFS Hotline: 1300 362 361
Fire restrictions
Wood fires and solid fuel fires are prohibited between 1 November 2016 to 31 March 2017.
You must bring your own firewood, as the collection of firewood within National Parks is prohibited.
Gas fires are permitted through the year, other than on days of total fire ban.
Ensure you are familiar with the fire restrictions for this park.
4WD and safety flags
Safety flags
All vehicles must be fitted with a safety flag when travelling in the Simpson Desert Conservation Park or Simpson Desert Regional Reserve.
Flag requirements:
minimum 300mm wide by 290mm high
made of fluorescent materials, red-orange or lime-yellow in colour.
Vehicles
With front bullbar - flag pole attached to the bulbar, with top of the flag a minimum 3.5 metres from the ground.
Without front bullbar - flag pole attached via bracket at the front of the vehicle, with top of the flag a minimum 3.5 metres from the ground; alternatively flag pole attached to the front of the roof rack, with top of the flag a minimum 2 metres from the roof of vehicle.
Motorbikes
Motorbikes are currently exempt from having to display a safety flag, however headlights must used at all times during travel.
When 4WDriving in the park, it is important to be aware of the following:
Standard road rules apply when driving anywhere in the park, including the laws for speed limits, drink driving, vehicle registration and seat belts.
Take extreme care when driving in the park – be aware of blind corners, crests and narrow two-way tracks.
Observe all track and safety signs, especially 'No public access' signs.
Do not take your vehicle off the designated tracks. Wildlife can be threatened and precious habitat and indigenous sites can be damaged by off track driving.
Make sure you know what to do in the event of getting bogged and always carry a shovel.
When driving on sand, deflate your tyres as appropriate for your vehicle. Don’t forget to reinflate your tyres to the manufacturer’s recommended pressure before leaving the park. Take care when lowering tyre pressure as there is risk you could roll the tyre off its rim. Also, remember that lower tyre pressure can mean a change in how the vehicle handles.
Entry fees
Single day entry is not available for this park, you are required to purchase a Desert Parks Pass to enter this park.
Entry and camping (for up to 21 nights at a time in a designated camping place) is covered by the purchase of a Desert Parks Pass.
Park pass
Desert Park Pass
Heading to the outback? Purchase a Desert Parks Pass which entitles you to 12 months vehicle entry into seven selected desert parks.
The pass also allows you to camp for periods of up to 21 nights at a time in the desert parks (excluding Wabma Kadarbu Mound Springs Conservation Park, where camping is not permitted).
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What precious stones are found in the Namib desert of Africa | Simpson Desert
Simpson Desert see Earthquakes
Geology
The area of the present Simpson Desert was covered by glaciers about 270 Ma. For some time after the glaciers melted the area was covered by an epicontinental sea, and eventually by a number of shallow freshwater lakes. It was during this time when the lakes were in the area that the Pedirka Basin formed, containing large amounts of mud and sand, as well as organic matter. By about 225 Ma the area was relatively dry, then downwarping of the crust resulted in the depression of the Eromanga Basin . Freshwater sediments from the lakes and rivers were deposited in the basin. The rocks formed by the compression of these sediments placed a seal above the hydrocarbons that had formed from the organic matter. During the Jurassic large amounts of sand were then deposited, to become the aquifers of the Great Artesian Basin (GAB).
Subsidence of the Eromanga Basin during the Cretaceous was followed by another marine transgression. The relatively impervious cap of the aquifers of the GAB resulted from the compaction of the marine deposits in this sea. The formation of the GAB took a total of about 150 million years. Once the sea had gone more freshwater sediments were deposited, and eventually the area was dry land again.
In the Early Tertiary the Lake Eyre Basin began to form about 60 or 70 Ma, the crust of the area subsiding to a lesser extent than in previous episodes of downwarping. The result was a broad, shallow depression, much of which was covered by shallow lagoons and slow flowing streams that meandered across the wide floodplains. Much of the present Simpson Desert overlies up to 200 m of sediments deposited at this time.
The area of the Simpson Desert was affected by the climatic swings during the Pleistocene, the lake and streams drying up during the last glacial maximum about 18,000-16,000. Dating of the dunes in the southern part of the desert and fossils in the sediments at the base of the dunes have indicated the dunes were actually formed in the Holocene 10,000-8,000 BP, making them relatively young.
Dunefields
The Simpson Desert, one of the driest areas of Australia, with rainfall less than 125 mm/year, is characterised by its dunefields , making up 73 % of the desert. The long straight dunes are oriented in a north-northwest/south-southeast direction. Some dunes converge to form Y-junctions with neighbouring dunes, but some remain straight and unbroken for 200 km. The largest dunes in Australia occur in the Simpson Desert.
As well as the dunes, the dunefields are comprised of the swales, also called the interdune corridors, between them.
The dunes are composed of siliceous, wind-driven sand. It is often mobile on the crests. The eastern slopes are usually steeper than the western slopes. The swales, the interdune space, some of which are of sand and others are of clayey sand, gibber surfaces or even alluvial deposits from old flood plains. The swales sometimes contain large claypans or saltpans (salinas). The height of the dunes varies between 10 and 40 m. The average space between the dunes is about 500 m. The greater the height the lesser the frequency of the dunes. The height and frequency of the dunes is influenced by the substrate of the swales. 15 m high dunes are about 200 m apart where the swale between them is sand, 30 m dunes with gibber swales can have a separation of up to 600 m.
Overall the Simpson Desert dunes appear to be uniform, but closer examination reveals a large amount of variation between the different regions. Based on a number of dune characteristics, the dunes of the Simpson have been categorised into 11 different systems of dunes. These characteristics include height, length, spacing, crest shape, convergence, swale nature, as well as characteristics of soil and vegetation. Fringing dunes, on the edges of the dunefield, have been separated into 9 types of minor dune systems - watercourses, salt lakes, freshwater lakes and floodplains.
A number of characteristics of the dunefields of the southern part of the Simpson, such as spatial organisation pattern, whether or not there are playa lakes, soil nature and the type of vegetation, have led to the development of a number of ecological associations.
The dunefields of the Simpson Desert are still advancing, its brilliant red dunes are moving onto the Strzelecki Floodplain, smothering entire eucalypt forests in the process. In places, the only indication that a forest was there are the occasional eucalypt crown protruding from the sand. The 130,000 km2 (size estimates vary) of the Simpson Desert comprise half the dune-desert area of Australia. At present, 40 % of the continent is covered by dunes. Because of the fine-grained sediment, that prevents the organic matter being completely decomposed, the area is being explored for gas and oil.
Dunefield origin
Rivers and streams flowing into the Lake Eyre depression brought sand as alluvial sediment to the area of the dunefields, the material being collected from the vast area of the inward-draining catchment. Lake Eyre , the associated playas, and the wide floodplain of the Diamantina River to the southeast of the Simpson are the depocentres for this sediment ( Twidale & Wopfner, 1990 ).
Dune formation begins with the surface sediment being picked up by wind and deposited in mounds on the leeside, on the northern margins of playas and floodplains, to form lunettes . Wind passing over the lunettes is deflected leading to the increase of turbulence resulting in the development of spirals and vortices. Sand is then moved by the wind to the 'dead' areas between these spirals, where it forms small sand ribbons or tongues, the origin of the dune that extends downwind as sand is gradually added by the wind (as identified by Grartz et al.).
Two prevailing wind systems of the Simpson produce and maintain the unique alignment of the sandridges. The prevailing winds, mostly from the southeast, but also from the southwest, produce dunes aligned along the axis of the combined windflow that results, generally NNW/SSE, as well as gradually extending the dune northwards along its axis. As long as a source of sand is available the dune growth is relatively self-sustaining.
As a result of the deposition of sediment that occurs whenever the rivers of the Channel Country in southwestern Queensland, Cooper Creek , Eyre Creek and the Diamantina River, flood sufficiently to continue all the way to the Lake Eyre region, dune formation can occur. The growth of dunes in the Simpson, mostly to the north, occurs episodically, advancing several metres in some years, remaining static in others.
Sand colour
The sand of the dunefields of the Simpson Desert is of a range of colours, from white to dark red, the lightest coloured sand being nearest to the source sediments in the south of the desert, becoming progressively darker to the north. The basic material of the dunes is white quartz sand, the particles of which are of a diameter of about 0.3-0.4 mm. The dunes comprised of this sand are white, but there is often a small amount of clay mixed in with the sand. As the dunes age any iron in the clay oxidises, the sand grains becoming coated with this iron oxide, the longer the weathering they have undergone the darker the red coating on the grains. At the downwind end of the dunefields, in the north, the darkest dunes are found, those farthest from the source sediments. The dark colour in these northern dunes is contributed to by sediment carried to the local area by a number of rivers, such as Hale River, Plenty River and Hay River that are sourced in the Central Australian Ranges such as the MacDonnell Ranges .
Ecological associations of the dunefields of the southern Simpson Desert
Wangkangurru Ecological Association. Dunes of red siliceous sand have a gentle western slope and steeper eastern slope, with sandhill canegrass on the dune crest. Lobed spinifex vegetates on the dune flanks and the swale. Acacia woodland in the swale.
Karanguru Ecological Association. Dunes of white or yellow siliceous sand are more symmetrical than those of the Wangkangurru Association. There is sandhill canegrass on the dune crests, but no lobed spinifex on the flanks or in the swale. A playa lake in the centre of the swale, the swale is vegetated with mixed Acacia and Hakea woodland and low chenopod shrubland.
Jeljendi Ecological Association. This association has the highest dunes in the Simpson Desert, and in the eastern desert the swales are wider. The vegetation of the swales, that are composed of clayey alluvium, is Acacia georginae woodland.
Land systems of the Simpson Desert
Surrounding the dunefields, the best known feature of the Simpson Desert, are a number of other landforms. Among these are major watercourses with associated floodplains, the Finke River and the Macumber River, on the western side, Warburton River and Kallakoopah Creek, on the southern side. On the eastern side are the Diamantina River , the Mulligan River and Eyre Creek. This drainage system was originally part of a much enlarged Lake Eyre , known as Lake Dieri , though some doubt this lake actually existed as a single, very large water body.
There are also a number of rivers flowing into the desert from the northwest. These are the Hale River, Plenty River, Hay River and Field River and Illogwa Creek. The catchments of these streams are in a number of ranges, the MocDonnell Ranges, Jervpois Range, Tarlton Range and Adam Range.
As a result of the inflow from these watercourses a flora and fauna have developed that is richer and more diverse than those in the dunefields of the central parts of the desert. As with the other parts of the arid zone, the rivers and creeks only flow after the very occasional heavy rainfall in their catchments. At these time the desert blooms, with a profusion of plants, many with brightly coloured flowers, that soon attract swarms of insects which in turn attract large numbers of birds and animals that eat insects. Ephemeral saline wetlands, that become progressively more saline as they approach Lake Eyre, occur on the floodplains of Kallakoopah Creek and the floodplains of the Warburton and the lower Macumba River in the far southernmost section the desert. These wetlands are unique to the Simpson, being actively fed by the rivers and creek.
There are also sandplains, gibber plains, breakaway country, or dissected residuals, low hills and tablelands.
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Which drink advertised itself in the U.S.A. as 'Hits the spot, twelve full ounces, that's a lot' | Coca-Cola at Home
Coca-Cola at Home
A billboard just outside of Austin, Texas bears the image of a silhouetted Coca-Cola bottle on its side with the caption: "Quick. Name a soft drink." The image reveals the iconic nature of the soft drink that fills the famous contoured bottle. Unmistakably Coca-Cola. Unmistakably American.
In the preface of a special issue of Beverage World magazine commemorating the one-hundredth anniversary of Coca-Cola, the author described Coke as "a totally American product born of a solid idea, nurtured throughout the past century with creative thinking and bold decision-making, and always plenty of good old-fashioned hard work. That is as it should be; it is the American way" (Stevens,2). Coca-Cola has become as American as baseball and apple pie. True, Coca-Cola originated in America and stands as a leading American business, but how did it become associated with the "American way?" From the very beginning Coca-Cola advertisements consisted of slice-of-life images showing Americans enjoying a refreshing "pause." They created an ideal America that Americans could visualize. Only after America's entry into World War II did Coca-Cola begin to align itself with patriotic themes. The advertisements created before and during World War II, as well as the activity of the company during the war solidified Coca-Cola in the minds of Americans as an icon of American values and ideals.
Coca-Cola had humble beginnings. Created by pharmacist Dr. John Styth Pemberton in his backyard on May 8, 1886, the concoction of caramel-colored syrup was tested as a soda fountain drink sold for five cents a glass at the largest drug store in Atlanta, Jacob's Pharmacy. His bookkeeper, Frank Robinson, suggested the name Coca-Cola and created the unique cursive logo that has been the trademark ever since. Pemberton planned to add a shot of cold, carbonated water to the syrup mixture. By May 29, 1886 the first Coca-Cola ad appeared in the Atlanta Journal on the patent medicine page:
Coca-Cola. Delicious! Refreshing! Exhilarating! Invigorating! The New and Popular Soda Fountain Drink, containing the properties of the wonderful Coca plant and the famous Cola nuts. For sale by Willis Venable and Nunnally & Rawson. (Allen, 28).
Dr. Pemberton, however, became ill soon after this, threatening the continuation of the business. Sales plummeted throughout the rest of that year, but Robinson's faith in Coca-Cola's potential kept the business going. Robinson concluded that the people simply didn't know what they were missing because it hadn't been advertised.
He was right! By June of 1887 the Coca-Cola trademark had been patented through the U. S. Patent Office and the product was gaining wider distribution. In 1888, Asa G. Candler, an Atlanta businessman and druggist, purchased the rights to the product and later formed the corporation "The Coca-Cola Company." Candler firmly believed in the importance of advertising. He distributed thousands of complimentary tickets for free glasses of Coca-Cola. He also pushed promoting the beverage on outdoor posters, calendars, soda fountain urns, and even wall murals (a precursor to the nationwide use of billboards in 1925). His philosophy was to stimulate the desire for Coca-Cola in as many ways and as much as possible, and then have it readily available everywhere.
Availability increased tremendously upon the advent of bottling in 1894. The company expanded its distribution, and in turn, escalated the importance of advertising. In 1906 the company hired William D'Arcy, who set the tone of Coke's advertising for the coming decades. He held the view that"Coca-Cola advertising should create scenes that drew people in and made them part of the pleasant interludes of everyday life" (Allen,76). He showed pleasant people drinking Coca-Cola while doing sociable activities such as playing games and shopping.
In the 1910s Coca-Cola ran an ad of a demure yet appealing woman drinking a Coke. The copy read: "Nothing is so suggestive of Coca-Cola's own pure deliciousness as the picture of a beautiful, sweet, wholesome, womanly woman."
Associating itself with an ideal American girl, Coca-Cola made its appeal to the public. D'Arcy also wrote text for the advertisements that had away of reaching the common reader. He proclaimed, "All classes, ages and sexes drink Coca-Cola" (Allen, 76). One of his first newspaper advertisements showed a picture of the baseball star Ty Cobb at bat and said:
Something's bound to happen--nerves-a-tingle-- head whizzing. Crack!! Good boy Ty!! Safe!! And then you shout yourself hoarse. When it's all over you're hot, thirsty and limp. A cold, snappy drink of Coca-Cola will put you back in the game-relieve the thirst and cool you off. (Allen, 76).
D'Arcy found success. He used a subject that appealed to all Americans: baseball. D'Arcy's description of watching Ty Cobb play baseball affected the reader's senses making him thirsty for a Coca-Cola. He continued to align Coca-Cola with American everyday life.
In the 1920s, Coca-Cola's advertising began to reflect the prosperity of the times. Advertisements depicted the rising middle class participating in activities once reserved for the elite in society. Two well-groomed men sit in a charming American Pullman train car while a black waiter immaculately dressed in white serves them ice-cold Coca-Cola. The ad tells readers to have a cold one "at your club" (Louis, 221). Another advertising poster shows a young girl being pulled on a board behind a boat wearing a subtly bold tank bathing suit.
The advertisements created images that the people of America aspired to emulate. And with the great prosperity of the nation, such a dream was within reach.
Unfortunately, the good fortune of America came to a screeching halt upon the stock market crash of 1929. The Great Depression ensued and people of all classes suffered the disastrous economic blow that would last more than ten years. Before the crash occurred in 1929 the famous slogan "The Pause that Refreshes" made its debut in The Saturday Evening Post. The company launched this campaign under the commonly accepted assumption that men and women work better if given a few breaks in their work day. Coca-Cola's per capita consumption doubled that year. But the reality of the depression threatened to decrease sales. It controlled every aspect of American life.
However, the pleasant fantasy land of Coca-Cola advertisements remained untouched. Coca-Cola continued to present happy scenes of "everyday" American life. An ad in the August 3, 1935 issue of the Saturday Evening Post showed a pleasant man probably in his thirties having a Coca-Cola on his way to work to help him "start the morning feeling fit."
His immaculate dress suit and gleaming smile deny any existence of a national depression. He holds the morning paper with confidence, as if it contains only good news. He lacks any worries or cares at all. Quite an unrealistic depiction of America at the time, but this scene represented the "real" America to the people. As a population they yearned for a return to this way of life, the way things used to be. Coca-Cola advertisements provided an escape from the realities of the depression into an idealized reality of America. People bought it. It assured them that there would be a return to normalcy.
A parallel image for women is illustrated in the May 31 and August 23, 1941 issues of The Saturday Evening Post.
The first image shows a woman leisurely taking a break from her gardening to refresh herself. The copy reads: "There's one thing everybody will grow this month. They'll grow thirsty." The ad puts "everybody" on an equal level, comparing all women to this pretty, clean, well-dressed woman in her blooming prosperous garden. People could be just like her with a leisurely, comfortable life if they pause to refresh with Coca-Cola. Similarly, the bathing beauty in the next image does not have a care in the world. With only the purchase of a Coca-Cola, the reader can be as relaxed and "completely refreshed" as the young vibrant girl.
Artist Haddon Sundblom's famous Santa Claus image first appeared with a Coke on billboards in 1931, reassuring people that goodness still existed in the world. Associating itself with Santa Claus gave Coca-Cola a universal positive image that epitomized American ideals. For Santa brings gifts to all little boys and girls, as long as they are good.
Boys and girls also appeared in soda fountain advertisements. A pristine juvenile couple sits at the counter while a soda jerk takes their order. The girl smiles earnestly at the boy while he orders two ice-cold Coca-Colas for them.
The couple, free from any notion of a depression or the oncoming U. S. involvement in a world war, happily sip their Coca-Colas. The advertisement reminds readers that, "Around the corner from anywhere, the soda fountain invites you to pause and refresh yourself. Make it a date." Coke was depicted as a normal convenient part of everyday life, an essential part of the picture perfect America that these advertisements created. One of the advertisements asserts: "The pause that refreshes with ice-cold Coca-Cola is America's favorite moment." And indeed it would be. The beginning of U. S. involvement in World War II sent many American soldiers abroad, where they longed for the comforts of home and "moments" like these.
As one sergeant from Kansas wrote home to his parents during World War II, "It's the little things, not the big things that the individual soldier fights for or wants so badly when away. It's the girl friend back home in a drug store over a Coke, or the juke box and the summer weather. The average soldier wants to come home, get back in those old clothes, and do the things he always did" (Allen, 258). They longed for the familiar, very American, soda fountain experience. What are the other things that Americans "always did?" Just look at the Coca-Cola advertisements. Coca-Cola successfully created a picture of the ideal America that Americans held onto during World War II.
Even though Coca-Cola's images of America were appealing and profitable during the depression, by the mid- thirties an earnest competitor emerged on the market with surprising success: Pepsi. Offering twelve ounces of cola instead of six for the same nickel price, the Pepsi-Cola company made steady gains with consumers. Families who had to watch their spending began to drink Pepsi. From 1934 to 1937 Pepsi netted over $9.5 million. In 1938 they doubled their 1936 profits at $4 million. Wallace Mack, the leader and force behind the Pepsi-Cola company, forged ahead into the newest medium of advertisement, the radio. Pepsi created the first advertising jingle for the radio which with twenty-eight million families listening to radio by 1939 made a substantial difference in their sales.
Pepsi-Cola hits the spot Twelve full ounces, that's a lot Twice as much for a nickel, too Pepsi-Cola is the drink for you. (Allen, 240).
The tune of the jingle was so catchy that listeners called up radio stations asking them to play it. By 1939, net earnings reached $5.6 million for Pepsi-Cola. Coca-Cola, whose appeal had been so dependent on its visual image, had nothing to counter the Pepsi jingle with. By the beginning of 1941, with an advertising budget exceeding $10 million, the company was searching for ways to regain the spotlight.
The history of the world gave Coca-Cola its wish. The onset of World War II had a profound effect on the advertising decisions of the coming years. Ben Oehlert, who handled the lobbying activity in Washington for the company, predicted what the war would do to Coca-Cola and attempted to prepare the company in advance. He knew that the United States would eventually become involved in the international conflict and therefore, the company would face cutbacks and decline in sales. Because Coca-Cola had become the largest consumer of granulated cane sugar in the world by 1919, the rationing of sugar during World War I had almost devastated the company. Oehlert, not wanting this to happen again, pondered how he could convince the government that Coca-Cola was essential to the war effort. Approaching Ralph Hayes, secretary and treasurer of the company, Oehlert presented the idea that even in wartime, men and women benefitted from regular pauses in their work day.
Hayes referred to the project as "Oehlert's Folly," but nevertheless gave careful consideration to the young lawyer's observations. Hayes recognized how Coca-Cola could be valuable to the military population. As an alternative to alcoholic beverages, Coca-Cola would be a more desirable beverage for a commanding officer to give his troops. Therefore, Hayes told the D'Arcy agency to begin collecting endorsements from commanding officers around the country in training camps.
Robert W. Woodruff, President of the company, however, needed to be convinced that Oehlert was onto something worth getting into. Luckily, a wire sent by an American reporter in London to the New York Coca-Cola office came in the spring of 1941 reading: "We, members of the Associated Press, can not get Coca-Cola anymore. Terrible situation for Americans covering battle of Britain. Know you can help. Regards" (Allen, 250). The wire made Woodruff realize that Coca-Cola boosted morale and therefore was crucial to the war effort. He thought that even if the company lost money, Coca-Cola should be available to the armed forces. After the bombing of Pearl Harbor in December 1941, Woodruff declared Coca-Cola's wartime policy: "We will see that every man in uniform gets a bottle of Coca-Cola for five cents wherever he is and whatever it costs" (Watters, 162). The Coca-Cola company became a source of surging patriotism.
The War Department agreed with Woodruff's idea that Coca-Cola would provide a boost in morale. Therefore, they had the U. S. government fund the installation of sixty-four bottling plants behind Allied lines. Entire bottling plants were shipped to the front lines with other supplies. And as soon as the battle front moved, so would the bottling company. When America went to war, Coca-Cola followed.
At the start of the U. S. involvement in the war, Coca- Cola knew it needed to adjust its advertising. Coca-Cola attempted to create the same American images, but under in a wartime context. The February 21, 1942 issue of The Saturday Evening Post
replaced the young couple sitting at the soda fountain with two smiling soldiers. The happy, no worries lifestyle image prevailed. The ad appears tidy, neat, in order, and under control. As long as there was Coca-Cola, everything was fine. The soda fountain scenario was making its appearance once again, but this time it had been adapted to a nation at war. For example, a professional female soda jerk stands behind the counter representative of females in the work place during wartime.
In 1943, Coca-Cola put out an advertisement urging people to buy U. S. War Bonds and War Stamps.
The newly created elf-looking Coca-Cola mascot named "Sprite" appears in the ad stating, "I'm saying this for Uncle Sam!" and warning "And no matter what anybody is doing to help (this doesn't go for fighting men) nobody is doing his full share if he's not buying U. S. War Bonds and War Stamps regularly. Are you buying them? Are you buying your share in Victory and in the good American way of Life?" Coca-Cola strongly aligned itself with the war effort. In another wartime advertisement Coca-Cola shows three major wars in American history: the Civil War, World War I, and World War II.
The caption next to the Civil War picture reads: "Stonewall Jackson taught us what the pause that refreshes really means.... On the march he gave his men rations of sugar and at intervals required them to lie down for a short rest. Thus he marched troops farther and faster than any other general in the field. Since his day all marching troops have been given a short rest period out of every hour." The ad reconstructs history by asserting that even Stonewall Jackson understood the need to "pause and refresh" oneself. Therefore, the ad suggests that Stonewall would have had a Coca-Cola and supported its importance to the wartime effort. The other two pictures of soldiers reveal Coca-Cola's patriotic role in American war history.
By 1944, Coca-Cola became known as "The Global High Sign." This ad campaign showed men in uniform together enjoying Coca-Colas.
The advertisements reinterpreted friendship and community. One early ad shows a group of young boys drinking Coke while sticking their feet in a fountain, whereas one of the wartime images shows GIs with a crate of Coca-Cola in a foxhole.
Coca- Cola had reconstructed the American community because it aimed not only to fit the changing times, but also to continue representing American values and ideals. Another ad in the September 16, 1944 issue of The Saturday Evening Post has two women Allies enjoying "a friendly pause" together.
The scene resembles an ad created four years earlier where two women enjoy a Coca-Cola while taking a break from their shopping.
The women in the earlier image focus on the Fashion News section of a newspaper, while the women in the wartime image gaze at a wallet-size photo of a soldier. The copy reads: "There's a friendly phrase that speaks the allied language. It's Have a "Coke." Friendliness enters the picture when ice-cold Coca-Cola appears. Over tinkling glasses of ice-cold "Coke," minds meet and hearts are closer together. It's a happy custom that's spreading 'round the globe." The friendship, though the same, has been adapted to the times. The wartime ad aligned Coca-Cola with the American ideal of good will. Coca-Cola helped create and maintain good relations among the allied forces. Where would they have been without it? All of the advertisements associated with the war sent a similar message to the reader: "Coca-Cola is an essential part of America's war effort. If you don't drink it, you're not American."
Other soft drink advertisements of the day chose less patriotic approaches to advertising.
Neither of the advertisements shown present their product as a patriotic product like Coca-Cola does. Therefore, Coke stands high above the rest as a symbol of America.
This high status did not come without a cost. Coca-Cola borrowed $5.5 million in order to place more than 64 bottling operations in foreign countries during the war. But the risk they took paid off. More than 11 million veterans returned home with a "lifelong attachment" to Coca-Cola. They had paused to refresh themselves more than a billion times during the war (Allen, 265). In an American Legion magazine survey of GIs, more of them preferred Coke over Pepsi by a factor of more than 8 to 1. Therefore, in the following years Coca-Cola capitalized on its position in the American heart and mind. In 1950, a Time magazine article proved that Coca-Cola was still a quintessential American icon. The cover showed an image entitled "World & Friend" with the subtitle "Love that piaster, that lira, that tickey, and that American way of life."
The smiling red Coca-Cola disk happily serves the world a Coke, or more accurately, a dose of the American way of life. The article described Coca-Cola's international endeavors as a "peaceful near-conquest of the world" and as "one of the remarkable phenomena of the age" (Beverage World, 168). It also praised Coca-Cola's efforts to ship overseas the American way of life. Apparently, to the author of the article, as well as to the American readers, Coca-Cola and the American way go hand-in-hand. The Coca-Cola disk holds the world in his hands, just as America did at that time after emerging as the leading world power after World War II.
Competitors cringed at Coke's association with the American way, a reality that was being splashed across every newsstand and coffee table in the country. Pepsi complained of unfair treatment, accusing Time of doing the story because Coke advertised in the magazine. Upset, Pepsi Export's newsletter, the Bulletin, reprinted a comment written in Walter Winchell's column: "Time mag usually pummels its Front Cover subject. But Coca-Cola is given the Kid Glove Treatment. Moral: It Pays to Advertise" (Allen, 278).
Even though other soft drink companies believed that Time was showing favoritism, the message of the article rang true. Coca-Cola had established itself as a symbol of America at home and abroad. The advertising strategies and techniques used before and during the war contributed extensively to this success. The images created during the war reenforced the images before the war and vice versa. The interactive nature of the two periods of Coca-Cola advertising history made it possible for Coca-Cola to become the American icon that it is today.
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PepsiCo, Inc. is one of the world’s top consumer product companies with many of the world’s most important and valuable trademarks. Its Pepsi-Cola Company division is the second largest soft drink business in the world, with a 21 percent share of the carbonated soft drink market worldwide and 29 percent in the United States . Three of its brands—Pepsi-Cola, Mountain Dew, and Diet Pepsi—are among the top ten soft drinks in the U.S. market. The Frito-Lay Company division is by far the world leader in salty snacks, holding a 40 percent market share and an even more staggering 56 percent share of the U.S. market. In the United States, Frito-Lay is nine times the size of its nearest competitor and sells nine of the top ten snack chip brands in the supermarket channel, including Lay’s, Doritos, Tostitos, Ruffles, Fritos, and Chee-tos. Frito-Lay generates more than 60 percent of PepsiCo’s net sales and more than two-thirds of the parent company’s operating profits. The company’s third division, Tropi-cana Products, Inc., is the world leader in juice sales and holds a dominant 41 percent of the U.S. chilled orange juice market. On a worldwide basis, PepsiCo’s product portfolio includes 16 brands that generate more than $500 million in sales each year, ten of which generate more than $1 billion annually. Overall, PepsiCo garners about 35 percent of its retail sales outside the United States, with Pepsi-Cola brands marketed in about 160 countries, Frito-Lay in more than 40, and Tropicana in approximately 50. As 2001 began, PepsiCo was on the verge of adding to its food and drink empire the brands of the Quaker Oats Company, which include Gatorade sports drink, Quaker oatmeal, and Cap’n Crunch, Life, and other ready-to-eat cereals.
When Caleb D. Bradham concocted a new cola drink in the 1890s, his friends’ enthusiastic response convinced him that he had created a commercially viable product. For 20 years, “Doc” Bradham prospered from his Pepsi-Cola sales. Eventually, he was faced with a dilemma; the crucial decision he made turned out to be the wrong one and he was forced to sell. But his successors fared no better and it was not until the end of the 1930s that Pepsi-Cola again became profitable. Seventy years later, PepsiCo, Inc. was a mammoth multinational supplier of soft drinks, juices, and snack food. PepsiCo’s advance to that level was almost entirely the result of its management style and the phenomenal success of its television advertising.
Ups and Downs in the Early Years
Doc Bradham, like countless other entrepreneurs across the United States, was trying to create a cola drink similar in taste to Coca-Cola, which by 1895 was selling well in every state of the union. On August 28, 1898, at his pharmacy in New Bern, North Carolina , Bradham gave the name Pepsi-Cola to his most popular flavored soda. Formerly known as Brad’s Drink, the new cola beverage was a syrup of sugar, vanilla, oils, cola nuts, and other flavorings diluted in carbonated water. The enterprising pharmacist followed Coca-Cola’s method of selling the concentrate to soda fountains; he mixed the syrup in his drugstore, then shipped it in barrels to the contracted fountain operators who added the soda water. He also bottled and sold the drink himself.
In 1902 Doc Bradham closed his drugstore to devote his attention to the thriving new business. The next year, he patented the Pepsi-Cola trademark, ran his first advertisement in a local paper, and moved the bottling and syrup-making operations to a custom-built factory. Almost 20,000 gallons of Pepsi-Cola syrup were produced in 1904.
Again following the successful methods of the Coca-Cola Company, Bradham began to establish a network of bottling franchises. Entrepreneurs anxious to enter the increasingly popular soft drink business set themselves up as bottlers and contracted with Bradham to buy his syrup and sell nothing but Pepsi. With little cash outlay, Pepsi-Cola reached a much wider market. Bradham’s first two bottling franchises, both in North Carolina, commenced operation in 1905. By 1907, Pepsi-Cola had signed agreements with 40 bottlers; over the next three years, the number grew to 250 and annual production of the syrup exceeded one million gallons.
Pepsi-Cola’s growth continued until World War I, when sugar, then the main ingredient of all flavored sodas, was rationed. Soft drink producers were forced to cut back until sugar rationing ended. The wartime set price of sugar—5.5 cents per pound—rocketed after controls were lifted to as much as 26.5 cents per pound in 1920. Bradham, like his rivals, had to decide whether to halt production and sit tight in the hope that prices would soon drop, or stockpile the precious commodity as a precaution against even higher prices; he chose the latter course. But unfortunately for him the market was saturated by the end of 1920 and sugar prices plunged to a low of two cents per pound.
Bradham never recovered. After several abortive attempts to reorganize, only two of the bottling plants remained open. In a last ditch effort, he enlisted the help of Roy C. Megargel, a Wall Street investment banker. Very few people, however, were willing to invest in the business and it went bankrupt in 1923. The assets were sold and Megargel purchased the company trademark, giving him the rights to the Pepsi-Cola formula. Doc Bradham went back to his drug dispensary and died 11 years later.
Megargel reorganized the firm as the National Pepsi-Cola Company in 1928, but after three years of continuous losses he had to declare bankruptcy. That same year, 1931, Megargel met Charles G. Guth, a somewhat autocratic businessman who had recently taken over as president of Loft Inc., a New York-based candy and fountain store concern. Guth had fallen out with Coca-Cola for refusing the company a wholesaler discount and he was on the lookout for a new soft drink. He signed an agreement with Megargel to resurrect the Pepsi-Cola company, and acquired 80 percent of the new shares, ostensibly for himself. Then, having modified the syrup formula, he canceled Loft’s contract with Coca-Cola and introduced Pepsi-Cola, whose name was often shortened to Pepsi.
Loft’s customers were wary of the brand switch and in the first year of Pepsi sales the company’s soft drink turnover was down by a third. By the end of 1933, Guth bought out Megargel and owned 91 percent of the insolvent company. Resistance to Pepsi in the Loft stores tailed off in 1934, and Guth decided to further improve sales by offering 12-ounce bottles of Pepsi for a nickel—the same price as six ounces of Coke. The Depression-weary people of Baltimore—where the 12-ounce bottles were first introduced—were ready for a bargain and Pepsi-Cola sales increased dramatically.
Guth soon took steps to internationalize Pepsi-Cola, establishing the Pepsi-Cola Company of Canada in 1934 and in the following year forming Compania Pepsi-Cola de Cuba . He also moved the entire American operation to Long Island City, New York, and set up national territorial boundaries for the bottling franchises. In 1936, Pepsi-Cola Ltd. of London commenced business.
Guth’s ownership of the Pepsi-Cola Company was challenged that same year by Loft Inc. In a complex arrangement, Guth had organized Pepsi-Cola as an independent corporation, but he had run it with Loft’s employees and money. After three years of litigation, the court upheld Loft’s contention and Guth had to step down, although he was retained as an adviser. James W. Carkner was elected president of the company, now a subsidiary of Loft Inc., but Carkner was soon replaced by Walter S. Mack, Jr., an executive from the Phoenix Securities Corporation.
Mack established a board of directors with real voting powers to ensure that no one person would be able to wield control as Guth had done. From the start, Mack’s aim was to promote Pepsi to the hilt so that it might replace Coca-Cola as the world’s best-selling soft drink. The advertising agency Mack hired worked wonders. In 1939, a Pepsi radio jingle—the first one to be aired nationally—caught the public’s attention: “Pepsi-Cola hits the spot. Twelve full ounces, that’s a lot. Twice as much for a nickel, too. Pepsi-Cola is the drink for you.” The jingle, sung to the tune of the old British hunting song “D’Ye Ken John Peel,” became an advertising hallmark; no one was more impressed, or concerned, than the executives at Coca-Cola.
In 1940, with foreign expansion continuing strongly, Loft Inc. made plans to merge with its Pepsi-Cola subsidiary. The new firm, formed in 1941, used the name Pepsi-Cola Company since it was so well-known. Pepsi’s stock was listed on the New York Stock Exchange for the first time.
Sugar rationing was even more severe during World War II , but this time the company fared better; indeed, the sugar plantation Pepsi-Cola acquired in Cuba became a most successful investment. But as inflation spiraled in the postwar U.S. economy, sales of soft drinks fell. The public needed time to get used to paying six or seven cents for a bottle of Pepsi which, as they remembered from the jingle, had always been a nickel. Profits in 1948 were down $3.6 million from the year before.
Company Perspectives:
PepsiCo’s overall mission is to increase the value of our shareholder’s investment. We do this through sales growth, cost controls and wise investment of resources. We believe our commercial success depends upon offering quality and value to our consumers and customers; providing products that are safe, wholesome, economically efficient and environmentally sound; and providing a fair return to our investors while adhering to the highest standards of integrity.
In other respects, 1948 was a notable year. Pepsi moved its corporate headquarters across the East River to midtown Manhattan , and for the first time the drink was sold in cans. The decision to start canning, while absolutely right for Pepsi-Cola and other soft drink companies, upset the franchised bottlers, who had invested heavily in equipment. However, another decision at Pepsi-Cola—to ignore the burgeoning vending machine market because of the necessarily large capital outlay—proved to be a costly mistake. The company had to learn the hard way that as canned drinks gained a larger share of the market, vending machine sales would become increasingly important.
1950s: The Steele and Crawford Era
Walter Mack was appointed company chairman in 1950, and a former Coca-Cola vice-president of sales, Alfred N. Steele, took over as president and chief executive officer, bringing 15 other Coke executives with him. Steele continued the policy of management decentralization by giving broader powers to regional vice-presidents, and he placed Herbert Barnet in charge of Pepsi’s financial operations. Steele’s outstanding contribution, however, was in marketing. He launched an extensive advertising campaign with the slogan “Be Sociable, Have a Pepsi.” The new television medium provided a perfect forum; Pepsi advertisements presented young Americans drinking “The Light Refreshment” and having fun.
By the time Alfred Steele married movie star Joan Crawford in 1954, a transformation of the company was well underway. Crawford’s adopted daughter, Christina, noted in her best-seller Mommie Dearest: “[Steele had] driven Pepsi into national prominence and distribution, second only to his former employer, Coca-Cola. Pepsi was giving Coke a run for its money in every nook and hamlet of America. Al Steele welded a national network of bottlers together, standardized the syrup formula ..., brought the distinctive logo into mass consciousness, and was on the brink of going international.” In fact, Pepsi-Cola International Ltd. was formed shortly after Steele’s marriage.
Joan Crawford became the personification of Pepsi’s new and glamorous image. She invariably kept a bottle of Pepsi at hand during press conferences and mentioned the product at interviews and on talk shows; on occasion she even arranged for Pepsi trucks and vending machines to feature in background shots of her movies. The actress also worked hard to spread the Pepsi word overseas and accompanied her husband, now chairman of the board, on his 1957 tour of Europe and Africa, where bottling plants were being established.
Steele died suddenly of a heart attack in the spring of 1959. Herbert Barnet succeeded him as chairman and Joan Crawford was elected a board member. Pepsi-Cola profits had fallen to a postwar low of $1.3 million in 1950 when Steele joined the company, but with the proliferation of supermarkets during the decade and the developments in overseas business, profits reached $14.2 million in 1960. By that time, young adults had become a major target of soft drink manufacturers and Pepsi’s advertisements were aimed at “Those who think young.”
Al Steele and Joan Crawford had been superb cheerleaders, but a stunt pulled in 1959 by Donald M. Kendall, head of Pepsi-Cola International, is still regarded as one of the great coups in the annals of advertising. Kendall attended the Moscow Trade Fair that year and persuaded U.S. Vice-President Richard Nixon to stop by the Pepsi booth with Nikita Khrushchev , the Soviet premier. As the cameras flashed, Khrushchev quenched his thirst with Pepsi and the grinning U.S. Vice-President stood in attendance. The next day, newspapers around the world featured photographs of the happy couple, complete with Pepsi bottle.
1960s and 1970s: The Pepsi Generation, Diversification
By 1963, Kendall was presiding over the Pepsi empire. His rise to the top of the company was legendary. He had been an amateur boxing champion in his youth and joined the company as a production line worker in 1947 after a stint in the U.S. Navy. He was later promoted to syrup sales where it quickly became apparent that he was destined for higher office. Ever pugnacious, Kendall has been described as abrasive and ruthlessly ambitious; beleaguered Pepsi executives secretly referred to him as White Fang. Under his long reign, the company’s fortunes skyrocketed.
Key Dates:
Pepsi Bottling Group is spun off to the public, with PepsiCo retaining a 35 percent stake.
2000:
PepsiCo reaches an agreement to acquire the Quaker Oats Company for $13.4 billion.
Pepsi-Cola’s remarkable successes in the 1960s and 1970s were the result of five distinct policies, all of which Kendall and his crew pursued diligently: advertising on a massive, unprecedented scale; introducing new brands of soft drinks; leading the industry in packaging innovations; expanding overseas; and, through acquisitions, diversifying their product line.
The postwar baby boomers were in their mid- to late teens by the time Kendall came to power. “Pepsi was there,” states a recent company flyer, “to claim these kids for our own.” These “kids” became the “Pepsi Generation.” In the late 1960s Pepsi was the “Taste that beats the others cold.” Viewers were advised “You’ve got a lot to live. Pepsi’s got a lot to give.” By the early 1970s, the appeal was to “Join the Pepsi people, feelin’ free.” In mid-decade an American catchphrase was given a company twist with “Have a Pepsi Day,” and the 1970s ended on the note “Catch the Pepsi Spirit!”
The Pepsi Generation wanted variety and Pepsi was happy to oblige. Company brands introduced in the 1960s included Patio soft drinks, Teem, Tropic Surf, Diet Pepsi—the first nationally distributed diet soda, introduced in 1964—and Mountain Dew, acquired from the Tip Corporation, also in 1964. Pepsi Light, a diet cola with a hint of lemon, made its debut in 1975, and a few years later Pepsi tested the market with Aspen apple soda and On-Tap root beer. The company also introduced greater variety into the packaging of its products. Soon after Kendall’s accession, the 12-ounce bottle was phased out in favor of the 16-ounce size, and in the 1970s Pepsi-Cola became the first American company to introduce one-and-a-half and two-liter bottles; it also began to package its sodas in sturdy, lightweight plastic bottles. By the end of the decade, Pepsi had added 12-pack cans to its growing array of packaging options.
The company’s expansion beyond the soft drink market began in 1965 when Kendall met Herman Lay, the owner of Frito-Lay, at a grocer’s convention. Kendall arranged a merger with this Dallas-based snack food manufacturer and formed PepsiCo, Inc. Herman Lay retired soon thereafter but retained his substantial PepsiCo shareholding. The value of this stock increased dramatically as Frito-Lay products were introduced to Pepsi’s nationwide market. At the time of the merger, key Frito-Lay brands included Fritos corn chips (created in 1932), Lay’s potato chips (1938), Chee-tos cheese-flavored snacks (1948), Ruffles potato chips (1958), and Rold Gold pretzels (acquired by Frito-Lay in 1961). Doritos tortilla chips were introduced nationally in 1967. The addition of Frito-Lay helped PepsiCo achieve $1 billion in sales for the first time in 1970. That same year, the corporation moved into its new world headquarters in Purchase, New York.
During the 1970s, Kendall acquired two well-known fast-food restaurant chains, Taco Bell, in 1977, and Pizza Hut, in 1978; naturally, these new subsidiaries became major outlets for Pepsi products. But Kendall also diversified outside the food and drink industry, bringing North American Van Lines (acquired in 1968), Lee Way Motor Freight, and Wilson Sporting Goods into the PepsiCo empire.
Overseas developments continued apace throughout Kendall’s tenure. Building on his famous Soviet achievement, he negotiated a trade agreement with the U.S.S.R. in 1972; the first Pepsi plant opened there two years later. Gains were also made in the Middle East and Latin America , but Coca-Cola, the major rival, retained its dominant position in Europe and throughout much of Asia .
1980s Highlighted by the Cola Wars
By the time PepsiCo greeted the 1980s with the slogan “Pepsi’s got your taste for life!,” Kendall was busy arranging for China to get that taste too; production began there in 1983. Kendall put his seal of approval on several other major developments in the early 1980s, including the introduction of Pepsi Free, a non-caffeine cola, and Slice, the first widely distributed soft drink to contain real fruit juice (lemon and lime). The latter drink was aimed at the growing 7-Up and Sprite market. Additionally, Diet Pepsi was reformulated using a blend of saccharin and aspartame (NutraSweet). “Pepsi Now!” was the cry of company commercials, and this was interspersed with “Taste, Improved by Diet Pepsi.” On the Frito-Lay side, meantime, the Tostitos brand of crispy round tortilla chips was introduced in 1981.
In 1983 the company claimed a significant share of the fast-food soft drink market when Burger King began selling Pepsi products. A year later, mindful of the industry axiom that there is virtually no limit to the amount a consumer will buy once the decision to buy has been made, PepsiCo introduced the 3-liter container.
By the mid-1980s, the Pepsi Generation was over the hill. Kendall’s ad agency spared no expense in heralding Pepsi as “The Choice of a New Generation,” using the talents of superstar Michael Jackson, singer Lionel Richie, and the Puerto Rican teenage group Menudo. Michael Jackson’s ads were smash hits and enjoyed the highest exposure of any American television commercial to date. The company’s high profile and powerful presence in all of the soft drink markets—direct results of Kendall’s strategies—helped it to weather the somewhat uncertain economic situation of the time.
On only one front had Kendall’s efforts failed to produce satisfactory results. Experience showed that for all its expertise, PepsiCo simply did not have the managerial experience required to run its subsidiaries outside the food and drink industries. A van line, a motor freight concern, and a sporting goods firm were indeed odd companies for a soft drink enterprise; and Kendall auctioned off these strange and ailing bedfellows, vowing never again to go courting in unfamiliar territories.
With his house in excellent order, the PepsiCo mogul began to prepare for his retirement. He had bullied and cajoled a generation of Pepsi executives and guided them ever upward on the steep slopes of Pepsi profits. But he had one last task: to lead PepsiCo to victory in the Cola Wars.
Hostilities commenced soon after the Coca-Cola Company changed its syrup recipe in the summer of 1985 and with much fanfare introduced New Coke. Pepsi, caught napping, claimed that Coca-Cola’s reformulated drink failed to meet with consumer approval and pointed to their own flourishing sales. But serious fans of the original Coke were not about to switch to Pepsi and demanded that their favorite refreshment be restored. When blindfolded, however, it became manifestly apparent that these diehards could rarely tell the difference between Old Coke, New Coke, and Pepsi; indeed, more often than not, they got it wrong. In any event, the Coca-Cola Company acceded to the public clamor for the original Coke and remarketed it as Coca-Cola Classic alongside its new cola.
Some advertising analysts believed that the entire “conflict” was a clever publicity ploy on the part of Coca-Cola to demonstrate the preeminence of its original concoction (“It’s the Real Thing!”), while introducing a new cola—allegedly a Pepsi taste-alike—to win the hearts of waverers. More interesting perhaps than the possible differences between the colas were the very real differences in people’s reactions. Four discrete fields were identified by Roger Enrico and Jesse Kornbluth in their book, The Other Guy Blinked: How Pepsi Won the Cola Wars: the totally wowed (possibly caffeine-induced); the rather amused; the slightly irritated; and the distinctly bored.
The latter group must have nodded off in front of their television sets when Pepsi took the Cola Wars beyond the firmament. “One Giant Sip for Mankind,” proclaimed the ads as a Pepsi “space can” was opened up aboard the U.S. space shuttle Challenger in 1985. Presumably, had a regular can been used, Pepsi-Cola would have sloshed aimlessly around the gravity-free cabin. This scientific breakthrough, together with the almost obligatory hype and hoopla, and more mundane factors such as the continued expansion in PepsiCo’s outlets, boosted sales to new heights, and Pepsi’s ad agency glittered with accolades. The debate persisted, at least within Coke and Pepsi corporate offices, as to who won the Cola Wars. The answer appeared to be that there were no losers, only winners; but skirmishes would inevitably continue.
Late 1980s and Early 1990s: Focusing on International Growth and Diversification
D. Wayne Calloway replaced Donald M. Kendall as chairman and chief executive officer in 1986. Calloway had been instrumental in the success of Frito-Lay, helping it to become PepsiCo’s most profitable division. The new chairman realized that his flagship Pepsi brand was not likely to win additional market share from Coca-Cola, and focused his efforts on international growth and diversification.
Calloway hoped to build on the phenomenal success of the Slice line of fruit juice beverages, which achieved $1 billion in sales and created a new beverage category within just two years of its 1984 introduction. From 1985 to 1993, PepsiCo introduced, acquired, or formed joint ventures to distribute nine beverages, including Lipton Original Iced Teas, Ocean Spray juices, All Sport drink, H20h! sparkling water, Avalon bottled water, and Mug root beer. Many of these products had a “ New Age ” light and healthy positioning, in line with consumer tastes, and higher net prices. In 1992, PepsiCo introduced Crystal Pepsi, a clear cola that, while still a traditional soda, also tried to capture the momentum of the “New Age” beverage trend.
In the restaurant segment, PepsiCo’s 1986 purchase of Kentucky Fried Chicken (KFC) and 1990 acquisition of the Hot ’n Now hamburger chain continued its emphasis on value-priced fast foods. But the company strayed slightly from that formula with the 1992 and 1993 purchases of such full-service restaurants as California Pizza Kitchen, which specialized in creative wood-fired pizzas, Chevys, a Mexican-style chain, East Side Mario’s Italian-style offerings, and D’Angelo Sandwich Shops.
Pepsi lost a powerful marketing tool in 1992, when Michael Jackson was accused of child molestation. Although the case was settled out of court, Pepsi dropped its contract with the entertainer. The firm launched its largest promotion ever in May 1992 with the “Gotta Have It” card, which offered discounts on the products of marketing partners Reebok sporting goods, Continental Airlines, and the MCI long distance company telephone. The company also launched a new marketing (or, as the company phrased it, “product quality”) initiative early in 1994, when it announced that packaged carbonated soft drink products sold in the United States would voluntarily be marked with a “Best if Consumed By” date.
Although Pepsi had commenced international expansion during the 1950s, it had long trailed Coca-Cola’s dramatic and overwhelming conquest of international markets. In 1990, CEO Calloway pledged up to $1 billion for overseas development, with the goal of increasing international volume 150 percent by 1995. At that time, Coke held 50 percent of the European soft drink market, while Pepsi claimed a meager 10 percent. But Pepsi’s advantage was that it could compete in other, less saturated segments. The company’s biggest challenge to expanding its restaurant division was affordability. PepsiCo noted that, while it took the average U.S. worker just 15 minutes to earn enough to enjoy a meal in one of the firm’s restaurants, it would take an Australian 25 minutes to achieve a similar goal. Pepsi still had other options, however. In 1992, for example, the company forged a joint venture with General Mills called Snack Ventures Europe which emerged as the largest firm in the $17 billion market. By 1993, PepsiCo had invested over $5 billion in international businesses, and its international sales comprised 27 percent, or $6.71 billion, of total annual sales.
In January 1992, Calloway was credited by Business Week magazine with emerging from the long shadow cast by his predecessor “to put together five impressive years of 20 percent compound earnings growth, doubling sales and nearly tripling the company’s value on the stock market.” Calloway also worked to reshape PepsiCo’s corporate culture by fostering personal responsibility and a decentralized, flexible management style.
Mid-to-Late 1990s: The Enrico Restructuring
Calloway, who was battling prostate cancer, retired as CEO in April 1996 and was replaced by Roger A. Enrico, who became chairman as well later in the year (Calloway died in July 1998). Since joining Frito-Lay’s marketing department in 1971, Enrico had stints heading up both Pepsi-Cola and Frito-Lay before becoming head of the restaurants division in 1994. He engineered a quick turnaround of the struggling chains by changing the overall strategy, for example adopting more franchising of units rather than company ownership. Under Enrico, the marketing of new concepts was also emphasized, with one notable success being the introduction of stuffed-crust pizza at Pizza Hut.
After taking over leadership of PepsiCo, Enrico quickly faced major problems in the overseas beverages operations, including big losses that were posted by its large Latin American bottler and the defection of its Venezuelan partner to Coca-Cola. PepsiCo ended up taking $576 million in special charges related to international writeoffs and restructuring, and its international arm posted a huge operating loss of $846 million, depressing 1996 profits. Among the moves initiated to turn around the international beverage operations, which faced brutal competition from the entrenched and better organized Coca-Cola, was to increase emphasis on emerging markets, such as India , China, Eastern Europe, and Russia , where Coke had a less formidable presence, and to rely less on bottling joint ventures and more on Pepsi- or franchise-owned bottling operations.
Another area of concern was the restaurant division, which had consistently been the PepsiCo laggard in terms of performance. Enrico concluded that in order to revitalize the beverage division and to take advantage of the surging Frito-Lay, which already accounted for 43 percent of PepsiCo’s operating profits, the restaurants had to go. Hot ’n Now and the casual dining chains were soon sold off, and in January 1997 PepsiCo announced that it would spin off its three fast-food chains into a separate publicly traded company. The spinoff was completed in October 1997 with the formation of Tricon Global Restaurants, Inc., consisting of the Taco Bell, Pizza Hut, and KFC chains. The exit from restaurants removed one obstacle facing Pepsi in its battle with Coke: that most large fast-food chains had been reluctant to carry Pepsi beverages, not wanting to support the parent of a major competitor. Consequently, Coke held a huge market share advantage over Pepsi in the fast-food channel. Pepsi subsequently made some inroads, for example, in 1999 sealing a ten-year deal with the 11,500-plus-outlet Subway chain.
Enrico placed more emphasis, however, on building sales of Pepsi in its core supermarket channel. In this regard, he launched an initiative called “Power of One” that aimed to take advantage of the synergies between Frito-Lay’s salty snacks and the beverages of Pepsi-Cola. This strategy involved persuading grocery retailers to move soft drinks next to snacks, the pitch being that such a placement would increase supermarket sales. In the process, PepsiCo would gain sales of both snacks and beverages while Coca-Cola could only benefit in the latter area. Power of One harkened back to the original rationale for the merger of Pepsi-Cola and Frito-Lay. At the time, the head of Pepsi, Kendall, had told Frito-Lay’s leader, Herman W. Lay: “You make them thirsty, and I’ll give them something to drink.” The promise of this seemingly ideal marriage had never really been achieved, however, until the Power of One campaign, which in 1999 helped increase Frito-Lay’s market share by two percentage points and boosted Pepsi’s volume by 0.6 percent.
In the meantime, Enrico was active on a number of other fronts. The company in 1997 nationally launched the Aquafina bottled water brand, which quickly gained the number one position in a fast-growing sector. In a move into the nonsalty snack category, Frito-Lay acquired the venerable Cracker Jack brand that year, and subsequently bolstered the brand through renewed advertising, a new four-ounce-bag package, the addition of more peanuts, the inclusion of better prizes, and the strength of Frito-Lay’s vast distribution network. In August 1998 PepsiCo opened up another front in its ongoing war with Coca-Cola by acquiring juice-maker Tropicana Products, Inc. from the Seagram Company, Ltd. for $3.3 billion in cash—the largest acquisition in PepsiCo history. Coca-Cola had been the owner of Tropicana’s arch-rival, Minute Maid, since 1960, but Tropicana was the clear world juice leader, led by the flagship Tropicana Pure Premium brand. Tropicana had a dominating 41 percent share of the fast-growing chilled orange juice market in the United States. The brand was also attractive for its growth potential; not only were sales of juice growing at a much faster rate than the stagnating carbonated beverage sector, there was also great potential for brand growth overseas. Psychologically, the acquisition also provided PepsiCo with something it very much needed: it could boast of holding at least dominant position over Coca-Cola.
In 1999 PepsiCo divested itself of another low-margin, capital-intensive business when it spun off Pepsi Bottling Group, the largest Pepsi bottler in the world, to the public in a $2.3 billion IPO. PepsiCo retained a 35 percent stake. PepsiCo was now focused exclusively on the less capital-intensive businesses of beverages and snack foods.
On the beverage side, Enrico, who had gained a reputation as a master marketer, spearheaded a bolder advertising strategy for the flagship Pepsi brand. In 1999, Pepsi-Cola was the exclusive global beverage partner for the movie blockbuster Star Wars, Episode 1: The Phantom Menace. The company also revived the old “Pepsi Challenge” campaign of the 1970s with the new Pepsi One diet drink facing off against Diet Coke. Pepsi’s “Joy of Cola” advertising campaign was gaining accolades and in 2000 captured renewed attention following the signing of a string of celebrities to endorsement deals, including singer Faith Hill and baseball stars Sammy Sosa and Ken Griffey, Jr. Pepsi also greatly increased the number of vending machines it had planted around the United States, making a renewed push to gain on Coke in another area where the arch-enemy had long dominated.
By the end of 1999, after three and one-half years at the helm, Enrico had clearly turned PepsiCo into a stronger, much more focused, and better performing firm. Although revenues were more than one-third lower due to the divestments, earnings were higher by more than $100 million. Operating margins had increased from 10 percent to 15 percent, while return on invested capital grew from 15 percent to 20 percent. Net debt had been slashed from $8 billion to $2 billion. During 1999, Steve Reinemund was named president and COO of PepsiCo. Reinemund had headed Pizza Hut from 1986 to 1992 then was placed in charge of Frito-Lay. In the latter position, he oversaw a division whose sales increased 10 percent per year on average and whose profits doubled. During his tenure, Frito-Lay’s share of the U.S. salty snack sector jumped from 40 to 60 percent.
Turning Acquisitive in the Early 21st Century
In October 2000 Enrico announced that he intended to vacate his position as CEO by the end of 2001 and his position as chairman by year-end 2002. Reinemund was named the heir apparent. Also that month, PepsiCo reached an agreement to acquire a majority stake in South Beach Beverage Company, maker of the SoBe brand. Popular with young consumers, the SoBe drink line featured herbal ingredients and was the fastest growing brand in the burgeoning noncarbonated alternative beverage sector.
An even more tempting target soon attracted PepsiCo’s attention: the powerhouse Gatorade brand owned by the Quaker Oats Company. Gatorade held an astounding 83.6 percent of the U.S. retail market for sports drinks and was the world leader in that segment with annual sales of about $2 billion. PepsiCo entered into talks with Quaker about acquiring the company for about $14 billion in stock, but by early November the two sides had failed to reach an agreement. Coca-Cola and Groupe Danone quickly came forward to discuss acquiring Quaker. Coke came exceedingly close to signing a $15.75 billion takeover agreement, but the company’s board pulled the plug on the deal at the last minute. Danone soon bowed out as well. At that point, PepsiCo reentered the picture, and in early December the firm announced that it agreed to acquire Quaker Oats for $13.4 billion in stock. This appeared to be quite a coup for PepsiCo as it would not only bring on board the valuable Gatorade brand and make PepsiCo the clear leader in the fast-growing non-carbonated beverage category, it would also add Quaker’s small but growing snack business, which included granola and other bars as well as rice cakes. Quaker’s non-snack food brands—which included the flagship Quaker oatmeal, Life and Cap’n Crunch cereals, Rice-a-Roni, and Aunt Jemima syrup—did not fit as neatly into the PepsiCo portfolio but were highly profitable and could eventually be divested if desired. In conjunction with the acquisition announcement, Enrico said that upon completion of the merger, he and the head of Quaker, Robert S. Morrison, would become vice-chairmen of PepsiCo, Morrison would also remain chairman, president, and CEO of Quaker, and Reinemund would become chairman and CEO of PepsiCo, thereby accelerating the management transition. At that same time, PepsiCo’s CFO, Indra Nooyi, who was the highest ranking Indian-born woman in corporate America, would become president and CFO. It seemed likely that this new management team would take PepsiCo to new heights in the early 21st century and that the company would continue to be a more and more formidable challenger to arch-rival Coca-Cola.
Principal Divisions
Frito-Lay Company; Pepsi-Cola Company; Tropicana Products, Inc.
Principal Competitors
Borden, Inc.; Cadbury Schweppes plc; Campbell Soup Company; Chiquita Brands International, Inc.; The Coca-Cola Company; ConAgra Foods, Inc.; Cott Corporation; Groupe Danone; General Mills, Inc.; Golden Enterprises, Inc.; Keebler Foods Company; Kraft Foods, Inc.; Nestle S.A.; Ocean Spray Cranberries, Inc.; The Procter & Gamble Company.
Further Reading
“Boards of Pepsi-Cola and Frito-Lay Approve Merging As PepsiCo,” Wall Street Journal, February 26, 1965, p. 8.
Bongiorno, Lori, “The Pepsi Regeneration,” Business Week, March 11, 1996, pp. 70+.
Byrne, John A., “PepsiCo’s New Formula,” Business Week, April 10, 2000, pp. 172-76+.
Cappelli, Peter, and Harbir Singh, “Do Pepsi and Oatmeal Mix?,” Wall Street Journal, December 5, 2000, p. A26.
Collins, Glenn, “PepsiCo Pushes a Star Performer,” New York Times, November 3, 1994, pp. Dl, D8.
Collins, Glenn, and Stephanie Strom, “Can Pepsi Become the Coke of Snacks?,” New York Times, November 3, 1996.
De Lisser, Eleena, “Pepsi Has Lost Its Midas Touch in Restaurants,” Wall Street Journal, July 18, 1994, p. Bl.
Deogun, Nikhil, “Pepsi Challenge: Can Company’s Brass Mute Flashy Culture and Make Profits Fizz?,” Wall Street Journal, August 8, 1997, pp. A1+.
——, “PepsiCo to Buy Quaker for $13.4 Billion,” Wall Street Journal, December 4, 2000, pp. A3, A8.
——, “PepsiCo to Reorganize U.S. Operations,” Wall Street Journal, June 2, 1997, p. A3.
——, “Revamped PepsiCo Still Needs to Conquer Wall Street,” Wall Street Journal, July 27, 1998, p. B4.
Deogun, Nikhil, Betsy McKay, and Jonathan Eig, “PepsiCo Aborts a Play for Quaker Oats,” Wall Street Journal, November 3, 2000, p. A3.
Dietz, Lawrence, Soda Pop: The History, Advertising, Art, and Memorabilia of Soft Drinks in America, New York: Simon and Schuster, 1973, 184 p.
Duncan, Amy, “Pepsi’s Marketing Market: Why Nobody Does It Better,” Business Week, February 10, 1986.
Enrico, Roger, and Jesse Kornbluth, The Other Guy Blinked: How Pepsi Won the Cola Wars, New York: Bantam, 1986, 280 p.
Fisher, Anne B., “Peering Past Pepsico’s Bad News,” Fortune, November 14, 1983, pp. 124+.
Frank, Robert, “PepsiCo’s Critics Worry the Glass Is Still Half Empty,” Wall Street Journal, September 30, 1996, p. B4.
Gibney, Frank, Jr., “Pepsi Gets Back in the Game,” Time, April 26, 1999.
“Gulp, Munch & Merge,” Forbes, July 15, 1968, pp. 20-21.
“Herman W. Lay of PepsiCo,” Nation’s Business, September 1969, pp. 88-89, 92-95.
“Holders of Pepsi-Cola and Frito-Lay Approve Proposal for Merger,” Wall Street Journal, June 9, 1965, p. 8.
Kraar, Louis, “Pepsi’s Pitch to Quench Chinese Thirsts,” Fortune, March 17, 1986.
Lousi, J.C., and Harvey Z. Yazijian, The Cola Wars, New York: Everest House, 1980, 386 p.
Mack, Walter, and Peter Buckley, No Time Lost, New York: Atheneum, 1982,211 p.
Martin, Milward W., Twelve Full Ounces, New York: Holt Rinehart, 1962, 136 p.
McCarthy, Michael J., “Added Fizz: Pepsi Is Going Better with Its Fast Foods and Frito-Lay Snacks,” Wall Street Journal, June 13, 1991, pp. A1+.
McKay, Betsy, “Juices Up: Pepsi Edges Past Coke and It Has Nothing to Do with Cola,” Wall Street Journal, November 6, 2000, pp. A1+. McKay, Betsy, and Jonathan Eig, “PepsiCo Hopes to Feast on Profits from Quaker Snacks,” Wall Street Journal, December 4, 2000, p. B4.
McKay, Betsy, and Nikhil Deogun, “PepsiCo’s Enrico to Pass CEO Baton to His Number Two by End of Next Year,” Wall Street Journal, October 4, 2000, p. Bl.
“PepsiCo—More Than Just ‘Pepsi,’” Financial World, November 4, 1970, pp. 5, 26.
“Pepsi’s Sitting on Trop of the World After Making Juicy Deal with Seagram,” Beverage World, August 15, 1998, p. 14.
Reeves, Scott, “The Pepsi Challenge,” Barron’s, August 11, 1997, pp. 17-18.
Rothman, Andrea, “Can Wayne Calloway Handle the Pepsi Challenge?,” Business Week, January 27, 1992.
Sellers, Patricia, “If It Ain’t Broke, Fit It Anyway,” Fortune, December 28, 1992, pp. 49+.
——, “PepsiCo’s New Generation,” Fortune, April 1, 1996, pp. 110-13+.
——, “Pepsi Opens a Second Front,” Fortune, August 8, 1994, pp. 70-76.
——, “Why Pepsi Needs to Become More Like Coke,” Fortune, March 3, 1997, pp. 26-27.
Sparks, Debra, “Will Pepsi Take the Wall Street Challenge?,” Financial World, April 8, 1996, pp. 26-29.
“Steady Gains for PepsiCo,” Financial World, March 1, 1972, pp. 7, 19.
Stoddard, Bob, Pepsi: 100 Years, Los Angeles : General Publishing Group, 1997, 207 p.
“Wayne Calloway’s Nonstop Cash Machine,” Forbes, September 7, 1987.
“Who Acquired Who?,” Forbes, April 1, 1967, p. 69.
Zellner, Wendy, “Frito-Lay Is Munching on the Competition,” Business Week, August 24, 1992, pp. 52-53.
—April Dougal Gasbarre
—updated by David E. Salamie
Cite this article
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MLA
Incorporated: 1919 as Loft, Inc.
Employees: 423,000
Sales: $25.02 billion
Stock Exchanges: New York Chicago Basel Geneva Zurich Amsterdam Tokyo
SICs: 5812 Eating Places; 2086 Bottled and Canned Soft Drinks; 2087 Flavoring Extracts and Syrups, Nee; 2096 Potato Chips and Similar Snacks; 2099 Food Preparations, Nee; 2052 Cookies and Crackers; 6794 Patent Owners and Lessors
PepsiCo, Inc. is a diversified consumer products company with some of the world’s most important and valuable trademarks. By the early 1990s, the company’s system dispensed $30 million in snack foods, $43 million in fast food, and $77 million in beverages each day. At that time, snack foods from PepsiCo’s Frito-Lay division, which included Doritos tortilla chips, Ruggles and Lay’s potato chips, Fritos corn chips, and Rold Gold pretzels, contributed the majority (39 percent, or $1.L9 billion) of the conglomerate’s operating profits. Incidentally, Frito-Lay also held 50 percent share of the $8 billion snack food market. Beverages, including the venerable Pepsi-Cola, and newer Slice and Mountain Dew, comprised 36 percent (or $1.11 billion) of PepsiCo’s operating profits. While the restaurant division’s Taco Bell, Pizza Hut, and KFC chains brought in the majority of PepsiCo’s sales, they added the minority of operating profits, 25 percent, or $778 million. As PepsiCo neared its centennial, its soft drinks were distributed in 166 countries, its snack foods were available in almost 90 countries, and its restaurant chains had operations in 88 countries and territories.
When Caleb D. Bradham concocted a new cola drink in the 1890s, his friends’ enthusiastic response convinced him that he had created a commercially viable product. For twenty years, “Doc” Bradham prospered from his Pepsi-Cola sales. Eventually, he was faced with a dilemma; the crucial decision he made turned out to be the wrong one and he was forced to sell. But his successors fared no better and it was not until the end of the 1930s that Pepsi-Cola again became profitable. Sixty years later, PepsiCo, Inc. was a mammoth multinational supplier of soft drinks, snack food, and fast food. PepsiCo’s advance to that level was almost entirely the result of its management style and the phenomenal success of its television advertising.
Doc Bradham, like countless other entrepreneurs across America, was trying to create a cola drink similar in taste to Coca-Cola, which by 1895 was selling well in every state of the union. On August 28, 1898, at his pharmacy in New Bern, North Carolina , Bradham gave the name Pepsi-Cola to his most popular flavored soda. Formerly known as Brad’s Drink, the new cola beverage was a syrup of sugar, vanilla, oils, cola nuts, and other flavorings diluted in carbonated water. The enterprising pharmacist followed Coca-Cola’s method of selling the concentrate to soda fountains; he mixed the syrup in his drugstore then shipped it in barrels to the contracted fountain operators who added the soda water. He also bottled and sold the drink himself.
In 1902 Doc Bradham closed his drugstore to devote his attention to the thriving new business. The next year, he patented the Pepsi-Cola trademark, ran his first advertisement in a local paper, and moved the bottling and syrup-making operations to a purpose-built factory. Almost 20,000 gallons of Pepsi-Cola syrup was produced in 1904.
Again following the successful methods of the Coca-Cola company, Bradham began to establish a network of bottling franchises. Entrepreneurs anxious to enter the increasingly popular soft drink business set themselves up as bottlers and contracted with Bradham to buy his syrup and sell nothing but Pepsi. With little cash outlay, Pepsi-Cola reached a much wider market. Bradham’s first two bottling franchises, both in North Carolina, commenced operation in 1905. By 1907, Pepsi-Cola had signed agreements with 40 bottlers; over the next three years, the number grew to 250 and annual production of the syrup exceeded one million gallons.
Pepsi-Cola’s growth continued until World War I, when sugar, then the main ingredient of all flavored sodas, was rationed. Soft drink producers were forced to cut back until sugar rationing ended. The wartime set price of sugar—5.5 cents per pound— rocketed after controls were lifted to as much as 26.5 cents per pound in 1920. Bradham, like his rivals, had to decide whether to halt “production and sit tight in the hope that prices would soon drop, or stockpile the precious commodity as a precaution against even higher prices; he chose the latter course. But unfortunately for him the market was saturated by the end of 1920 and sugar prices plunged to a low of 2 cents per pound.
Bradham never recovered. After several abortive attempts to reorganize, only two of the bottling plants remained open. In a last ditch effort, he enlisted the help of Roy C. Megargel, a Wall Street investment banker. However, very few people were willing to invest in the business and it went bankrupt in 1923. The assets were sold and Megargel purchased the company trademark, giving him the rights to the Pepsi-Cola formula. Doc Bradham went back to his drug dispensary and died 11 years later.
Megargel reorganized the firm as the National Pepsi-Cola Company in 1928, but after three years of continuous losses he had to declare bankruptcy. That same year, 1931, Megargel met Charles G. Guth, a somewhat autocratic businessman who had recently taken over as president of Loft Inc., a New York-based candy and fountain store concern. Guth had fallen out with Coca-Cola for refusing the company a wholesaler discount and he was on the lookout for a new soft drink. He signed an agreement with Megargel to resurrect the Pepsi-Cola company, and acquired 80 percent of the new shares, ostensibly for himself. Then, having modified the syrup formula, he canceled Loft’s contract with Coca-Cola and introduced Pepsi-Cola, whose name was often shortened to Pepsi.
Loft’s customers were wary of the brand switch and in the first year of Pepsi sales the company’s soft drink turnover was down by a third. By the end of 1933, Guth had bought out Megargel and owned 91 percent of the insolvent company. Resistance to Pepsi in the Loft stores tailed off in 1934, and Guth decided further to improve sales by offering 12 ounce bottles of Pepsi for a nickel—the same price as six ounces of Coke. The Depression-weary people of Baltimore—where the 12 ounce bottles were first introduced—were ready for a bargain and Pepsi-Cola sales increased dramatically.
Guth soon took steps to internationalize Pepsi-Cola, establishing the Pepsi-Cola Company of Canada in 1934 and in the following year forming Compania Pepsi-Cola de Cuba . He also moved the entire American operation to Long Island City, New York, and set up national territorial boundaries for the bottling franchises. In 1936, Pepsi-Cola Ltd. of London commenced business.
Guth’s ownership of the Pepsi-Cola Company was challenged that same year by Loft Inc. In a complex arrangement, Guth had organized Pepsi-Cola as an independent corporation, but he had run it with Loft’s employees and money. After three years of litigation, the court upheld Loft’s contention and Guth had to step down, although he was retained as an adviser. James W. Carkner was elected president of the company, now a subsidiary of Loft Inc., but Carkner was soon replaced by Walter S. Mack, Jr., an executive from the Phoenix Securities Corporation.
Mack established a board of directors with real voting powers to ensure that no one person would be able to wield control as Guth had done. From the start, Mack’s aim was to promote Pepsi to the hilt so that it might replace Coca-Cola as the world’s best-selling soft drink. The advertising agency Mack hired worked wonders. In 1939, a Pepsi radio jingle—the first one to be aired nationally—caught the public’s attention: “Pepsi-Cola hits the spot. Twelve full ounces, that’s a lot. Twice as much for a nickel, too. Pepsi-Cola is the drink for you.” The jingle, sung to the tune of the old British hunting song “D’Ye Ken John Peel,” became an advertising hallmark; no one was more impressed, or concerned, than the executives at Coca-Cola.
In 1940, with foreign expansion continuing strongly, Loft Inc. made plans to merge with its Pepsi-Cola subsidiary. The new firm, formed in 1941, used the name Pepsi-Cola Company since it was so well-known. Pepsi’s stock was listed on the New York Stock Exchange for the first time.
Sugar rationing was even more severe during World War II , but this time the company fared better; indeed, the sugar plantation Pepsi-Cola acquired in Cuba became a most successful investment. But as inflation spiraled in the postwar U.S. economy, sales of soft drinks fell. The public needed time to get used to paying six or seven cents for a bottle of Pepsi which, as they remembered from the jingle, had always been a nickel. Profits in 1948 were down $3.6 million from the year before.
In other respects, 1948 was a notable year. Pepsi moved its corporate headquarters across the East River to midtown Manhattan , and for the first time the drink was sold in cans. The decision to start canning, while absolutely right for Pepsi-Cola and other soft drink companies, upset the franchised bottlers, who had invested heavily in equipment. However, another decision at Pepsi-Cola—to ignore the burgeoning vending machine market because of the necessarily large capital outlay—proved to be a costly mistake. The company had to learn the hard way that as canned drinks gained a larger share of the market, vending machine sales would become increasingly important.
Walter Mack was appointed company chairman in 1950, and a former Coca-Cola vice-president of sales, Alfred N. Steele, took over as president and chief executive officer, bringing 15 other Coke executives with him. Steele continued the policy of management decentralization by giving broader powers to regional vice-presidents, and he placed Herbert Barnet in charge of Pepsi’s financial operations. However, Steele’s outstanding contribution was in marketing. He launched an extensive advertising campaign with the slogan “Be Sociable, Have a Pepsi.” The new television medium provided a perfect forum; Pepsi advertisements presented young Americans drinking “The Light Refreshment” and having fun.
By the time Alfred Steele married movie star Joan Crawford in 1954, a transformation of the company was well underway. Crawford’s adopted daughter Christina noted in her best seller Mommie Dearest: “[Steele had] driven Pepsi into national prominence and distribution, second only to his former employer, Coca-Cola. Pepsi was giving Coke a run for its money in every nook and hamlet of America. Al Steele welded a national network of bottlers together, standardized the syrup formula... , brought the distinctive logo into mass consciousness, and was on the brink of going international.” In fact, Pepsi-Cola International Ltd. was formed shortly after Steele’s marriage.
Joan Crawford became the personification of Pepsi’s new and glamorous image. She invariably kept a bottle of Pepsi at hand during press conferences and mentioned the product at interviews and on talk shows; on occasion she even arranged for Pepsi trucks and vending machines to feature in background shots of her movies. The actress also worked hard to spread the Pepsi word overseas and accompanied her husband, now chairman of the board, on his 1957 tour of Europe and Africa, where bottling plants were being established.
Steele died suddenly of a heart attack in the spring of 1959. Herbert Barnet succeeded him as chairman and Joan Crawford was elected a board member. Pepsi-Cola profits had fallen to a postwar low of $1.3 million in 1950 when Steele joined the company, but with the proliferation of supermarkets during the decade and the developments in overseas business, profits reached $14.2 million in 1960. By that time, young adults had become a major target of soft drink manufacturers and Pepsi’s advertisements were aimed at “Those who think young.”
Al Steele and Joan Crawford had been superb cheerleaders, but a stunt pulled in 1959 by Donald M. Kendall, head of Pepsi-Cola International, is still regarded as one of the great coups in the annals of advertising. Kendall attended the Moscow Trade Fair that year and persuaded U.S. Vice-President Richard Nixon to stop by the Pepsi booth with Nikita Khrushchev , the Soviet premier. As the cameras flashed, Khrushchev quenched his thirst with Pepsi and the grinning U.S. Vice-President stood in attendance. The next day, newspapers around the world featured photographs of the happy couple, complete with Pepsi bottle.
By 1963, Kendall was presiding over the Pepsi empire. His rise to the top of the company was legendary. He had been an amateur boxing champion in his youth and joined the company as a production line worker in 1947 after a stint in the U.S. Navy. He was later promoted to syrup sales where it quickly became apparent that he was destined for higher office. Ever pugnacious, Kendall has been described as abrasive and ruthlessly ambitious; beleaguered Pepsi executives secretly referred to him as White Fang. Under his long reign, the company’s fortunes skyrocketed.
Pepsi-Cola’s remarkable successes in the 1960s and 1970s were the result of five distinct policies, all of which Kendall and his crew pursued diligently: they advertised on a massive, unprecedented scale; they introduced new brands of soft drinks; they led the industry in packaging innovations; they expanded overseas; and, through acquisitions, they diversified their product line.
The postwar baby-boomers were in their mid- to late-teens by the time Kendall came to power. “Pepsi was there,” states a recent company flyer, “to claim these kids for our own.” These “kids” became the “Pepsi Generation.” In the late 1960s Pepsi was the “Taste that beats the others cold.” Viewers were advised “You’ve got a lot to live. Pepsi’s got a lot to give.” By the early 1970s, the appeal was to “Join the Pepsi people, feelin’ free.” In mid-decade an American catch-phrase was given a company twist with “Have a Pepsi Day,” and the 1970s ended on the note “Catch the Pepsi Spirit!”
The Pepsi Generation wanted variety and Pepsi was happy to oblige. Company brands introduced in the 1960s included Patio soft drinks, Teem, Tropic Surf, Diet Pepsi—the first nationally distributed diet soda—and Mountain Dew, acquired from the Tip Corporation. Pepsi Light, a diet cola with a hint of lemon, made its debut in 1975, and a few years later Pepsi tested the market with Aspen apple soda and On-Tap root beer. The company also introduced greater variety into the packaging of its products. Soon after Kendall’s accession, the 12-ounce bottle was phased out in favor of the 16-ounce size, and in the 1970s Pepsi-Cola became the first American company to introduce one-and-a-half and two-liter bottles; it also began to package its sodas in sturdy, lightweight plastic bottles. By the end of the decade, Pepsi had added 12-pack cans to its growing array of packaging options.
The company’s expansion beyond the soft drink market began in 1965 when Kendall met Herman Lay, the owner of Frito-Lay, at a grocer’s convention. Kendall arranged a merger with this Dallas-based snack food manufacturer and formed PepsiCo, Inc. Herman Lay retired soon thereafter but retained his substantial PepsiCo shareholding. The value of this stock increased dramatically as Frito-Lay products were introduced to Pepsi’s nationwide market.
In the late 1960s and early 1970s, Kendall acquired two well-known fast-food restaurant chains, Taco Bell and Pizza Hut; naturally, these new subsidiaries became major outlets for Pepsi products. But Kendall also diversified outside the food and drink industry, bringing North American Van Lines, Lee Way Motor Freight, and Wilson Sporting Goods into the PepsiCo empire.
Overseas developments continued apace throughout Kendall’s tenure. Building on his famous Soviet achievement, he negotiated a trade agreement with the USSR in 1972; the first Pepsi plant opened there two years later. Gains were also made in the Middle East and Latin America , but Coca-Cola, the major rival, retained its dominant position in Europe and throughout much of Asia .
By the time PepsiCo greeted the 1980s with the slogan “Pepsi’s got your taste for life!,” Kendall was busy arranging for China to get that taste too; production began there in 1983. Kendall put his seal of approval on several other major developments in the early 1980s, including the introduction of Pepsi Free, a non-caffeine cola, and Slice, the first widely distributed soft drink to contain real fruit juice (lemon and lime). The latter drink was aimed at the growing 7-Up and Sprite market. Additionally, Diet Pepsi was reformulated using a blend of saccharin and aspartame (NutraSweet). “Pepsi Now!” was the cry of company commercials, and this was interspersed with “Taste, Improved by Diet Pepsi.”
In 1983 the company claimed a significant share of the fast-food soft drink market when Burger King began selling Pepsi products. A year later, mindful of the industry axiom that there is virtually no limit to the amount a consumer will buy once the decision to buy has been made, PepsiCo introduced the 3-liter container.
By the mid 1980s, the Pepsi Generation was over the hill. Kendall’s ad agency spared no expense in heralding Pepsi as “The Choice of a New Generation,” using the talents of superstar Michael Jackson, singer Lionel Richie, and the Puerto Rican teenage group Menudo. Michael Jackson’s ads were smash hits and enjoyed the highest exposure of any American television commercial to date. The company’s high profile and powerful presence in all of the soft drink markets—direct results of Kendall’s strategies—helped it to weather the somewhat uncertain economic situation of the time.
On only one front had Kendall’s efforts failed to produce satisfactory results. Experience showed that for all its expertise, PepsiCo simply did not have the managerial experience required to run its subsidiaries outside the food and drink industries. A van line, a motor freight concern, and a sporting goods firm were indeed odd companies for a soft drink enterprise; and Kendall auctioned off these strange and ailing bedfellows, vowing never again to go courting in unfamiliar territories.
With his house in excellent order, the PepsiCo mogul began to prepare for his retirement. He had bullied and cajoled a generation of Pepsi executives and guided them ever upward on the steep slopes of Pepsi profits. But he had one last task: to lead PepsiCo to victory in the Cola Wars.
Hostilities commenced soon after the Coca-Cola Company changed its syrup recipe in the summer of 1985 and with much fanfare introduced New Coke. Pepsi, caught napping, claimed that Coca-Cola’s reformulated drink failed to meet with consumer approval and pointed to their own flourishing sales. But serious fans of the original Coke were not about to switch to Pepsi and demanded that their favorite refreshment be restored. However, when blindfolded, it became manifestly apparent that these diehards could rarely tell the difference between Old Coke, New Coke, and Pepsi; indeed, more often than not, they got it wrong. In any event, the Coca-Cola Company acceded to the public clamor for the original Coke and remarketed it as Coca-Cola Classic alongside its new cola.
Some advertising analysts believed that the entire “conflict” was a clever publicity ploy on the part of Coca-Cola to demonstrate the preeminence of its original concoction (“It’s the Real Thing!”), while introducing a new cola—allegedly a Pepsi taste-alike—to win the hearts of waverers. More interesting perhaps than the possible differences between the colas were the very real differences in people’s reactions. Four discrete fields were identified by Roger Enrico and Jesse Kornbluth in their book, The Other Guy Blinked: How Pepsi Won the Cola Wars: the totally wowed (possibly caffeine-induced); the rather amused; the slightly irritated; and the distinctly bored.
The latter group must have nodded off in front of their television sets when Pepsi took the Cola Wars beyond the firmament. “One Giant Sip for Mankind,” proclaimed the ads as a Pepsi “space can” was opened up aboard the U.S. space shuttle Challenger. Presumably, had a regular can been used, Pepsi-Cola would have sloshed aimlessly around the gravity-free cabin. This scientific breakthrough, together with the almost obligatory hype and hoopla, and more mundane factors such as the continued expansion in PepsiCo’s outlets, boosted sales to new heights, and Pepsi’s ad agency glittered with accolades. The debate still continues, at least within Coke and Pepsi corporate offices, as to who won the Cola Wars. The answer would appear to be that there were no losers, only winners; but skirmishes will inevitably continue.
D. Wayne Calloway replaced Donald M. Kendall as chairman and chief executive officer in 1986. Calloway had been instrumental in the success of Frito-Lay, helping it to become PepsiCo’s most profitable division. The new chairman realized that his flagship Pepsi brand was not likely to win additional market share from Coca-Cola, and focused his efforts on international growth and diversification.
Calloway hoped to build on the phenomenal success of the Slice line of fruit juice beverages, which achieved $1 billion in sales and created a new beverage category within just two years of its 1984 introduction. From 1985 to 1993, PepsiCo introduced, acquired, or formed joint ventures to distribute nine beverages, including Lipton Original Iced Teas, Ocean Spray juices, All Sport drink, H2Oh! sparkling water, Avalon bottled water, and Mug root beer. Many of these products had a “ New Age ” light and healthy positioning, in line with consumer tastes, and higher net prices. In 1992, PepsiCo introduced Crystal Pepsi, a clear cola that, while still a traditional soda, also tried to capture the momentum of the “New Age” beverage trend.
In the restaurant segment, PepsiCo’s 1990 acquisition of the Hot ’n Now hamburger chain continued its emphasis on value priced fast foods. But the company strayed slightly from that formula with the 1992 and 1993 purchases of such full-service restaurants as California Pizza Kitchen, which specialized in creative wood-fired pizzas, Chevys, a Mexican-style chain, East Side Mario’s Italian-style offerings, and D’Angelo Sandwich Shops.
Pepsi lost a powerful marketing tool in 1992, when Michael Jackson was accused of child molestation. Although the case was settled out of court, Pepsi dropped its contract with the entertainer. The firm launched its largest promotion ever in May 1992 with the “Gotta Have It” card, which offered discounts on the products of marketing partners Reebok sporting goods, Continental Airlines, and the MCI telephone long distance company. The company also launched a new marketing (or, as the company phrased it, “product quality”) initiative early in 1994, when it announced that packaged carbonated soft drink products sold in the United States would voluntarily be marked with a “Best if Consumed By” date.
Although Pepsi had commenced international expansion during the 1950s, it had long trailed Coca-Cola’s dramatic and overwhelming conquest of international markets. In 1990, CEO Calloway pledged up to $1 billion for overseas development, with the goal of increasing international volume 150 percent by 1995. At that time, Coke held 50 percent of the European soft drink market, while Pepsi claimed a meager 10 percent. But Pepsi’s advantage was that it could compete in other, less saturated segments. The company’s biggest challenge to expanding its restaurant division was affordability. PepsiCo noted that, while it took the average U.S. worker just 15 minutes to earn enough to enjoy a meal in one of the firm’s restaurants, it would take an Australian 25 minutes to achieve a similar goal. Pepsi still had other options, however. In 1992, for example, the company forged a joint venture with General Mills called Snack Ventures Europe which emerged as the largest firm in the $17 billion market. By 1993, PepsiCo had invested over $5 billion in international businesses, and its international sales comprised 27 percent, or $6.71 billion, of total annual sales.
In January 1992, Calloway was credited by Business Week magazine with emerging from the long shadow cast by his predecessor “to put together five impressive years of 20 percent compound earnings growth, doubling sales and nearly tripling the company’s value on the stock market.” Calloway was also working to reshape PepsiCo’s corporate culture by fostering personal responsibility and a decentralized, flexible management style. PepsiCo is one of America’s true corporate giants, and seems likely to continue its tradition of well-chosen acquisitions and astute marketing into its second century of business.
Principal Subsidiaries:
A&M Food Services, Inc.; Ainwick Corp.; Anderson Hill Insurance Ltd.; Atlantic Soft Drink Company, Inc.; Beverages, Foods, & Service Industries, Inc.; Collin Leasing Corp.; CPK Acquisition Corp.; Davlyn Realty Corp.; East Kentucky Beverage Company, Inc.; Embotelladoa del Uruguay S.A.; Equity Beverage, Inc.; Frito-Lay of Puerto Rico, Inc.; Frito-Lay of Hawaii, Inc.; Hostess-FL NRO Ltd.; Hot ’n Now, Inc.; Japan Frito-Ltd.; Kentucky Fried Chicken of California, Inc.; National Beverages, Inc.; PepsiCo Capital Corporation N.V.; PepsiCo China Ltd.; PepsiCo Holdings Ltd.; Pizza Management, Inc.; Recot, Inc.; PepsiCo. Overseas Corp.; PepsiCo Overseas Finance N.V.; PepsiCo Services Corp.; PepsiCo World Trading Company, Inc.; Pepsi-Cola ( Bermuda ) Ltd.; Pepsi-Cola Bottling Company of Los Angeles ; Pepsi-Cola Chile Consultores Ltda.; Pepsi-Cola Commodities, Inc.; Pepsi-Cola de Espana S.A.; Pepsi-Cola France S.N.C.; Pepsi-Cola Equipment Corp.; Pepsi-Cola Far East Trade Development Company, Inc.; Pepsi-Cola Interamericana S.A.; Pepsi-Cola International Ltd. (Bermuda); Pepsi-Cola International Ltd. (U.S.A.); Pepsi-Cola Mamulleri Limited Sirketi; Pepsi-Cola
Metropolitan Bottling Company, Inc.; Pepsi-Cola Mexicana S.A. de C.V.; Pepsi-Cola Personnel, Inc.; Pepsi-Cola San Joaquin Bottling Co.; Pizza Hut, Inc.; Redux Realty, Inc.; Rice Bottling Enterprises, Inc.; Sabritas S.A. de C.V.; Taco Bell Corp.; Taco Enterprises, Inc.; TFL Holdings, Inc.; Von Karman Leasing Corp.; Wilson International Sales Corp.
Further Reading:
Dietz, Lawrence, Soda Pop, New York: Simon and Schuster, 1973.
Enrico, Roger, and Jesse Kornbluth, The Other Guy Blinked: How Pepsi Won the Cola Wars, New York: Bantam, 1986.
Lousi, J. C, The Cola Wars, New York: Everest House, 1980.
Mack, Walter, and P. Buckley, No Time Lost, New York: Atheneum, 1982.
Martin, Milward, Twelve Full Ounces, New York: Holt Rinehart, 1962.
—updated by April Dougal Gasbarre
Cite this article
Incorporated: September 18, 1919 as Loft, Inc.
Employees: 150,000
Market Value: $9.11 billion
Stock Index: New York
When Caleb D. Bradham concocted a new cola drink in the 1890’s, his friends’ enthusiastic response convinced him that he had created a commercially viable product. For twenty years, “Doc” Bradham prospered from his Pepsi-Cola sales. Eventually, he was faced with a dilemma; the crucial decision he made turned out to be the wrong one and he was forced to sell. But his successors fared no better and it was not until the end of the 1930’s that Pepsi-Cola again became profitable.
Fifty years later, PepsiCo, Inc. is a mammoth multinational supplier of soft drinks, snack food, and fast food. The company has finally dislodged Coca-Cola as the number one soft drink company in America. But there is little enough to distinguish between the quality, variety, and taste of the products offered by either company. PepsoCo’s slight edge is almost entirely the result of its management style and the phenomenal success of its television advertising.
Doc Bradham, like countless other entrepreneurs across America, was trying to create a cola drink similar in taste to Coca-Cola, which by 1895 was selling well in every state of the union. At his pharmacy in New Bern, North Carolina on August 28, 1898, Bradham gave the name Pepsi-Cola to his most popular flavored soda. Formerly known as Brad’s Drink, the new cola beverage was a syrup of sugar, vanilla, oils, cola nuts, and other flavorings diluted in carbonated water. The enterprising pharmacist followed Coca-Cola’s method of selling the concentrate to soda fountains; he mixed the syrup in his drugstore then shipped it in barrels to the contracted fountain operators who added the soda water. He also bottled and sold the drink himself.
In 1902 Doc Bradham closed his drugstore to devote his attention to the thriving new business. The next year, he patented the Pepsi-Cola trademark, ran his first advertisement in a local paper, and moved the bottling and syrupmaking operations to a purpose-built factory. Almost 20,000 gallons of Pepso-Cola syrup was produced in 1904.
Again following the successful methods of the Coca-Cola company, Bradham began to establish a network of bottling franchises. Entrepreneurs anxious to enter the increasingly popular soft drink business, set themselves up as bottlers and contracted with Bradham to buy his syrup and sell nothing but Pepsi. With little cash outlay, Pepsi-Cola reached a much wider market.
Bradham’s first two bottling franchises, both in North Carolina, commenced operation in 1905. By 1907, Pepsi-Cola had signed agreements with 40 bottlers; over the next three years, the number grew to 250 and annual production of the syrup exceeded one million gallons.
Pepsi-Cola’s growth continued until World War I, when sugar, then the main ingredient of all flavored sodas, was rationed. Soft drink producers were forced to cut back until sugar rationing ended. The wartime set price of sugar—5.5 cents per pound—rocketed after controls were lifted to as much as 26.5 cents per pound in 1920. Bradham, like his rivals, had to decide whether to halt production and sit tight in the hope that prices would soon drop, or stockpile the precious commodity as a precaution against even higher prices; he chose the latter course. But unfortunately for him the market was saturated by the end of 1920 and sugar prices plunged to a low of 2 cents per pound.
Bradham never recovered. After several abortive attempts to reorganize, only two of the bottling plants remained open. In a last ditch effort, he enlisted the help of Roy C. Megargel, a Wall Street investment banker. However, very few people were willing to invest in the business and it went bankrupt in 1923. The assets were sold and Megargel purchased the company trademark, giving him the rights to the Pepsi-Cola formula. Doc Bradham went back to his drug dispensary and he died 11 years later.
Megargel apparently lacked marketing ability and after continuous losses, reorganized the firm as the National Pepsi-Cola Company in 1928. But after three years he had to declare bankruptcy. That same year (1931), Megargel met Charles G. Guth, a somewhat autocratic businessman who had recently taken over as president of Loft Inc., a New York-based candy and fountain store concern. Guth had fallen out with Coca-Cola for refusing the company a wholesaler discount and he was on the lookout for a new soft drink. He signed an agreement with Megargel to resurrect the Pepsi-Cola company, and acquired 80% of the new shares, ostensibly for himself. Then, having modified the syrup formula, he cancelled Loft’s contract with Coca-Cola and introduced Pepsi.
Loft’s customers were wary of the brand switch and in the first year of Pepsi sales the company’s soft drink turnover was down by a third. By the end of 1933, Guth had bought out Megargel and owned 91% of the insolvent company. But resistance to Pepsi in the Loft stores tailed off in 1934, and Guth decided further to improve sales by offering 12 ounce bottles of Pepsi for a nickel—the same price as six ounces of Coke. The Depression-weary people of Baltimore—where the 12 ounce bottles were first introduced—were ready for a bargain and Pepsi-Cola sales increased dramatically.
Guth established Pepsi-Cola Company of Canada in 1934 and the following year formed Compania Pepsi-Cola de Cuba . He also moved the entire American operation to Long Island City, New York and set up national territorial boundaries for the bottling franchises. In 1936, Pepsi-Cola Ltd. of London commenced business.
Guth’s ownership of the Pepsi-Cola Company was challenged that same year by Loft Inc. In a complex arrangement, Guth had organized Pepsi-Cola as an independent corporation, but he had run it with Loft’s employees and money. After three years of litigation, the court upheld Loft’s contention and Guth had to step down, although he was retained as an adviser. James W. Carkner was elected president of the company, now a subsidiary of Loft Inc., but Carkner was soon replaced by Walter S. Mack, Jr., an executive from the Phoenix Securities Corporation.
Mack established a board of directors with real voting powers to ensure that no one person would be able to wield control as Guth had done. From the start, Mack’s aim was to promote Pepsi to the hilt so that it might replace Coca-Cola as the world’s best-selling soft drink. The advertising agency Mack hired worked wonders. In 1939, a Pepsi jingle—the first one to be aired nationally—caught the public’s attention: “Pepsi-Cola hits the spot. Twelve full ounces, that’s a lot. Twice as much for a nickel, too. Pepsi-Cola is the drink for you.” The jingle, sung to the tune of the old British hunting song “D’Ye Ken John Peel,” became an advertising hallmark; no-one was more impressed, or concerned, than the executives at Coca-Cola.
In 1940, with foreign expansion continuing strongly, Loft Inc. made plans to merge with its Pepsi subsidiary. The new firm, formed in 1941, used the name Pepsi-Cola Company since it was so well-known. Pepsi’s stock was listed on the New York Stock Exchange for the first time.
Sugar rationing was even more severe during World War II , but this time the company fared better; indeed, the sugar plantation Pepsi-Cola acquired in Cuba became a most successful investment. But as inflation spiralled in the postwar U.S. economy, sales of soft drinks fell. The public needed time to get used to paying six or seven cents for a bottle of Pepsi which, as they remembered from the jingle, had always been a nickel. Profits in 1948 were down $3.6 million from the year before.
In other respects, 1948 was a notable year. Pepsi moved its corporate headquarters across the East River to mid-town Manhattan, and for the first time the drink was sold in cans. The decision to start canning, while absolutely right for Pepsi-Cola and other soft drink companies, upset the franchised bottlers, who had invested heavily in equipment. However, another decision at Pepsi-Cola—to ignore the burgeoning vending machine market because of the necessarily large capital outlay—proved to be a costly mistake. The company had to learn the hard way that as canned drinks gained a larger share of the market, vending machine sales would become increasingly important.
Walter Mack was appointed company chairman in 1950, and a former Coca-Cola vice president of sales, Alfred N. Steele, took over as president and chief executive officer; he brought 15 other Coke executives with him. Steele continued the policy of management decentralization by giving broader powers to regional vice presidents, and he placed Herbert Barnet in charge of Pepsi’s financial operations. However, Steele’s outstanding contribution was in marketing. He launched an extensive advertising campaign with the slogan “Be sociable, have a Pepsi.” The new television medium provided a perfect forum; Pepsi advertisements presented young Americans drinking “the Light refreshment” and having fun.
By the time Alfred Steele married the movie star Joan Crawford in 1954, transformation of the company was well underway. Crawford’s adopted daughter Christina noted in her bestseller Mommie Dearest: “[Steele had] driven Pepsi into national prominence and distribution, second only to his former employer, Coca-Cola. Pepsi was giving Coke a run for its money in every nook and hamlet of America. Al Steele welded a national network of bottlers together, standardized the syrup formula... brought the distinctive logo into mass consciousness, and was on the brink of going international....” In fact, Pepsi-Cola International Ltd. was formed shortly after Steele’s marriage.
Joan Crawford became the personification of Pepsi’s new and glamorous image. She invariably kept a bottle of Pepsi at hand during press conferences and mentioned the product at interviews and on talk shows; on occasion she even arranged for Pepsi trucks and vending machines to feature in background shots of her movies. The actress also worked hard to spread the Pepsi word overseas and accompanied her husband, now chairman of the board, on his 1957 tour of Europe and Africa, where bottling plants were being established.
Steele died suddenly of a heart attack in the spring of 1959. Herbert Barnet succeeded him as chairman and Joan Crawford was elected a board member. According to the film version of Mommie Dearest, the Hollywood star took an active interest in company policy and did not mince her words at board meetings.
Pepsi-Cola profits had fallen to a postwar low of $1.3 million in 1950 when Steele joined the company, but with the proliferation of supermarkets during the decade and the developments in overseas business, profits reached $14.2 million in 1960. By that time, young adults had become a major target of soft drink manufacturers and Pepsi’s advertisements were aimed at “Those Who Think Young.”
Al Steele and Joan Crawford had been superb cheerleaders, but a stunt pulled in 1959 by Donald M. Kendall, head of Pepsi-Cola International, is still regarded as one of the great coups in the annals of advertising. Kendall attended the Moscow Trade Fair that year and persuaded U.S. Vice President Richard Nixon to stop by the Pepsi booth with Nikita Khrushchev , the Soviet premier. As the cameras flashed, Khrushchev quenched his thirst with several Pepsis and the grinning U.S. Vice President stood in attendance. Next day, newspapers around the world featured photographs of the happy couple, complete with Pepsi bottle.
By 1963 Kendall was presiding over the Pepsi empire. He had been an amateur boxing champion in his youth and joined the company as a production line worker in 1947 after a stint in the U.S. Navy. He was later promoted to syrup sales where it quickly became apparent that he was destined for higher office. Ever pugnacious, Kendall has been described as abrasive and ruthlessly ambitious; beleaguered Pepsi executives secretly referred to him as White Fang. Under his long reign, the company’s fortunes skyrocketed.
Pepsi-Cola’s remarkable successes in the 1960’s and 1970’s were the result of five distinct policies, all of which Kendall and his crew pursued diligently: they advertised on a massive, unprecedented scale; they introduced new brands of soft drinks; they led the industry in packaging innovations; they expanded overseas; and, through acquisitions, they diversified their product line.
The postwar baby-boomers were in their mid-to-late teens by the time Kendall came to power. “Pepsi was there,” states a recent company flyer, “to claim these kids for our own.” These “kids” became the “Pepsi Generation.” In the late 1960’s Pepsi was the “Taste that beats the others cold.” Viewers were advised “You’ve got a lot to live. Pepsi’s got a lot to give.” By the early 1970’s, the appeal was to “Join the Pepsi people, feelin’ free.” In mid-decade an American catch-phrase was given a company twist—“Have a Pepsi Day,” and the 1970’s ended on the note “Catch the Pepsi Spirit!”
The Pepsi Generation wanted variety and Pepsi was happy to oblige. Company brands introduced in the 1960’s included Patio soft drinks, Teem, Tropic Surf, Diet Pepsi—the first nationally distributed diet soda—and Mountain Dew, acquired from the Tip Corporation. Pepsi Light, a diet cola with a hint of lemon, made its debut in 1975, and a few years later Pepsi tested the market with Aspen apple soda and On-Tap root beer. The company also introduced greater variety into the packaging of its products. Soon after Kendall’s accession, the 12-ounce bottle was phased out in favour of the 16-ounce size, and in the 1970’s Pepsi-Cola became the first American company to introduce one-and-a-half and two-liter bottles; it also began to package its sodas in sturdy, lightweight plastic bottles. By the end of the decade, Pepsi had added 12-pack cans to its growing array of packaging options.
The company’s expansion beyond the soft drink market began in 1965 when Kendall met Herman Lay, the owner of Frito-Lay, at a grocer’s convention. Kendall arranged a merger with this Dallas-based snack food manufacturer and formed PepsiCo, Inc. Herman Lay retired soon thereafter but retained his substantial PepsiCo shareholding. The value of this stock increased dramatically as Frito-Lay products were introduced to Pepsi’s nationwide market.
In the late 1960’s and early 1970’s Kendall acquired two well-known fast-food restaurant chains, Taco Bell and Pizza Hut; naturally, these new subsidiaries became major outlets for Pepsi products. But Kendall also diversified outside the food and drink industry, bringing North American Van Lines, Lee Way Motor Freight, and Wilson Sporting Goods into the PepsiCo empire.
Overseas developments continued apace throughout Kendall’s tenure. Building on his famous Soviet achievement, he negotiated a trade agreement with the USSR in 1972; the first Pepsi plant opened there two years later. Gains were also made in the Middle East and Latin America , but Coca-Cola, the major rival, retained its dominant position in Europe and throughout much of Asia .
By the time PepsiCo greeted the 1980’s with the slogan “Pepsi’s got your taste for life!,” Kendall was busy arranging for China to get that taste too; production began there in 1983. Kendall put his seal of approval on several other major developments in the early 1980’s, including the introduction of Pepsi Free, a non-caffeine cola, and Slice, the first widely distributed soft drink to contain real fruit juice (lemon and lime); the latter was aimed at the growing 7-Up and Sprite market. Additionally, Diet-Pepsi was reformulated using a blend of saccharin and aspartame (NutraSweet). “Pepsi Now!” was the cry of company commercials, and this was interspersed with “Taste, Improved by Diet Pepsi.”
In 1983 the company claimed a significant share of the fastfood soft drink market when Burger King began selling Pepsi products. A year later, mindful of the industry axiom that there is virtually no limit to the amount a consumer will buy once the decision to buy has been made, PepsiCo introduced the 3-liter container.
By the mid-1980’s the Pepsi Generation was over the hill. Kendall’s ad agency, no expense spared, heralded Pepsi as “the Choice of a New Generation,” using the talents of superstar Michael Jackson, as well as those of singer Lionel Richie and the Puerto Rican teenage group Menudo. Michael Jackson’s ads were smash hits and enjoyed the highest exposure of any American television commercial to date. The company’s high profile and powerful presence in all of the soft drink markets—direct results of Kendall’s strategies—helped it to weather the somewhat uncertain economic situation of the time.
On only one front had Kendall’s efforts failed to produce satisfactory results. Experience showed that for all its expertise, PepsiCo simply did not have the managerial experience required to run its subsidiaries outside the food and drink industries. A van line, a motor freight concern, and a sporting goods firm were indeed odd companies for a soft drink enterprise; and Kendall auctioned off these strange and ailing bedfellows, vowing never again to go courting in unfamiliar territories.
With his house in excellent order, the PepsiCo mogul began to prepare for his retirement. He had bullied and cajoled a generation of pepsi executives and guided them ever upward on the steep slopes of Pepsi profits. But he had one last task—to lead PepsiCo to victory in the Cola Wars.
Hostilities commenced soon after the Coca-Cola Company changed its syrup recipe in the summer of 1985 and with much fanfare introduced New Coke. Pepsi, caught napping, claimed that Coca-Cola’s reformulated drink failed to meet with consumer approval and pointed to their own flourishing sales. But serious fans of the original Coke were not about to switch to Pepsi and demanded that their favorite refreshment be restored. However, when blindfolded, it became manifestly apparent that these diehards could rarely tell the difference between Old Coke, New Coke and Pepsi; indeed, more often than not, they got it wrong. In any event, the Coca-Cola Company acceded to the public clamor for the original Coke and remarketed it as Coca-Cola Classic alongside its new cola.
Some advertising analysts believed that the entire “conflict” was a clever publicity ploy on the part of Coca-Cola to demonstrate the preeminence of its original concoction (“It’s the Real Thing!”), while introducing a new cola—allegedly a Pepsi taste-alike—to win the hearts of waverers. More interesting perhaps than the possible differences between the colas were the very real differences in people’s reactions. Four discrete fields could be identified: the totally wowed (possibly caffeine-induced); the rather amused; the slightly irritated; and the distinctly bored.
The latter group must have nodded off in front of their television sets when Pepsi took the Cola Wars beyond the firmament. “One Giant Sip for Mankind,” proclaimed the ads as a Pepsi “space can” was opened up aboard Challenger, the U.S. space shuttle. Presumably, had a regular can been used, Pepsi-Cola would have sloshed aimlessly around the gravity-free cabin. This scientific breakthrough, together with the almost obligatory hype and hoopla, and more mundane factors such as the continued expansion in PepsiCo’s outlets, boosted sales to new heights; and Pepsi’s ad agency glittered with accolades. The debate still continues, at least within Coke and Pepsi corporate offices, as to who won the Cola Wars. The answer would appear to be that there were no losers, only winners; but skirmishes will inevitably continue.
D. Wayne Calloway replaced Donald M. Kendall as chairman and chief executive officer in 1986. Calloway had been instrumental in the success of Frito-Lay, helping it to become PepsiCo’s most profitable division. By the time he took command, 195 independent owners operated 380 Pepsi-Cola franchise territories in the U.S., and a further 38 territories were owned directly by the company. Additionally, there were 600 PepsiCo plants worldwide, located in 148 countries and foreign territories.
In the last couple of years, PepsiCo’s Slice has become a real winner and there have been several additions to this soft drink line, including Diet Slice, Mandarin Orange, Cherry Cola, and Apple. Marketing analysts see continuing strength in the company’s advertising program, citing in particular a second agreement with Michael Jackson and PepsiCo’s sponsorship of concerts and sporting events. It is expected that PepsiCo will end the 1980’s as it started them: rich, aggressive, and second to none.
Principal Subsidiaries
Ainwick Corporation; Darlyn Realty Corp.; Frito-Lay Corp.; Recot, Inc.; Arizona Specialty Breads, Inc.; California Exceptional Breads, Inc.; National Beverages, Inc.; Franklin Bottling Co.; Pizza Hut, Inc.; Taco Bell Corp.; Taco Bell Royalty Co. PepsiCo also lists subsidiaries in the following countries: Argentina , Australia , Bermuda , Canada, Chile , France , Ireland , England , West Germany, Mexico, the Netherlands Antilles, Spain , and Turkey .
Further Reading
Twelve Full Ounces by Milward Martin, New York, Holt Rinehart, 1962; Soda Pop by Lawrence Dietz, New York, Simon and Schuster, 1973; The Cola Wars by J.C. Lousi, New York, Everest House, 1980; No Time Lost by Walter Mack and P. Buckley, New York, Atheneum, 1982; The Other Guy Blinked: How Pepsi Won the Cola Wars by Roger Enrico and Jesse Kornbluth, New York, Bantam, 1986.
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www.pepsico.com
With strong management and unique vision, PepsiCo, Inc., is not only a leader in the beverage and snack industry, it is one of the most successful companies in the world. Much of the company's success comes from the fact that it consistently stays in touch with changing trends and lifestyles, and gives consumers the tastes and conveniences they desire.
Over one hundred years after the first Pepsi was bottled, PepsiCo now offers thirty-two different kinds of carbonated and noncarbonated drinks with Pepsi-Cola beverages sold in 170 countries around the globe. It also produces thirty different kinds of snack foods and twenty-one cereals and other grain-related foods through its subsidiaries, Frito Lay and Quaker Oats. And, of course, the company continues its "cola war," battling rival Coca-Cola Company (see entry) to produce the beverage of choice.
Battle of Beverages
In 1893, Caleb "Doc" Bradham (1867-1934) opened a pharmacy in New Bern, North Carolina . Bradham was studying to be a doctor, but he was forced to leave medical school when his father lost his job. Many residents of the southern town frequented his drugstore, not only for the medicines Bradham provided but also to meet and talk with friends at the store's soda fountain. His customers especially enjoyed a beverage called "Brad's Drink," a combination of sugar, vanilla, oils, spices, the African kola nut, and carbonated water. Doc Bradham said the drink would help relieve the symptoms from dyspepsia, or an upset stomach, and ulcers.
It is not known if Doc Bradham had tasted a Coca-Cola in Atlanta , Georgia , where the drink, also sold as a medicinal beverage, had been invented several years earlier. Perhaps he heard about it in medical school. In any case, Bradham knew about "Coke" and succeeded in making a similar carbonated drink that brought customers to his store.
In 1898, Bradham changed the name of his popular drink to Pepsi-Cola and started his beverage business. At first, he mixed the syrup in his drugstore and shipped it in barrels to soda fountains where the carbonated water was added. He also bottled and sold Pepsi himself. After four successful years of distributing his new drink, Bradham patented the Pepsi-Cola trademark and closed his drugstore to devote all of his time to making, bottling, and selling Pepsi. By 1905, he had established his first two bottling franchises, or companies who purchased from him the right to bottle and sell Pepsi. In 1910, there were 250 Pepsi-Cola bottling franchises across the United States .
PepsiCo at a Glance
Employees: 135,000
CEO: Steven S. Reinemund
Subsidiaries: Pepsi-Cola Company; Frito-Lay, Inc.; Pepsi Bottling Group, Inc.; Quaker Oats Company; South Beach Beverage Company; Tropicana Products, Inc.
Major Competitors: Coca-Cola Company; Cadbury Schweppes; Kraft Foods
Notable Products: Pepsi; Pepsi Twist; Pepsi One; Pepsi Blue; Diet Pepsi; Mountain Dew; Sierra Mist; Aquafina water; Lipton Brisk tea; FruitWorks fruit drinks; Doritos; Fritos; Ruffles potato chips; Tropicana orange juice; Quaker oatmeal; Life cereal; Aunt Jemima syrup; Gatorade
Pepsi-Cola's growth came to an abrupt end four years later when the price of sugar, one of Pepsi's key ingredients, skyrocketed because of rationing during World War I (1914-18). This means that sugar could be used only in small amounts. By 1922, the company had lost so much money that Bradham went bankrupt. In order to make enough money to pay off his debts, he had to sell the rights to the Pepsi-Cola formula. Bradham returned to his drugstore where he died twelve years later.
Timeline
PepsiCo introduces Gatorade ICE, Go Snacks, and Pepsi Blue.
Survive and Conquer
The ownership of Pepsi-Cola changed hands several times over the next ten years, barely surviving a second and third bankruptcy. It finally rested with Charles Guth, the owner of a New York-based candy and fountain store called Loft, Inc. Guth had been selling Coca-Cola, but became angry when Coke would not allow him to buy a large amount of syrup at a discounted price. He decided to switch to Pepsi although his customers were not sure they liked the new cola.
In 1934, sales of Pepsi increased mainly because of an important decision made by Guth. The United States was experiencing a devastating Depression, which lasted throughout the 1930s, and caused millions of people to be out of work. Guth decided to offer a twelve-ounce bottle of Pepsi for five cents—the same price as only six ounces of Coke. This was quite a bargain for people who were counting their pennies.
For the next two decades, the Pepsi-Cola Company, established in 1941, experienced steady growth due to continued good management and creative advertising. By 1954, the company was led by a former Coke employee, Alfred N. Steele (1901-1959), whose strength was in marketing. He also happened to be married to movie star Joan Crawford (1908-1977). The famous actress mentioned Pepsi during television interviews, and sometimes the product's vending machines and trucks were included in her movies. By 1960, Pepsi profits reached $14.2 million and the company was advertising their soft drink to "Those who think young."
Pepsi Generation
Pepsi-Cola enjoyed extraordinary success during the 1960s and 1970s mainly because of its new man in charge, Donald M. Kendall. Kendall was noted for leading his company in five major areas during this period: massive advertising; the introduction of new soft drink brands; creative packaging; overseas expansion; and product line expansion.
In 1963, Kendall and Pepsi made marketing history when the company changed the way it advertised its product. Instead of focusing on Pepsi the beverage, its television campaigns appealed directly to a specific group of people—baby boomers. Baby boomers were children born immediately after World War II (1939-45), between 1946 and 1964, and they numbered in the millions. Pepsi told them to "Come alive! You're in the Pepsi Generation." Advertising slogans that followed continued to target the energetic, youthful lifestyles of baby boomer teens. They also advised a generation of viewers who were experiencing significant social changes: "You've got a lot to live. Pepsi's got a lot to give" and "Join the Pepsi people, feelin' free."
As successful as Pepsi was during the 1960s, it was still trailing behind Coke. In response, Kendall thought it was important to expand the company' product line beyond soft drinks. At a grocer's convention in 1960, he met Herman W. Lay, the president and chief executive officer (CEO) of Frito-Lay, the nation's leading manufacturer of such snack foods as Lay's potato chips, Cheetos, Ruffles, and Rold Gold pretzels. The two decided to merge companies, and in 1965, PepsiCo, Inc. became the name of the new company. A year later they introduced Doritos, which eventually became the most popular snack chip in the United States.
Ups and Downs
By the 1980s, PepsiCo had become a major competitor in the fast food, snack food, and beverage market. They had acquired three restaurant chains, Pizza Hut, Taco Bell, and Kentucky Fried Chicken, which they later sold in 1997; introduced several new soft drinks, including Diet Pepsi, Pepsi Free, and Slice; and signed one of the world's most exciting and talented superstars, Michael Jackson (1958-). This alliance began a long line of pop stars who used their talents to promote PepsiCo products.
Along with its successes, the company went through a period of uncertainty and scandal in the 1980s. In the Philippines and Mexico, PepsiCo employees had been caught using false documents to make it look like the company was making more money than it really was. The publicized scandal caused PepsiCo's 1982 profits to plunge by 25 percent. Profits continued to decrease in 1983 when the value of the peso, Mexico's currency, dropped dramatically. At that time, Mexico provided PepsiCo with the largest sales of soft drinks and snacks in the international market.
In 1940, Pepsi introduced the world's first radio jingle. Called "Nickel, Nickel," the catchy tune explained that: "Pepsi-Cola hits the spot/Twelve full ounces that's a lot/Twice as much for a nickel, too/Pepsi-Cola is the drink for you."
But help was soon on the way for PepsiCo. In the summer of 1985, Coca-Cola decided to change the recipe of their century-old syrup. They introduced a new and improved taste called New Coke, saying it had a milder taste than the original version. According to PepsiCo, the rival company was trying to make Coke taste more like Pepsi. PepsiCo anticipated that the new formula would entice consumers to finally switch brands, so they released full-page Pepsi advertisements on the day it was announced that New Coke would replace the old. What happened surprised everyone. Instead of die-hard fans switching colas, they demanded their old Coke be returned. After only ninety days on the market, New Coke was canned, and Coca-Cola introduced the restored formula in Coca-Cola Classic. During this brief period, while tasters were trying to make up their minds, Pepsi enjoyed a brief lead in the cola wars.
Beverages and Beyond
For the next decade and through the turn of the century, PepsiCo expanded to include products that would keep it competitive in a continually growing and changing market. As consumers became more and more conscious of their health and eating habits, PepsiCo answered their needs. In the late 1990s, they introduced Aquafina bottled water, acquired Tropicana fruit juices, bought the South Beach Beverage Company, which manufactures SoBe juice blends, and acquired the company whose name is synonymous with healthy eating, Quaker Oats. Healthy food was not the only benefit in this merger. It just so happened that Quaker owned the sports drink, Gatorade.
In 1976, PepsiCo launched a head-to-head combat with Coke by offering drinkers a blind taste test to see whether they could tell the difference between the two colas. The marketing campaign, known as the Pepsi Challenge, was so successful, the company decided to revive it in 2000.
PepsiCo also answered the needs of the growing ethnic population of the United States. According to Tom Pirko, president of beverage consultant Bevmark, in a 2001 Advertising Age article, "More than one third of America's youth are Hispanic or black. Soft drinks are more popular among minorities than Caucasians and among youth than their parents." In response, PepsiCo launched three new drinks to meet these demands: Sierra Mist (a lemon-lime soda), Mountain Dew Code Red, and Pepsi Blue (a cola and berry beverage). According to a 2002 New York Times article, "Both Code Red and Pepsi Blue have sixteen-year-old males as their target consumer."
Promoting Pepsi
Many consumers enjoy PepsiCo's products because of the company's entertaining and memorable commercials. Some of the most well-known include "Apartment 10G" starring Michael j. Fox (1961-); "You Got the Right One Baby, Uh-Huh!" sung by Ray Charles (1930-) and the Uh-Huh Girls; "Joy of Cola" featuring a little girl named Hallie Eisenberg; "Joy of Pepsi" with Britney Spears (1981—); and "A Twist on a Great Thing," which paired Mike Meyers (1964-) as Austin Powers with pop sensation Spears.
The launch of a new Pepsi commercial eventually became a much anticipated event that millions tuned in to watch. Savvy Pepsi marketers usually guaranteed an already big audience by debuting their ads during top-rated television programs. For example, Pepsi spent $6 million to advertise during the Super Bowl in 1992. In 2002, PepsiCo reportedly paid $200 million for a five-year deal to advertise during NFL events such as the Super Bowl and Pro Bowl.
Pepsi's advertising is not limited to television. In 2000, PepsiCo teamed with one of the Internet 's largest navigation companies, Yahoo, to promote its products. A year later on PepsiStuff.com , consumers could redeem points from Pepsi packages to get "more than a half a million cool prizes."
As Pepsi introduced new products to keep up with the times, it also continued to be neck and neck in the cola race. According to the 2002 Soft Drink Report published in Beverage Industry, Pepsi-Cola had 34.5 percent of the United States market for carbonated beverages while Coca-Cola had 36.2 percent. The fight goes on, but the gap draws ever closer. As former PepsiCo CEO Roger Enrico said in his book The Other Guy Blinked: How Pepsi Won the Cola Wars, "At Pepsi, we like the Cola Wars.… Without Coke, Pepsi would have a tough time being an original and lively competitor. The more successful they are, the sharper we have to be."
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In which country is the town of Kandahar | Kandahar
Encyclopedia > Places > Asia > Afghanistan Political Geography
Kandahar
Kandahar or Qandahar (both: kănˌdəhärˈ) [ key ], city (1989 est. pop. 203,000), capital of Kandahar prov., S Afghanistan. The country's second largest city and chief trade center, Kandahar is a market for sheep, wool, cotton, food grains, fresh and dried fruit, and tobacco. It has an international airport and is linked by road with Kabul, Herat, Quetta, and the nations of Central Asia. Woolen cloth, felt, and silk are manufactured. The surrounding irrigated region produces fine fruits, especially grapes, and the city has plants for canning, drying, and packing fruit.
The old city was laid out by Ahmad Shah during the 18th cent. and is dominated by his octangular, domed mausoleum. There are also numerous mosques (one said to contain the Prophet Muhammad's cloak) and bazaars. Modern Kandahar adjoins the old city. It has a technical college. Together with Peshawar, Pakistan, Kandahar is the principal city of the Pashto people, and it was the religious headquarters of the Taliban, the austere Islamic fundamentalist movement.
Kandahar was founded by Alexander the Great (4th cent. B.C.). India and Persia long fought over the city, which was strategically located on the trade routes of central Asia. It was conquered by Arabs in the 7th cent. and by the Turkic Ghaznavids in the 10th cent. Jenghiz Khan sacked it in the 12th cent., after which it became a major city of the Karts (Mongol clients) until their defeat by Timur in 1383. Babur , founder of the Mughal empire of India, took Kandahar in the 16th cent. It was later contested by the Persians and by the rulers of emerging Afghanistan, who made it the capital (1748–73) of their newly independent kingdom. British forces occupied Kandahar during the First Afghan War (1839–42) and from 1879 to 1881. During the Soviet military occupation of 1979–89, Kandahar was the site of a Soviet command. A major prize, it changed hands several times until the fall of the Najibullah government in 1992. The Kandahar area has been the scene of significant fighting between Taliban and its allies and U.S. forces and their allies since the fall of the Taliban government in 2001.
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.
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In which group of islands is Tenerife | Current Local Time in Kandahar, Afghanistan
Current Local Time in Kandahar, Afghanistan
Lat/Long: 31°38'N / 65°43'E
Currency: Afghani (AFN)
Sun in South: 12:18 pm
Altitude: 38.3°
About 11 mi SE of Kandahar
Quetta International Airport, UET (Pakistan)
About 119 mi SE of Kandahar
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What is the largest continent on Earth | Largest Continent: Ranking of Continents by Area, Size
By Matt Rosenberg
Updated January 16, 2016.
The seven continents can be ranked in order of both size or area as well as population. The seven continents include Africa, Antarctica, Australia, Asia, Europe, North America, and South America.
Largest Continents in Area
1. Asia - 17,139,445 square miles (44,391,162 square km)
2. Africa - 11,677,239 square miles (30,244,049 square km)
3. North America - 9,361,791 square miles (24,247,039 square km)
4. South America - 6,880,706 square miles (17,821,029 square km)
5. Antarctica - About 5,500,000 square miles (14,245,000 square km)
6. Europe - 3,997,929 square miles (10,354,636 square km)
7. Australia - 2,967,909 square miles (7,686,884 square km)
Largest Continents in Population
1. Asia - 4,055,000,000 (Over 4 billion)
2. Africa - 1,108,500,000 (Over 1 billion)
3. Europe - 729,871,042 (including all of Russia)
4. North America - 522,807,432
5. South America - 379,919,602
6. Australia - 20,434,176
7. Antarctica - No permanent residents but up to 4000 researchers and personnel in the summer and 1000 in the winter.
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World Continents
Plus, there are more than 15 million people who don't live on a continent. Almost all of these people live in the island countries of Oceania, a world region but not a continent . If you count six continents, with Eurasia as a single continent then it remains number one in area and number one in population.
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Which country is known as the Cockpit of Europe | What are the 7 Continents? From Biggest to Smallest
List of the seven continents and the 5 oceans of the world.
What are the 7 Continents? From Biggest to Smallest
April 5, 2015
By Aparna 1 Comment
Continents are the large land masses that we see on our earth. These hard land masses where people and other living organisms walk or crawl and make home are large in size, and are made up of many countries. There are also many small land masses which we call as islands, but continents are very large in size compared to these islands. So, what are the seven continents on Earth? There are seven continents on earth. Many people combine the two continents Asia and Europe into a single continent and call it Eurasia. Many others combine the two continents North America and South America into one and call it the American continent. But in general there are seven large land masses on earth, namely Africa, Antarctica, Asia, Australia, Europe, North America and South America. Let us see each of these continents in detail.
Asia
This is the first one that comes in to mind when you think about what are the 7 continents. Asia is the largest continent on earth covering about 9 percent of the earth’s surface. It is also the most populated continent on earth, home to an estimated population of around 4.3 billion people. This large population makes it an important part of the world economy.
Africa
Africa is the second largest continent in the world. It is also the second largest continent in the world in terms of population. Africa is also referred to as the black continent by many. This large land mass comprises of 54 countries and is home to one billion people. About 15 percent of the world population leaves in this continent which constitute about 20 percent of the total land area. Africa lies in the center of the earth with equator passing through its center. The climate of Africa is largely tropical in nature. The northern and southern parts of Africa have temperate climatic conditions. Africa is also considered to be the birth place of mankind. The oldest fossils of Homo sapiens found till now have been from the eastern parts of this continent. This large and diverse continent is home to lot of endangered species.
North America
North America is a continent which lies wholly in the northern hemisphere. It is bordered by Arctic Ocean in the north, Atlantic Ocean in the east, Pacific Ocean in the south and west, and South America and Caribbean Sea in the south east. North America lies almost wholly in the western hemisphere. North America covers almost 4.8 percent of the earth’s surface and comprises around 16.5 percent of the whole land area on earth. North America is home to nearly 565 million people. About 7.5 percent of the world’s population lives here. It is the third largest continent in the world by area and fourth largest continent by population. Most of the land and area of the continent is dominated by Canada, United States of America, Greenland and Mexico. There are also many smaller states in the Central America and Caribbean regions.
South America
South America is a continent located in the western hemisphere with most of its land area lying in the southern hemisphere and a relatively small portion in the northern hemisphere. It has Pacific Ocean to its western side, Atlantic Ocean in the north and eastern side, and North America and Caribbean Sea in the North West side. With an area covering 17,840,000 square kilometres and a population of more than 3 billion, South America is the fourth largest continent in terms of size and fifth in terms of population. South America is home to twelve sovereign states and two non sovereign states.
South America is a continent which is diverse in terms of geography and biodiversity. The world’s highest uninterrupted waterfall, angel falls is situated in Venezuela in South America. The Amazon River, which is the largest river in the world in terms of volume, is also in this continent. The Atacama Desert, which is the driest non polar place on earth, and the Amazon forest which is the largest rainforest on earth, is situated in this continent. It is also home to many interesting and unique species of animals such as anaconda, piranha, jaguar etc. The Amazon rainforests contains a major proportion of the earth’s species. Brazil is the largest country in South America occupying more than half of the continents land area and population.
Antarctica
People generally leave this out when they think what are the 7 continents. Antarctica is the southernmost continent of all. It is made of large permanent glaciers that surround the South Pole. This is one of the most inhabitable places on earth. With a very small population of less than 5000 residents, Antarctica is the least populated continent on earth. It is also home to very few plant and animal species. Antarctica is also the coldest landmass on earth and much of this continent is made of permanent glaciers.
Europe
Europe is the second smallest continent in the world. It comprises the westernmost peninsula of the giant Eurasian continent. Covering almost 2 percent of the earth’s surface Europe takes 6.8 percent of the world’s total land area. Europe is home to almost 50 countries and is the third most populated continent in the world after Asia and Africa. About 11 percent of the world’s population lives in Australia. Russia is the largest country in Europe and Vatican City is the smallest.
Europe is divided from Asia by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian Sea, black sea and the waterways connecting black sea and Aegean Sea. Europe is bordered by Arctic Ocean in the north side, Atlantic Ocean on the west side, Mediterranean Sea to the south and black sea and connected water ways on the south east.
Europe, especially ancient Greece is the birth place of the western culture. From early 15th century, Europe has been playing a predominant role in the global affairs. It is also where the industrial revolution started.
Australia
The continent of Australia is a single country continent. It is the sixth largest country by total area. It is also the smallest of all the seven continents. Because of its size, and isolated location, it is also called as island continent. Covering an area of 7617930 square kilometers, Australia lies in the Indo- Australian Plate. This continent is surrounded by Indian Ocean and Pacific Ocean. Australia is one of the least populated continents and is rich in biodiversity. The Great Barrier Reef, which is the largest coral reef in the world, is in Australia. It extends over 2000 kilometers in the north east coast of Australia. Australia is also home to world’s largest monolith, Mount Augustus.
So, now you all know what are the 7 continents on Earth. Read ore about them to know each of them in detail.
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What was the 1910 Fruitgum Company's only hit | The Best of the 1910 Fruitgum Company: Simon Says - 1910 Fruitgum Company | Songs, Reviews, Credits | AllMusic
The Best of the 1910 Fruitgum Company: Simon Says
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AllMusic Review by Lindsay Planer
The Best of the 1910 Fruitgum Company: Simon Says is the only thorough CD compilation available domestically -- although their first four long-players have been issued on compact disc in either Japan or Europe. The appeal of the 1910 Fruitgum Company lies primarily in their effective ability to marry undemanding rhythms to equally puerile premises -- as evidenced in their Top Five hits "Simon Says," "1, 2, 3, Red Light," and "Indian Giver." There were many configurations of musicians under the 1910 Fruitgum Company moniker. The band actually began as a discovery by bubblegum pop music moguls Jerry Kasenetz and Jeff Katz of a Central Ohio group named Jeckell & the Hydes. Before one can say "Bazooka Joe," Kasenetz and Katz had again struck gold, issuing their first farfisa-driven hit, "Simon Says," in late 1967. While the band might have been marketed primarily toward a grade-school audience, their sly and otherwise innocuous lyrical double entendre gave their older brothers and sisters something else to think about. Musically, 1910 's churning beat-laden rhythms accompanied by the undeniably catchy abandon of Mark Gutowski's lead vocals gave the band a feel of prepubescent garage pop. As was often the case at the time, actual membership within the group fluctuated wildly. Initial recordings did, however, feature members of Jeckell & the Hydes with professional studio musicians augmenting when necessary. By the time of their fifth release, Hard Ride , there was an entirely different set of musicians behind the microphones. The only personnel to remain were creators Kasenetz and Katz . In addition to the hits The Best of the 1910 Fruitgum Company: Simon Says features, it also includes tracks from the not-as-successful incarnations of the band -- including the ersatz heavy metal/psychedelic "The Train" from Hard Ride .
Track Listing
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In which TV series do Edna and Saffron appear | 1910 Fruitgum Company — Listen for free on Spotify
1910 Fruitgum Company
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The prototypical bubblegum group, the 1910 Fruitgum Company was the brainchild of Buddah Records house producers Jerry Kasenetz and Jeff Katz, also the masterminds behind such phenoms as the Ohio Express and the Music Explosion.
The Kasenetz-Katz formula was a simple one: they enlisted anonymous studio musicians (in this case, vocalists Mark Gutkowski and Joey Levine -- also the singer in the Ohio Express -- along with guitarists Frank Jeckell, Pat Karwan , and Chuck Travis, horn player Larry Ripley, and drummers Rusty Oppenheimer and Floyd Marcus), and prolifically recorded lightweight, fluffy pop songs which found an eager audience in fans looking for an alternative to the edgier rock music of the late '60s. With the 1910 Fruitgum Company, the Kasenetz-Katz team scored their first major hit, the 1968 Top Five smash "Simon Says," launching the bubblegum craze; that same year they also scored with the singles "1, 2, 3 Red Light" and "Goody Goody Gumdrops," all three issued as title tracks from the group's first trio of LPs. 1969's "Indian Giver," the title cut from the Fruitgum Company's fourth album, was their last Top Five hit, and after one last LP, Hard Ride, the group disbanded; some of its members later resurfaced in the Kasenetz-Katz Singing Orchestral Circus. ~ Jason Ankeny, Rovi
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What was the surname of the Beverley Hillbillies | The Beverly Hillbillies - YouTube
The Beverly Hillbillies
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In what sport was Sam Malone a star before running the bar in Cheers | The Beverly Hillbillies - Season 5, Episode 5: The Badgers Return - TV.com
AIRED:
10/12/66
Drysdale is intent on getting the Clampetts to identify Colonel Foxhall and Emaline Fetty as dangerous criminals. Emaline is in hiding, but visits Jethro, tricking him into helping her hide from the police. The Clampetts mistake the officer that brought Foxhall as a criminal, and Foxhall gets away from the man holding him and hides in the Clampett mansion. He flirts with Granny in the kitchen to get away. Emaline, meanwhile, dresses as a city woman, changes her name, and heads down to the bank, posing as an agent. She tricks Drysdale into compromising positions, taking pictures of it, in order to blackmail him. Foxhall visits the bank to show Drysdale the pictures, threatening him to pay, just as Jed visits. He tells Drysdale and Foxhall he and Granny stopped Emaline and if they don’t behave, they’ll be sent to jail, causing Emaline and Foxhall to give up the caper.moreless
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In which town is the retirement home in Waiting For God | Waiting For God - BBC1 Sitcom - British Comedy Guide
Gareth Gwenlan
Diana Trent and Tom Ballard, two elderly residents of Bournemouth's Bayview Retirement Home, are determined not to grow old gracefully. The pair of geriatric delinquents spend their time finding new ways to make life difficult for Bayview manager Harvey Baines; a shallow, profit-driven man who seems to be liked only by his secretary, who is hopelessly in love with him.
| Bournemouth |
Which Island's volcano erupted in 1961 and necessitated the population to be evacuated | Waiting For God - BBC1 Sitcom - British Comedy Guide
Gareth Gwenlan
Diana Trent and Tom Ballard, two elderly residents of Bournemouth's Bayview Retirement Home, are determined not to grow old gracefully. The pair of geriatric delinquents spend their time finding new ways to make life difficult for Bayview manager Harvey Baines; a shallow, profit-driven man who seems to be liked only by his secretary, who is hopelessly in love with him.
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Where is the volcano Olympus Mons | Mars Exploration: Multimedia
(largest volcano in the solar system!)
3-D view of Olympus Mons
The largest of the volcanoes in the Tharsis Montes region, as well as all known volcanoes in the solar system, is Olympus Mons. Olympus Mons is a shield volcano 624 km (374 mi) in diameter (approximately the same size as the state of Arizona), 25 km (16 mi) high, and is rimmed by a 6 km (4 mi) high scarp. A caldera 80 km (50 mi) wide is located at the summit of Olympus Mons. To compare, the largest volcano on Earth is Mauna Loa. Mauna Loa is a shield volcano 10 km (6.3 mi) high and 120 km (75 mi) across. The volume of Olympus Mons is about 100 times larger than that of Mauna Loa. In fact, the entire chain of Hawaiian islands (from Kauai to Hawaii) would fit inside Olympus Mons!
MOC image of Olympus Mons
Why is Olympus Mons so big?
The main difference between the volcanoes on Mars and Earth is their size; volcanoes in the Tharsis region of Mars are 10 to 100 times larger than those anywhere on Earth. The lava flows on the Martian surface are observed to be much longer, probably a result of higher eruption rates and lower surface gravity.
Another reason why the volcanoes on Mars are so massive is because the crust on Mars doesn't move the way it does on Earth. On Earth, the hot spots remain stationary but crustal plates are moving above them. The Hawaiian islands result from the northwesterly movement of the Pacific plate over a stationary hotspot producing lava. As the plate moves over the hotspot, new volcanoes are formed and the existing ones become extinct. This distributes the total volume of lava among many volcanoes rather than one large volcano. On Mars, the crust remains stationary and the lava piles up in one, very large volcano.
For more on Olympus Mons:
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What is Europe's largest and most active volcano | Olympus Mons on Mars
Olympus Mons
The largest volcano on Mars and likely the largest in the entire solar system is Olympus Mons. With a diameter of more than 500 km and a summit that towers 25 km over the surrounding plains, its volume is over 100 times that of Mauna Loa in Hawaii. Compared to other areas on Mars, there are very few craters on its slopes, indicating that it is geologically very young.
Many of the volcanoes on Mars show significant cratering, indicating that they ceased activity a billion years or more ago. By contrast, Olympus Mons is presumed to be less than 100 million years old.
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In which country did the volcano Loki erupt in 1996 | Iceland Volcano Raises a Threat of Floods - The New York Times
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Iceland Volcano Raises a Threat of Floods
By THE ASSOCIATED PRESS
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A volcanic eruption sent plumes of steam and ash 33,000 feet in the air today and threatened to cause widespread flooding as its molten rock melted a surrounding glacier.
The eruption from a five-mile fissure was melting ice and flooding a crater-like basin hidden beneath the surface of the glacier, said Pall Imsland, a geologist at the University of Iceland.
''It has been filling up in the last days and is now filled to critical level and should start to flow out at any time now,'' he said.
Engineers have strengthened trenches on the glacier's edge, which runs along the main road around the country's coast, and are prepared to cut passes through the road to divert any flooding, Mr. Imsland said.
He said the eruption, from the Loki volcano, which last erupted in 1938, probably began on Tuesday, but did not break through the uninhabited, 2,000-foot glacier until Wednesday.
Flights have been diverted from the area around the volcano, in southeastern Iceland.
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In what year was the first Olympic marathon for women | Global Volcanism Program | Bardarbunga
01/2015 (BGVN 40:01) Eruption ceases on 28 February 2015
Information is preliminary and subject to change. All times are local (unless otherwise noted)
October 2014 (BGVN 39:10)
Cite this Report
Substantial dike eruption~45 km NE at Holuhraun begins 29 August 2014
This is our first Bulletin report on Bardarbunga, a subglacial caldera found within the Barbarbunga volcanic system. This report is divided into two major sections, the first discussing activity between 1986 and 2008 and the second looking at more recent activity from 2014-early 2015.
As background, Bardarbunga, the second highest volcano of Iceland, is one of approximately 30 known Holocene volcanoes or volcano systems in the country. It lies beneath the NW part of the Vatnajokull ice cap. Carrivick and Gertisser (2014) described the volcano as a caldera 700 m deep with a diameter of 11 km, covered by glacial ice ~850 m thick.
1986-2008 activity. In 2010, the Icelandic Meteorological Office (IMO) presented a list of Icelandic volcanic eruptions from 1902-2010 on their website. That list lacks any eruption at the Bardarbunga caldera. Seibert and others (2010) stated that between 1986 and 2008, there were several uncertain cases of eruptions or unrest in the area of Loki-Fögrufjöll (S-SW of Bardarbunga caldera), which they consider a part of the larger Bardarbunga volcanic system (green in figure 1). The eruptive characteristics of these events included regional fissure and subglacial events associated with jökulhlaups (glacier bursts).
Figure 1. Map of Iceland that highlights the Bardarbunga volcanic system (shaded in green), which is 190 km long (NE-SW) and up to 25 km wide (NW-SE). The main Bardarbunga volcano, a subglacial caldera, is represented by the letter ‘B’ on the map. This map, showing all of Iceland was part of a more detailed map of the Bardarbunga volcanic system. Iceland’s capital, Reykjavik, and other towns are also highlighted on the map. Taken from Larsen and others (2014).
The associated jökulhlaups from 1986-2008 originated from the East and West Loki cauldrons found along the Loki Ridge of the Loki-Fögrufjöll system (figure 2). The cauldrons are located ~15 km SW of the center of the Bardarbunga caldera. Other terms for the Loki cauldrons include the East and West Skaftárketill cauldrons; the Eastern and Western Skaftá cauldrons; and the Eastern and Western cauldrons.
Figure 2. Two maps showing the location of East and West Loki cauldrons on the Vatnajokull glacier surface. The Loki cauldrons are found along the Loki Ridge of the Loki-Fögrufjöll system, located SW of Bardarbunga volcano and are within the larger Bardarbunga volcanic system. (Top) The Loki cauldrons are labeled as the Eastern and Western Skaftá cauldrons. (Bottom) The cauldrons are labelled the Eastern and Western cauldrons and the Skatfá river is highlighted. Both maps highlight the inferred subglacial water route (black and green lines) of melt water that is eventually discharged during a jökulhlaup. The jökulhlaups that originate from the Loki cauldrons empty into the Skatfá river. Top map after being taken from Marteinsson and others (2013) was slightly edited and the bottom map was taken from Einarsson (2009).
The Loki cauldrons are depressions formed in the Vatnajokull glacier surface by two underlying, subglacial geothermal areas (Einarsson, 2009). The geothermal areas melt the glacier’s base and melt water collects forming subglacial lakes. As the lakes grow, the ice above them flattens. Eventually, the melt water escapes from the subglacial lakes in a jökulhlaup. The water of the jökulhlaup then travels ~40 km subglacially to flood the Skatfá river (Einarsson, 2009). Once the subglacial lake has emptied, the overlying ice collapses and the cauldrons can be seen again in the glacier surface (Einarsson, 2009).
Table 1 below presents the dates of uncertain cases of eruption within the Bardarbunga volcanic system. The source of the jökulhlaups associated with these uncertain eruptions consistently originated from the East or West Loki cauldron or both.
Table 1. Table condensing Bardarbunga’s uncertain cases of eruptive history during 1986-2008. The uncertain cases all reside in the area of Loki-Fögrufjöll. The table also show the source of the jökulhlaup associated with each of the cases. None of these uncertain cases occurred at the Bardarbunga caldera. Data in this table summarizes written communication with Páll Einarsson in 2008.
Year/Month
West Loki
Two examples of uncertain eruptions at the East Loki cauldron follow. They occurred in November 1986 and August 1991. For the 1986 case, Björnsson and Einarsson (1990) stated, “There is a seismic indication that a small eruption occurred in 1986 during a Skaftá jökulhlaup from beneath the easternmost ice cauldron [figure 2]. The flood in Skaftá began on November 29, and on November 30 and the following day short bursts of continuous tremor were recorded on seismographs around Vatnajokull. . ..It is likely that the pressure release associated with the jökulhlaup triggered a short eruption that did not reach the surface of the glacier.”
For the 1991 case, Björnsson and Einarsson (1990) reported that “Bursts of tremor were recorded on seismographs near Vatnajokull on Aug. 12, 1991, during a jökulhlaup in Skaftá. The course of events is similar to that of Nov. 30, 1986, and suggests that a small and short-lived eruption may have occurred beneath the Eastern Loki cauldron.”
Based on the communication between Einarsson and GVP, the other cases in table 1 followed a similar pattern. For each of those events, the occurrence of a jökulhlaup was followed by either an eruption tremor or bursts of eruption tremor, which suggested the possibility of a small, subglacial eruption at East or West Loki.
Confirmed 1996 eruptions. There are two confirmed eruptions at Bardarbunga, both within a few weeks of each other in 1996 (1 and 2 below).
(1) Einarsson and others (1997) discuss the complex interplay of events that occurred during 29 September through 7 November 1996, which involved seismicity, dikes, jökulhlaups, and various eruptions at Bardarbunga, Grímsvötn and Gjálp (fissure between the two calderas). Einarsson and others (1997) start with this introduction: “A volcanic eruption beneath the Vatnajokull ice cap in central Iceland . . . began on September 30, 1996, along a 7-km-long fissure between the volcanoes Bardarbunga and Grímsvötn. The eruption continued for 13 days . . ..”
They further note “. . . a minor subglacial eruption occurred on the southeast rim of the Bardarbunga caldera, 6-7 km to the north. Two small depressions formed in the ice surface there.” Regarding this, Páll Einarsson added this comment in a 2015 email: “The small subglacial eruptions at the Bárðarbunga caldera rim, mentioned in our paper, are a separate event [from the one a few weeks later mentioned in (2) below]. They are evidenced by sinkholes in the glacier that were discovered late and the timing of these events is not known. Most likely the sinkholes were initiated during the Gjálp eruption, i.e. between September 30 and October 13.”
(2) According to the Institute of Earth Sciences of the University of Iceland (IES, posting date uncertain), a small eruption took place at Bardarbunga in 1996. They wrote the following: “A small eruption started in Bardarbunga around 1300 hrs on November 6th. The eruption lasted for about 20 to 30 min. According to seismograms at the Meteorological office, the eruption was initiated by some intrusive activity. The intrusive activity is based on recorded eruption tremor picked up [by] the seismometers. Eruption column reached about 4 km in to the air. Relation between pressure decrease due to the flooding [has] been suggested as the main cause of the eruption.” This eruption came a day after a jökulhlaup was released from the Grímsvötn caldera (BGVN 21:09 and 23:11, and IES (posting date uncertain). We have not found a clear description of where in the caldera the eruption took place on 6 November 1996.
In regards to the confirmed eruption of 6 November, Einarsson’s email made these remarks: “Keep in mind that Bárðarbunga is very remote and observations of the activity are difficult and very dependent on weather conditions. The webpage of our institute describes a small explosive event that happened on Nov. 6 at the end of the large jökulhlaup, when the meltwater from the large Gjálp eruption was flushed down to the coast. Most of us think now that this was a phreatic reaction of the still hot edifice to the sudden pressure release when the caldera lake of Grímsvötn was emptied, i.e. not due to a fresh injection of magma. But observations were scarce and there may be other opinions on this.”
2014-early 2015 activity. This section of the Bulletin report primarily summarizes events from 16 August 2014, when seismic activity began, into mid-January 2015. The eruption was still ongoing at that time.
Bardarbunga is monitored by a seismic network, an extensive GPS network, and various sensors such as webcams and infrared cameras. Monitoring and analyses at Bardarbunga is conducted by a group of collaborators that include the IMO, the Institute of Earth Sciences (IES) at the University of Iceland, and the National Commissioner of Police, and the Department of Civil Protection and Emergency Management.
Gudmundsson and others (2014) and IMO describe dike emplacement (without apparent breaching the ground surface) associated with a seismic swarm that began at the caldera and migrated tens of kilometers with branches to the N and NE during 16-31 August 2014. On 29 August 2014, two days before the swarm ended, an eruption was first documented at the surface at a flank vent devoid of ice cover ~45 km NE of the caldera.
Figures 3 and 4 help explain the location of volcanoes in Iceland and Bardarbunga lava that progressed northward as a dike and ultimately erupted in the Holuhraun vent.
Figure 3. IMO map of Iceland showing key Holocene volcano locations. Bardarbunga (yellow triangle) is located on the NW part of the 14,000 km2 Vatnajokull ice cap (continental glacier). Although seismicity and dike injection began at Bardarbunga, intrusive processes seemingly prevailed until dikes had propagated to Holuhraun (tip of arrow designated with “H”, location approximate). Holuhraun sits ~45 km NE of the caldera. Courtesy of Iceland Met Office.
Figure 4. A map reflecting Bardarbunga’s lava that erupted in the Holuhraun vent area between 29 August 2014 and about 15 January 2015 (shaded lens-shaped zone between the glacier and Askja volcano). The map shows the N margin of the Vatnajokull ice cap but Bardarbunga caldera lies 17 km off the map to lower left. The site of the eruptive fissure is in the vicinity of the orange bull’s eye. Dyngjujokull glacier is an outlet glacier that forms a N-trending lobe streaming N and outward from the much larger Vatnajokull glacier. Note the E end of the new flow field following the drainage system (the Jökulsá á Fjöllum river) Image published online by the Icelandic Met Office (IMO) on 15 January 2015 (based, in part, on a NASA Landsat 8 image).
The NE-trending dike reached an area outboard of the Vatnajokull ice cap at the Holuhraun volcanic field (figure 4), where the first clear eruption began on 29 August 2014. The fissure vent area was 4.5 km from the ice margin of the outlet glacier Dyngjujökull. The venting took place along an old fissure, and came out along an N-trending zone 600 m long. According to Gudmundsson and others (2014), that eruption was moderate and effusive.
Holuhraun is sometimes discussed in the context of Askja volcano (figure 4), which lies just to the N. Holuhraun is sometimes considered as peripheral vent system for Askja (Ialongo and others, 2015).
Figure 5 indicates the location of earthquakes during the first 16 days of dike emplacement (where days 1-16 correspond to 16-31 August 2014). Gudmundsson and others (2014) comment that “During this time, the dike generated some 17,000 earthquakes, more than produced in Iceland as a whole over a normal year.” The venting to the surface at Holuhraun took place on 29 August 2014 and became strong by 31 August. In the early hours of the 29 August, the onset consisted of a minor, four-hour long, fissure eruption. The pattern on figure 5, depicting a 45-km-long dike injection along the rift system passing through Bardarbunga, testifies to the importance and utility of the seismograph in monitoring shallow magmatism leading to eruption.
Figure 5. For the Bardarbunga eruption, earthquake locations during the first 16 days of the dike emplacement (16-31 August 2014). The word ‘Dike’ is located approximately where the fissure eruptions have taken place (at a volcanic field called Holuhraun). The white area is the Vatnajokull ice cap (including the associated Dyngjujokull outlet glacier; figure 4). Earthquake magnitudes are indicated in the lower right portion of the map. Taken from Gudmundsson and others (2014), based on preliminary data from IMO.
According to IMO, seismic activity associated with Bardarbunga had gradually increased during the last seven years, although it temporarily diminished during the Grimsvotn eruption in May 2011. Vatnajokull GPS stations showed both upward and outward movements since early June 2014, and on 16 August 2014, the number of earthquakes significantly increased, with more than 300 earthquakes detected under the NW part of Vatnajokull ice cap (figure 5). As a result, the Aviation Color Code was increased to Yellow, the third level from the highest on a five color scale (Gray, Green, Yellow, Orange, and Red). On 18 August, IMO reported one earthquake swarm to the E and another swarm to the N of Bardarbunga. An M 4 earthquake occurred, the strongest in the region since 1996. By 18 August, 2,600 earthquakes had been detected at the volcano; earthquake locations from the E and N swarms had been migrating NE. In the evening of 18 August, earthquakes diminished in the N swarm. That same day the Aviation Color Code was raised to Orange.
According to IMO, GPS and seismic data during 20-26 August suggested that a NE-trending intrusive dike had increased from 25 to 40 km in length. During 22-26 August, several earthquakes in the 4.7-5.7 magnitude range had been detected at or near the volcano. These values were among the largest detected in the first few weeks of the swarm (Gudmundsson and others, 2014). The Aviation Color Code, chiefly Orange during this reporting interval, rose to the highest level, Red, several times during late August and September.
On 23 August seismic tremor indicated what IMO initially suggested was a small lava eruption at beneath the Dyngjujokull glacier (which is 150-400 m thick in this region). An overflight the next day found no evidence for an eruption.
On 27 August an overflight showed a 4- to 6-km-long row of cauldrons 10-15 m in diameter S of Bardarbunga.
Beginning on 31 August, lava erupted along a 1.5 km long fissure. During 1-2 September a white steam-and-gas plume rose to an altitude of 4.5 km and drifted 60 km NNE and ENE. Lava flowed N and lava fountains rose tens of meters. The number of earthquakes decreased from 500 earthquakes on 1 September to 300 earthquakes on 2 September. During the middle of September, seismicity persisted mainly around the caldera and the Dyngjujokull glacier.
On 2 September the lava had covered 4.2 km2 and was 4.5 km from the glacier’s edge. By 3 September, the lava flow advanced ENE and covered 7.2 km2. The following day, the lava flow had an aerial extent of 10.8 km2. During 3-9 September, IMO observers noted ongoing lava effusion, high gas emissions, and elevated seismicity from the Holuhraun lava field. Ash production was almost negligible.
On 5 September, two new eruptive fissures were observed S of the main eruption site. These sites were less effusive and were located ~2 km from the edge of Dyngjujokull glacier (see this small shaded area in figure 2). The eruption also continued from the original fissure and generated a ~460 m high steam plume. Eventually, a row of craters formed along the eruptive fissure, the largest one was named Baugur crater.
The fissure eruption continued during 6-7 September, and the lava effusion rate was 100-200 m3/sec on 7 September (figures 6 and 7). Activity from the S fissures was less than that of the N fissure, which had been active since the beginning of the eruption. The advancing lava flow reached the W main branch of the Jökulsá á Fjöllum river (figure 4), which is fed by the icecap and exits the icecap ENE of the volcano. No explosive activity due to lava and river water interaction was observed, but steam rose from the area.
Figure 6. Lava fountaining, lava flows, and plumes emerging from Holuhraun on 6 September 2014, as viewed by NASA’s Landsat 8. Much of the flow was in lava rivers on the surface during September. Courtesy of NASA Earth Observatory.
Figure 7. Aerial view Bardarbunga fissure eruptions taken on 4 September 2014. The fissure venting these eruptions is in Holuhraun lava field. Courtesy of Peter Hartree ([email protected]).
During 8-9 September, activity was no longer detected from the southernmost fissure. Lava continued to advance and interact with the Jökulsá á Fjöllum river. The extent of the lava flow reached 19 km2 and gas emissions remained high.
During 10-16 September, lava flows continued to advance at a consistent rate toward the E and W. A report on 22 September noted that the total volume of the erupted lava was 0.4-0.6 km3 and the flow rate was 250-350 m3/sec. By 30 September, the lava field was 46 km2, and the main flow had entered the river bed of Jökulsá á Fjöllum and continued to follow the river’s course. Steam rose from the river where the lava was in contact with water but no explosive activity occurred.
Although reporting noted a lack of tall mobile ash plumes blown towards Europe and causing air traffic delays, the plumes remained lower and more local causing widespread air quality problems in Iceland. IMO reported continued gas emissions that included elevated SO2 emissions during 10-16 September and issued warnings to the public in the municipality of Fjarðarbyggð (180 km ENE of Bardarbunga) on 13 September. These emissions persisted through at least November.
During 17-23 September, chemical analysis and geophysical modeling indicated that the source of the magma was at a depth of more than 10 km. On 21 September, field scientists estimated that about 90% of the SO2 from the eruption originated at the active craters and the rest rose from the lava field. Dead birds were also found around the eruption site.
Seismic activity at the N part of the dike and around the vents declined in October 2014, although the lava field continued to grow and lava production continued at the same output. On 5 October, a new lava front emerged at the S edge of the main lava flow and advanced E.
On 18 October, an M 5.4 earthquake struck in the N part of Bardarbunga caldera, one of the biggest earthquakes since the start of the eruption. The growing lava field at Holuhraun was 66 km2 by 31 October. By late October, the fissure’s main vent (Baugur crater) had constructed a local topographic high that stood 80 m higher than the local landscape.
In November, eruption-associated seismicity remained strong although an IMO report on the 19th suggested that the number of large, M~5 events seemed to be decreasing. FLIR thermal images of the craters on 18 November showed that by then the most intense area of thermal convection was at a crater in the N part of the eruption site. On 20 November, observers characterized the eruption in the crater as pulsating explosions every 10-15 minutes, followed by a gush of lava down the main channel with splashing on either side. During 25-26 November, the activity was characterized as pulsating, with lava surging from the vent for 2-3 minutes at intervals of about 5-10 minutes. The upper parts of the lava channel developed a sinuous appearance owing to a series of bulges in the channel’s margins.
On 12 November, IMO indicated that it monitored gas releases from Holuhraun using DOAS and FTIR instruments to estimate the fluxes of SO2 and other gases in the volcanic cloud. In the first month and a half of the eruption, the average flux was 400 kg/s (~35,000 metric tons per day, t/d) with peaks up to 1300 kg/s (~112,000 t/d). The IMO calculated that, assuming a constant release of gas through 12 November, the eruption had injected into the atmosphere an amount of SO2 in the range 3.5–11.2 Mega tons, Mt (depending on whether the computed from the average or the peak flux).
On 27 November, observers indicated that a plume rose 3.1 km above the sandy plain. A thermal image from 1 December showed several changes to the lava field. In just over 24 hours there was a new lava extrusion at the NE margin that had traveled 450 m. A new flow traveled N in an area just W of the lava lake. One or more new flows also developed S of the lava lake. The lava field from this eruption was just over 75 km2.
In early December, data also showed a decline in the eruption’s intensity, although seismic activity remained strong. By 9 December, the lava field at Holuhraun had covered just over 76 km2, making its aerial extent the second largest in Iceland (but still considerably smaller than the largest historical field created by the Laki fissure eruption of 1783-1784). By 18 January 2015, the lava covered an area of 85 km2. A NASA photo of the lava flow is shown in figure 8. The vent area contained a lava lake, a large mass of highly radiant (molten, red-colored) lava.
Figure 8. NASA image of the Bardarbunga eruption venting at Holuhraun on 3 January 2015, as captured by the Operational Land Imager on Landsat 8. According to the NASA caption, the false-color images combine shortwave infrared, near infrared, and red light. The dark area represents newly-formed basalt associated with the 2014-2015 eruption. The plume of steam and sulfur dioxide appears white, while fresh lava is bright orange. Courtesy of NASA Earth Observatory.
According to the IMO, the ongoing eruption’s very gas-rich emissions had affected the entire country. IMO stated that “we have to go 150 years back to find an event (Trölladyngja) that had a comparable impact on Iceland and its inhabitants, in terms of environmental and health issues.”
Radar measurements of the flow field during a surveillance flight on 30 December 2014 provided preliminary evidence that lava thickness averaged ~10 m in the eastern part, ~12 m in the center, and at least 14 m in the western part. IMO indicated that the preliminary estimate of the lava volume was 1.1 km3. (A later estimate in 2015 took the volume to 1.4 km3, roughly 10% of the Laki fissure eruption.)
IMO reported that during 31 December-6 January fresh lava flowed N and also to the E where in part it transited through a closed channel (shallow lava tube). During 7-20 January 2015, IMO noted that the lava field expanded along its N and NE margins. Seismicity remained strong and local air pollution from gas emissions persisted. IMO said that on the days10 and 15 January the lava field covered 84.1 and 84.3 km2, respectively.
Figure 9 shows the eruption on 21 January 2015.
Figure 9. Photo taking on 21 January 2015 showing the Bardarbunga’ eruption site at Holuhraun, including fissure vent, crater, lava flow, and plumes. The margins of the flow field are distinct in the distance, owing to snow cover. The main body of the flow field lies off the photo’s margin to the right. Courtesy of IMO (Morten S. Riishuus).
Subsidence. The caldera had been subsiding during the reporting period. The subsidence at Bardarbunga caldera was visible on the ice surface and was interpreted as reflecting deformation of the caldera itself. The depression developed in a roughly bowl-shape area that, as of 20 January 2015, was about 80 km2 in area with a volume exceeding 1.5 km3.
Figure 10 shows the chronology of subsidence levels between 5 September 2014 and 30 December 2014. The subsidence in the center of the caldera was about 60 m by 20 January 2015, a value determined by comparing the ice surface elevation with that elevation at the same location before the beginning of the collapse. Gudmundsson states that the assumption is that the ice surface lies more or less passively on top of the bedrock in the caldera. As of 20 January, no evidence of major ice melting had been observed; however, increased geothermal activity on the caldera rims has resulted in ice depressions over the hot spots. Other ice depressions on the Dyngjujokull glacier were also observed, suggesting that small, short sub-glacial eruptions may have occurred there. According to Gunnar Gudmundsson, there was no evidence of a subglacial eruption within the caldera.
Figure 10. Topographic profiles plotted along a line across Bardarbunga’s caldera for 5 September-30 December 2014. The N-trending profile crosses the E-central caldera (see inset on middle panel). The ice surface (top of light blue area) was constrained by lidar in 2011. The y-axis terms hys (m) and metrar refer to elevation and subsidence (both in meters). Subsidence (colored lines) was measured by a GPS station on the glacier surface in the caldera’s center and by radar altimetry from aircraft. The bottom profile shows the overall picture with the caldera’s surface and the 30 December 2014 profile (maximum subsidence). Courtesy of the Institute of Earth Sciences, University of Iceland (Magnus Gudmundsson and Thordis Hognadottir).
During early December, IMO reported that the Scientific Advisory Board of the Icelandic Civil Protection had reviewed data from the beginning of the eruption to 3 December. They acknowledged that the subsidence rate had decreased during that time, dropping from highs of up to 80 cm/day down to 25 cm/day, with most of the subsidence concentrated at the caldera center.
References. Björnsson, H. and Einarsson, P., 1990, Volcanoes beneath Vatnajokull, Iceland: Evidence from radio echo-sounding, earthquakes and j kulhlaups, Jökull, no. 40, pp 147-168 (URL: http://jardvis.hi.is/sites/jardvis.hi.is/files/Pdf_skjol/Bardarbunga_greinar/bjornsson_and_einarsson_1990.pdf )
Carrivick, J and Gertisser, R, 2014, Bardabunga: eruption develops in Iceland, Geology Today, v. 30, Issue 6, pp. 205-206, November/December 2014, John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Einarsson, P., B. Brandsdóttir, M. T. Gudmundsson, H. Björnsson, K. Grínvold, and F. Sigmundsson, 1997, Center of the Iceland hotspot experiences volcanic unrest, Eos Trans. AGU, 78(35),369–375, doi:10.1029/97EO00237.
Einarsson, B., 2009, Jökulhlaups in Skaftá: A study of a jökulhlaup from the Western Skaftá cauldron in the Vatnajokull ice cap, Iceland, Thesis for Master of Science in Geophysics degree, School of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Faculty of Sciences, University of Iceland, (URL: https://notendur.hi.is//~mtg/nemritg/BE-MS_2009.pdf)
Gudmundsson, A, Lecoeur, N, Mohajeri, N, and Thordarson, T, 2014, Dike emplacement at Bardarbunga, Iceland, induces unusual stress changes, caldera deformation, and earthquakes. Bulletin of Volcanology, vol. 76, no. 10, pp. 1-7.
Hartley, M. E., and Thordarson, T., 2013, The 1874–1876 volcano-tectonic episode at Askja, North Iceland: Lateral flow revisited. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems, vol. 14, no. 7, pp. 2286-2309.
Ialongo, I., Hakkarainen, J., Kivi, R., Anttila, P., Krotkov, N. A., Yang, K., & Tamminen, J., 2015, Validation of satellite SO2 observations in northern Finland during the Icelandic Holuhraun fissure eruption. Atmospheric Measurement Techniques Discussions, vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 599-621.
IES, uncertain publication date, The Gjálp eruption in Vatnajokull 30/9 - 13/10 1996, Institute of Earth Sciences (IES), University of Iceland, Accessed on 31 March 2015 (URL: http://earthice.hi.is/gjalp_eruption_vatnajokull_309_1310_1996) .
Larsen, G. and Gudmundsson, M. T., 2014, Volcanic system: Bárðarbunga system, pre-publication extract from the Catalogue of Icelandic Volcanoes, Accessed on 4 April 2015, (URL: http://blog.snaefell.de/images/Bardarbunga_kafli20140825.pdf).
Icelandic Meteorological Office, 2010, List of recent volcanic eruptions in Iceland, Accessed on 31 March 2015 (URL: http://en.vedur.is/earthquakes-and-volcanism/articles/nr/1874).
Marteinsson, V.T., Rúnarsson, Á., Stefánsson, A., Thorsteinsson, T., Jóhannesson, T., Magnússon, S.H., Reynisson, E., Einarsson, B., Wade, N., Morrison, H., and Gaidos, E., 2013, Microbial communities in the subglacial waters of the Vatnajokull ice cap, Iceland, The ISME Journal, vol. 7, pp. 427–437, doi:10.1038/ismej.2012.97, (URL: http://www.nature.com/ismej/journal/v7/n2/full/ismej201297a.html ).
Seibert, L., Simkin, T., and Kimberly, P., 2010, Volcanoes of the World (Third Edition), pp. 204-205, University of Cailfornia Press, ISBN 978-0-520-26877-7.
Information Contacts: Icelandic Met Office (IMO) (URL: http://en.vedur.is/); London Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (URL: http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/aviation/vaac/); Institute of Earth Sciences (IES), University of Iceland (URL: http://earthice.hi.is); Pall Einarsson, IES, University of Iceland; Gunnar Gudmundsson, IMO; Magnus Tumi Gudmundsson, IES, University of Iceland (URL: http://earthice.hi.is); National Commissioner of Police, Department of Civil Protection and Emergency Management (URL: http://avd.is/en/): NASA Earth Observatory (URL: http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov).
January 2015 (BGVN 40:01)
Cite this Report
Eruption ceases on 28 February 2015
This report extends our recent coverage of Bardarbunga (BGVN 39:10) by discussing activity between 7 January 2015 and 1 May 2015, although the eruption ceased on 28 February 2015. Most of the information below is based on reports from the Icelandic Met Office (IMO), with ancillary information from other agencies as noted. For sources other than the IMO reports shown in the reference list, see the websites provided in the “Information contacts” section at the end of this report. In general, the information sources there closely coincides with the date range of interest. The eruption began at Holuhraun on 31 August 2014 (BGVN 39:10).
IMO reports for January 2015 noted that activity at Bárdarbunga’s Holuhraun lava field grew slightly along its N and NE margins. The lava field covered 84.1 km2on 10 January, 84.3 km2 on 15 January, and 84.7 km2 on 22 January. Seismicity remained strong, for example, an earthquake swarm occurred on 29 January 2015. (Specific numbers of earthquakes appear in some IMO reporting, although no plot has emerged with graphical depiction of earthquakes in this reporting interval such as figure 5 in BGVN 39:10.) Local air pollution from gas emissions persisted. GPS measurements showed that subsidence continued. As measured on the ice surface, total subsidence of the Bárdarbunga surface between mid-August 2014 and the end of January 2015 was 61 m. During this period, IMO maintained an Aviation Colour Code of Orange (the second highest on a five-color scale).
IMO noted that on 21 January, “Handheld meters, carried by scientist near the eruptive site . . . showed SO2 concentrations of 29 ppm and 14 ppm. This is in concordance with the sulphur veils apparent from the aircraft and is reminiscent of the circumstances in SE Iceland [on] 28 October 2014. Since 1 ppm is about 3000 μg/m³ [micrograms per cubic meter ] this refers to concentrations of 87,000 μg/m³ and 42,000 μg/m³ respectively. For comparison, see values in the table compiled by the Environment Agency of Iceland and the Directorate of Health.”
According to the Environmental Agency of Iceland, an SO2 concentration above 14,000 μg/m3 is the most hazardous of six health hazard categories; the Agency advises that serious respiratory symptoms are to be expected. More specifically, the Agency states that when SO2 concentrations exceed 14,000 μg/m3, residents should remain indoors, close the windows, and shut down air conditioning.
The Institute of Earth Sciences (IES) at the University of Iceland provided a map prepared on 21 January showing that the lava field was thickening and not spreading significantly; the volume of erupted lava was an estimated 1.4 km3 (15% uncertainty)(figure 11). An IMO report on 27 January stated that the average rate of lava emission during the previous three weeks had been just less than 100 m3 per second, taken by the report authors as a sign that the eruption intensity was slowly decreasing. On 27 January, a plume rose to an estimated height of 1.3 km above the plain.
Figure 11. Map of the new lava from Bardarbunga, prepared on 21 January 2015. During January, the lava thickened, without extending much further. Numbers indicate the thickness (m) which is also color-coded (legend on right). Courtesy of Institute of Earth Sciences (IES), University of Iceland.
On 6 February, IMO issued a statement that eruptive activity had decreased visibly during the previous two weeks, although seismicity was still strong. Lower seismicity continued during 11-19 February with many days of over a dozen earthquakes and seismic activity ranging up to M 4.3. On 14 February, the lava field covered 85 km2; measurements of the lava field’s size on 4 and 12 February found no significant change.
An IES report issued on 20 February 2015 for 17-19 February 2015 noted “There is only one active vent inside the crater and the surface of the molten lava continues to sink. The lava channel has crusted over, except the 200-300 m nearest to the vent. The eruption column reaches no more than 1000 m above ground. The photos below show breakouts 15–16 km ENE of the vent, fed by the closed lava pathway which is inflating the lava field.”
According to the IMO, a lava tube continued to feed the N and NE parts of Holuhraun, inflating the lava field. They also noted a reduced rate of effusion no longer sustained active breakouts in an area 17-18 km ENE from the vent.
A 24 February report noted that the rate of subsidence at Bardarbunga caldera was less than 2 cm per day. (IMO cautioned that care was needed with the interpretation of these data, given that GPS measurements are affected by ice flowing slowly into the caldera.) The eruption rate decreased substantially, and seismic activity continued to decrease although it was still considered strong.
IMO reported that a 27 February 2015 evening overflight found no visible incandescence at Holuhraun. According to FLIR thermal measurements, the radiant heat was greatest from the crater’s rim, and lesser from the crater’s depths. A gas detector in flight showed a maximum concentration of 0.5 ppm SO2, and a maximum concentration of 0.4 ppm when tested on the ground at the SW edge of the lava field. Glowing areas were observed in the NE part of the lava field; the maximum temperature detected was 560°C (compared to 1,200°C earlier). Radar measurements showed that the extent of the lava field had not increased since mid-February. (Data from SENTINEL-1 radar image 0741 UTC 27 February 2015 and helicopter flight, 1515 UTC 27 February 2015). According to IMO, experience with other lava-bearing eruptions suggested that the Holuhraun lava field would continue to emit gas for a long time. Without buoyant rise, driven by thermal emission from an active vent, the gases would remain low (near the ground surface). Therefore, IMO expected even greater concentrations of gas than residents had previously seen.
IMO reported that the eruption at the fissure of Bárdarbunga’s Holuhraun, which began on 31 August 2014 ended on 28 February 2015. The Aviation Colour Code was lowered to Yellow.
IMO scientists conducted a field study on 3-4 March 2015, and found no signs of activity, other than a diffuse bluish haze at ground level across the lava field (figure 12). The IMO scientists reported that the crater rim had several cracks at the very edge, and while standing close to the crater rim it was possible to hear rumbling due to movements of rocks/solidified lava inside the crater.
Figure 12. Photo of IMO geologists inside the Baugur crater on 4 March 2015. From the photo it appears that the vent discharging the lava is in the distance at the far end of the crater (area with white plume). According to the IMO caption, the photo was taken from the central part of Baugur crater as viewed looking along it to the N. The encrusted surface of the lava lake has collapsed, its remains seen as coarse, black rubble at the crater floor. On the crater floor, observers saw small vents sporadically discharging bluish gas. Part of the crater rim seen on the right side had broken, providing an outlet onto the lava field beyond. The resulting lava channel was about 50 m wide and 40 m deep. Courtesy of IMO (Ármann Höskuldsson; taken from IMO’s March-April 2015 report).
In early March maximum CO (carbon monoxide) and SO2 concentrations, measured with personal sensors near and at the crater rim, were 3 ppm and 2.5 ppm, respectively. A multiGAS instrument at the crater rim measured concentrations of SO2, CO2, H2S, and H2 for about 30 minutes, and provided ratios of CO2/SO2, H2O/SO2, and H2O/CO2 of 17, 101, and 6, respectively. The scientists noted that comparing the CO2/SO2 ratio with previous measurements showed a clear increase, consistent with the end of an eruption. The maximum concentrations measured with the MultiGAS instrument were at the level of 30 ppm for SO2 (the concentration at which the instrument saturates). For CO2 and H2S, the respective measurements were 700 ppm and 5 ppm. The level of SO2 was measured with an automatic gas detector, as reported by the Science Advisory Board of the Icelandic Civil Protection and disseminated by the Icelandic Commissioner of the Icelandic Police, as 500 µg/m3 (~0.5 ppm). Blönduós is a town and municipality in the North of Iceland situated on Route 1 at the mouth of the glacial river, Blanda. The report of the Police contained a links to a Gas Forecast and a Gas Model and involved scientists from the IMO and the IES along with representatives from the Icelandic Civil Protection, the Environmental Agency of Iceland and the Directorate of Health. The area to the SW and S of Blönduós was reported as possibly affected on the day following the measurement.
On 26 April, IMO lowered the Aviation Color Code to Green (the second lowest level), stating that no further signs of unrest had been noted since the end of the eruption on 28 February. Seismicity both within the caldera and the associated dyke intrusion continued to decline.
References.IMO, 2015 (January), Bárðarbunga 2015-January events, Seismic and volcanic events, 1-31 January, Icelandic Meteorological Office Accessed on 31 March 2015 (URL: http://en.vedur.is/earthquakes-and-volcanism/articles/nr/3071 ) (accessed May 2015).
IMO, 2015 (February), Bárðarbunga 2015-February events, Seismic and volcanic events, 1-28 February, Icelandic Meteorological Office Accessed on 31 March 2015 (URL: http://en.vedur.is/earthquakes-and-volcanism/articles/nr/3087 ) (accessed May 2015).
Information Contacts: Icelandic Met Office (IMO) (URL: http://en.vedur.is/); Institute of Earth Sciences (IES), University of Iceland (URL: http://earthice.hi.is); National Commissioner of Police, Department of Civil Protection and Emergency Management (URL: http://avd.is/en/); and The Environmental Agency of Iceland (URL: http://www.ust.is/the-environment-agency-of-iceland).
Basic Data
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In what year was the big ball made compulsory in the Open Golf Championship | The British Open Ball: When Golf Balls Came In 2 Sizes
By Brent Kelley
Updated December 03, 2016.
Did you know that until 1990, the R&A and USGA - golf's governing bodies - could not agree on the size of the golf ball? There were two different sizes of golf balls in use around the world, with a very slightly smaller version of the ball available for play in areas governed by R&A rules.
The minimum size of golfs balls was not standardized in the Rules of Golf until 1990 (at 1.68 inches in diameter).
The 'British Ball' and 'American Ball'
For most of the history of the Rules of Golf , the sport's two governing bodies disagreed about the minimum size of golf balls:
R&A's minimum golf ball diameter: 1.62 inches
USGA's minimum golf ball diameter: 1.68 inches.
(The two governing bodies always agreed that the weight of a golf ball should be 1.62 ounces.)
The R&A approved golf balls with minimum diameters of 1.62 inches in the early 1900s. But in the early 1930s, the USGA ruled against those smaller balls, sticking with a minimum diameter of 1.68 inches.
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Understanding Baseball
The larger ball played in USGA-governed areas became known as the "American ball," while the smaller ball golfers in R&A areas had the option to use was known as the "small ball," "British ball" or "British Open ball." (And for good measure, sometimes "European ball.")
"British ball" or "British Open ball" was the term for it most commonly used by American golfers and fans because those golfers typically only encountered the ball during the Open Championship . To golfers playing under R&A rules, it was simply the "small ball."
(Note that the golf ball sizes above are minimums; golf balls could be - and can be - larger. So R&A golfers always had the option to play the larger American ball if they wished.)
American Pros Preferred the Small Ball at the Open
The smaller ball was an option for golfers playing under R&A rules; it was not an option for golfers playing under USGA rules.
But American pro golfers almost unanimously preferred the smaller ball when playing in the British Open. Arnold Palmer , Jack Nicklaus , et.al., all switched to the British ball when they played the Open Championship (or any other competition governed by R&A rules). The smaller ball went farther and was more workable in the wind.
Golf Ball Size Finally Standardized in 1990
Over the years, a desire grew to standardize the rules on golf ball size. The difference in minimum golf ball diameter was one of the last major disagreements between the R&A and USGA that was codified in the rules.
The R&A took the first step in 1974, when it decided the small ball could no longer be used in the British Open. That meant that golf's major championships , at least, were all played with the same size golf balls from 1974 onward.
But it took all the way until the 1990 update to the Rules of Golf before the R&A and USGA settled on one, single approved minimum size for golf balls, and it was the USGA's: 1.68-inches in diameter. And that relegated the "small ball" or "British ball" to history.
| one thousand nine hundred and seventy four |
In what year were ball girls first used at Wimbledon | History of The Game Of Golf Including it's origins
'Francis Ouimet and the 1913 U.S. Open:'
'The 1913 U.S. Open Championship was played at The Country Club in Brookline, Massachusetts, one of the earliest American golf courses. Harry Vardon had come back to the U.S. again and entered the Open, expected by many to win. His primary competition was expected to come from friend and fellow Brit Ted Ray. No one saw Francis Ouimet coming.'
'Ouimet was a 20-year-old amateur and former caddy from Brookline when he entered the U.S. Open in 1913. Tied with the two British stars after the first three rounds of the tournament, Ouimet managed two birdies in his final six holes to finish tied for the lead at the end of the four rounds. A playoff was required, and Ouimet, much to the shock and delight of the crowd, ended the playoff round with a one-over-par 72, beating out Vardon and Ray. Ouimet's victory became national news, catapulting golf into even greater popularity. Ouimet would go on to win two Amateur Championships and a French Amateur Championship. He would also appear on the American team in the newly-created Walker Cup in 1922, a tournament between American and British teams played every other year. Ouimet would play on every Walker Cup team from 1922 to 1949, captaining the squad between 1936 and 1949. In 1951, he was named captain of the Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St. Andrews in Scotland, the first non-British person awarded that high honor.'
'The Amateur Game:'
'Both in Britain and the U.S., amateur golf was as highly regarded and popular in the 1800s and into the 1900s as professional golf. The Amateur Championships of Britain and America were extremely well attended and well thought-of events. In Britain, early amateur domination came in the form of John Ball, who won the British Amateur Championship eight times, three more than any other player has ever won. Interestingly, Ball never won twice in a row - all his victories came at least a year apart from each other. Ball also became the first to win both an Amateur and Open Championship, one of only three in history who have done so. Harold Hilton, another top amateur of the time, was the first to win both championships, winning two Opens and four Amateurs. He also became the first British player to win both the British and U.S. Amateur Championships.'
'In the U.S., the first amateur star was Walter Travis. The Australian who had moved to the U.S. as a child first won the U.S. Amateur Championship in 1900 and would collect two more titles. Only three other players have ever won three or more U.S. Amateur Championships. He also became the first American player to win the British Amateur Open, capturing the 1904 title. Following Travis's success was Jerome Travers, who between 1907 and 1913 won four titles. Travers would also become one of the first Amateur winners to also win a U.S. Open.'
'The greatest amateur of the first half of the 1900s, however (and one of the greatest of all-time) was Bobby Jones. Of the seven U.S. Amateur Championships between 1924 and 1930, Jones won five of them; those five victories are also the most all-time in Amateur Championship history. His greatest feat, another unmatched in history, came in 1930. In that single year, Bobby Jones won the U.S. Open, the British Open, the U.S. Amateur Championship and the British Amateur Championship. That accomplishment was dubbed the "Grand Slam." No other player has ever completed a single-season Grand Slam, though five others have completed a career Grand Slam, winning all four majors in their career.'
'The Professional Game:'
'In 1916, as professional golf gained more ground in the U.S., players wanted an organizational body to govern the game: U.S. amateurs had the USGA and British players had the R&A (taking its name from the Royal and Ancient Club), so they wanted one of their own. That January , the Professional Golfer's Association of America was born. Seven months later, they established the first PGA Championship, played at a course in Bronxville, New York, with $2,500 awarded to the winner (equal to $50,000 today). '
'The earliest PGA star was undoubtedly Walter Hagen. While Bobby Jones dominated the amateur game in America, Hagen controlled the pro game. In his career, Hagen won 11 professional titles: the U.S. Open twice, the British Open four times and the PGA Championship five times. His five PGA Championship titles are the most all-time, along with Jack Nicklaus' five wins. Four of those victories came in a row, from 1924-27. No other golfer has ever won more than two in a row. Over his career, Hagen earned about $1 million in prize money, by far the most at the time (and equal to about $12.5 million today).'
'The Game Changes:'
'Bobby Jones' retirement in 1930 marked the beginning of a new era in golf. Steel-shafted golf clubs became the standard, and with the improved equipment, scores began lowering: shooting par generally wasn't good enough anymore. Crossover between the amateur and pro games began to end as well. After Jones' 1930 Open victory, only one other player (Johnny Goodman in 1933) won the U.S. Open as an amateur. Amateur success in pro tournaments (or lack thereof) was attributed to the much higher amounts of money coming into the game after 1930; as soon as an amateur player could compete on the pro level, they made the jump to professional. '
'The PGA Tour, which had been established in 1916 along with the PGA, began recognizing the money winner of each year's tour in 1934. That first season, Paul Runyan was the highest money winner, tallying seven wins and just over $6700 (equal to $107,000 today). That same season, the pro tour earned a profit of $135,000 ($2.16 million today). By 1949, under the leadership of Boston promoter Fred Corcoran, the tour earned a profit of $600 thousand, and raised that total to over $2 million in the '60s (today, those totals are equal to $5.4 million and $14.5 million, respectively).'
'The 1930s also saw the creation of a new tournament, the Masters (originally named the Augusta National Invitation Tournament). The first tourney was held in 1934, with Horton Smith its winner, and quickly became one of the premier golf events on the PGA Tour schedule. The creation of the Masters Tournament also ushered in the era of the modern majors. Originally, the majors (the four major golf tournaments of the year) were the British and U.S. Opens and Amateur Championships. With the rise of professional golf, the majors eventually became the U.S. and British Opens, the PGA Championship and the Masters.'
'The 1930s in golf, however, failed to produce a single dominant figure. While there were certainly star players, no one controlled the game like the figures before. From 1934 to 1939, no player won the money leader title more than once. It wasn't until 1940 and Ben Hogan that golf once again had a titan. Hogan, a Texan, won the money title five times in his career. He tallied four U.S. Open titles, won the Masters twice, the PGA Championship twice and won a single British Open, becoming only the second player (after Gene Sarazen) to win the career Grand Slam in the Masters era. He also won the Masters, U.S. Open and British Open in the same year, 1953, considered one of the greatest achievements in golf history.'
'Following World War II, another golfer hit the scene, challenging Hogan's dominance: Byron Nelson. Nelson became the first golfer on the PGA Tour to win more than 10 events in a single year, winning an astonishing 18 events in 1945 (an unmatched feat in history). He also became the first player to top $50,000 in winnings in a single year, earning over $63,000 in '45 (worth $751 thousand today). '
'One golfer of the era not remembered for singular dominance by rather for consistency was Sam Snead. Playing across four decades on the PGA Tour, Snead won three money titles, three PGA Championships, three Masters and a British Open, never able to capture a U.S. Open titles (though he was a runner-up five times, including losing a playoff in 1947). Snead's claim to fame, however, is his PGA Tour win total. Between his first victory on the Tour in 1936 and his last in 1965, Sam Snead won 82 Tour events, the most all-time. '
'Women's Golf:'
'Evidence from the history of golf says that women have been involved and interested in the game almost since its inception. The Royal and Ancient Club was founded in 1754 - within 60 years, women were on record as being active on the course. Within another sixty years, they had formed a club as well, the Ladies Golf Club of St. Andrews in 1867. In 1893, the Ladies Golf Union was formed, the governing body for women's golf in the U.K. and Ireland. In the U.S., women came to golf just about as early as men; just one year after John Reid set up the first golf course, he and his wife played another couple in mixed doubles, the first recorded mixed doubles match in the U.S. '
'As in men's golf, early domination of the sport belonged to Great Britain. However, by about the 1920s, American women had developed a greater affinity for the game. In 1932, The USGA and the Ladies Golf Union established the Curtis Cup Match, a competition between American and British teams held every two years. The first was held in England, with the Americans winning. Much like its male counterpart, the Walker Cup, early domination in the Curtis Cup belonged to the U.S.'
'Babe:'
'Though women's golf has never achieved the same level of popularity as men's golf, it certainly has had its stars. Its first (and perhaps biggest) was Mildred Didrikson Zaharias, better known as Babe. Zaharias, widely considered perhaps the greatest female athlete of all time, did not excel solely in golf. As an 18-year-old, she entered a national track and field event in Illinois and won the team title - as the only member of her team. She entered eight of the 10 events, winning six of them (and placing 2nd and 4th in the other two) and set three world records. She went on to win two gold medals at the 1932 Olympics, and was disqualified from winning a third for diving over the bar in the high jump (something that had never been done before, and was later legalized). With her popularity skyrocketing, she went on a tour of the country, first as a vaudeville performer, later playing baseball, football, basketball, trying out skiing, boxing and fly-casting.'
'Though she started playing golf shortly after the Olympics, she decided to get serious about the game a few years later. It was during this period that she was paired with a professional wrestler at a tournament in 1938, George Zaharias. The two made an immediate connection and were married shortly afterward. However, as much as Babe's private life was enjoying success, her professional life was not - women's pro golf was not yet established, and the only two major tournaments were for amateurs (the National Women's Amateur Championship and the British Ladies' Championship). As a result, Zaharias applied for amateur status and, in 1944, the USGA approved it. As soon as World War II ended and those tournaments got started up again, Zaharias won them, winning the Women's Amateur Championship once, in '46 and the British Ladies' Championship once, in '47. By this time, women's pro golf was finally starting to come together.'
'There have been a number of major championships in women's golf throughout the years. The earliest is the Women's Western Open, which began play in 1930. The second was the Titleholder's Championship in 1937, the third the U.S. Women's Open in 1946. All three of these were retroactively named majors by the LPGA. The Ladies Professional Golfer's Association was formed in 1950 by a group of 13 golfers, one of whom was Babe Zaharias. Of the three majors formed during her career, Zaharias won all three, winning the Western Open four times, the Titleholders three times and the U.S. Open three times.'
'Sadly, she was stricken with cancer and died in 1956 at 42. '
'Arnie's Army Storms Golf:'
'The 1950s were another period without a clear dominating figure in men's golf. In the decade, no player (other than Sam Snead) captured the events winner title (awarded to the player who won the most events in the season) and no one won the money leader title more than once. Players like Hogan and Snead were nearing the end of their careers, no longer ruling the scene. Nelson had retired in the '40s. Golf's popularity was still on the rise; it was now entering television for the first time, as major tournaments appeared on TV on Saturdays and Sundays. The sport, however, needed a national figure, and at the end of the decade, one finally appeared.'
'Arnold Palmer, born in Pennsylvania in 1929, turned pro in 1954 after winning the U.S. Amateur Championship, and within three years captured the events winner title. A year later, in 1958, he won the money title. He would win three money titles in his career, as well as a U.S. Open title, a British Open title and four Masters titles, at the time the most in history. Palmer became the game's first superstar, attracting a horde of followers at each tournament nicknamed "Arnie's Army." He totaled 62 PGA Tour wins in his career, ranking 5th all-time.'
'The Golden Bear and the Black Knight:'
'Palmer's fame was helped along by the presence of two significant rivals, Gary Player and Jack Nicklaus. Player was a South African who turned professional in 1953. He joined the PGA Tour in '57. Within two years, he already began to win. His first major championship victory came in 1959 at the Open Championship, the first of three British Open titles he would win. He won the PGA Championship twice and the Masters three times. He finally completed the career Grand Slam in 1965 when he won the U.S. Open (his only victory there). He is one of only eight golfers to have won the Masters three times or more. His last major victory came in 1978, at the Masters, when he stormed back from a 7-hole deficit after three rounds to win by a stroke. He was nicknamed "the Black Knight" because he famously wore all black while playing. Player, though considered a rival of Palmer, was considered more a rival of his contemporary, Jack Nicklaus.'
'Nicklaus, nicknamed "the Golden Bear" because of his build and hair color, would retire from professional golf considered by many to be the greatest golfer of all time. During his career, he would eclipse all golfers that came before him by winning a total of 18 majors, a record that still stands today. His 73 PGA Tour wins rank him second on the all-time list. He turned pro in 1961, winning his first major (the U.S. Open) within a year. He won each major at least three times, becoming history's first three-time career Grand Slam holder. He won the U.S. Open four times, the British Open three times and the PGA Championship five times. His greatest success, however, came at the Masters. The six-time winner of the tournament (by far a tournament record) last won a major title at Augusta in 1986. The win came as a shock to the golf world, as Nicklaus had last won a major six years previous. However, the Golden Bear had enough magic left to capture the Green Jacket, an honorarium bestowed on each winner of the Masters, one last time.'
'Changing and Adding:'
'In 1968, the PGA Tour, which had, since its inception in 1916 been governed by the PGA of America, broke off, becoming its own organization. Initially, tournament players had formed their own group, the Association of Professional Golfers. They quickly abandoned this, forming the PGA Tournament Players Division, later simply named the PGA Tour. All the records of the PGA Tour prior to the split were carried over. In '72, Europe finally had its own official tour, the PGA European Tour, which comprised 15 different countries. Its all time leader in wins is Spaniard Seve Ballesteros (who also had success on the PGA Tour).'
'In 1974, a local board of directors in Pinehurst, North Carolina established the World Golf Hall of Fame, inaugurating their first class that year, comprised of Patty Berg, Walter Hagen, Ben Hogan, Bobby Jones, Byron Nelson, Jack Nicklaus, Francis Ouimet, Arnold Palmer, Gary Player, Gene Sarazen, Sam Snead, Harry Vardon and Babe Zaharias. While the Hall of Fame was initially a local venture, it eventually came under the purview of the PGA, moving to St. Augustine, Florida in 1998 and continuing as world golf's official Hall of Fame.'
'That same year, 1974, a new tournament was established, one that would go on to be considered alongside the four majors. The Tournament Players Championship, later renamed simply The Players Championship, is played in Florida every year, dubbed by many "the Fifth Major" though it has never officially received that distinction. The Players Championship awards the highest prize money of any golf tournament; its first winner, Jack Nicklaus, received $50,000 out of a total purse of $250,000 ($217,000 and $1.09 million today). Nicklaus also holds the distinction of winning the tourney three times, the most in history.'
'The World's Number One:'
'With the official addition of the European Tour, and its subsequent legitimization among the world's top golfers, more and more golfers began splitting their time between the European and PGA Tours. Many golfers (non-Americans) would primarily play on the European Tour, then play in the major tournaments in the U.S. This led to a problem for the Royal and Ancient Club: their system of invitation to the British Open was now leaving out many top golfers because they split time between the tours. This led to the development of the World Golf Rankings. This system, endorsed by the four majors and the six top international golf tours, ranks the world's golfers on a points system, derived from their finishes in tournaments. The rankings were first released prior to the 1986 Masters Tournament - the top six were Bernhard Langer, Seve Ballesteros, Sandy Lyle, Tom Watson, Mark O'Meara and Greg Norman. Interestingly, the top three were all European players - none of them ever finished as the money or wins leader on the PGA Tour. However, that first year, Greg Norman ended the year ranked number one, which he would do six more times in his career, a record when he retired. Only one other golfer would tally more year-end number ones than Norman�but we'll get to him later.'
'Between 1986 and 1997, Norman's last year at number one, there were only five players who finished the year at number one: Norman, Ballesteros, Ian Woosnam, Nick Price and Nick Faldo. Of those five, only Faldo achieved that feat more than once. Norman dominated the world rankings, yet only won the money title on the PGA Tour three times in his career and only ever won titles in one major championship, winning the British Open twice. Other golfers of the era were big winners in the majors: Tom Watson won five British Opens, a U.S. Open, and two Masters, failing to capture the career Grand Slam by never winning the PGA Championship. Faldo won two Masters and three British Opens while Ballesteros accomplished the same feat, and Curtis Strange became the first player since Ben Hogan in the 1950's to win back-to-back U.S. Opens, winning in '88 and '89 (and no player has done so since). But on the horizon as the calendar turned to the late '90s was a player that would capture golf's attention and awards like almost no one else before.'
'Tiger:'
'Eldrick Woods was born in 1975 in California, and his father Earl had him playing golf from an incredibly early age - even appearing on a TV talk show to showcase his talents at the age of two. After attending Stanford University for two years and winning the U.S. Amateur Championship three times (including as the youngest ever, a record which stood until 2008), he turned pro in 1996. The man nicknamed "Tiger" immediately became a sensation, winning the 1997 Masters with a still-record low of -18. The son of an African-American man and a Thai woman, he also became the first non-white player ever to win at Augusta. He wouldn't stop there - Woods, at present, has captured a total of 14 major victories, second all-time to Nicklaus. With four Masters titles, three U.S. Open titles, three British Open titles and four PGA Championship titles, he is also the only person besides Nicklaus to have completed three career Grand Slams. In 2000-01, he also became the only person in history to hold all four majors titles simultaneously, winning the 2000 U.S. and British Opens and PGA Championship, followed by the 2001 Masters title. However, since he did not win them in the same year, it did not count as a single season Grand Slam. Still, he managed to best Bobby Jones in 2008 when he won his 14th major, eclipsing Jones' 13. He also has 71 PGA Tour wins, 3rd all time, only two behind Nicklaus and 11 behind Snead. At only 34, many believe he will someday beat Snead's record. Tiger also holds the record for most number one year-end rankings (with 11 as of 2009) and the record for most weeks at number one (with 615 straight weeks - 284 more than Greg Norman, who is second). Woods has also won more money than any other golfer in history, with his prize money as of 2010 totaling over $93 million.'
'Golf Today:'
'Tiger still dominates the fans' attention in golf, though due to injury and personal problems he has failed to win a major since 2008. TV ratings when Tiger is playing for a championship as opposed to when Tiger isn't are considerably higher. Still, the sport of golf in general is strong, attracting strong TV revenues and awarding higher and higher purses every year - for example, the Players Championship, the highest purse in golf, awarded the equivalent of $217,000 to the winner out of $1.09 million in its first year. The 2010 Players Championship gave its winner $1.71 million out of a $9.5 million purse. Golf is going strong. What remains to be seen is what will happen when Tiger finally retires, and whether a new figure can arise to capture the world's attention in the sport.'
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In what year in Association Football did it become legal to be able to score direct from a corner | History of The Game Of Football Including The NFL and College Football
Wonder Teams, the Galloping Ghost and the Four Horsemen
'While professional football was still trying to organize itself in the 1920's , college football ruled the sport. Though football programs in schools in the western United States had sprouted up around the turn of the century, early on they had little success. The Tournament of Roses, a festival in Pasadena, California, held a football game between Stanford and Michigan in 1902. Michigan beat Stanford 49-0, with the California school giving up in the third quarter. The festival decided not to hold another game until 1916. In 1923, after experiencing more popular success and building a new stadium, the festival held the first ever Rose Bowl game, played on January 1, a tradition carried on to this day. In the 1920s, schools from the west finally started to have real success in college football, most notably the University of California-Berkeley. The Golden Bears, nicknamed "the Wonder Teams," didn't lose a game in the decade until 1925, with a record of 46-0-4. Still, they were only awarded one championship, the 1920 title. The champs the next two years ('21 and '22) were Cornell University, who from 1921 to 1923 went 24-0-0. Other big teams of the decade included Alabama (winner of back-to-back co-national titles, sharing them with Dartmouth in '25 and Stanford in '26), Illinois and Notre Dame.'
'Had modern television been around in the '20s, October 18, 1924 would have been a great day to watch college football. On that Saturday, defending national champion Illinois opened their new Memorial Stadium (still in existence), and to christen it, Red Grange ran for 265 yards on just six carries and scored four touchdowns in the first 12 minutes of the game. Grange finished with 402 yards and six TDs, with Illinois beating Michigan 39-14. That same day, in the Polo Grounds of New York, rivals Notre Dame and Army faced each other. The Fighting Irish, who won 13-7, boasted four fleet-footed halfbacks in Harry Stuhldreher, Jim Crowley, Don Miller and Elmer Layden. Sportswriter Grantland Rice, after watching the game, famously referred to the group as "the Four Horsemen." Behind that apocalyptically-monikered quartet, the Irish would win the 1924 national championship. The Irish were also led by head coach Knute Rockne; after his playing days were over, Rockne became a coach at Notre Dame, becoming head coach in 1918. He would helm the Irish until his death in a plane crash in 1930, winning six national championships, and compiling a winning percentage of .881. To this day, no head coach in either college or professional football history had amassed a better winning percentage.'
Innovation in the College Ranks
'The 1930s saw college football diversify further. After Rockne's death in 1930, the Irish went through a down period. While old standbys Michigan stepped in to fill the void, a new dynasty also stepped up, once again from the west coast: USC. The University of Southern California won its first national championship in 1931, then won again in '32, sharing that title with Michigan (who would also win the '33 title). Later in the decade, Pittsburgh would reclaim college football glory, winning their first national title since 1918. The rest of that decade's national championship winners were all first-timers. The Minnesota Golden Gophers became college football's first time three-peat champions, winning titles from 1934 through '36 and led by a defense that never gave up more than 20 point in a game from 1933 to the middle of 1939. Texas Christian University (TCU) won that state's first national championship in 1938, with fellow Texans Texas A&M winning the next year to close out the decade. '
'Also introduced in the '30s were three major changes to the game: first, on the field, Clark Shaughnessy, the head coach at the University of Chicago, tinkered with the old T-formation offensive scheme. Instead of the center handing the ball off to the tailback, the center now handed the ball directly to the quarterback; this change would be a permanent one, paving the way for the modern passing game and still used in all aspects of football today. Second, the 1930s saw college football's first televised game, a contest on September 30, 1939 between Fordham University and Waynesburg College. Lastly, a new award was introduced in the 1930s. Presented by New York City's Downtown Athletic Club for the first time in 1935, the DAC trophy was renamed the Heisman trophy in 1936 after John Heisman, a football innovator who had died that year. The Heisman trophy is still awarded today to the nation's outstanding player. The award's first winner was Jay Berwanger of the University of Chicago in 1935.'
A Decade of Change
'Much like early basketball, it was the college game, and not the pros, that helped sustain the sport and its popularity. Still, the NFL charged on, though in the early '30s it dipped significantly. As the Depression hit the country, teams struggled to stay afloat, and the eight-team league in 1932 was (and is) the lowest membership in its history. Despite the low numbers, however, the 1932 season became a catalyst for change in the NFL: out of that season came two significant updates to the game.'
'The first was a series of rule changes designed to improve the offensive output in the NFL. In 1932, scoring had begun a serious problem in the league: in the 48 games played that season, there were 20 shutouts and 10 ties, four of them scoreless. In response, George Halas spearheaded three rules changes: first, the goalposts were moved from the back of the end zone to the front, increasing the number of field goals made. Second, the NFL instituted hash marks, which, if a play ended near the sideline, allowed the ball to be moved back towards the middle of the field. This rule change was permanent, lasting through the present. Third, a pass could now be thrown anywhere behind the line of scrimmage (prior to this rule change, a player had to be five yards behind the line to throw it forward). This was also a permanent change. The alterations to the rules had an immediate impact. The next season, in 58 games played, ties were reduced by five (from 10 to five) and there were only two scoreless draws. The number of shutouts did go up, from 20 to 23, but percentage of games that were shutouts went down, from 41.7% in 1932 to 39.7% in 1933. Additionally, the average score went up: in 1932, the average final score totaled just over 16 points, while in 1933, the average final score was just under 20 points.'
'The second rule change, which was just as important to the sport, was a championship postseason game. In '32, two teams, the Chicago Bears and the Portsmouth Spartans, ended the season tied atop the standings. In order to decide the champion, the teams played an extra game, with the Bears winning 9-0. Based off this concept, the league split into two divisions in the 1933 season, the Eastern and Western divisions. At the end of the season, the winners of each division would play each other in the newly-inaugurated NFL Championship game. The Chicago Bears were the NFL's first championship game winner, beating the New York Giants 23-21 at Wrigley Field in Chicago behind all-time great running back Bronko Nagurski. The 1933 season also saw the addition of two NFL franchises, the Philadelphia Eagles and the Pittsburgh Pirates. The Pirates would later change their name to the Steelers. A year later, the Portsmouth Spartans were purchased by a new owner, moved to Detroit and renamed the Lions. The modern NFL was taking shape.'
'In addition to rule changes and the addition of a post season, the 1930s were a time of transformation in equipment as well. The football itself changed in the '30s with a 1934 rule change that tapered the ball at the ends more and reduced the size around the middle. This new, sleeker ball made it much easier to handle, particularly for passers. Additionally, with the Depression, teams sought ways to save money on equipment, which led to the use of synthetic materials in uniforms, instead of the standard cloth. Lastly, helmets were made more protective in the '30s, with a hard leather version becoming popular (instead of the old soft leather). Riddell, a sporting goods company, even debuted a plastic helmet in 1939, though it would take years for that to catch on.'
'More innovation came in the form of statistics. 1932 was the first season the NFL recorded official statistics. Two years later, the NFL had its first 1,000-yard rusher (in a single season). Beattie Feathers of the Chicago Bears ran for 1,004 yards in 1934, though it would take another 13 years before the second 1,000-yard rusher came along. In 1936, the NFL's first 1,000-yard passer was Arnie Herber of the Packers, with 1,239 yards through the air. Both of these records have been dwarfed since - Eric Dickerson holds the record with 2,105 rushing yards in a season, while Dan Marino holds the passing record with 5,084 yards - but at the time, they represented a noteworthy step forward for the game.'
'Lastly, the NFL debuted a new facet of the game in the 1930s: the NFL Draft. Philadelphia Eagles owner Bert Bell floated the idea at the end of the 1934 season, and the other owners agreed, putting the concept into effect in 1936. The order of the draft was determined by reversing the standings of the previous season (with the worst team choosing first). The first ever NFL Draft pick was Jay Berwanger, the Heisman trophy winner out of Chicago, chosen by the Eagles. Berwanger, however, chose not to play professional football. The first draft pick ever to play in an NFL game was the second pick that year, Riley Smith of Alabama, who suited up for the Boston Redskins. A year later, Boston would move to Washington and select TCU quarterback Sammy Baugh with their first round pick, signing him to an $8,000 contract (worth $120,000 today), one of the richest contracts up to that time. Just two years later, Davey O'Brien, Baugh's TCU teammate, signed a deal worth $12,000 ($185,000) and a percentage of gate receipts with the Eagles. O'Brien's Eagles would also play in the NFL's first televised game on October 22, 1939 against the Brooklyn Dodgers (less than a month after college football's first televised game).'
The '40s Belong to the Dynasties
'The 1940s were arguably the last decade of college football ruled by only a few dynasties. Only five teams won titles in the '40s, including three back-to-back winners (Minnesota, Army and Notre Dame), the last time a decade had more than one back-to-back national champion. The Army teams that won in '44 and '45 were particularly bolstered by the war (while many other colleges saw their squads depleted by World War II). The Cadets went undefeated in their two national championship seasons, with two Heisman trophy winners on the roster. Though Minnesota, Army and Michigan could lay claim to having the best team of the decade, that title almost surely belongs to the Fighting Irish. Notre Dame won four championships in the 1940s, more than any other team would win in a single decade since. They had a player finish in the top 10 of Heisman voting nine times, with three winners (the most winners from a single team in a decade until USC players won three in the 2000s). The Irish also went undefeated in five of the seven seasons coached by Frank Leahy in the decade (Leahy came on board in '41, left for two years to join the Navy in '44 and '45, and returned in '46).'
'With the war on, few innovations were made to the game, with one notable exception: the platoon. Prior to the 1940s, players played both ways, that is, they would play both on offense and on defense. However, in the '40s, with their roster swelled by recruits, Army and head coach Red Blaik began using a platoon system in which certain players only played on offense or defense. While initially the subject of scorn by other teams, the system eventually caught on, with modern-day football using almost exclusively the platoon system. Now, two-way players are an extreme rarity; the most notable two-way player in recent history was Florida State Seminole and Dallas Cowboy star Deion Sanders, who played both receiver and defensive back.'
'Additionally, the 1940s saw the game's first 1,500-yard single-season rusher (Fred Wendt of Texas Mines in '48 with 1,570 yards) and its first 2,000-yard single-season passer (Nevada's Stan Heath, also in '48, with 2,005). While the NFL wouldn't see a 1,500-yard rusher until 1958 (Jim Brown of the Cleveland Browns with 1527), the NFL was actually ahead of the college game when it came to passing: the NFL's first 2,000-yard passer was Cecil Isbell of the Packers with 2,021 yards in 1942. In 1947, a year before Heath's 2,005 yards for Nevada, Sammy Baugh threw for 2,938 yards in the NFL. '
The 50's in College
'If Notre Dame was the team of the 1940s, Oklahoma was the team of the '50s. The Sooners, led by coach Bud Wilkinson, won three national championships in the decade, including back-to-back titles in '55 and '56. From 1953 to November of 1957, the Sooners never lost a game, winning 47 straight. That NCAA record for a major college program lasts to this day. (Ironically, the streak was bookended by losses to the Fighting Irish.)'
'During the 1950s, college football also instituted a few new wrinkles: a fifth referee was added in 1955, the back judge, making penalties more frequent, but also improving the safety of the game. In 1953, college football actually outlawed platooning by strictly controlling substitutions. Two-way football returned en masse until 1965, when the substitution rules were rescinded. In 1958, a scoring modification was also made, (the last the game would see in college until 1988) creating the two-point conversion (in which a team could, after a touchdown, run or pass the ball into the end zone for two points, adding that option to the existing one-point conversion for a kick through the goal posts). As a further effort to slightly increase scoring, the goal posts themselves were changed in the '50s. Back in 1927 , college football had moved the goal posts from the front of the end zone to the back as a way to reduce injury. This also increased the length of any field goal by 10 yards, reducing significantly the number of successful field goals. While the NFL responded by moving the posts back to the front of the end zone in '32, the college game waited until 1959 to make a change, not moving the goal posts, but widening them, making them 23'4'', up from 18'6''.'
'Added to the game's new rule changes that largely helped offenses was an innovation that would help change defenses in college football. Up to the 1950s, the standard defensive scheme had seven players on the line of scrimmage. Bud Wilkinson, Sooners coach, dropped two players off that line, putting them a little further back, debuting the 5-2 formation, altering the way teams played defense forever.'
The War Years
'Going into the 1940s, the NFL was the strongest it had ever been to that point. Stability had gradually increased; 1936 was the first year since the NFL began that there had been no franchise shifts. The league's popularity was slowly rising as well. America's entrance into World War II, however, stalled their momentum, as attendances greatly decreased during the war. The 1942 attendance figures were the lowest since 1936. Roster limits for each team dropped from 33 to 28; the free substitution rule was put in place (then eliminated in 1946, only to be put back in 1949 for good). The quality of play suffered as the draft (and volunteers) depleted the already reduced rosters. Franchise stability suffered; during the war, the Pittsburgh Steelers and Philadelphia Eagles had to combine teams in order to survive, becoming the Phil-Pitt Steeler-Eagles (known to fans as the Steagles) in the 1943 season. The Chicago Cardinals and Steelers did the same thing the next season, becoming Card-Pitt (known derisively as the Carpets). In 1945, the franchises in Brooklyn and Boston combined to become the Yanks. None of those combos lasted more than a season.'
'The first half of the 1940s was not without its significant moments, however. In 1940, the Chicago Bears met the Washington Redskins in the NFL Championship game. The Bears destroyed the 'Skins 73-0. It was (and still is) the most lopsided victory in the history of the NFL, and Washington had the bad luck for it also to be the first NFL game broadcast nationwide by network radio. The next year, just a week after the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor and the U.S. entered the war, the Chicago Bears and Green Bay Packers, finishing the regular season tied atop the Western Division standings, played pro football's first postseason divisional game. The Bears won 33-14, and went on to win another NFL Championship against the Giants. In 1943, Washington's Sammy Baugh accomplished a feat equaled only one other time in league history: Baugh led the NFL in an offensive category, a defensive category and a special teams category. Baugh led the league in '43 in passing, interceptions and punting. Three years later, Bill Dudley of the Steelers led the league in rushing, interceptions and punt return average. With the advent of platooning at the end of the decade, no player is likely to achieve this again.'
'It's been mentioned that the NFL, unlike most other facets of the game, actually surpassed college football in its passing game. This is due to several factors, including the maturing talents of its quarterbacks and rule changes, but one significant factor that came to the forefront in the 1940s was the role of the star receiver. Up to 1940, no receiver caught more than 41 passes in a season. In 1940, however, Don Looney of the Philadelphia Eagles caught 58. Two years later, in the 1942 season, Don Hutson of the Packers caught 74. Big-play receivers were slowly becoming more a part of the sport, helping take the passing game to new heights.'
The AAFC
'Going into 1946, three different leagues (all calling themselves the American Football League, or AFL) had challenged the NFL as rival leagues. The first AFL lasted only one season, 1926. The next two lasted two seasons each, '36-'37 and '40-'41. However, in 1946, there arose a new competitor, the All-America Football Conference (AAFC). Started by a group of investors from around the country who had been denied entrance into the NFL, the AAFC was made up of the Buffalo Bisons, the Brooklyn Dodgers (who left the NFL to join the new league), the Cleveland Browns, the Los Angeles Dons, the Miami Seahawks, the New York Yankees, the Chicago Rockets and the San Francisco 49ers. The presence of the Browns in Cleveland was due in large part to the migration of the NFL's Cleveland team west. After winning their first NFL championship title in 1945, the Cleveland Rams left the shores of Lake Erie for Los Angeles, becoming the first NFL franchise on the West Coast (or even west of the Mississippi). '
'The presence of the AAFC impacted the NFL like no other league had to that time. Though the NFL had spread to Los Angeles, the AAFC put pro football in cities it had never been before, helping create a more nationwide interest in the sport. With its early success, the AAFC gained credibility, increasing competition between the two leagues, which then drove up player salaries and attendances. However, the growing popularity of pro football attracted interest from all corners, including gamblers. The NFL's first betting scandal occurred in '46 when, prior to the NFL Championship game between the Bears and Giants, New York's Merle Hapes was offered $2,500 ($27,400 modern) to make sure the Giants lost by at least 10 points. Hapes informed Giants Frank Filchock. However, 12 hours before kickoff, the two players were brought in by the New York City police, who had discovered the plot. Hapes told the police he had refused the offer, but had nevertheless failed to inform the authorities. Hapes was suspended by football commissioner Bert Bell, while Filchock was allowed to play in the title game, then later suspended. The Bears won 24-14. Had the scheme gone through, it might have hurt the NFL's credibility severely (as a betting scandal hurt baseball years earlier), and with a rival league in place, the consequences for the league might have been dire.'
'As it was, the AAFC continued to pose a serious threat to the NFL, though it took the league four years to resolve the situation. In December 1949, NFL commissioner Bell announced a deal that would merge the two leagues. The NFL accepted three AAFC teams into the league: the Cleveland Browns (who had won all four AAFC championships), the Baltimore Colts (who had replaced Miami in '46) and the San Francisco 49ers. By the end of its run, the AAFC had poached more than 100 NFL players, and several AAFC players would go on to become NFL Hall-of-Famers (including six alone from the Browns). '
Popularity
'While the '40s were a decidedly down decade for the NFL, the 1950s were the exact opposite. With the merger in '49, the rest of the AAFC's players (those on teams who didn't join the NFL) were put into a dispersal draft. The result was a considerable increase in the quality of play within the NFL. Along with the free substitution rule (put back in place just prior to 1950), pro football was quite simply getting better. In addition, television was only helping its popularity grow. What television did do, however, was drive down attendance at the stadiums. A perfect example is Los Angeles: in 1949, the Rams' attendance was 205,109 people (even with the LA Dons of the AAFC competing with them in the same market). A year later, the Rams became the first pro football team to broadcast all of its team's games - both home and away - on television. Attendance dropped to 110,162. Fortunately for the success of the league, the NFL quickly learned its lesson: in '51, the Rams only televised road games, and attendance shot back up to over 234,000. In 1953, the courts upheld the league's right to black out home games on television, and in '56 Commissioner Bell instituted a rule only allowing broadcast of road games.'
'Statistically, the game was getting better and better as well. Records were set over and over during the 1950s (though the vast majority of those records have been eclipsed since). San Francisco running back Joe Perry rushed for over 1,000 yards in 1953, and while that wasn't notable, doing it again in 1954 was. Perry became the NFL's first back-to-back 1,000-yard rusher, though certainly not its last. Two notable records that haven't been beaten since: Norm Van Brocklin's 554-yard passing day for the Los Angeles Rams in 1953 and Dick (Night Train) Lane's 14 interceptions in the 1952 season (Lane's rookie year), also for the Rams. Three players have recorded 13 INTs in one season, including most recently Lester Hayes of the Oakland Raiders in 1980, while the closest anyone has come to surpassing Van Brocklin's number was the Houston Oilers' Warren Moon in 1996 with 527 yards.'
'One of the things that greatly helped the popularity of the sport through improvement of the play on the field was the addition of the Cleveland Browns of the AAFC. Led by Hall-of-Fame coach/owner Paul Brown, Cleveland appeared in seven of the eight NFL Championship games between their arrival in 1950 and 1957, winning three (including in the 1950 game). Their six straight appearances between 1950 and 1955 is an NFL record that stands to this day (with Super Bowl appearances replacing NFL Championship appearances). Ironically, the arrival in 1957 of one of the greatest NFLers of all-time largely coincided with a championship game drought that lasted until '64. Jim Brown, drafted in the first round of Syracuse, is widely considered one of the best running backs in NFL history. Brown, a Hall-of-Famer, was elected to the Pro Bowl every year of his career (the Pro Bowl being the NFL's All-Star game) and named NFL Most Valuable Player (MVP) three times, tied for the most in history until Peyton Manning won his fourth in 2009.'
'Additionally, one of the premier franchises in the league finally got back to respectability: the Green Bay Packers. Earl (Curly) Lambeau, their original co-owner and coach in 1919, had helmed the team all the way to his retirement in 1949 , a losing season. Since his retirement, through the '50s, the team had suffered badly, going 32-74-2, including a 1-10-1 record in 1958. In 1959, they hired a new head coach, an assistant from the New York Giants: Vince Lombardi. Lombardi immediately reversed the fortunes of the team, guiding them to a 7-5 record his first season. By the time Lombardi left the head coaching position of the Packers in 1968, he had amassed a 98-30-4 record, five NFL Championships and the first two Super Bowl titles.'
'While CBS first started broadcasting a few regular season games nationwide, it was the NFL Championship game in 1958, referred to in the NFL as "The Greatest Game Ever Played" that truly catapulted the NFL into sporting audience stardom. Played between the Baltimore Colts and New York Giants at Yankee Stadium (and broadcast nationwide by NBC), the game featured 12 Hall-of-Famers on the field, with another five on the sidelines or in the owner's box. Tied 17-17 at the end of regulation, it became the first NFL game to go into overtime and ended when Colts back Alan Ameche scored a touchdown. Professional football had never been as popular as it was after this game, and on the horizon was another challenger whose impact would change the league forever.'
The Times are a-Changin'
'The 1960s were a decade of transformation for the world and the country, and college football was not immune. As the sport got faster and rougher, the game was constantly looking for ways to improve safety. Soft leather helmets had given way to hard leather helmets, which had given way to plastic helmets (once a more durable, less breakable plastic was worked with). Though facemasks had been around since the 1930s, they had rarely been practical; without a hard shell to put them on, players had to jerry-rig them in (occasionally ridiculous) ways. However, with the advent of the plastic helmet, facemasks became more common. In the 1950s, they began with hard plastic facemasks, but in the 1960s, metallic facemasks became the standard (which they still are today), though the early metal facemasks only had a single bar going across, while today's helmets have multiple bars. The '60s also saw innovation in offensive scheme. Offensive formations had evolved over time in both the college and pro ranks; sometimes it would be the professional league that came up with a new formation, sometimes the college teams. In the 1960s, Emory Bellard, the offensive coordinator at the University of Texas, debuted a new formation he called the wishbone, named for the shape formed by the three running backs in the backfield. The wishbone was predicated on the number of options created by the scheme, and after Texas rolled off 30 straight wins beginning in 1968, the wishbone became the premier offensive formation in football. '
'Despite the college game's reliance on the run (the vast majority of teams did not focus on the passing game), the 1960s featured the first 3,000-yard passer in college history, Tulsa's Bill Anderson, who in 1965 threw for 3,464 yards. Though pro football had a 3,000-yard passer first (in 1960), no one in football, either college or the pros, had thrown for as many yards in a season as Anderson did in '65. That same year, Mike Garrett, a running back from USC, became the first Heisman trophy winner to lead the NCAA in rushing yards in the same season. Fellow Heisman winners O.J. Simpson (also of USC) in '68 and Steve Owens (of Oklahoma) in '69 would also accomplish that feat. However, perhaps the most notable Heisman winner of the decade was Ernie Davis of Syracuse. Following Jim Brown as the starting running back for the Orangemen was no easy task, but Davis excelled. Though his Heisman-winning stats don't stand out more than other players' in the decade, what makes Davis' win significant was the color of his skin. Ernie Davis became the first black Heisman trophy winner in 1961, setting the stage for Garrett, Simpson and many more who would come after him.'
'Even today, college football is often marked by significant teams in each decade; the '60s were no different. USC had two national champions (and those two Heisman trophy winners), while Texas won two titles as well. Missouri, led by head coach Dan Devine, was the only team in the decade never to lose more than three games in a season. However, the team of the decade is almost without a doubt the Alabama Crimson Tide. An old song said "The Stars Fell on Alabama"; though the song was about a meteor shower, it might well have been talking about the Tide in the '60s. Alabama had players elected as All-Americans 13 times in the decade, had players twice finish in the top-five in Heisman voting and launched the careers of running back Lee Roy Jordan (College Hall-of-Famer) and quarterbacks Ken Stabler (Super Bowl winner) and Joe Namath (NFL Hall-of-Famer). During the decade, they won three national championships under head coach Paul "Bear" Bryant. Bryant, considered one of the greatest head coaches in college football history, would compile a 323-85-17 record in his 25 years at Alabama, winning a total of six national championships. His 323 victories was a college record at the time of his retirement, though it would later be broken.'
Changes at the Pro Level
'Professional football had reached the big time. With the 1958 NFL Championship game cementing the league's place in the upper echelon of popular sports, the NFL surged forward into the 1960s, which would become arguably the most transformative decade in NFL history, before or since. The era of two-way players officially ended in the 1960s when Chuck Bednarik of the Philadelphia Eagles retired after winning the 1960 NFL Championship. The game wouldn't see another two-way starter until Deion Sanders in the '90s. The NFL season was lengthened to 14 games (up from 12) in '61, and in '63, the NFL opened its Hall of Fame in Canton, Ohio, with the inaugural class including names like Sammy Baugh, Bert Bell, Red Grange, George Halas, Curly Lambeau, Bronko Nagurski and Jim Thorpe. In 1961, 49ers coach Red Hickey introduced a new offensive formation, the shotgun. The shotgun was different from all formations before it because it had the quarterback start a few yards behind the center, instead of directly behind him (called under center). Though Hickey's 49ers did not have tremendous success, the shotgun became a permanent (and popular) fixture in the NFL. The '60s also featured the introduction of four new NFL franchises - the Dallas Cowboys, the Minnesota Vikings, the Atlanta Falcons and New Orleans Saints - and the migration of one franchise (the Chicago Cardinals) to St. Louis.'
'In 1961, after Congressional legislation legalized it, Commissioner Pete Rozelle (in only his second year on the job) struck a deal with CBS, a two-year contract worth $9.3 million ($66.7 million today). What made the deal significant (and what required federal intervention) was that Rozelle made the deal for the entire league, instead of individual teams working out their own TV deals. The NFL has followed Rozelle's model ever since (the only pro league in the U.S. who does so). Though the contract, at the time, was large, the NFL's TV deals have exploded ever since. The most recent deals (signed with four different networks) totaled $3.085 billion dollars per year. 1963 featured NFL commissioner Pete Rozelle named Sports Illustrated's Sportsman of the Year, the first non-athlete to be awarded the honor. The primary reason he won, however, was not a happy one. Earlier that year, Rozelle had announced (after a 10-month investigation) that Lions defensive tackle Alex Karras and Packers star running back Paul Hornung were suspended indefinitely for gambling on the sport (though they would be reinstated in 1964). It was the most significant and largest suspension in the sport in 17 years, and cast a cloud over the game. Rozelle was particularly praised because Hornung, known as "the Golden Boy," was one of the league's most popular figures, yet Rozelle suspended him anyway.'
'But the biggest change, one that would forever alter the face of pro football in America, happened not in a single moment, but throughout the 1960s: the AFL. '
A New Challenger the AFL
'In 1959, Lamar Hunt, a Texas oilman, asked the NFL is he could add a team in Dallas to the NFL. Both commissioner Bert Bell and expansive committee chair George Halas declined (with the irony being they would add the Dallas Cowboys in 1960). Hunt then decided to form his own league, the fourth (and by far most successful) incarnation of the American Football League. The new league was initially made up of Hunt's Dallas club and teams in Houston, Denver, Los Angeles, New York and Minneapolis. Trying to undermine the new league, NFL owners offered the AFL owners stakes in new NFL teams. Only Minneapolis took them up (leading to the creation of the Minnesota Vikings) and the AFL replaced them with a team from Oakland. Before the league officially began play in '60, two other franchises were added in Boston and Buffalo.'
'The AFL's initial survival hinged on their ability to outbid the NFL for many star players out of college. The first evidence of this was their signing of Billy Cannon, the 1959 Heisman winner from LSU. The Houston Oilers signed Cannon to a three-year, $100,000 contract (worth $724,000 today). The Los Angeles Rams (under then-general manager Rozelle) had already signed Cannon to a contract worth $50,000, but left it undated so Cannon could play in the Sugar Bowl, the final game of his college career. The Oilers swooped in (at the Sugar Bowl itself) and inked him. After the Rams took legal action, a judge ruled the Oilers contract valid, and the first shot of the war between the NFL and AFL had been fired. While the NFL was a year away from signing a deal with CBS for the entire league, the AFL signed a five-year contract with ABC worth $10 million ($72.4 million). ABC was thrilled with their decision, largely because the new AFL, by adding the two-point conversion (which the NFL still didn't have) and encouraging pass-happy play, was high-scoring and exciting.'
'While the AFL did not exactly flourish initially (their attendance figures, though solid, were still below those of the NFL), they managed to survive, with the only big change after their first being the relocation of the Los Angeles Chargers to San Diego (where they remain to this day) and the Dallas Texans moving to Kansas City and becoming the Chiefs (which they are to this day) after the league's third year. Many of the star players in the new league were castoffs from the NFL, minor players in that league who, under the AFL's guide, became impact players, with perhaps the best example being Len Dawson, a career backup in the NFL who led the Texans to the AFL title in '62, leading the league with 29 touchdowns.'
'As the league stayed afloat, they began to recruit better and better players and started to enjoy greater success. In 1964, the NFL signed a two-year deal with CBS worth $28.2 million ($195 million modern), about $1 million per team. Just one year later, the AFL resigned with ABC for another five-year deal, this time worth $36 million ($245 million), just under $1 million per team. Also in 1965, the New York Jets (and the AFL) received a huge boost when they signed Alabama QB Joe Namath, who had also been courted by the NFL's St. Louis Cardinals. The Jets signed the man who would come to be known as "Broadway Joe" to pro football's first $400,000 contract (worth $2.72 million today). Namath wasn't only a talented quarterback, he became one of the most popular football players in the country, and playing in the media capital of the world only helped. The AFL had its biggest star, and he outshone even the NFL's biggest names.'
'That's not to say, however, that the NFL didn't have some outstanding players as well. In 1965 , while Namath began his career in New York, the Chicago Bears featured two rookies who would end up being considered two of the greatest at their positions, one on offense and one on defense. The offensive player, running back Gale Sayers, set an NFL record for most touchdowns by a rookie in a season with 22 (which is still the record today), while also setting a record for most touchdowns in a single game with 6 against the 49ers (also a record that lasts to this day). On the other side of the ball, Dick Butkus, a linebacker out of Illinois, became the most fearsome defender in the game, delivering crunching hits and intercepting five passes in his rookie year. Both would go on to the Hall of Fame.'
'Another important name to come out of the AFL wasn't that of a player but a coach, Sid Gillman of the Chargers. Gillman's San Diego teams were some of the most offensively explosive in football thanks in large part to his wide-open passing game, which today is the standard of pro football. Gillman's impact was made possible by the spread of his assistants: Al Davis took the scheme to the Oakland Raiders, Chuck Noll took it to Pittsburgh, Jack Faulkner took it to Denver and Joe Gibbs to Washington. '
The Merger AFL and NFL
'In 1966, after six years of competition, the AFL and NFL agreed to a truce, announcing an agreement that would join the two leagues. The merger was laid out over time: the nine AFL teams at the time (the Miami Dolphins had been added just prior to the merger) were to pay the NFL $18 million over 20 years to join the league (equal to $119 million today), the two leagues would play separately and then play a championship game until merging entirely in 1970, a common draft would be held beginning in '67 and two franchises, one in each league, would be added by 1968. The two franchises added were the New Orleans Saints in the NFL and the Cincinnati Bengals in the AFL. The first two championship games, called Super Bowls, went to the NFL, and more specifically to the Green Bay Packers, who defeated the Kansas City Chiefs 35-10 in Super Bowl I and the Oakland Raiders 33-14 in Super Bowl II. '
'In 1969, as the two leagues prepared to finally join, change continued to sweep the league. Vince Lombardi left the Packers to coach the Washington Redskins; John Madden took over as coach of the Raiders, later winning a Super Bowl and spawning a video game empire; Chuck Noll took over the head coaching position in Pittsburgh, and would go on to win four Super Bowls with the Steelers; Roger Staubach returned to football following a tour in the Navy, joining the Dallas Cowboys, and would later win two Super Bowls and be elected to the Hall of Fame; and the NFL and AFL owners hammered out a realignment plan, creating two 13-team conferences, the National Football Conference (NFC) and the American Football Conference (AFC), with three NFL teams (the Steelers, Colts and Browns) joining the 10 AFL teams in the AFC and the remainder of the NFL in the NFC. Those conferences were then split into three divisions each: the Eastern, Central and Western.'
'Additionally, 1969 saw the AFL finally gain some respect against their NFL counterparts in perhaps the biggest game in pro football up to that time. Heading into '69, the NFL had not only won the first two, but dominated them, casting doubt on the viability of the AFL teams as quality competition. Super Bowl III featured a matchup of the Baltimore Colts, led by star QB Johnny Unitas (a future Hall-of-Famer) and the New York Jets, led by Joe Namath. The Colts were the heavy favorites, but three days before the game, Namath predicted the Jets would win, guaranteeing victory. Most dismissed Namath, but he proved them all wrong as the Jets beat the Colts 16-7, with Namath winning the game's MVP award. A year later, head coach Hank Stram and the Kansas City Chiefs upset the Minnesota Vikings in Super Bowl IV, evening the AFL-NFL series at two games apiece. The following Super Bowl was played when the two leagues had officially merged.'
Running, Kicking and the West
'College football in the 1970's belonged to the running backs. Of the 10 Heisman winners in the decade, eight were running backs. Only the '50s could match that; every other decade, both before and since, featured fewer Heisman-winning RBs. Oklahoma's 1971 squad averaged 472.4 rushing yards per game, a record that stands to this day. That same year, Ed Marinaro, the running back for Cornell University, averaged 209 yards per game, the first college player to average over 200 yards rushing in a season. Archie Griffin, Ohio State's rusher, became the first (and, as of today, the only) multiple Heisman winner, taking home the trophy in back-to-back years, '74 and '75. Griffin also rushed for over 100 yards in 31 straight games between '73 and '75, the most in NCAA Division I-A history.'
'In regards to that Division I-A designation, the '70s were the first time Division I (and Division I-A) first surfaced. In 1973, the NCAA organized its schools into divisions based on attendance and scholarships. The three divisions were, simply, Division I, Division II and Division III, with Division I housing the major sports programs and Division III the most minor. Five years later, the sport of football was reclassified, splitting Division I into two entities, Division I-A and Division I-AA, and adding them to Divisions II and III. Those groups would go unchanged (as far as naming) until 2006, when Division I-A and I-AA were renamed the Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) and the Football Championship Subdivision (FCS), respectively.'
'Running backs were not alone in setting records in the '70s, however; kickers were booting the ball longer than ever before. In a single game in 1976, Texas A&M kicker Tony Franklin converted field goals of 64 and 65 yards in length, setting the college record for longest kick�or so he thought. In between his 64- and 65-yarder, Ove Johansson of Abilene Christian kicked a 69-yard field goal, the longest in college football history. Franklin's was still, at the time, an NCAA record (Abilene Christian played in the NAIA, a small college sports conference). However, Franklin's record would be bested three times in the next two years by Russell Erxleben of Texas, Steve Little of Arkansas and Joe Williams of Wichita State, all of whom kicked 67-yarders.'
'The '70s also belonged to football in the West. Since the '50s, football dominance had begun shifting west of the Mississippi, and in the '70s, eight of the 15 teams named national champs were from teams in the west, the highest total in college football history. Oklahoma won two national titles and had a winning percentage of .887, the best for any program in the '70s. Nebraska, who won titles in '70 and '71, changed coaches in 1973, and still went on to win at least nine games the rest of the decade. USC, winner of three titles, spent 21 weeks at number one in the polls in the '70s. '
'It's important to note that the '70s was the decade with the most teams named national champions. Since Division I-A did not have a playoff structure or national championship game, the national champion was determined by polls (in the '70s, four polls: the Associated Press (AP), the United Press International (UPI), the Football Writers Association of America (FWAA) and the National Football Foundation (NFF)). In six of the ten years between '70 and '79, each of the polls had the same team ranked number one at the end of the season. In the other four years, different polls ranked different teams number one, giving us more than one national champion. For example, in 1970, Nebraska, Texas and Ohio State were all "national champs." Over time, this would slowly be ironed out (though the controversy has yet to die out).'
The Dynastic '70s
'While college football's history is defined by its dynasties, pro football rarely had the same quality. Though there were stretches where certain teams dominated (the Bears, the Packers, the Browns), overall parity helped create professional football's popularity. The '70s, however, marked a period of dominance in each division. The Steelers, Dolphins, Raiders, Vikings, Cowboys and Rams each controlled their divisions (and, in many ways, the league) in the '70s. The Dolphins won five of their 10 division titles in the decade, the worst of any of the six: four of the others won six or seven division titles, while the Vikings won eight. Dallas had the highest winning percentage in the decade, .729. Of the 20 participants in the Super Bowls for the 1970-79 seasons (which includes the Super Bowl played in January of 1980), those six teams made up 17 of them, winning nine of the 10. The Miami Dolphins became the first team to advance to three consecutive Super Bowls, winning the title in '73 and '74. The '73 championship was the culmination of an undefeated 1972 season, making them the only team (to this day) to go undefeated in the regular season and win the Super Bowl. The Pittsburgh Steelers, though they had the lowest winning percentage of the six teams, won four Super Bowls in the '70s, the most by any team in a single decade to that point. The Cowboys, meanwhile, were led by Tom Landry, who spent 29 years as head coach in Dallas, the second most years with a single club in history (behind George Halas' 40 years with the Bears). Under Landry, the Cowboys won 270 games (Landry only trails Halas and Don Shula in coaching wins) and played in five Super Bowls, winning two. Landry also led Dallas to 20 straight winning seasons between '66 and '86. '
'Players were also becoming more statistically prolific: the 1972 season had the most running backs rush for 1,000 yards ever (10), including Miami Dolphins teammates Larry Csonka and Mercury Morris, who were the first teammates ever to accomplish the feat. That same year, Bobby Douglass, quarterback for the Chicago Bears, rushed for 995 yards, the most ever by a quarterback (a record that would stand for another 34 years). In 1973, John Brockington of the Packers became the first running back ever to post 1,000-yard seasons in his first three years, but was overshadowed by the performance that year of O.J. Simpson. The Heisman winner ran for 2,003 yards, the first RB to ever top 2,000 in NFL history. George Blanda retired in '75 after setting the record for games played with 340 (spanning 26 years).'
'The NFL added two new teams and a few other firsts in the 1970s. The Tampa Bay Buccaneers and Seattle Seahawks joined the AFC and NFC, respectively, in 1976, only to switch conferences a year later. The league also had its first post-merger challenger, the World Football League (who folded after only a year), and its first serious labor dispute. The NFL Players Association (NFLPA), formed in 1956, organized a 42-day strike during training camp. However, as defectors began to report back to their teams, the strike broke up just before the season began, yielding nothing. The 1976 Super Bowl, played in the Louisiana Superdome, was the first to be played indoors.'
'The NFL also instituted a number of changes, particularly to the rules, in the '70s, mostly in an effort to increase scoring. First, the goal posts were finally returned to the back of the end zone, bringing the NFL in line with the college game. Sudden death overtime was added to the end of every game, both regular and postseason, though in the regular season, if the teams were still tied after one 15-minute OT period, they would end the game, having it recorded as a tie. The number of ties went down from seven to one the first year the rule was put in place. Through the decade, contact by defensive players on receivers was more and more limited, culminating with the five-yard bump rule, in which significant contact with the wide receiver was limited to a zone within five yards of the line of scrimmage (and only before the pass was thrown). Additionally, a 1978 rule made pass blocking far easier for the offensive linemen, causing some to refer to it as "legalized holding." Finally, in 1978, the NFL extended its regular season to 16 games (the current length).'
Run and Gun
'While the NFL had its first 2,000-yard rusher in 1973, it would not have another player reach that milestone for 11 years, and only five players have ever done it in NFL history. The college game in the '80s, however, was the beginning of a slew of 2,000 rushers. Since the first 2,000-yard rusher, Marcus Allen in 1981 (who also won the Heisman that year), 14 other players had reached the 2,000-yard plateau in a single season. The highest total ever was also achieved in the 1980's , by Barry Sanders, who in 1988, ran for an astonishing 2,628 yards. Sanders is also the only back ever to rush for 2,000 yards in both college and the pros, piling up 2,053 for the Lions in '97, the second most in NFL history. Ironically, only one 2,000-yard rusher ever won either a national title or a Super Bowl - the Denver Broncos' Terrell Davis, who ran for 2,008 yards in 1998 while the Broncos won their second Super Bowl. And although running back Herschel Walker never ran for over 2,000 yards, he did set 11 NCAA records in his only 3 years playing for Georgia.'
'The 1980s also saw the Miami Hurricanes rise to the forefront of college football, winning three national championships (only Penn State won more than one, winning in '82 and '86). Under head coach Howard Schnellenberger (for their first title) and the more-celebrated Jimmy Johnson for their second and third, the 'Canes were led by their passing attack, featuring quarterbacks Jim Kelly, Bernie Kosar and Vinnie Testaverde (who won the '86 Heisman). Ironically, perhaps their most famous game of the decade was a loss: in the final game of the 1984 season, the Hurricanes and the Boston College Eagles faced each other in Miami, led by quarterbacks Kosar and Doug Flutie, respectively. Flutie and Kosar were believed, at the time, to be the top two players competing for the Heisman trophy, adding further drama to the game. After Miami took a four-point lead with just 28 seconds to go, Boston College moved the ball to the 48-yard line. On the last play of the game, Flutie heaved the ball towards the end zone, and it fell, past a huddle of Miami and BC players, into the arms of the Eagles' Gerard Phelan. The Hail Mary pass that would come to be known by many as "Hail Flutie" would seal Flutie's 1984 Heisman victory. (YouTube link: ' http://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=q3ykWbu2Gl0' ')'
California, Here I Come
'While the 1970s were marked by dynastic football teams, five teams won Super Bowls. In the 1980s, that perception of complete domination by only a handful of teams actually went down somewhat; yet, only four teams won Super Bowls in the '81 to '90 Super Bowls. In particular the state of California had a great year: only four Super Bowls went to teams outside the Golden State. The Raiders, building on the successful '70s in which they won their first Super Bowl, won two more, one while still in Oakland (in '81) and the other (in '84) after moving to Los Angeles. But the team of the decade was no doubt the San Francisco 49ers, led by head coach (and offensive guru) Bill Walsh. The previous decade, the Steelers became the first team to win four Super Bowls in a ten-year span. The 49ers matched that, winning in '82, '85, '89 and '90. However, that's not to say there weren't some good football teams elsewhere in the country: The Denver Broncos, led by new head coach Dan Reeves and quarterback John Elway, went to three of four Super Bowls to close out the decade; however, they lost all of them (to three different teams). One of the teams they lost to, the Washington Redskins, also went to three Super Bowls in the '80s; the Redskins, however, fared far better, winning titles in '83 and '88.'
'The '80s were also the decade of the quarterback. Of the 10 NFL MVP winners in the decade, seven were QBs (the '80s also had the only kicker ever to be named MVP, the Redskins' Mark Moseley). Prior to the 1980s, there had been only two 4,000-yard passers (the first being Joe Namath in 1967, the second Dan Fouts for the Chargers in 1979). In the 1980s, there were 14. The first round of the 1983 NFL Draft featured six QBs; between them, they have three Hall-of-Famers, two MVP awards, 11 Super Bowl appearances (though only two wins) and 24 Pro Bowl appearances. One of those QBs, Dan Marino, retired holding every major record for a quarterback, including career passing yards and touchdowns. Marino's 1984 season is still the record for most yards in a season, 5,084, and only in recent years has the '84 total of 48 touchdowns been eclipsed. John Elway, taken first overall in the '83 draft, made headlines right away by refusing to play for the Colts, the team that drafted him. He forced the Colts into a trade, moving him to Denver where he would go on to play in five Super Bowls, collecting two titles. The most celebrated quarterback of the '80s, though, was Joe Montana. Montana didn't set a lot of records - his only notable statistic was his passer rating, a complicated formula based on completions, yards, touchdowns and interceptions. The best QB rating possible for a game is 158.3. Montana set the record for season passer rating in '89 with a 112.4 rating, though that record would be broken just five years later by his backup. Montana, however, won a lot of games, including the 49ers four Super Bowl titles in the '80s (and collecting the Super Bowl MVP trophy in three of those games.'
'Still, while the quarterbacks were lauded in the '80s, running backs were not to be forgotten. 1984 featured Eric Dickerson setting the record for most rushing yards in a single season (with 2,105). And in 1987, Chicago Bears running back Walter Payton retired after setting or tying six NFL records, including career rushing yards, career rushing attempts, single-game rushing yards and most seasons with 1,000-yards or more. Payton also played for the '85 Bears, considered by many to be one of the greatest teams of all time. The Bears collected a 15-1 regular season record and went on to defeat the New England Patriots 46-10 in the Super Bowl, the most lopsided Super Bowl in history, behind a historically stifling defense; the Bears only gave up 10 points in their three playoff games (and those were to the Patriots in the Super Bowl), shutting out the Giants and Rams. The Bears defense, coached by coordinator Buddy Ryan, featured a new scheme, the 46 defense, in which pressure to the quarterback could be applied from anywhere, at any given time. Their 72 sacks that year are the most by any team in history.'
'The NFL had, by now, replaced Baseball as America's most popular sport. Over 17 million people poured through the gates of NFL stadiums in 1986, an NFL record, and the league signed a contract with ESPN that year, putting them on four different television networks. But the largesse of the league led to discontent among its players, and in 1987, they went on strike. This strike, however, had a much larger impact on the league than the previous strike; this strike would cause football games to be cancelled. The Players Association called the strike just prior to Week 3 of the NFL's '87 season; the strike would last seven weeks. For three weeks, the owners used replacement players (and some NFL veterans who crossed the picket lines). Ultimately, the players - who went on strike primarily to protest the league's lack of free agency - backed down, returning to work without gaining much ground.'
'Immediately after ending the strike, however, the NFLPA filed an antitrust suit in court. Though they won the initial court battle, they were denied on appeal, told by the appeals court that their status as a union prevented them from winning an antitrust suit. Therefore, in 1989, the NFLPA disbanded, then immediately reformed itself as a professional association, instead of a union. The resulting change allowed them to win in court, which in turn pressed the league into agreeing to a settlement in 1993. The settlement established free agency and a salary cap, both of which continue to exist in the NFL today. The NFLPA, following the settlement, recertified as a union. The negotiations that took place were led, on the league's side, by former NFL general counsel and new commissioner, Paul Tagliabue. In 1989, Pete Rozelle, after thirty years of leading the league, announced his retirement. Tagliabue was voted in by the owners, and would lead the league into the next decade�and the next millennium.'
The '90s: College Edition
'The game of college football evolved over time from the premier football in America to a proving ground for the pros. While the vast majority of college football players never played a snap of professional ball, the game's top stars were expected, more than ever, to make the leap to the NFL. Those things don't always work out well, however, and unfortunately, the brilliant college careers of many players are forgotten, while their infamous pro careers remained mired in people's memories. Three perfect examples from the '90s are Rashaan Salaam, Danny Wuerffel and Cade McNown. Salaam, the running back at Colorado, led the nation in average rushing yards per game in 1994 on his way to winning the Heisman Trophy. Drafted by the Chicago Bears the following year, Salaam was a bust, ending his pro career with only 1,684 yards rushing (almost 400 fewer yards than his Heisman trophy-winning season), 13 rushing touchdowns and 14 fumbles. Danny Wuerffel, Heisman winner for the national champion Florida Gators in 1996, spent six unremarkable years in the NFL, totaling 2,123 yards passing (more than 1,500 less than his Heisman season). Cade McNown, the nation's leading passer in 1997, was part of a vaunted 1999 NFL Draft Class, taken in the first round by the Chicago Bears. McNown lasted only four seasons in the NFL playing in only two, compiling 3,111 yards (more than 7,000 less than his career totals at UCLA).'
'However, there are plenty of examples of college stars going on to great success in the NFL as well, including notable Heisman trophy winner Charles Woodson. Woodson, who captured the '97 award playing for Michigan, became the first (and so far, only) defensive player to win the trophy. Woodson, who compiled 18 career interceptions in his three-year career as a defensive back for the Wolverines, went on to play more than 10 years in an ongoing NFL career in which he has 45 INTs (through the 2009 season). '
'The teams of the decade were, if one had to choose, Nebraska and Florida State. The Cornhuskers, still led by Tom Osborne, put together a mid-90s run of three national championships in four years while compiling a winning percentage of .868 in the entire decade. Meanwhile, the Bobby Bowden-led Seminoles won two national championships in the 1990s, losing only 13 of the 123 games played in the decade, and achieving a number one ranking in the AP poll 56 times.'
The BCS
'For any modern college football fan, the BCS is one of the most famous (and infamous) acronyms in the game. The history of the Bowl Championship Series began in the '90s, when former Southeastern Conference (SEC) commissioner Roy Kramer sought to develop a system that would award a single national champion, eliminating the multiple winners that had plagued college football for decades. To do so, he decided to use bowl games, postseason games that had been played since 1902 (with the Rose Bowl) and had grown in popularity over the years, particularly post-WWII. While it started with just one, as of 2010 there are more than 30 bowl games. The BCS began with the Bowl Coalition, a group of bowl games and conferences, in 1992. The goal of the Coalition was to match up the highest ranked teams at the end of the year while staying true to the tradition of the bowls - some bowls always matched certain conferences with certain conferences, like in the Rose Bowl, which had always featured the top Big Ten team against the top Pac-10 team. The Bowl Coalition, however, failed to produce a unanimous national champion. The Coalition then became the Bowl Alliance, consisting of only three bowl games: the Orange Bowl, the Sugar Bowl and the Fiesta Bowl. On a rotation, one bowl game a year would feature the top two AP ranked teams in the country (unless one of those two teams played for the Big Ten or Pac-10, as the Rose Bowl still held the rights to those teams). After the '97 Michigan Wolverines were denied a unanimous national championship, the two conferences and the Rose Bowl joined the Alliance, forming the Bowl Championship Series. The first BCS Champions were the 1998 Tennessee Volunteers, who beat Florida State in the Fiesta Bowl.'
The '90s: Pro Edition
'In 1989, Jerry Jones, a billionaire businessman, bought the Dallas Cowboys and their stadium. Within months, Jones had fired both Tom Landry and general manger Tex Schramm. The Cowboys, while a dominant force for years, had hit a rough patch, posting losing season from '86 to '90. Jones decided to clean house and hire Jimmy Johnson away from Miami to lead the new Cowboys. Johnson coached the Cowboys from 1989 to 1993, leading the 'Boys to back-to-back Super Bowl victories in '92 and '93. However, Johnson left the Cowboys when he and notoriously-involved owner Jones couldn't get along. Jones bought out Johnson's contract and hired Barry Switzer, another successful college coach, to helm the team. Switzer would go on to win the '96 Super Bowl. What helped both Johnson and Switzer achieve success in the '90s with the Cowboys was the presence of star QB Troy Aikman and star running back Emmitt Smith. Both players ended up in the Hall-of-Fame, and Smith would end his career holding the record for most career rushing yards (besting Walter Payton).'
'That string of three Cowboy Super Bowl victories was interrupted by the 49ers win in 1995. What made that victory notable was that Joe Montana, star QB and leader of the San Fran teams that had won four Super Bowls in the '80s, had been traded in 1993 after missing most of '91 and '92 with injuries. His backup, Steve Young, would lead them to the '95 Super Bowl title, and end up a Hall-of-Famer himself. Another Hall-of-Fame QB, John Elway, won his only two Super Bowls in the final two years of his career as the Broncos won in '98 and '99, with Elway retiring just after being named Super Bowl MVP.'
'The '90s were also a record-breaking time for receivers. Seattle's Steve Largent had retired in 1989 holding three NFL records: catches, yards and touchdowns. In 1992 , Art Monk, with the Washington Redskins, surpassed Largent's catch total with 847. That same year, James Lofton of the Buffalo Bills reached 13,821 yards and Jerry Rice caught his 100th TD pass. It was Rice, however, who would end up topping them all. When he finally retired in 2004, Rice held the records for touchdowns (197), yards (an astonishing 22,895) and catches (1,549). Rice was inducted into the Hall-of-Fame in 2010, considered by most to be the greatest receiver of all time.'
'The NFL also opened its doors to two new teams in the 1990s, welcoming expansion franchises in Jacksonville and Carolina in 1995. Both teams would enjoy some success almost right away. In their first year, the Carolina Panthers posted a 7-9 record, the best ever for an expansion franchise. The following year, they reached the NFC Championship game, falling to eventual Super Bowl champs Green Bay. The Jaguars reached the AFC Championship game in both 1998 and 1999, losing to Super Bowl winner-Denver and the Tennessee Titans.'
The New Millennium in College Football
'While the BCS was enjoying its success crowning unanimous national champions, there was still controversy, specifically regarding the selections made as to who would play in the national championship game at all. The BCS used a formula composed of various polls and strength of schedule. The controversy culminated in 2003, when LSU beat Oklahoma in the Sugar Bowl to win the BCS National Championship. Many believed USC should have played in the national championship game, and the AP awarded their final number one ranking of the season (and thus, their national championship) to Southern Cal. The BCS responded by tweaking their system, and in 2006, debuted the BCS Championship Game, a separate game played at a rotating site at the end of the bowl season. Though there is still controversy surrounding the choices of the BCS poll (particularly regarding their snubbing of small-conference schools like, notably, Boise State in recent years), there has since been only one national champion named at the end of the season.'
'There are arguably three teams of the decade in the '00s. USC won two national titles and featured three Heisman trophy winners, including Matt Leinart in '04 and Reggie Bush in '05, the first pair of teammates to win back-to-back awards since Larry Kelley and Clint Frank did it for Yale in the '30s. LSU won two championships as well, though they failed to produce a Heisman trophy winner. Finally, Florida also captured two BCS championships behind star quarterback Tim Tebow, who, in 2007, became the first sophomore to win the Heisman trophy. He was followed the next two seasons by a pair of sophomores, Oklahoma's Sam Bradford and Alabama's Mark Ingram.'
'USC, however, has come under recent fire. In 2010, the program was put on probation by the NCAA after it was discovered Reggie Bush and his family received money from potential sports agents/marketers while he was playing for the Trojans. The NCAA vacated 14 wins from the program, and may take away their BCS Championship. The school's copy of Bush's Heisman (both the school and the player get a Heisman trophy) was returned. The school is also banned for two years from postseason play, and its scholarships are reduced by 30 for those two years (though, at the time of this writing, USC is appealing those penalties).'
The NFL's New Millennium
'The NFL, in the last ten years, has grown larger than George Halas or Jim Thorpe or Bert Bell ever dreamed. In the most recent Super Bowl, the TV ratings topped the season-finale of MASH, which had held the record for most watched program for over 35 years. The game was watched by an average of 106.5 million people, the biggest night of television the country has ever seen. The game also featured another first: the first Super Bowl appearance (and victory) for the New Orleans Saints. While the Saints closed out the decade on top, however, the New England Patriots spent most of the decade in that position. Beginning in 2001, when the Pats upset the hugely-favored St. Louis Rams, the Patriots played in a total of four Super Bowls, winning three. They went undefeated in the 2007 regular season, besting the Miami Dolphins record of 14-0 in '72 with a 16-0 record, though, ironically, they lost the Super Bowl that year, ending with an 18-1 record.'
'Still, despite dominance by the Patriots, the 2000s were marked by parity. In every decade since the Super Bowl began, the number of different teams who played in it has gone up. In the '70s, nine different teams played in the Super Bowl; in the '80s it was 10. The '90s featured 13 different teams and the '00s had 14. Only the Patriots won more than one title in the decade, the first time in history only one team won multiple Super Bowls in a decade (other than the '60s, which only had four Super Bowls). '
'The NFL also expanded again in the 2000s, which included realignment. With the addition of the Houston Texans in 2002, the league totaled 32 teams. With the even number, the NFL went from three divisions in each conference to four, with four teams in each division (and the Seahawks moving from the AFC to the NFC). The new divisions are the North, South, East and West.'
'Yet, apart from their massive popularity within the U.S., football is one sport that has largely failed to catch on anywhere else in the world. Baseball has Latin America and Japan, hockey has Europe and basketball has Europe and South America. But football hasn't spread, despite making efforts (including a short-lived NFL Europe league and playing regular season games in both Mexico City and London.'
Where We Are
'College football is still hugely popular in the United States; in the minds of many, it surpasses even professional baseball. However, criticism still rains down on the sport in two areas: the BCS and the amateur status of its athletes. The BCS is still considered a flawed system, with many calling for a playoff format (like the other NCAA Divisions). However, the BCS shows no sign of changing soon. The other arena in which college football has drawn criticism is the fact that the players do not profit from the sport. College football brings in hundreds of millions of dollars in revenue; its top coaches are paid as good or better than their professional counterparts. Yet athletes don't see a dime. Many believe their compensation comes from scholarships; others don't think that's enough. It's a debate that is sure to rage in the coming years.'
'In the NFL, despite its massive popularity, there is a dark cloud on the horizon: labor unrest. The NFL's current collective bargaining agreement expires after the 2010 season, and predictions say a lockout is a real possibility. The other problem the league faces is skyrocketing ticket prices. In 2010's , 18 of the 32 teams raised ticket prices, with the league average at now over $75. Compare that figure to just 20 years ago, when, in 1991, the average NFL ticket cost just $25. As even its middle-class fans are being priced out, the NFL will have to answer the question of whether it can continue to raise its prices in the coming years.'
'Sports llustrated: The College Football Book (ISBN: 9781603200339)'
'Sports Illustrated: The Football Book (ISBN: 981932994742)'
'75 Season: The Complete Story of the National Football League (ISBN: 981570360561)'
'NFL.com History 'http://www.nfl.com/history
'Pro Football Hall of Fame 'http://www.profootballhof.com/
'College football history by team http://www.collegefootballhistory.com/
'Rutgers History: First game http://www.scarletknights.com/
'NCAA history http://www.ncaapublications.com/productdownloads/AB06.pdf
'College Football history http://homepages.cae.wisc.edu/~dwilson/rfsc/history/Maj1A.txt
'Rose Bowl history http://www.tournamentofroses.com/history/gamehistory.asp
| one thousand nine hundred and twenty four |
What is the name of the famous ship which sank in 1545 and was raised in 1982 | THE RULES OF SOCCER FOOTBALL
FOOTBALL - RULES OF THE SPORT
The Laws of the Game (also known as the Laws of Football) are the rules governing a game of association football (soccer).
Current Laws of the Game
The current Laws of the Game consists of 17 individual laws:
Law 1: The Field of Play
Law 2: The Ball
Law 3: The Number of Players
Law 4: The Players' Equipment
Law 5: The Referee
Law 6: The Assistant Referees
Law 7: The Duration of the Match
Law 8: The Start and Restart of Play
Law 9: The Ball In and Out of Play
Law 10: The Method of Scoring
Law 11: Offside
Law 12: Fouls and Misconduct
Law 13: Free Kicks
Law 14: The Penalty Kick
Law 15: The Throw-In
Law 16: The Goal Kick
Law 17: The Corner Kick
History and development
The Laws were first drawn up by Ebenezer Cobb Morley prior to being refined at a meeting of the Football Association (FA) on 8 December 1863. Today the Laws of the Game are determined by the International Football Association Board. The board was established on 6 December 1882 when representatives from the Scottish Football Association (SFA), the Football Association of Wales (FAW) and the Irish Football Association (IFA) (now the governing body in Northern Ireland and not to be confused with the Football Association of Ireland (FAI) the governing body in the Republic of Ireland) were invited to attend a meeting in Manchester by the FA; previously games between teams from different countries had to agree to which countries' rules were used before playing. When the international football body FIFA was founded in Paris in 1904 it immediately declared that it would adhere to the rules laid down by the IFAB. The growing popularity of the international game led to the admittance of FIFA representatives to the IFAB in 1913. Today the board is made up of four representatives from FIFA and one representative from each of the British associations.
The original Laws of the Game were established by the FA in December of 1863 and are shown below:
1. The maximum length of the ground shall be 200 yds. and the maximum breadth shall be 100 yards. The length and breadth shall be marked off with flags. The goals shall be defined by two upright posts 8 yds. apart, without any tape or bar across them.
2. The winner of the toss shall have choice of goals. The game shall be commenced by a place-kick from the centre of the ground by the side losing the toss. The other side shall not approach within 10 yds. of the ball until it is kicked off.
3. After a goal is won, the losing side shall kick off, and the goals shall be changed.
4. A goal shall be won when the ball passes between the goal-posts or over the space between the goal-posts (at whatever height), not being thrown, knocked on, or carried.
5. When the ball is in touch, the first player who touches it shall throw it from the point on the boundary line where it left the ground in a direction at right angles with the boundary line, and it shall not be in play until it has touched the ground.
6. When a player has kicked the ball any one of the same side who is nearer to the opponent's goal line is out of play and may not touch the ball himself, nor in any way whatever prevent any other player from doing so until the ball has been played, but no player is out of play when the ball is kicked from behind the goal line.
7. In case the ball goes behind the goal line, if a player on the side to whom the goal belongs first touches the ball, one of his side shall be entitled to a free kick from the goal line at the point opposite the place where the ball shall be touched. If a player of the opposite side first touches the ball, one of his side shall be entitled to a free kick (but at the goal only) from a point 15 yds. from the goal line opposite the place where the ball is touched; the opposing side shall stand behind their goal line until he has had his kick.
8. If a player makes a fair catch, he shall be entitled to a free kick, provided he claims it by making a mark with his heel at once; and in order to take such a kick he may go back as far as he pleases, and no player on the opposite side shall advance beyond his mark until he has kicked.
9. No player shall carry the ball.
10. Neither tripping nor hacking shall be allowed and no player shall use his hands to hold or push an adversary.
11. A player shall not throw the ball or pass it to another.
12. No player shall be allowed to take the ball from the ground with his hands while it is in play under any pretence whatever.
13. A player shall be allowed to throw the ball or pass it to another if he made a fair catch or catches the ball on the first bounce.
14. No player shall be allowed to wear projecting nails, iron plates, or gutta-percha1 on the soles or heels of his boots.
Gutta-percha is an inelastic natural latex, produced from the resin of the Isonandra Gutta tree of Malaya. It was used for many purposes (e.g. the core of golf balls; the insulation of telegraph cables) before the discovery of superior synthetic materials.
A football field (or pitch) is the playing surface for a game of association football (soccer). Its dimensions and markings are defined by the Law 1 of the Laws of the Game.
All line markings on the pitch form part of the area which they define. For example, a ball on or over the touchline is still on the field of play; a ball on the line of the goal area is in the goal area; and a foul committed over the 16.5 m (18-yard)line has occurred in the penalty area. Therefore a ball must wholly cross the touchline to be out of play, and a ball must wholly cross the goal line (between the goal posts) before a goal is scored; if any part of the ball is still on or over the line, the ball is still in play.
The field descriptions that apply to adult matches are described below. Note that due to the original formulation of the Laws in England and the early supremacy of the four British football associations within IFAB, the standard dimensions of a football pitch were originally expressed in imperial units. The Laws now express dimensions with approximate metric equivalents (followed by traditional units in brackets), however popular use tends to continue to use traditional units.
Pitch dimensions and markings
The length of pitch for international matches should be in the range 100 m - 110 m (110-120 yards) and the width should be in the range 65 m - 75 m (70-80 yards). For other matches the constraints are looser: 90 m - 120 m (100-130 yards) length by 45 m - 90 m (50-100 yards) width. The pitch must be rectangular, this is longer than it is wide.
The longer boundary lines are touch lines, while the shorter boundaries (on which the goals are placed) are goal lines.
The halfway line divides the pitch in half lengthways. Halfway across the halfway line is the centre spot, from which kick-offs are taken at the start of each playing period and after a goal is scored. The centre circle (radius 9.15 m (10 yards)) surrounds this spot, and serves to indicate the distance opposing players must stay from the ball at a kick-off.
In each corner of the pitch is a corner arc (quarter-circle radius 1 m (1 yard) which marks the area from which a corner-kick may be taken. Corner flags (minimum height 1.5 m (5 feet)) are required to be placed at each corner; similar flagposts may be optionally placed 1 m (1 yard) from each end of the halfway line.
A goal area, penalty area, penalty spot and penalty arc are marked in front of each goal; these are discussed below.
Goals
Goals are placed at the centre of each goal-line. These consist of two upright posts placed equidistant from the corner flagposts, joined at the top by a horizontal crossbar. The inner edges of the posts must be 7.3 m (8 yards) apart, and the lower edge of the crossbar must be 2.44 m (8 feet) above the ground. Nets are usually placed behind the goal, though are not required by the Laws.
Two rectangular boxes are marked out on the pitch in front of each goal.
The goal area (colloquially "5.5 m (6 yard) box"), consists of the area formed by the goal-line, two lines starting on the goal-line 5.5 m (6 yards) from the goalposts and extending 5.5 m (6 yards) into the pitch from the goal-line, and a line joining these. Goal kicks and any free kick by the defending team may be taken from anywhere in this area. Indirect free kicks awarded to the attacking team within the goal area must be taken from the point on the line parallel to the goal line nearest where an incident occurred; they can not be taken further within the goal-area. Similarly drop-balls that would otherwise occur in the goal area are taken on this line.
The penalty area (colloquially "16.5 m (18 yard) box") is similarly formed by the goal-line and lines extending from it, however its lines commence 16.5 m (18 yards) from the goalposts and extend 16.5 m (18 yards) into the field. This area has a number of functions, the most prominent being to denote where the goalkeeper may handle the ball and where a foul by an attacker, usually punished by a direct free kick, becomes punishable by a penalty kick.
The penalty mark (or "penalty spot") is immediately in the middle of, and 11 m (12 yards)in front of, the goal; this is where penalty kicks are taken from. The penalty arc (colloquially "the D") is marked from the outside edge of the penalty area, 9.15 m (10 yards) from the penalty mark; this marks an exclusion zone for all players other than the kicker and the opposing goalkeeper during a penalty kick.
Associated areas
Aside from the field of play, the Laws and by-laws can be used to regulate related areas off the field. The most prominent of these is the technical area, which defines the bench areas and nearby areas to which coaching and managing staff are generally restricted. Note that the referee's authority extends not only to the field of play, but also its immediate surrounds, including the technical area.
A football is a ball used to play one of the sports known as football.
As the term football has diverged, the name of the ball itself may refer to one of two basic shapes:
A sphere used in football/soccer (or "association football") as well as Gaelic football
An approximate prolate spheroid, which may be either:
those with more rounded ends used in rugby football and Australian football
the more pointed type used in American football and Canadian football
Association football (soccer)
The ball used in Association football (soccer) is called a football or soccer ball. Law 2 of the game specifies the ball to be an air-filled sphere with a circumference of 68�70 cm (or 27�28 inches), a weight of 410�450 g (or 14�16 ounces), inflated to a pressure of 60�110 kPa (or 8.5�15.6 psi), and covered in leather or "other suitable" material.
Modern balls are stitched from 32 waterproofed panels, 12 regular pentagons and 20 regular hexagons. The first such was the Adidas Telstar ball, the official ball of the Mexico World Cup in 1970. The Telstar's design of black pentagon/white hexagon has become the archetype, still used for generic balls and symbolic representations of the game. However premium branded balls, such as the Nike Total 90 Aerow and Total 90 Aerow Hi-Vis (the official ball of the English Premiership in 2005), have other more elaborate patterns.
Detailed techniques involved in the design and construction of association footballs are given at the Soccer Ball World.
The 32-panel configuration is similar to the polyhedron known as the truncated icosahedron, except that it is more spherical, because the faces bulge due to the pressure of the air inside. It can be also described as a model for the buckminsterfullerene (C60) molecule. The diameter of the association football and the Buckminsterfullerene molecule are 22 cm and ca. 1 nm, respectively, hence the size ratio is 200,000,000 : 1.
The standard ball is a Size 5. Smaller sizes exist; Size 3 is standard for team handball; others are used in underage games or as novelty items. Traditional, pre-1970, balls were monochrome (brown or white); they were stitched from 18 oblong non-waterproof leather panels, similar to the design of modern volleyballs and Gaelic footballs, and laced to allow access to the internal air bladder. There are also indoor footballs, which are made of one or two pieces of plastic. Often these have designs printed on them to resemble a leather ball.
About 80% of association footballs are made in Pakistan, mainly in small workshops and factories. FIFA and the major sports brands have taken public steps in response to concerns been raised about the use of child labour in the manufacture of association footballs.
American and Canadian football
In North America , the term football refers to a ball which is used to play American football or Canadian football. Nearly a prolate spheroid, it is slightly pointed at the ends (unlike the more elliptical rugby ball). It is about 11 inches (28 cm) long and about 22 inches (56 cm) in circumference at the center. Balls are made of four pieces of leather stitched together. A football has a rubber lining, which is inflated to an air pressure of 12.5�13.5 psi (86�93 kPa). The ball weighs 14�15 ounces (397�425 g). Leather laces along one seam provide a grip for holding and passing the ball. Footballs used in recreation may be made of rubber or plastic as well. Regardless of the material used to make it, the ball is sometimes colloquially referred to as a pigskin.
Gaelic football
Gaelic football is played with a spherical ball, roughly 25.4 cm (10 in) in diameter and 68.6 cm (27 in) to 73.7 cm (29 in) in circumference. A dry ball weighs between 370 g (13 oz) and 425 grams (15 oz). Gaelic footballs are also the standard balls used in International rules football.
Rugby football
The football used in rugby is a prolate spheriod essentially elliptical in profile. Traditionally made of brown leather, modern rugby balls are manufactured in a variety of colors and patterns. A regulation rugby ball is 28�30 cm (11�11.8 inches) long and 58�62 cm (22.8�24.4 inches) in circumference at its widest point. It weighs 410�460 grams (14.5�16.2 ounces) and is inflated to 65.71�68.75 kPa (or 9.5�10 psi).
Australian football
The football used in Australian football is similar to the rugby ball, however the Australian Football is generally slightly smaller, and of a more rounded shape. A regulation Football is 720�730 mm in circumference, and 545�555 mm transverse circumference, and inflated to a pressure of 62�76Kpa. In the AFL, the balls are red for matches that take place during the day, and yellow for matches that take place at night.
Football is a team sport played between two teams of eleven players each. It is a ball game played on a rectangular grass field with a goal at each end. The objective of the game is to score by maneuvering the ball into the opposing goal. Other than the goalkeepers, players may not intentionally use their hands or arms to propel the ball in general play. The winner is the team which has scored most goals at the end of the match.
The sport is also known by other names in some parts of the English -speaking world, usually association football and its contraction, soccer. These names are often used to distinguish the game from other codes of football, since the word "football" may be used to refer to several quite different games.
Football is played at a professional level all over the world, and millions of people regularly go to football stadia to follow their favourite team, whilst millions more avidly watch the game on television. A very large number of people also play football at an amateur level.
According to a survey conducted by F�d�ration Internationale de Football Association (FIFA), football's governing body, published in the spring of 2001, over 240 million people regularly play football in more than 200 countries in every part of the world. Its simple rules and minimal equipment requirements have no doubt aided its spread and growth in popularity. In many parts of the world football evokes great passions and plays an important role in the life of individual fans, local communities, and even nations; it is therefore often claimed to be the most popular sport in the world.
Nature of the game
Two teams of eleven players each compete to get a round ball (itself known as a football) into the other team's goal, thereby scoring a goal. The team which has scored the most goals at the conclusion of the game is the winner; if both teams have an equal number of goals then the game is a draw. The primary rule for this objective is that players, other than the goalkeepers, may not intentionally touch the ball with their hands or arms during play (though they do use their hands during a throw-in restart). Although players mainly use their feet to move the ball around, they may use any part of their bodies other than their hands or arms.
In typical game play, players attempt to move towards a goal through individual control of the ball, such as by dribbling (running with the ball close to their feet); by passing the ball from team-mate to team-mate; and by taking shots at the goal. Opposition players may try to regain control of the ball by intercepting a pass or through tackling the opponent who controls the ball.
Football is generally a free-flowing game with the ball in play at all times except when the ball has left the field of play by wholly crossing over a boundary line (either on the ground or in the air), or play has been stopped by the referee. When play has been stopped, it recommences with a specified restart (see below).
The game is played in accordance with a set of rules known as the Laws of the Game, which are summarised below.
The Laws of the Game
History and development
The Laws of the Game are based on efforts made in the mid-19th century to standardise the rules of the widely varying games of football played at the independent schools of England . The first set of rules resembling the modern game were produced at Trinity College, Cambridge in 1848, at a meeting attended by representatives from Eton, Harrow, Rugby, Winchester and Shrewsbury, but they were far from universally adopted. During the 1850s, many clubs were formed, thoughout the English-speaking world, independent of schools or universities, to play various forms of football. Some came up with their own distinct codes of rules, most notably the Sheffield Football Club (formed by former pupils from Harrow) in 1857, which led to formation of a Sheffield FA in 1867. In 1862, J.C. Thring of Uppingham School also devised an influential set of rules.
These efforts contributed to the formation of The Football Association (The FA) in 1863 which first met on the evening of 26 October 1863 at the Freemason's Tavern in Great Queen Street, London . The only school to be represented on this occasion was Charterhouse. The Freemason's Tavern was the setting for five more meetings between October and December, which eventually produced the first comprehensive set of rules. At the final meeting, the first FA treasurer, who was the representative from Blackheath, withdrew his club from the FA over the removal of two draft rules at the previous meeting, the first which allowed for the running with the ball in hand and the second, obstructing such a run by hacking (kicking an opponent in the shins), tripping and holding. Other English rugby clubs followed this lead and did not join the FA but instead in 1871 formed the Rugby Football Union. The eleven remaining clubs, under the charge of Ebenezer Cobb Morley, went on to ratify the original fourteen rules of the game. Despite this, the Sheffield FA played by its own rules until the 1870s.
Today the laws of the game are determined by the International Football Association Board (IFAB). The Board was formed in 1882 after a meeting in Manchester of The Football Association, the Scottish Football Association, the Football Association of Wales, and the Irish Football Association. The F�d�ration Internationale de Football Association FIFA, the international football body, was formed in Paris in 1904 and declared that they would adhere to the rules laid down by the IFAB. The growing popularity of the international game led to the admittance of FIFA representatives to the IFAB in 1913. Today the board is made up of four representatives from FIFA and one representative from each of the four British associations.
Overview of the Laws
There are seventeen Laws in the official Laws of the Game. The same laws are designed to apply to all levels of football, although the preface to the Laws does grant national associations the ability to authorise certain modifications for juniors, seniors, women, etc. The Laws are often framed in broad terms, which allows flexibility in their application depending on the nature of the game. In addition to the seventeen Laws, numerous IFAB decisions and other directives contribute to the regulation of football. The Laws can be found on the official FIFA website .
Players and equipment
Each team consists of a maximum of eleven players (excluding substitutes), one of whom must be the goalkeeper. Competition rules may state a minimum of seven players are required to constitute a team. There are a variety of positions in which the outfield players are strategically placed by a manager/coach, though these positions are not defined or required by the Laws.
One player on each team must be designated as that team's goalkeeper. The goalkeeper is the only player allowed to handle the ball with his hands or arms, but is restricted to doing so within the penalty area (also known as the "box" or "18 yard box") in front of his own goal.
The basic equipment players are required to wear includes a shirt (or jersey), shorts, socks (or stockings), footwear and adequate shin guards. Players are forbidden to wear or use anything that is dangerous to themselves or another player (including jewellery or watches).
A number of players may be replaced by substitutes during the course of the game. The maximum substitutions permitted in international games and in national level leagues is three, though substitution numbers may be varied in other leagues. The usual reasons for a player's replacement include injury, tiredness, ineffectiveness, a tactical switch, or to waste a little time at the end of a finely poised game. In standard adult matches, a player who has been substituted may not take further part in the match.
Officials
A game is presided over by a referee, who has "full authority to enforce the Laws of the Game in connection with the match to which he has been appointed" (Law 5), and whose decisions regarding facts connected with play are final. The referee is assisted by two assistant referees (formerly called linesmen). In many high-level games there is also a fourth official, who assists the referee and may replace another official should the need arise.
Playing field
The length of the field (pitch) for international adult matches should be in the range 100-130 yards (90-120m) and the width should be in the range 50-100 yards (45-90m).The pitch must be rectangular, with the length of the touch line longer than the width of the goal line.
The longer boundary lines are touch lines, while the shorter boundaries (on which the goals are placed) are goal lines. On the goal line at each end of the field is a goal. The inner edges of the goal posts must be 8 yards (7.32m) apart, and the lower edge of the crossbar must be 8 feet (2.44m) above the ground. Nets are usually placed behind the goal, though are not required by the Laws.
In front of each goal is an area of the field known as the penalty area (colloquially "penalty box", "18 yard box" or simply "the box"). This area consists of the area formed by the goal-line, two lines starting on the goal-line 18 yards (16.5m) from the goalposts and extending 18 yards into the pitch from the goal-line, and a line joining these. This area has a number of important functions, the most prominent being to denote where the goalkeeper may handle the ball and where a foul by a defender which would usually punished by a direct free kick becomes punishable by a penalty kick.
The field has other field markings and defined areas; these are described in the main article above.
Standard durations
A standard adult football match consists of two periods (known as halves) of 45 minutes each. There is usually a 15-minute break between halves, known as half time. The end of the match is known as full-time.
Time added on
The referee is the official timekeeper for the match, and it is part of his duties to make allowance for time lost through substitutions, injured players requiring attention, cautions and dismissals, sundry time wasting, etc. When making such an allowance for time lost, the referee is often said to be "adding time on"; the added time is commonly referred to as stoppage time or injury time. The amount of time is at the sole discretion of the referee, and the referee alone signals when the match has been completed. There are no other timekeepers, although assistant referees carry a watch and may provide a second opinion if requested by the referee. In matches where a fourth official is appointed, towards the end of the half the referee will signal how many minutes remain to be played, and the fourth official then signals this to players and spectators by holding up a board showing this number.
Note that there is often semantic debate as to whether the referee is "adding on" time to the end of a half, or rather treating time during stoppages as though it never existed as part of the match time; this distinction has little bearing on the practical conduct of a game, however it may be noted that the pre-1997 wording of the laws stated that the referee "shall ... allow the full or agreed time adding thereto all time lost through injury or accident" (Law V), and later FIFA guidelines regarding the annotation of goal scoring times suggested that time is indeed "added-on" to the end of the agreed half period.
Extra time and shootouts
If tied at the end of regulation time, in some competitions the game may go into extra time, which consists of two further 15-minute periods. If the score is still tied after extra time, some competitions allow the use of penalty shootouts (known officially in the Laws of the Game as "kicks from the penalty mark") to determine which team will progress to the next stage of the tournament. Note that goals scored during extra time periods count towards the final score of the game, unlike kicks from the penalty mark which are only used to decide the team that progresses to the next part of the tournament (with goals scored not making up part of the final score).
Competitions utilising two-leg stages (i.e. where each round involves the two teams playing each other twice) may utilise the so-called away goals rule to attempt to determine which team progresses in the event of the teams being equal on wins; however, should results still be equal following this calculation kicks from the penalty mark are usually required. Other competitions may require a tied game to be replayed.
Golden and silver goal experiments
In the late 1990s, the IFAB experimented with ways of making matches more likely to end without requiring kicks from the penalty mark, which were often seen as an undesirable way to end a match.
These involved rules ending a game in extra time early, either when the first goal in extra time was scored (golden goal), or at the end of the first period of extra time if one team was by then leading (silver goal). Both these experiments have been discontinued by IFAB.
Starts and re-starts
Each playing period in football commences with a kick-off, which is a set kick from the centre-spot by one team. At kick-off all players are required to be in their half of the field, and all players of the non-kicking team must also remain outside the centre-circle, until the ball is kicked and moved. Kick-offs are also used to restart play following a goal.
From the initial kick-off of a period until the end of that period, the ball is "in play" at all times until the end of the playing period, except when the ball leaves the field of play or play is stopped by the referee; in these cases play is re-started by one of the following eight methods:
Kick-off: following a goal by the opposing team, or to begin each period of play. ( Law 8 ).
Throw-in: when the ball has wholly crossed the touchline; awarded to opposing team to that which last touched the ball. ( Law 15 ).
Goal kick: when the ball has wholly crossed the goal line without a goal having been scored and having last been touched by an attacker; awarded to defending team. ( Law 16 ).
Corner kick: when the ball has wholly crossed the goal line without a goal having been scored and having last been touched by a defender; awarded to attacking team. ( Law 17 ).
Indirect free kick: awarded to the opposing team following "non-penal" fouls, certain technical infringements, or when play is stopped to caution/send-off an opponent without a specific foul having occurred. ( Law 13 ).
Direct free kick: awarded to fouled team following certain listed "penal" fouls. ( Law 13 ).
Penalty kick: awarded to fouled team following "penal" foul having occurred in their opponent's penalty area. ( Law 14 ).
Dropped-ball: occurs when the referee has stopped play for any other reason (e.g. a serious injury to a player, interference by an external party, or a ball becoming defective). ( Law 8 ).
Fouls and misconduct
A foul occurs when a player (not a substitute) commits a specific offence listed in the Laws of the Game when the ball is in play. The offences that constitute a foul are listed in Law 12. "Penal fouls", for example handling the ball, tripping an opponent, pushing an opponent, etc, are punishable by a direct free kick or penalty kick depending on where the offence occurred. Other fouls are punishable by an indirect free kick.
Misconduct may occur at any time, and may be committed by both players and substitutes. Whilst the offences that constitute misconduct are listed, the definitions are broad. In particular, the offence of "unsporting behaviour" may be used to deal with most events that violate the spirit of the game, even if they are not listed as specific offences. Misconduct may be punished by a caution (yellow card) or sending-off (red card).
Offside
The offside law limits the ability of attacking players to remain forward (i.e. closer to the opponent's goal-line) of both the ball and the second last defending player. It is often assumed that the purpose of this law is to prevent "goal scrounging" or "cherry picking", but in fact the offside law has similar roots to the offside law in rugby. The details and application of this law are complex, and often result in controversy: for more information on offside please refer to the main article above.
Governing bodies
The recognised international governing body of football (and associated games, such as futsal and beach soccer) is the F�d�ration Internationale de Football Association (FIFA).
Six regional confederations are associated with FIFA; these are:
Asia: Asian Football Confederation (AFC)
Africa: Confederation of African Football (CAF)
Central/North America & Caribbean: Confederation of North, Central American and Caribbean Association Football (CONCACAF; also known as The Football Confederation)
Europe: Union of European Football Associations (UEFA)
Oceania: Oceania Football Confederation (OFC)
South America: Confederaci�n Sudamericana de F�tbol (South American Football Confederation; CONMEBOL)
The recognised various national associations (see football around the world) oversee football within their jurisdictions. These are affiliated both with FIFA directly and also with their respective continental confederations.
Note that the Laws of the Game are not maintained by FIFA itself; rather they are maintained by the International Football Association Board, as discussed in the history and development section above.
Worldwide international competitions
The major international competition in football is the World Cup organised by FIFA. This competition takes place over a four-year period. Over 190 national teams compete in qualifying tournaments within the scope of continental confederations for a place in the finals. The finals tournament, which is held every four years, now involves 32 national teams (increased from 24 in 1998) competing over a four-week period. The next World Cup takes place in Germany 2006.
There has been a football tournament at the Summer Olympic Games since 1900, except at the 1932 games in Los Angeles. Originally this was for amateurs only, however since the 1984 Summer Olympics professionals have been permitted as well, albeit with certain restrictions which effectively prevent countries from fielding their strongest sides. Currently, the Olympic men's tournament is played at Under-23 level with a restricted number of over-age players per team; consequently the competition is not generally considered to carry the same international significance and prestige as the World Cup. A women's tournament was added in 1996; in contrast to the men's event, the women's Olympic tournament is played by full international sides without age restrictions. It thus carries international prestige considered comparable to that of the FIFA Women's World Cup.
Major international competitions
The major international competitions of the world and the continental confederations, followed by their major club events where appropriate, are:
Europe: European Championship; UEFA Champions League
South America: Copa Am�rica; Copa Libertadores
Africa: African Nations Cup; CAF Champions League
Asia: Asian Cup; AFC Champions League
North/Central America & Caribbean: CONCACAF Gold Cup; CONCACAF Champions Cup
Oceania: Oceania Nations Cup; Oceania Club Championship
Names of the game
The rules of football were codified in England by the Football Association in 1863, and the name association football was coined to distinguish the game from the other forms of football played at the time, specifically rugby football . The term soccer first appeared in the 1880s as a slang abbreviation of Association football.
Today the sport is known by a number of names throughout the English-speaking world, the most common being football and soccer; this has generated debate regarding the "correct" name for the sport. The term used depends largely on the need to differentiate the sport from other codes of football followed in a community. Football is the term used by FIFA, the sport's world governing body, and the International Olympic Committee . For more details of naming throughout the world, please refer to the main articles above.
A referee presides over a game of association football (soccer). The referee has "full authority to enforce the Laws of the Game in connection with the match to which he has been appointed" (Law 5), and the referee's decisions regarding facts connected with play are final, so far as the result of the game is concerned.
The referee's numerous powers and duties are described by Law 5 of the Laws of the Game. Amongst other things, these include: Enforcing the Laws of the Game; Controlling the match in co-operation with the assistant referees (and fourth official where applicable); stop/suspend/terminate the match if appropriate; Controlling the restart of play; Acting as the timekeeper and recordkeeper of the game; Disciplining players and officials as required; etc.
The referee is assisted by two assistant referees (formerly known as linesmen), and in some matches also by a fourth official. The match officials utilise a positioning system known as the diagonal system of control.
Referees and their assistants wear a uniform comprised of a jersey, shorts and socks. Traditionally that uniform was almost always all black, unless one of the teams was wearing a very dark jersey in which case the referee would wear another colour of jersey (usually red) to distinguish himself from both teams. At the 1994 World Cup finals, new jerseys were introduced that gave officials a choice of burgundy, yellow or white. Since then, most referees have worn either yellow or black, but the colours adopted by individual associations vary greatly.
The vast majority of referees are amateur, though may be paid a small fee and/or expenses for their services. However, in some countries a limited number of referees - who mainly officiate in their country's top division - are employed full-time by their national associations and receive a retainer at the start of every season plus match fees.
Referees officiating adult competitive international games are required to be selected from the FIFA panel of referees; this restriction does not necessarily apply to non-competitive (so-called friendly) games or youth games.
History
The term referee originated in association football. Originally the team captains would consult with each other in order to resolve any dispute on the pitch. Eventually this role was delegated to an umpire. Each team would bring their own partisan umpire allowing the team captains to concentrate on the game. Later, the referee, a third "neutral" official was added. The referee would be "referred to" if the umpires could not resolve a dispute. The referee did not take his place on the pitch until 1891. Then, umpires became linesmen (now officially called assistant referees). Today, in many amateur football matches, each side will still supply their own partisan linesman to assist the neutral referee (if any) appointed by the governing football association: this is usually due to there not being enough officials available to have three present at every match.
Referees use a whistle to indicate the commencement of play, to stop play due to an infringement of other reason, to indicate half-time and full-time, and as an adjunct to verbal communication in other situations. Before the introducation of the whistle, refreees indicated their decisions by waving a hankerchief. The whistles that were first adopted by referees were made by Joseph Hudson of the ACME Whistle Company who first began to mass produce whistles in the 1870s for the Metropolitan Police Service. It is frequently stated the referee's whistle was first used in a game between Nottingham Forest and Sheffield Norfolk in 1878; however no such fixture is known to have taken place between the two clubs in that year.
Offside law
In association football (soccer), offside is covered by Law 11 of the Laws of the Game. Whilst the law may appear simple, its details and application can be complex.
The application of the offside law is best considered in three steps: Offside position; Offside offence; and Offside sanction.
Offside position
A player is in an offside position if "he is nearer to his opponents' goal line than both the ball and the second last opponent", unless he is in his own half of the field of play. A player level with the second last opponent is considered to be in an onside position. Note that the last two defenders can be either the goalkeeper and another defender, or two ordinary defenders. Also note that offside position is determined when the ball is touched/played by a team-mate � a player's offside position status is not then altered by them or defenders running forwards or backwards.
It is important to note that being in an offside position is not an offence in itself.
Offside offence
A player in an offside position is only committing an offside offence if, "at the moment the ball touches or is played by one of his team", the player is in the referee's opinion involved in active play by: interfering with play; interfering with an opponent; or gaining an advantage by being in that position.
Determining whether a play is in "active play" can be complex. A player is not committing an offside offence if the player receives the ball directly from a throw-in, goal kick or corner kick.
FIFA issued new guidelines for interpreting the offside law in 2003 and these were incorporated in law 11 in July 2005. The new wording seeks to more precisely define the three cases as follows:
Interfering with play means playing or touching the ball passed or touched by a teammate.
Interfering with an opponent means preventing an opponent from playing or being able to play the ball by clearly obstructing the opponent's line of vision or movements or making a gesture or movement which, in the opinion of the referee, deceives or distracts an opponent.
Gaining an advantage by being in an offside position means playing a ball that rebounds to him off a post or crossbar or playing a ball that rebounds to him off an opponent having been in an offside position.
The interpretation of these new definitions was still proving controversial in December 2005, largely over what movements a player in an offside position can make without being judged to be interfering with an opponent.
Offside sanction
The sanction for an offside offence is an indirect free kick to the opposing team, from where the offence occurred.
Officiating
In enforcing this law, the referee depends greatly on his assistant referee, who generally keeps in line with the second last defender in his relevant end (exact positioning techniques are more complex).
The assistant referees' task with regards to off-side can be difficult, as they need to keep up with attacks and counter attacks, consider which players are in an offside position when the ball is played (often from the other end of the field), and then determine whether the offside positioned players become involved in active play. The risk of false judgement is further enhanced by the foreshortening effect, which occurs when the distance between attacking player and the assistant referee is significantly different from the distance to the defending player, and the assistant referee is not directly in line with the defender. The difficulty of off-side officiating is often underestimated by spectators. Trying to judge if a player is level with an opponent at the moment the ball is kicked is not easy: if an attacker and a defender are running in opposite directions, they can be two metres apart in a tenth of a second.
History
It is often assumed that the offside law is a recent addition to combat "goal scrounging" or "cherry picking", where attacking players hang around near the opposing goal in case the ball gets kicked upfield, but in fact it dates back to the early years of the game, and was much stricter in the past than it is today. A player was "off his side" if he was standing in front of the ball (compare with the current offside law in rugby�a game descended from the same roots), that is, between the ball and the opponent's goal. This was by no means universal �the original Sheffield F.C. rules had no offside, and players known as "kick throughs" were positioned permanently near the opponents' goal.
In 1848, HC Malden held a meeting at his Trinity College, Cambridge rooms, that addressed the problem. Representatives from Eton, Harrow, Rugby, Winchester and Shrewsbury attended, each bringing their own set of rules. They sat down a little after 4pm and by five to midnight had drafted what is thought to be the first set of "Cambridge Rules". Malden is quoted as saying how "very satisfactorily they worked".
Unfortunately no copy of these 1848 rules exists today, but they are thought to have included laws governing throw-ins, goal-kicks, halfway line markings, re-starts, and the disallowing of holding and pushing. They even allowed for a string to be used as a cross bar.
Slowly, as these rules were tried, tested, written and re-written over the following years, a revised set of Cambridge Rules was drawn up in 1856. A copy of these rules, thought to be the oldest set still in existence, can be found in the Shrewsbury School library.
As football developed in the 1860s and 1870s, the offside law proved the biggest argument between the clubs. Sheffield got rid of the "kick throughs" by amending their laws so that one member of the defending side was required between a forward player and the opponent's goal; the Football Association also compromised slightly and adopted the Cambridge idea of three. Finally, Sheffield came into line with the F.A., and "three players" were the rule until 1925.
The change to "two players" rule led to an immediate increase in goal scoring. 4,700 goals were scored in 1,848 Football League games in 1924/25. It rose to 6,373 goals (from the same number of games) in 1925/26.
In 1990 the law was amended to consider an attacker to be onside if level with the second last opponent. This change was part of a general movement by the game's authorities to make the rules more conducive to attacking football and help the game to flow more freely.
Offside trap
The offside trap is a defensive tactic. When an attacking player is making a run up the field with a team-mate ready to kick the ball up to him, the defenders will move up-field in order to put the attacker behind them just before the ball is kicked, hence putting the attacker in an offside position when the ball is kicked. Defenders using this tactic often attempt to bring an attacker's potential offside status to the attention of the assistant referee, typically by shouting or raising their arm.
The use of the trap is often derided as making for boring football. However, it can be a risky strategy; if the offside trap fails, the attacking players will have an almost clear run towards the goal. The 2005 rule changes have made it even more perilous as a tactic.
One of the best-known defenders to employ the offside trap was Billy McCracken of Newcastle United. It is claimed his play pressured officials to modify the laws in 1925, reducing the required number of defenders between the attacker and the goal line from three to two.
Infringements
Opposing players must retire the required distance as stated above. Failure to do so may constitute misconduct and be punished by a caution (yellow card). Furthermore, if an opposing player enters the penalty area before the ball is in play, the goal kick is retaken.
If a defending player other than the kicker touches the ball after it is kicked but before it is in play, the goal kick is retaken. However, it is an offence for the kicker to touch the ball a second time once the ball has left play, until it has been touched by another player; this is punishable by an indirect free kick to the defending team from where the offence occurred, unless the second touch was also a more serious handling offence, in which case it is punishable by a direct free kick or penalty kick, as appropriate.
Alternative as a tie-breaker
The number of corner kicks awarded to each team has been suggested as an alternative method of tie-breaking to the current penalty shootout method. The theory behind this suggestion is that the team which during the course of play has been awarded the most corner kicks is likely to have dominated play, forcing their opponents to make more high-risk tackles and their goalkeeper to make more saves in which he was not able to gain possession of the ball but rather merely deflect it across the line outside of the goal or over the crossbar. The use of corner-kick counts as a tie-breaker has not been approved by the International Football Association Board, and as such is not used in any high-level competition.
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In Morse Code what is the symbol for the letter E | International Morse Code
International Morse Code
For learning Morse code it is recommended that you do not try to remember dots and dashes, but remember the Morse code sounds instead.
Letter
CL, Going off the air ("clear")
-.-..-..
DO, Change to wabun code
-..---
KN, Invite a specific station to transmit
-.--.
SK, End of transmission (also VA)
...-.-
I am ready to copy
QRV?
Are you ready to copy?
QRL
The frequency is in use
QRL?
Is the frequency in use?
QTH
What is your location?
Notes
If the duration of a dot is taken to be one unit then that of a dash is three units. The space between the components of one character is one unit, between characters is three units and between words seven units. To indicate that a mistake has been made and for the receiver to delete the last word, send ........ (eight dots).
The prosigns are combinations of two letters sent together with no space in between. The other abbreviations and Q codes are sent with the normal spacing.
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| Dot |
What is the collective noun for moose | One Way to Learn Morse Code
One Way to Learn Morse Code
There on your chart adjacent to every radio NavAid symbol is the small box that gives you the (usually) three letter identifier and the relevant frequency, and the cryptic (exactly!) dot-dash symbols that represent the Morse Code transmission for that device. Here is one more thing to thrash around with while navigating cross-country when your attention ought to be outside the airplane or elsewhere. When you ident a NavAid, you have to either find the symbol on the sectional or, more likely, find the place where you copied it during your pre-flight planning.
Unless, of course, you know Morse Code! Then you just listen to the blips and beeps and amaze your friends by saying "Yup, B-D-R, just like its 'sposed to be", and going blithely on with your aviating.
"But", you say, "I've looked at the Morse alphabet and I could never remember that A is dot-dash and B is dash-dot-dot-dot and C is whatever. There's no pattern to it and it's too hard to memorize just by brute force."
Relax. I'm here to let you in on a secret. There is a pattern to it and it's easy to memorize using a couple of simple mnemonic tricks (I did it in about two hours).
The Revenge of Etian Smurd
Think for a minute about telephone Area Codes in the context of the old rotary dial telephones (remember those?). Back when Ma Bell (remember her?) assigned the Area Codes, it was considered desirable that the areas with the most subscribers should have the quickest codes. By quickest, I mean the ones that used the fewest dial pulses. So New York City got 212 (five pulses), L.A. and Chicago got 213 and 312 respectively (six pulses each), and Idaho got 208 (twenty pulses).
The point is that Morse works the same way. The letter that appears the most often in English language text ("E" is the New York of our alphabet) gets the quickest Morse identifier: dot (or dit or � (your choice). "T", the Chicago of letters, gets dash, dah or -. And poor "Q", the alphabet's own private Idaho, gets - - � - .
There have been many analyses of the frequencies of use of the letters in the Roman (i.e., our) alphabet. As you might expect, cryptanalysts find them fascinating. Many of them disagree in some detail or other, but it is possible to reconstruct the pattern that the original Morse encoder (ol' Sam himself) was probably working with.
Let's assign point values to the Morse encodings of the letters of the alphabet using the following scheme: one point for a �, two points for a -, and one point for a space. So "E" ( � ) gets 1, "T" (- ) gets 2, "A" (� - ) gets one each for the dot and the space and two for the dash or 4 in all, and "Q" (- - � - ) gets ... let's see, 2 each for the three dashes is 6 plus 1 for the dot plus 3 for the spaces ... 10 points! The whole alphabet looks like this:
A
J Y Q
Care for a sip of ETIAN?
Many cryptanalytic analyses of letter frequency include E, T, I, A and N among the most frequently used letters, and therefore the Morse Codes for these are the simplest:
E �
I � �
A � -
N - �
To commit the first group to memory, note that the simple codes are clear and sparkling and light, like a bottle of Etian Water (sic). Simplest first, the "E" is just a dot and the "T" is just a dash. The "I", the only "3 pointer", is two dots and the "A" and "N" are a dot and dash together.
As is most often the case, the dot comes first and moves "through" any dashes, so "A" is dot-dash and "N" is dash-dot.
What in Blazes is a SMURD?
I don't know either, but if you can retain the nonsense word "smurd" in your memory, you have the key to the second group:
S � � �
M - -
U � � -
R � - �
D - � �
This is really easy. First off, SMURD starts with "S" and the two Morse letters everyone knows are "S" (� � � ) and "O" ( - - - ). You're just going to have to remember that "M", the other 5-pointer, is two dashes, but that's not too hard.
The U R D trio is another case of "the dots moving through the dashes. "U", the first one, has the dots up front. For "R", a dot moves to the rear, then for "D", the second dot joins it. (Now, if it works better for you to envision the dash elbowing its way up to the front of the line, I don't care. Whether your glass is half empty or half full, it's all the same to me.)
What time is it, Doctor H.?
Group III, the 7 point codes, is arranged in honor of the consonants (less one) in the name of Dr. Stephen Hawking, the great British astrophysicist. That's HaWKiNG. (We already did N in Group I, so let's not bother here):
H � � � �
W � - -
K - � -
G - - �
The "H" is gotten using the simplest way to make 7 points - the four dots and the three spaces between.
The W K G trio is a variation on the theme initiated by the U R D group. (In fact, the most trouble I have is avoiding getting "R" and "K" mixed up.) Again, the dot at the head of the line makes its way to the back as you go from "W" to "G". Remember, "U", "R", and "D" are permutations of two dots and a dash while "W", "K" and "G" are rearrangements of one dot and two dashes.
Now for the Fat Ones
The codes are becoming more complex as we go down the alphabet. In fact some of them are absolutely fat and flabby. So I'm going to call Group IV the Overflab Group. That's OVerFLaB. (Hey, I'm sorry! If you come up with a better mnemonic, please let me know.)
O - - -
V � � � -
F � � - �
L � - � �
B - � � �
As I said earlier, everybody knows "S" and "O". Here's "O": the famous three dashes. And, believe it or not, "V" is the third Morse letter most folks are familiar with. Think of the first four notes of Beethoven's "V"th Symphony: you know, "dit-dit-dit-dah".
The quartet of "V", "F", "L" and "B" form a lovely pattern as dots detach themselves from the initial grouping and move to the right (or maybe it's that pushy dash again with the sharp elbows). In any event the Overflab Quintet has a big fat "O" as it loudmouth lead and a harmonizing backup quartet. Look at them. It's actually pretty!
Papa X-Ray Zulu Charlie
Okay, so I gave up. The motley collection in Group V, the 9-pointers, just didn't suggest a mnemonic to me so I sat around saying "Papa X-Ray Zulu Charlie" to myself until it was engraved a half-inch deep in my cerebral cortex. Again, if you can think of a mnemonic that works, let me know.
P � - - �
X - � � -
Z - - � �
C - � - �
All of these codes are made up of a pair of dots and a pair of dashes but the arrangements are a bit arcane. I'd suggest that you tie the codes to the letters in pairs. The "X" is just the "P" turned "inside out". And the "C" is like the "Z" except the dots are apart instead of together.
One thing you might try is remembering the name "Anna Minn". (In my mind, she's a mysterious Eurasion beauty in a Smilin' Jack comic strip.) She brings all of the codes in this group of Morse letters. For example, "AN" = "� -" + "- �" = � - - �, which is P! And so on using "NA", "MI" and "NN".
Watch Out for the Candlestick!
Group VI, the 10-pointers, has us saying "Jack, You're Quick!" (You remember the dude who vaulted over candlesticks?)
J � - - -
Y - � - -
Q - - � -
As befits letters with 10 point totals, the codes are loaded with dashes and have only one dot. Just as you'd expect, the dot starts at the beginning of the group and "precesses" through toward the end.
Happy Encoding and Decoding
So here's the whole array, in the order just discussed, for you to memorize, crib from, laugh at or whatever:
E
| i don't know |
What would you be doing if you were to Shoot the Owl, Chase the Squirrel and Box the Gnat | Box the Gnat: A Call Explained | Dances | England
Box the Gnat: A Call Explained
Origins and derivation of Box the Gnat are explored
Copyright: Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
For at least one hundred years, American dancershave completed the call
Box the Gnat
, and nobody had anyidea what the call had to do with boxes and small flyinginsects. Some speculated that it was related to an old timecall
Swat the Fly
, not the other way around
.
was a corruption of the French phrase
baisse le nez
(
drop or lower the nose/head
), but at bestthat would be a stretch of description of the movement.Moreover, there is no reference in dance histories to anyFrench dance movement
baisse le nez,
and the Frenchidiom means more on the order of shamed or humiliated.The short answer is that the call should be correctlylabeled
Box the Nat
. Nat is an obsolete word for a pad ormat. Nats were for women to kneel on in church (seebelow). Nat was a northern English dialect term going backto the 12
th
Century (see below). When the call was firstnoted in the 1910s,
nat
had completelydisappeared from usage, so the homonym wasused, so we
Box the Gnat
.
Box the Nat
clearly describes the movement as thoughdancing around all four corners of a mat.The long answer is fascinating.
Box theGnat
was but one call in the Kentucky runningset: which was uncovered only in 1916, butpredates what we think of English CountryDance, and represents the northern part ofBritain (as opposed to the Southern/Londondances cited in
The Country Dance Book
The running set survived in theAppalachian Mountains virtually intact into the20
th
Century. The dance was not performed tomusic because of the belief that the fiddle was aninstrument of the devil, but was often done to theaccompaniment of patting. The basic step of theKentucky running set was a rapid, smooth,gliding walk that made it appear as if the dancerwas skating over the floor. The arms were heldloosely and in later forms, the dance wasornamented with disjointed clogging actions of the legs and feet.A caller called out directions to the dance which usually consisted of an introduction and about 14different figures. These figures included such moves as "Wind Up The Ball Of Yarn," "Shoot The Owl," "ChaseThe Squirrel," "Wild-Goose Chase," "Box The Gnat," and "Birdie In The Cage." Each figure was made up ofdifferent patterns and actions. For example, during "birdie in the cage," the dancers ran quickly in a circle to theleft, circling one woman who spun in the middle in the opposite direction. When the caller shouted 'Bird hop out,crow (or owl) hop in," the woman jumped out of the center of the circle, rejoining it running to the left, and wasreplaced by her male partner who jumped in. In "chase the squirrel" one of the woman dancers led her partnerbetween another couple, then abandoned her partner and was pursued by the man in the second couple.Traditionally, the running set was followed with a play-party dance game called "'Tucker." During thisgame, one man went to the center of the circle and all the others danced around him in couples. During thecourse of the game, the man in the center then tried to capture one of the females and take her away from herdancing partner. When be did, the dispossessed man then went to the center and the process was repeated.(
Tap roots: the early history of tap dancing
By Mark Knowles. 2002)
Oxford English Dictionary
Cecil J. Sharp was collecting Appalachian folk songs when he heard about running sets. Hisintroduction to
The Country Dance Book Volume V
provides an insightful discussion of running sets inthe folk dance context.
Apart from its innate beauty and its many artistic qualities, the Running Set is especially interesting inthat it represents one particular phase in the development of the Country-dance of which, hitherto, nothing hasbeen known. It is, in a sense, a new discovery. A few words concerning the history of the Country-dance and ofour sources of information regarding it will make this clear.The English Country-dance is the lineal descendant of the May-day Round, a pagan quasi-religiousceremonial of which the May-pole dance is, perhaps, the most typical example. Except for a few strayreferences to the Country-dance in early literature nothing is known of its history prior to 1650, in which year thefirst book on the subject, Playford's English Dancing Master, was published. This modest little book, containingthe description of 104 dances, won so great a popularity that, under the modified title of The Dancing Master, itran through eighteen editions, the last of which, dated 1728, contained upwards of seven hundred dances. Acritical examination of these successive editions shows that the dance degenerated very rapidly during theperiod covered by them, and the large number of dance-manuals subsequently issued by Walsh, Thompson,Waylett, and others furthermore proves that this decline continued during the two following centuries until, at thebeginning of the present century, the only dances that remained were those—chiefly of the Longways variety—that were still being danced by the peasantry in remote country districts of England and Scotland.Now the Running Set in its structure (with one partial exception to which reference will presently bemade) and in many other important particulars differs materially from any other known form of the Country-dance. It is built on much larger lines than any other of which we have cognizance. The Promenade movements,which bind the figures together and give continuity to the dance, occur nowhere else; while The Wild Goose-chase, The California Show Basket, and Wind up the Ball Yarn are figures which hitherto have only been foundin children's singing-games. Moreover, the forceful, emotional character of the dance; the absence from it of allthe courtesy movements, i. e., the Set, the Side, the Honour, and the Arms; the speed with which the evolutionsare executed, and the unconventional way inwhich the dancers comport themselves—all tendsharply to differentiate the Running Set from thePlayford dances and all other known forms ofthe English Country-dance.From these considerations we are led toinfer that the Running Set represents a stage inthe development of the Country-dance earlierthan that of the dances in The English DancingMaster—at any rate in the form in which theyare there recorded.The fact, for instance, that the movements of courtesy, which occur in almost every one of the Playforddances, are conspicuously absent from the Running Set is of itself the strongest testimony in favour of thepriority of the latter. For it is extremely unlikely that these movements, which were obviously due to the influenceof the drawing-room and reflect the formal manners and conventional habits of the upper ranks of an organizedsociety, could have found their way into the dance many years before 1650. Indeed, it might be maintained, thatit was the intrusion of these and similar movements into the Country dance which initiated and ultimately led toits decline.The only dance in The English Dancing Master which, in its construction, bears any resemblance to theRunning Set is Up Tails All (1st ed., 050; The Country Dance Book, Part iii). This is a " Round for as many aswill" and consists of an Introduction and three Parts. Each Part contains a fresh figure, which is led successivelyby each couple in turn, as in the Running Set; but there is no general movement, corresponding to thePromenade, between the repetitions of the figure or between the Parts. As Up Tails All is the only Round of itskind in The Dancing Master it is fair to infer that it represents a late and—in comparison with the Running Set—acorrupt example of an earlier and almost extinct type, rather than the forerunner of a fresh development.The three figures, hitherto known only in children's singing games, of which mention has already beenmade, are one and all derived from ancient pagan ceremonials. The California Show Basket is an adaptation tothe dance of a children's singing-game, Draw a pail of water, which is a dramatic representation of severalincidents connected with the ceremony of well-worship. The only one of these ritual acts which survives in thedance-figure is the passing first of the women under the arms of the men and then of the men under the arms ofthe women, in imitation of the creeping of the devotee under the sacred bush, which was frequently found by theside of the holy well (see Alice B. Gomme's Traditional Games of England, etc., i, p. 100; ii, p. 503).Wind up the Ball Yarn is a variant of one of the “winding up games" such as The Eller Tree, or Wind upthe Bush Faggot. Games of this type originated in the custom of encircling a tree or other sacred object as anact of worship, the connection of the worshippers, by means of linked hands, with the central object, beingintended to communicate life and action to it (Traditional Games of England, etc. i, p. 119; ii, pp. 384, 510).
The Wild Goose-chase is one of the many serpentine movements—e. g., the Hey in its many forms—which are so often found in dances of religious or magical significance (cf. the movement in Morris Off in TheMorris Book, 1st ed.). Lady Gomme (Traditional Games of England, etc., ii, p. 511) cites an Irish customrecorded by Lady Wilde in which young men and maidens with clasped hands described curves very similar tothose in the dance figure.Wind up the Ball Yarn, it is interesting to record, has been appropriated and used very effectively by theRussians in one of their ballets.The ring-movement around a central dancer in The Bird in the Cage and Tucker is not unlike one of thefigures in the Scottish Eightsome-Reel (itself a Nature dance) and is probably derived from some sacrificialceremony. The dancer within the ring may be the victim about to be seized and sacrificed as in several of theSword-dances (cf. The Grenoside Sword-dance) and in the Morris Dance, Brighton Camp (The Morris Book, iii,P. 55).The fact that these indubitably ancient figures are incorporated as organic movements in the RunningSet and (with the exception of Tucker and The Bird in the Cage) occur in no other recorded dance, still furtherstrengthens the claim that the Kentucky dance belongs to a stage in the development of the Country-danceearlier than that of any dance known to us.If this contention be conceded we have next to enquire how and at what period the Running Set foundits way to America. Now the fact that the dance could not have reached America before 165o (unless it cameover with the Pilgrim Fathers in the Mayflower!) does not in reality conflict with our hypothesis, although at firstsight it may seem to do so. For, bearing in mind the physical difficulties of communication between one part ofthe country and another in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, it is extremely improbable that the successivedevelopments of the Country-dance proceeded uniformly at one and the same time in every part of England.Now The English Dancing Master was published in London and addressed primarily, if not exclusively,to Londoners, or at most to those resident in the Southern and Midland counties of England. In what form, how-ever, the Country-dance existed at that period in other parts of England, we have no means of knowing,although, as the civilization in the North has always lagged behind that of the South, we may assume that it wasof a less advanced type. It may be, therefore,—indeed, it is extremely probable—that dances of the samespecies as the Running Set were, in the middle of the seventeenth century and for many years later—i. e., forsome while after they had been discarded or superseded in the South —still being danced in the Northerncounties of England and the Scottish Lowlands, the very districts from whichthe forefathers of the present Southern Appalachians originally emigrated.Although, then, we may be unable to ascribe to the Running Set adefinite date, we may with some assurance claim: —that it is the sole survivalof a type of Country-dance which, in order of development, preceded thePlayford dance; that it flourished in other parts of England and Scotland along while after it had fallen into desuetude in the South; and that some time in the eighteenth century it wasbrought by emigrants from the Border counties to America where it has since been traditionally preserved.This explanation at any rate accords with, and follows logically from, the facts so far as they are at presentknown. Further investigations, however, in the Southern Highlands and in other parts of America may, perhaps,lead to the discovery of more examples of this particular type of Country-dance, and it may then becomenecessary to modify the theory above enunciated.It is interesting to note that the dancers who were "men" and "women" in Playford's book have become"ladies" and "gentlemen" in the Running Set which, by the way, is also the title given to them in the eighteenth-century dance-books. The "Promenade," too, is, I take it, also an eighteenth-century expression. This adoptionof an eighteenth-century nomenclature in the description of a sixteenth- or seventeenth-century dance is at firstsight a little disconcerting, but it really proves no more than that the jargon of the dance travelled more quickly tothe North of England than the dance movements themselves, a fact for which we have every reason to bethankful.When the last book of English folk-dances was published—now some years ago—it looked as if theavailable material were at last exhausted, and that our knowledge of existing traditional dances had practicallyreached its limit. That further and most valuable material actually existed at that time in a country severalthousand miles away from England, patiently awaiting the call of the collector, certainly did not occur to me, nor,I am sure, to any of my friends or collaborators. And even when, later on, I had penetrated into the SouthernAppalachians and found the old Puritan dislike, fear, and distrust of dancing expressed in almost every log-cabinI entered, the possibility seemed more remote than ever. My surprise, then, can be imagined when, withoutwarning, the Running Set was presented to me, under conditions, too, which immensely heightened its effect. Itwas danced, one evening after dark, on the porch of one of the largest houses of the Pine Mountain School,with only one dim lantern to light up the scene. But the moon streamed fitfully in lighting up the mountain peaksin the background and, casting its mysterious light over the proceedings, seemed to exaggerate the wildnessand the break-neck speed of the dancers as they whirled through the mazes of the dance. There was no music,only the stampings and clappings of the onlookers, but when one of the emotional crises of the dance wasreached—and this happened several times during the performance—the air seemed literally to pulsate with therhythm of the "patters" and the tramp of the dancers' feet, while, over and above it all, penetrating through thedin, floated the even, falsetto tones of the Caller, calmly and unexcitedly reciting his directions.
More From This User
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How many inches are there in a hand | Box the Gnat: A Call Explained | Dances | England
Box the Gnat: A Call Explained
Origins and derivation of Box the Gnat are explored
Copyright: Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
For at least one hundred years, American dancershave completed the call
Box the Gnat
, and nobody had anyidea what the call had to do with boxes and small flyinginsects. Some speculated that it was related to an old timecall
Swat the Fly
, not the other way around
.
was a corruption of the French phrase
baisse le nez
(
drop or lower the nose/head
), but at bestthat would be a stretch of description of the movement.Moreover, there is no reference in dance histories to anyFrench dance movement
baisse le nez,
and the Frenchidiom means more on the order of shamed or humiliated.The short answer is that the call should be correctlylabeled
Box the Nat
. Nat is an obsolete word for a pad ormat. Nats were for women to kneel on in church (seebelow). Nat was a northern English dialect term going backto the 12
th
Century (see below). When the call was firstnoted in the 1910s,
nat
had completelydisappeared from usage, so the homonym wasused, so we
Box the Gnat
.
Box the Nat
clearly describes the movement as thoughdancing around all four corners of a mat.The long answer is fascinating.
Box theGnat
was but one call in the Kentucky runningset: which was uncovered only in 1916, butpredates what we think of English CountryDance, and represents the northern part ofBritain (as opposed to the Southern/Londondances cited in
The Country Dance Book
The running set survived in theAppalachian Mountains virtually intact into the20
th
Century. The dance was not performed tomusic because of the belief that the fiddle was aninstrument of the devil, but was often done to theaccompaniment of patting. The basic step of theKentucky running set was a rapid, smooth,gliding walk that made it appear as if the dancerwas skating over the floor. The arms were heldloosely and in later forms, the dance wasornamented with disjointed clogging actions of the legs and feet.A caller called out directions to the dance which usually consisted of an introduction and about 14different figures. These figures included such moves as "Wind Up The Ball Of Yarn," "Shoot The Owl," "ChaseThe Squirrel," "Wild-Goose Chase," "Box The Gnat," and "Birdie In The Cage." Each figure was made up ofdifferent patterns and actions. For example, during "birdie in the cage," the dancers ran quickly in a circle to theleft, circling one woman who spun in the middle in the opposite direction. When the caller shouted 'Bird hop out,crow (or owl) hop in," the woman jumped out of the center of the circle, rejoining it running to the left, and wasreplaced by her male partner who jumped in. In "chase the squirrel" one of the woman dancers led her partnerbetween another couple, then abandoned her partner and was pursued by the man in the second couple.Traditionally, the running set was followed with a play-party dance game called "'Tucker." During thisgame, one man went to the center of the circle and all the others danced around him in couples. During thecourse of the game, the man in the center then tried to capture one of the females and take her away from herdancing partner. When be did, the dispossessed man then went to the center and the process was repeated.(
Tap roots: the early history of tap dancing
By Mark Knowles. 2002)
Oxford English Dictionary
Cecil J. Sharp was collecting Appalachian folk songs when he heard about running sets. Hisintroduction to
The Country Dance Book Volume V
provides an insightful discussion of running sets inthe folk dance context.
Apart from its innate beauty and its many artistic qualities, the Running Set is especially interesting inthat it represents one particular phase in the development of the Country-dance of which, hitherto, nothing hasbeen known. It is, in a sense, a new discovery. A few words concerning the history of the Country-dance and ofour sources of information regarding it will make this clear.The English Country-dance is the lineal descendant of the May-day Round, a pagan quasi-religiousceremonial of which the May-pole dance is, perhaps, the most typical example. Except for a few strayreferences to the Country-dance in early literature nothing is known of its history prior to 1650, in which year thefirst book on the subject, Playford's English Dancing Master, was published. This modest little book, containingthe description of 104 dances, won so great a popularity that, under the modified title of The Dancing Master, itran through eighteen editions, the last of which, dated 1728, contained upwards of seven hundred dances. Acritical examination of these successive editions shows that the dance degenerated very rapidly during theperiod covered by them, and the large number of dance-manuals subsequently issued by Walsh, Thompson,Waylett, and others furthermore proves that this decline continued during the two following centuries until, at thebeginning of the present century, the only dances that remained were those—chiefly of the Longways variety—that were still being danced by the peasantry in remote country districts of England and Scotland.Now the Running Set in its structure (with one partial exception to which reference will presently bemade) and in many other important particulars differs materially from any other known form of the Country-dance. It is built on much larger lines than any other of which we have cognizance. The Promenade movements,which bind the figures together and give continuity to the dance, occur nowhere else; while The Wild Goose-chase, The California Show Basket, and Wind up the Ball Yarn are figures which hitherto have only been foundin children's singing-games. Moreover, the forceful, emotional character of the dance; the absence from it of allthe courtesy movements, i. e., the Set, the Side, the Honour, and the Arms; the speed with which the evolutionsare executed, and the unconventional way inwhich the dancers comport themselves—all tendsharply to differentiate the Running Set from thePlayford dances and all other known forms ofthe English Country-dance.From these considerations we are led toinfer that the Running Set represents a stage inthe development of the Country-dance earlierthan that of the dances in The English DancingMaster—at any rate in the form in which theyare there recorded.The fact, for instance, that the movements of courtesy, which occur in almost every one of the Playforddances, are conspicuously absent from the Running Set is of itself the strongest testimony in favour of thepriority of the latter. For it is extremely unlikely that these movements, which were obviously due to the influenceof the drawing-room and reflect the formal manners and conventional habits of the upper ranks of an organizedsociety, could have found their way into the dance many years before 1650. Indeed, it might be maintained, thatit was the intrusion of these and similar movements into the Country dance which initiated and ultimately led toits decline.The only dance in The English Dancing Master which, in its construction, bears any resemblance to theRunning Set is Up Tails All (1st ed., 050; The Country Dance Book, Part iii). This is a " Round for as many aswill" and consists of an Introduction and three Parts. Each Part contains a fresh figure, which is led successivelyby each couple in turn, as in the Running Set; but there is no general movement, corresponding to thePromenade, between the repetitions of the figure or between the Parts. As Up Tails All is the only Round of itskind in The Dancing Master it is fair to infer that it represents a late and—in comparison with the Running Set—acorrupt example of an earlier and almost extinct type, rather than the forerunner of a fresh development.The three figures, hitherto known only in children's singing games, of which mention has already beenmade, are one and all derived from ancient pagan ceremonials. The California Show Basket is an adaptation tothe dance of a children's singing-game, Draw a pail of water, which is a dramatic representation of severalincidents connected with the ceremony of well-worship. The only one of these ritual acts which survives in thedance-figure is the passing first of the women under the arms of the men and then of the men under the arms ofthe women, in imitation of the creeping of the devotee under the sacred bush, which was frequently found by theside of the holy well (see Alice B. Gomme's Traditional Games of England, etc., i, p. 100; ii, p. 503).Wind up the Ball Yarn is a variant of one of the “winding up games" such as The Eller Tree, or Wind upthe Bush Faggot. Games of this type originated in the custom of encircling a tree or other sacred object as anact of worship, the connection of the worshippers, by means of linked hands, with the central object, beingintended to communicate life and action to it (Traditional Games of England, etc. i, p. 119; ii, pp. 384, 510).
The Wild Goose-chase is one of the many serpentine movements—e. g., the Hey in its many forms—which are so often found in dances of religious or magical significance (cf. the movement in Morris Off in TheMorris Book, 1st ed.). Lady Gomme (Traditional Games of England, etc., ii, p. 511) cites an Irish customrecorded by Lady Wilde in which young men and maidens with clasped hands described curves very similar tothose in the dance figure.Wind up the Ball Yarn, it is interesting to record, has been appropriated and used very effectively by theRussians in one of their ballets.The ring-movement around a central dancer in The Bird in the Cage and Tucker is not unlike one of thefigures in the Scottish Eightsome-Reel (itself a Nature dance) and is probably derived from some sacrificialceremony. The dancer within the ring may be the victim about to be seized and sacrificed as in several of theSword-dances (cf. The Grenoside Sword-dance) and in the Morris Dance, Brighton Camp (The Morris Book, iii,P. 55).The fact that these indubitably ancient figures are incorporated as organic movements in the RunningSet and (with the exception of Tucker and The Bird in the Cage) occur in no other recorded dance, still furtherstrengthens the claim that the Kentucky dance belongs to a stage in the development of the Country-danceearlier than that of any dance known to us.If this contention be conceded we have next to enquire how and at what period the Running Set foundits way to America. Now the fact that the dance could not have reached America before 165o (unless it cameover with the Pilgrim Fathers in the Mayflower!) does not in reality conflict with our hypothesis, although at firstsight it may seem to do so. For, bearing in mind the physical difficulties of communication between one part ofthe country and another in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, it is extremely improbable that the successivedevelopments of the Country-dance proceeded uniformly at one and the same time in every part of England.Now The English Dancing Master was published in London and addressed primarily, if not exclusively,to Londoners, or at most to those resident in the Southern and Midland counties of England. In what form, how-ever, the Country-dance existed at that period in other parts of England, we have no means of knowing,although, as the civilization in the North has always lagged behind that of the South, we may assume that it wasof a less advanced type. It may be, therefore,—indeed, it is extremely probable—that dances of the samespecies as the Running Set were, in the middle of the seventeenth century and for many years later—i. e., forsome while after they had been discarded or superseded in the South —still being danced in the Northerncounties of England and the Scottish Lowlands, the very districts from whichthe forefathers of the present Southern Appalachians originally emigrated.Although, then, we may be unable to ascribe to the Running Set adefinite date, we may with some assurance claim: —that it is the sole survivalof a type of Country-dance which, in order of development, preceded thePlayford dance; that it flourished in other parts of England and Scotland along while after it had fallen into desuetude in the South; and that some time in the eighteenth century it wasbrought by emigrants from the Border counties to America where it has since been traditionally preserved.This explanation at any rate accords with, and follows logically from, the facts so far as they are at presentknown. Further investigations, however, in the Southern Highlands and in other parts of America may, perhaps,lead to the discovery of more examples of this particular type of Country-dance, and it may then becomenecessary to modify the theory above enunciated.It is interesting to note that the dancers who were "men" and "women" in Playford's book have become"ladies" and "gentlemen" in the Running Set which, by the way, is also the title given to them in the eighteenth-century dance-books. The "Promenade," too, is, I take it, also an eighteenth-century expression. This adoptionof an eighteenth-century nomenclature in the description of a sixteenth- or seventeenth-century dance is at firstsight a little disconcerting, but it really proves no more than that the jargon of the dance travelled more quickly tothe North of England than the dance movements themselves, a fact for which we have every reason to bethankful.When the last book of English folk-dances was published—now some years ago—it looked as if theavailable material were at last exhausted, and that our knowledge of existing traditional dances had practicallyreached its limit. That further and most valuable material actually existed at that time in a country severalthousand miles away from England, patiently awaiting the call of the collector, certainly did not occur to me, nor,I am sure, to any of my friends or collaborators. And even when, later on, I had penetrated into the SouthernAppalachians and found the old Puritan dislike, fear, and distrust of dancing expressed in almost every log-cabinI entered, the possibility seemed more remote than ever. My surprise, then, can be imagined when, withoutwarning, the Running Set was presented to me, under conditions, too, which immensely heightened its effect. Itwas danced, one evening after dark, on the porch of one of the largest houses of the Pine Mountain School,with only one dim lantern to light up the scene. But the moon streamed fitfully in lighting up the mountain peaksin the background and, casting its mysterious light over the proceedings, seemed to exaggerate the wildnessand the break-neck speed of the dancers as they whirled through the mazes of the dance. There was no music,only the stampings and clappings of the onlookers, but when one of the emotional crises of the dance wasreached—and this happened several times during the performance—the air seemed literally to pulsate with therhythm of the "patters" and the tramp of the dancers' feet, while, over and above it all, penetrating through thedin, floated the even, falsetto tones of the Caller, calmly and unexcitedly reciting his directions.
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Which sweets were advertised as the too good to hurry mints | Sweets (Candy)
Sweets (Candy)
by • Food & Drink
No childhood memories are quite so evocative as those of the sweets (in the UK), candy (in the US) or lollies (in Australia) which were such a big part of our life when growing up.
"Who knows the secret of the Black Magic box?", "And all because the lady loves Milk Tray", "The Bounty Hunters - they came in search of paradise" . . .
Utter these phrases to your friends the next time you're out for a drink or a meal and see how many hours pass before you run out of sweet memories and wind up lamenting that, although some of these delicacies are still around, alas they are much smaller than they used to be . . .
What follows is not meant to be an exhaustive list of every piece of confectionery available in the 50s, 60s, 70s, 80s and 90s - it is really a recollection of some personal favourites (many of them sadly now gone-but-not-forgotten) and some which have become legend.
CHOCOLATE STUFF
BLACK MAGIC
"Who knows the secret of the Black Magic box?". I do! Get stuck into too many Walnut Whip's and you will too . . .
BOUNTY
"The Bounty Hunters - they came in search of paradise . . .". Coconut and chocolate bars that offered 'a taste of paradise' . . . and a crafty butchers at scantily-clad birds.
Unfortunately the little individual black card trays have gone from the Bounty packets these days . . . but the fact still remains that anything combining chocolate and coconut just can't lose!
CABANA
Cadbury concoction of the sick-making variety. Coconut, caramel and whole cherries encased in milk chocolate - uuurrgh, no more for me, thanks. Lasted for about a year in the early 80s.
CADBURY CREME EGGS
CADBURY'S LUCKY NUMBERS
CHOCOLITE
From the US. A thick chocolate bar with air whipped into it. "Chocolate never tasted thick and light as Chocolite".
FLAKE
The infamous 70s 'choc-as-phallic-symbol' splendour of "only the crumbliest, flakiest chocolate."
FRUIT & NUT
"Everyone's a Fwuit and Nut case"
FRYS 5 CENTRES
Mathematically fascinating (not to mention a mite confusing) in that they had 5 centres (Orange, lemon, lime, raspberry and . . . erm . . . another one) but 7 segments per bar.
You could work out which segments would have 2 flavours in and which wouldn't (if you were very sad), and it was always a bit annoying if a flavour you liked got mixed with one you didn't. Fry's Five Centres was discontinued in 1992.
FRY'S CHOCOLATE CREAM
This is Cadbury's oldest established brand. Hawked by cut price Bond George Lazenby ("Big Fry! Big Fry! Big Fry!!!") with a giant model bar. The Fry's chocolate cream bars in Orange and 'plain' outlasted the classic five-segment Rainbow Bar - a multi fruit flavoured choccy bar (See Above) .
British TV ads featured a sophisticated country lady chomping leisurely on her cream bar at an auction before coolly swooping in at the very last moment to buy the . . . erm . . . whatever it was.
GALAXY COUNTERS
These were button-shaped bits of Galaxy chocolate, and they were delicious, but they stopped selling them on their own for some reason. Now you can only get them in packets of Revels.
MATCHMAKERS
One word . . . Yummmmmmm! And it always seemed that you still had a full box of the things, even when you would suddenly discover it was "empty"
MILK TRAY
"And all because the lady loves Milk Tray".
The pluckiest man on television was the chap who would leap on to moving trains, swing from a helicopter, even brave the January Sales - ''All because the lady loves Milk Tray''.
The actor performing these exploits was Australian model Gary Myers, and initially he did most of the stunts himself, before he became too valuable to risk.
He says; "I had to do some pretty hairy things. I was supposed to do the great dive into the Blue Grotto in Malta, but a stunt man had already broken his back doing it. Then there was the time I was supposed to be chased by a wolf, swing across a crevasse and land on a three-foot ledge. The producer decided to bring in a stunt man - he missed the ledge, fell fifty feet and was badly injured".
MILK TRAY CHOCOLATE BAR
A bizarre choccy bar made up of the most popular Milk Tray chocolates of the time. You had to very carefully break off the one you wanted , making sure you didn't get a bit of Turkish Delight with your Strawberry Cup.
MILKY BAR
In 1962 a puny, freckle-faced child in NHS spectacles and a cowboy suit strode through a set of saloon doors and yelled "The Milky Bars are on me".
MINSTRELS
MINTESSA
Dual-bar delight from Terry's of York featuring dark chocolate rippled over mint cream with mint crunchy sugary bits throughout.
MINT CRACKNEL
Chocolate covered shards of mint-flavoured car windshield. TV Adverts had a skiing theme (that was 1970s originality for you. Ice/snow/winter sports etc = any kind of mint choccy bar or toothpaste) and also Noel Edmonds, though possibly not together.
OLD JAMAICA
Franchised strawberry-flavoured chocolate. Pink coloured with an overbearing, sick-inducing taste.
POPPETS
REVELS
"A box of chocolates in a bag". Or for those with nut allergies, "Russian Roulette in a bag"!
ROSES
For that Christmas day pig-out!
SMARTIES
Kids counted their Smarties in 1961 and exclaimed "Wotalotigot"" . . . adding strangely, "Buy some for Lulu" (who wasn't even famous at the time!)
TOBLERONE
"...and triangular honey from triangular bees..."
TREETS
Ousted by M&Ms in the 80s. Came in three varieties - peanut (yellow bag), toffee (pale blue bag at some point) and chocolate (brown bag). Near-spherical chocolate/nut/toffee lumps, "sealed in a crispy shell". The "cred" kids version of Poppets and such - very adult-type sweets in little cardboard boxes with a cereal-box-style opening at the top. Could be stored in the inside pocket of your suit without any risk of stains.
TURKISH DELIGHT
A grown-up chocolate bar that hinted at naughty exoticism. The TV ads featured camels, sheiks, sand and semi-naked veiled women doing a belly-dance.
WORLD'S FINEST CHOCOLATE
The makers of the chocolate that you schlepped for a buck a bar to raise money for your team, club, band, school and various other geeky organizations. There was usually a coupon for Burger King or somewhere inside the wrapper as an added incentive.
YORKIE
BISCUITS MASQUERADING AS SWEETS
BANDIT
Bog-standard wafer biscuit with Bill Oddie 'gringo' advert. "You can't stand it with Bandit/Get your head off the floor/Great big bar Bandit is as big as a door!" Or something. "Oh no, the Federalés are putting it all back!"
BAR 6
Similar to Kit-Kats. Rather dull. The kind of confectionery product only ever to be found in workplace vending machines and canteens, along with ("Bridge that gap with...") Cadbury's Snack.
BLUE RIBAND
As with Bandit, a dull, dull chocolate wafer, this time with Mike "Mr. Spooner" Berry warbling the tuneless song until distressed wife hands equally pissed-off son the bar in question to take to Dad and get him to shut the f**k up. "I got those, can't get enough of those Blue Riband blues/Blue Riband's the milk chocolate wafer biscuit I always choose/When my woman treats me right/She buys me Blue Riband wafer biscuits crisp and light/I got those, can't get enough of those Bluuuuue... oh, thank you!".
CLUB BARS
"If you Like a lot of chocolate on your biscuit join our club". Wafer = Jack of Clubs; Milk Chocolate = Dark Blue wrapper with a picture of a Golf Ball; Dark Mint = Dark Green wrapper with Mint Leaf; Milk Mint = Lighter green wrapper; Plain = red wrapper . The raisin one had a picture of a bunch of grapes, and I seem to recall that the wrapper was purple.
KIT KAT
They're still around but the foil has disappeared and plastic wrappers have been introduced instead. Now the joy of embossing the Kit Kat logo into the foil with your thumb before sliding your thumb nail down the crack in the middle to snap the thing in two, is consigned to history . . .
TWIX
MINTY & FRUITY STUFF
BONKERS
A chewy fruit candy which had two colours per flavour (an outside colour and a colour hidden underneath). For example, the watermelon flavour was green with pink inside
DYNAMINTS
An obvious copy of Tic-Tacs, but with the box in a "landscape" orientation. Also in Orange, Cherry, and Grape.
FOX'S GLACIER MINTS
FRUIT GUMS
The original slogan was "Don't forget the Fruit Gums Mum!" but the powers that be forced Rowntree to change the slogan (because of unfair pressure on mums). The marketing department cleverly came up with the alternative "Don't forget the Fruit Gums, chum!".
FRUIT PASTELS
MURRAY MINTS
"The too good to hurry mints". The original Jingle was recorded by The Stargazers. Cliff Adams and the Stargazers once appeared on Sunday Night at the London Palladium and ended their act in bearskins, re-enacting the commercial on the stage. Then they threw packets of Murray Mints to the audience. It caused a sensation.
OPAL FRUITS
"Made to make your mouth water". Sadly they have now been renamed Starburst. Starburst? What was wrong with #*@%# Opal Fruits?
OPAL MINTS/PACERS
Started off with a spearmint leaf motif on the wrappers as a purely white minty alternative to Opal Fruits (with lots of ice-oriented TV advertising). Then along came a name change and then the green spearmint stripe. The adverts for the new look Pacer featured the old trusty people in white on ice skates suddenly being hit by green, at which point their t-shirts became green and white striped. Tasted like a tube of Colgate toothpaste dissolved in a swimming pool.
RUNTS
A hard candy that came in banana, orange, strawberry, apple, and lime flavours and were in the shapes of the fruit they represented.
SPANGLES
Launched in 1948 as "assorted crystal fruits", nothing on earth (and probably in space) ever tasted as weird.
"Spangles gives you three kinds of mint to choose from". Soft Centre Ice Mints, Golden Mint and Peppermint. "Suck a Spangle, be happy"
TREBOR MINTS
"Trebor Mints are a minty bit stronger" (Stick 'em up yer bum and they last a bit longer).
CHEWY STUFF
AMAZIN' RAISIN BAR
Available from 1971 to 1978. Cockney pie and mash type song - "Its amazin' what raisins can do/All that goodness and its all fo' you/You just 'ave ta do what ya gotta do/It's amazin' what raisins can dooooooooo... Oi!" Cadbury concoction of raisins and chewy stuff and rum. Yes, rum! 0% proof.
AZTEC
Cadbury's incorrect answer to the Mars bar - a simple concept that didn't last. It was a sausage of fudge with peanuts stuck to the outside. The peanuts usually fell off and it had no chocolate in it, which was unusual.
TV Adverts were filmed on location on an Aztec pyramid. Available in Britain between 1968 - 1977
BLACKJACKS
Aniseed flavoured chews made by Trebor Sharps in Maidstone, Kent.
CURLY WURLY
A soft, chewy crochet of toffee and chocolate which was advertised by a forty-year-old man (Terry Scott) dressed as a schoolboy.
FOREVER YOURS BAR
"Let's get it together" . Like a Milky Way with dark, dark chocolate and a white vanilla nougat and caramel. Good, but kind of rich after a while. Revived in 1990 as Milky Way Dark.
MARATHON
The British Cheggers-fronted TV ads, with their vox pops from cab drivers and the like ("It's nuts, nugget (sic), milk chocolate . . . in between meals it's faaahntastic!") and tempting animated "comes up peanuts - slice after slice" bar cut-up, meant more to the good folk of the UK than any weak double-entendre beginning with 's'.
It's not too late to reconsider the name change, you know...
MARS BAR
"A Mars a day helps you work, rest and play". Yes, but what about the acne and weight problems?
MILKY WAY
"The sweet you can eat between meals without spoiling your appetite". Cunning marketing ploy guys, but my mum didn't fall for it
NOW'N'LATER (banana ones!)
These things pull your fillings out (Of course, eating stuff like that will insure that you'll have fillings to begin with!)
PICNIC
Caramel and nuts (as advertised by Kenny Everett in the 1970s - "Cadbury's Picnic has so many nutty bits it won't stand up on its end! Look!" (cue bar falling over) - repackaged as Lion Bars. See also Rowntree's rival Nutty Bar.
SKYBAR
A chocolate coated bar with four "compartments", each containing a different flavoured filling; Marshmallow, Peanut butter, Caramel, and Fudge.
STRIPER
Rowntree-made chewy, striped thing with a different pseudo-fruity flavour in each stripe. "Four times the flavour, four times the chew!" ran the multi-coloured wedding advert.
TEXAN
The Mighty Chew. "A mans got to chew what a mans got to chew". "Someone should've told him - a Texan takes time a-chewin". Chocolate-covered nougat which you could stretch to the floor whilst still attached to your teeth. Red Indian/Mexican firing squad-baiting TV adverts ("Hold on there, bald eagle! You wouldn't light that fire until I open my Texan Bar, would ya?") are the stuff of legend.
TOFFO
TURKISH TAFFY
You had to smack it on the ground to break it up before you could eat it.
WHAM! BARS
Long pink chewy things with bits of yellow and green fizzy bits according to flavour. Also the highly addictive Wham! chews.
HARD STUFF
ANISEED BALLS
Much fun was to be had by sucking aniseed balls and then gobbing what appeared to be blood all over the place.
BULLS EYES
Along with Humbugs, these were every Granddad's favourite. You could crack your denture in half if you tried to do anything other than suck them though!
HUMBUGS
FIZZELS
LOVEHEARTS
Sold as being fizzy sweets (tasted like three-day old Dr Pepper) which had cute love messages on them. English girls would send them to David Cassidy and Donny Osmond addressed simply 'America'
POP ROCKS
"Action Candy" (?) that fizzed in the mouth. The big rumour going around school playgrounds all over the western world at the time was that a combination of Pop Rocks and Coca-Cola was fatal.
In the US, urban legend had it that "Mikey", a small child who appeared in commercials for Life cereal, had died after ingesting this combination!. SEE ALSO : Space Dust.
REFRESHERS
"Refreshing" how exactly?
SHERBERT DIP-DABS
A bag full of sugar with a cardboard lolly which always got soggy. The bag was yellow and red for normal sherbet and yellow and green for the lemonade version (all bags had a pic of the red lolly dipping into the sherbet).
SHERBET FLYING SAUCERS
SHERBET FOUNTAINS
Minimalist yellow paper tube full of sherbet with one woefully inadequate liquorice stick in the centre as edible 'cutlery'.
SHERBET PIPS
SPACE DUST
Came in orange or strawberry with a picture of the moon on the front of the packet. Space Dust was almost uncontrollable when combined with Pepsi, Cresta or Coca-Cola. Has been known to explode out of the nose and made a right mess. SEE ALSO : Pop Rocks
SWIZZLES
SWIZZEL'S DOUBLE DIP
From the mighty Swizzel/Matlow empire, with patented "Swizzel Stick" and those two kids on the packet. Also gave rise to the Swizzade drinkie offshoot. Free packet given away with Buster comic on the occasion of its merger with Jackpot.
ZOTZ
"Carmella gusto uva frizzante". An innocent hard candy filled with explode-in-your-mouth alka-seltzer type jizz in the centre. They came in long string-like packaging. They packed a punch, made your eyes water, and were hell if you did them on acid!
CHEAP SWEETS
MIXED SWEETS
Vast banks of penny sweets under the glass counter at the local sweet shop/tobacconist (or high on the shelves behind the shopkeeper); the little white paper bag and the decision of whether to allow the shopkeeper to choose your sweets or to pick your own 'custom' mix. "I'll have one of those . . two of those . . no . . er . . one of those . . . three of those . . no, put one back . . ."
DOLLY MIXTURES
GOBSTOPPERS/JAWBREAKERS
The one sweet that parents were happy to buy their kids - because it did exactly what it claimed to do . . . stopped your gob from speaking/moaning/complaining. Gobstoppers were massive and filled your entire mouth. They couldn't be crunched or chewed because they were just too solid. Which is why Americans called them "Jawbreakers". You can still buy them, but they're not as popular these days - mainly because they are unquestionably a choking hazard. Henry Heimlich introduced his famous manoeuvre in 1974 just as gobstoppers were at the height of their popularity. It doesn't take a genius to make the connection there.
JELLY TOTS
LUCKY BAGS/JAMBOREE BAGS
A smattering of mediocre ha'penny sweets, a fractionally more substantial piece of confectionary, and a few misshapen blobs of brightly coloured plastic (a la Christmas Cracker novelties). Also known as Jamboree bags in some parts of the South of England.
PARMA VIOLETS
SWEET CIGARETTES
Since the 1930s, Sweet Cigarettes had been popular with children. White sticks of candy with a splodge of red at one end. they came in a rough facsimile of a fag packet and even had collectable cigarette-style cards in them. But attitudes to smoking were changing, and by the end of the 1970s, sweet cigarettes became 'candy sticks' and the red tip disappeared.
SWEET NECKLACES AND WATCHES
Made up of a thin piece of elastic threaded with these rock hard Love Heart type sweets. Excellent weapons when holding the sweet between your teeth and stretching the elastic in a catapult fashion, biting hard and firing at people, cars or low-flying aircraft.
SWEET PRAWNS
Possibly the most bizarre idea ever - why were these soft pink sweets shaped like prawns? SEE ALSO : Sweet Dentures/False Teeth.
BUBBLE GUM/CHEWING GUM
BAZOOKA
Had a tiny cartoon strip between the wrapper and the gum. There were also things you could buy (like . . . er . . spy cameras?!?).
BUBBLE TAPE
The original container was like a chewing tobacco canister. Eventually the manufacturer became PC and the tobacco box went and the box was fashioned into a tape dispenser.
Originally came in grape, bubble gum, and cherry. Other flavours followed.
BUBBLY
From Anglo-American Chewing Gum Ltd, Halifax, Yorkshire. (pictured at right).
BUBS DADDY
Chewing gum that came in a long stick? The smell of the sour apple was enough to make you gag.
FRESHEN-UP
Chewing gum pieces that had thick liquid gloop in the middle. That wonderful liquid centre ran down your throat.
The chewing gum part was pretty second rate, but the gloop was ace.
HUBBA BUBBA
Bazooka's late entry into the soft bubble gum market. Very short lived.
MISCELLANEOUS & BIZARRE
Very sweet, pellet-shaped candy in a box.
GARBAGE CANDY
Sweet-Tart candy in the shapes of pieces of rubbish, all in a plastic garbage can.
GUMMI BEARS
Stormed the sweet market in the early 80s in assorted colours and flavours. Depending on the brand they were either super soft or rock hard.
HANKY PANKY
Vaguely breast-shaped sweet popcorn which had Arthur Lowe in the TV ads, sat on a park bench beside a dolly bird indulging in double entendre. "Would you care for a bit of Hanky Panky?" SLAP! "I was only offering you a little nibble!" BIG SLAP!...etc.
MELODY POPS
Had a picture of a bird on the wrapper. The music was played by moving a stick located in a hollow area of the plastic stick the sucker was attached to while blowing in the top (like a recorder).
PEZ
Created in 1927 by Austrian, Eduard Haas. It was originally a small candy mint which he named after pfefferminz (the German word for peppermint). The peppermints were stored in a small tin and sold well for more than 20 years as an alternative to cigarettes for people trying to quit smoking. In an effort to boost sales, the first Pez dispensers were introduced in 1948. The original dispensers did not have the trademark heads - These were introduced in 1952.
SPANISH GOLD
A small rectangular red packet, supposed to resemble an old seafaring type blokes brand of tobacco. Open up the pack and you are greeted with some brown wormy looking stuff that was trying to look like tobacco - not particularly visually appealing to a small child but the taste was sweet as sugar (that would probably have been the sugar) with perhaps a hint of coconut. Oh the taste...
VAGUE MEMORIES
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Which famous character in commercials was played by John Hewer | BBC News | UK | I liked the slogan so much...
Wednesday, 30 May, 2001, 10:32 GMT 11:32 UK
I liked the slogan so much...
The Eva Herzigova Wonderbra campaign is a legend in advertising circles
Victor Kiam, the man who coined the slogan: "I liked the shaver so much, I bought the company" for his Remington firm, has died aged 74. BBC News Online's Jenny Matthews looks back at some other advertising slogans which have stuck in the collective mind of the British public.
"I liked it so much, I bought the company," was what made Victor Kiam and Remington shavers famous in 1979.
It was corny and cheap - no expensive actors or fancy special effects - but it was effective and is still one of the most remembered advertising campaigns the UK has ever seen.
In fact, catch phrases such as Kiam's have proved so effective, UK advertisers alone now spend �15bn a year hammering home messages such as "the future's Orange" or "men can't help acting on Impulse".
Victor Kiam...a man who knew how to sell
Arguably, it all began with a slogan so powerful it is still familiar to children more than 85 years later.
That was Lord Kitchener persuading millions of Britons to enlist for the First World War with the stirring poster "Your Country Needs You".
Slogans created in the 1930s for brewer Guinness (still cranking them out in 2001, with lines such as "good things come to those who wait") have also lasted the course.
Dozens of websites remain devoted to whether the famous suggestion "Guinness is good for you" is actually true.
The combination of slogan and visual effect stirred millions into enlisting
But catchy advertising slogans as we know them really took off in the 1950s, with the advent of commercial television.
The first television ad - for Gibbs SR toothpaste - relied on icy visuals rather than the underwhelming "tingling fresh" slogan for effect.
But the era did bring us Rice Krispies' "snap, crackle and pop" and numerous hummable ditties like "Murray Mints, Murray Mints - too good to hurry mints".
Going to work on a slogan
Author Fay Weldon provided possibly the most famous catchphrase of the 1960s, transforming life for the Eggs Marketing Board with the effective "go to work on an egg".
It was the decade of "only the crumbliest, flakiest chocolate", "shhh...you know who", "beanz meaning Heinz".
One of the early advertising success stories
But the heyday of the British advertising slogan came in the 1970s.
This was the decade of Heineken's "refreshes the part other beers cannot reach", Martini's "anytime, anyplace, anywhere", and the "naughty but nice" slogan for cream cakes, coined by author Salman Rushdie, then a humble advertising copywriter.
In 1974 came the TV debut of toy Martians advertising Cadbury's instant mashed potato, with their catchphrase "for mash get Smash".
This ad got so much fanmail the agency behind it had to prepare special literature to send out in reply.
"For mash get Smash" : the experts' favourite
In 1999 it was voted advert of the century by a panel of industry experts, for its creativity and effectiveness.
Creatives of the 1970s also came up with one of the earliest examples of sexual innuendo in advertising, with Harmony Hairspray's "Is she or isn't she?"
In the 1980s pop or classical tunes were used so successfully that the music almost became, in some instances, the slogan.
We still don't know, but we bought the hairspray
Many still find it difficult to hear Puccini without trilling "Just one Cornetto, give it to me - delicious ice cream, from Italy".
The 1990s was the decade of "Papa! Nicole!", "ambassador, you're spoiling us", and knowing when you've been Tangoed.
But it was also the decade when advertisers came under severe scrutiny for increased levels of sexual innuendo.
Cars came to a screeching halt across the country with the 1994 Playtex Wonderbra campaign featuring Eva Herzigova's cleavage and the slogan "Hello Boys".
Tell us what your favourite slogan is - and which ones have you grinding your teeth in irritation.
It is disappointing to see that this article missed out on two of the most catchy and impactful slogans of all times: ' A pinta milka day' and 'Unzip a banana'
While the former targets children, the latter falls under the 'sexual innuendo'chapter. In fact I believe it is the most clever one of all.
Here's to the resurrection of slogans in the 21st century!
Walid Ghazzaoui, UAE
Thompson's Waterseal "Don't say I didn't warn you!" and Ronseal's "It does exactly what it says on the tin."
IA Team, SUHT, England
I can't stand the adverts for computers, especially the ones for the company I work for! However, it is the Pentel Pentium Processor tune that really gets my goat! I have to turn the sound off when that bit comes on.
Andy Halliwell, Germany
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In which city could you visit The Louvre | Do You Know Where the Louvre Is?
Do You Know Where the Louvre Is?
By CARYN ROUSSEAU, Associated Press Writer
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What city would you visit to tour the Louvre?
If you answered Paris, you're doing better than two-thirds of the teenagers surveyed in a study commissioned by the AAA Travel High School Challenge, an annual contest and scholarship program.
Thirty-three percent of those surveyed got it right. Another third said they didn't know where the famed museum is located, while 14 percent guessed London and 12 percent guessed New York.
Asked where New Orleans is located, 62 percent correctly identified Louisiana, but only 16 percent knew that Biloxi is in Mississippi.
Just over half recognized Italy as the home country for Turin, where the Winter Olympics were held.
The survey of 250 boys and 255 girls ages 12-17 was conducted by phone, March 23-26, using a database of households with teenagers. The margin of error is 3-4 percent.
The AAA Travel High School Challenge finals will be held May 14-15 at Universal Orlando. Details at .
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In which Italian city would you find the Uffizi Gallery | Audio guided visit of the Louvre Museum - PARISCityVISION
Visit of the Louvre with Audioguide
(4 reviews)
Description
Upon arrival to the agency, we will give you : your entry ticket valid until closing of the museum, your audio guide to allow you to listen to recorded commentaries about the museum's greatest works and a route map suggesting various possible itineraries to organize your free tour. Themed visits or itineraries taking in the major works : the Venus de Milo, the Coronation of Napoleon I and Leonardo de Vinci's Mona Lisa.
All audio guides must be returned after a maximum of 3 hours.
End of the tour at the Louvre museum.
Commentary in : French, English, Spanish, German, Italian, Portuguese, Russian, Chinese Mandarin, Japenese, Korean
Please note :
Audio guide with recorded commentary for the Louvre Museum : a deposit of 32 euros per audioguide will be required at the agency upon the departure. You will need to return the audioguide at the agency at the end of the tour, the deposit will then be given back to you.
Compulsory cloakroom at the Louvre museum for large bags, buggies and umbrellas
This tour is not suitable for people with reduced mobility (tour on foot)
The Louvre Museum closes at 10.00 PM on Wednesdays and Fridays and at 6.00 PM on other open days
The price includes:
Entrance ticket to the Louvre Museum
Map with tour itineraries and visit advice
Further information on your confirmation voucher:
You will receive your confirmation and your tour voucher in 2 separate emails. Please print your tour voucher and present it to the PARISCityVISION office on the day of your departure.
Copyright: Cour Marly, département des sculptures © 2003 Musée du Louvre Erich Lessing ; Sphinx royal, département des Antiquités Egyptiennes © Musée du Louvre, dist. RMN Christian Décamps
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In which London square is the National Gallery | 🌟 National Gallery + Trafalgar Square - London - 3 de 3 | Juliana Finamore - YouTube
🌟 National Gallery + Trafalgar Square - London - 3 de 3 | Juliana Finamore
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Published on Jul 31, 2016
Dei um pulinho ali na National Gallery de Londres e uma voltinha na Trafalgar Square que é justo em frente e levei vocês comigo, espero que gostem =)
Quer me seguir fora do youtube?
● Instagram: jubense
| Trafalgar Square |
In which city is the Albertina art gallery | Trafalgar Square, London
Trafalgar Square
5
600 votes
Trafalgar Square, the largest square in London, is often considered the heart of the city. Ever since the Middle Ages, this area has been a central meeting place. In the middle of the square stands a tall column honoring admiral Nelson.
Trafalgar Square
The square was originally called Charing. Later it became known as Charing Cross, after a memorial cross on the square. The nearby underground station (the 'tube') is still named Charing Cross.
History
From the thirteenth century on the area was the site of the King's Royal Hawks and later the Royal Mews . In 1812 the Prince Regent - who would later become King George IV - asked architect John Nash to redevelop the area. After much delay work finally started in 1830. Nash had the terrain cleared but he died before his plans were realized and works were halted.
Nelson's Column
The completion of the National Gallery in 1838 on the north side of the square reignited interest in its redevelopment. A new design by architect Charles Barry (best known for his Houses of Parliament ), which consisted of two levels separated by a monumental flight of stairs was approved and construction started in 1840. Five years later the square was finally completed.
Nelson's Column
The name of the square commemorates the victory of Admiral Horatio Lord Nelson over the French fleet at the Battle of Trafalgar, a naval battle that took place on the 21st of October 1805 near Cape Trafalgar, just off the Spanish coast.
Initially there were no plans for a statue in honor of the admiral, who lost his life during the battle. Instead, a statue of King William IV was planned. Eventually, in 1838, it was decided that Trafalgar Square was the ideal place for a monument to Britain's most famous admiral and a competition was organized to select a design for the 'Nelson Testimonial'.
Landseer Lion
The winner of the competition was William Railton, who proposed a fifty-two meter tall (170ft) Corinthian column and statue. The column was built between 1841 and 1843. On top of the column stands a five and a halve (18ft) tall statue of Lord Nelson, created by Edward Hodges. At the base of the column are four huge lions modeled by Sir Edwin Landseer. They were added later, in 1868.
Statues
James Napier
King Charles I
In the four corners of the lower level of Trafalgar Square stand four plinths. The plinth in the north-east carries the equestrian statue of George IV, installed here in 1843. The statue of the king was created by Francis Chantrey for the Marble Arch but was instead placed here.
In the south-west corner stands a statue of Charles Napier, a military leader best known for his time as commander-in-chief in India. The statue, by George Gamon Adams, was installed in 1856. On the western side is the statue of Henry Havelock, another military leader who spent much of his career in India. His statue was created in 1861 by William Behnes.
For over 150 years the plinth in the north-west corner of Trafalgar Square, commonly known as the 'Fourth Plinth', remained empty. It was intended to hold an equestrian statue of King William IV. A failure to gather sufficient funds for its construction meant it was never realized. In 1999 it was decided to use the plinth for the temporary display of modern sculpture.
There are several more statues in and around Trafalgar Square. The most interesting is the equestrian statue of King Charles I, which occupies the middle of a small traffic circle just south of Nelson's Column .
It is the oldest equestrian statue in London, created in 1633 by the French sculptor Hubert Le Sueur. After the execution of Charles I in 1649 the Parliament ordered the statue to be melted down. The brazier assigned with this task instead hid the statue and sold it back to King Charles II after the English monarchy was restored.
Fountains
Trafalgar Square Fountain
The first fountains at Trafalgar Square were installed as part of its development in the nineteenth century. They were replaced by the two current fountains, created in 1939 as a memorial to David Beatty and John Rushworth Jellicoe, admirals of the Royal Navy. The fountains were designed by architect Edwin Lutyens and are decorated with sculptures of dolphins, mermaids and small sharks.
National Gallery
National Gallery
On the north side the neoclassical National Gallery , built between 1834 and 1838, overlooks Trafalgar Square from its elevated position.
The museum is home to an impressive collection of paintings, spanning six centuries. You can admire works from some of the world's most famous painters, including Rubens, Vermeer, van Gogh, Titian, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Renoir and Claude Monet.
St. Martin-in-the-Fields
St. Martin-in-the-Fields
At the north-east corner of Trafalgar Square is the St. Martin-in-the-Fields parish church. It is one of the most famous churches in London, partly thanks to its prominent location at one of the busiest areas in the city.
The church, with a large white steeple and neoclassical portico, was built in 1721 by James Gibbs and was used as a model for many churches, particularly in the United States. It is the fourth church at this site; the first was built in the thirteenth century. At the time this area was still rural, hence its name.
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Which southern state is patrolled by Deputy Dawg | Deputy Dawg | The Terrytoons Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia
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The Character
Deputy Dawg is a Terrytoons cartoon character featured on the animated television series of the same name from 1959 through 1972. The cartoons are seven minutes long, and were packaged four at a time and shown as a half-hour program in syndication . The show was produced by CBS and was the professional animation debut of Ralph Bakshi (as inbetweener) of Fritz the Cat fame.
thumb|right|300px|Theme Song, Bumpers and Credit Song The character of Deputy Dawg (a dog ) is a deputy sheriff in the Mississippi bayous of the United States . The other main characters are the 'varmints' Muskie Muskrat , Moley Mole , Possible 'Possum , Ty Coon , Vincent van Gopher , Pig Newton, and Dawg's boss the Sheriff, as well as Mrs. Deputy. Deputy Dawg was voiced by Dayton Allen , a prolific Hollywood voice actor who voiced many Terrytoons characters in television and theatrical shorts in the 1950s and 1960s.
Much of the comedy is sight gag /action based with some focused around comical accents and stereotypical southern characteristics. Many of the storylines involve Deputy Dawg protecting his produce from Muskie and Vince, battling with some of the peculiar locals and trying to please the Sheriff. However, most of the crimes committed by Muskie and Vince weren't treated seriously, and Deputy Dawg was on friendly terms with them most of the time (except when he had to perform his duties as a lawman and keep them from causing trouble). Deputy Dawg would pal around with Muskie and Vince just as often as he would lock them up in the Jailhouse, and the trio would often engage in their favorite pastime, fishin' for catfish.
The central location for many of the yarns is the Jailhouse.
Gallery
| Mississippi |
Where does Homer Simpson work | Reviews (1)
Finally, the classic 1960s cartoon Deputy Dawg has been released on an exclusive DVD Box Set.The set contains all 99 episodes plus 5 ultra-rare short films!
Deputy Dawg is a Terrytoons cartoon character featured on the animated television series of the same name in an original TV weekly run from 8 September 1962 to 25 May 1963, with no episodes on 8 Dec to 29 Dec 1962 resuming on 5 January 1963.
The cartoons are between four and six minutes long, and were packaged three at a time and shown as a half-hour program in syndication . The show was produced by CBS and was the professional animation debut of Ralph Bakshi (as inbetweener) of Fritz the Cat fame.
The character of Deputy Dawg (a dog ) is a deputy sheriff in the Mississippi bayous of the United States .
The other main characters are the 'varmints' Muskie Muskrat , Moley Mole , Possible 'Possum , Ty Coon , Vincent van Gopher , Pig Newton, and Dawg's boss the Sheriff, as well as Mrs. Deputy. Deputy Dawg was voiced by Dayton Allen , a prolific Hollywood voice actor who voiced many Terrytoons characters in television and theatrical shorts in the 1950s and 1960s.
Much of the comedy is sight gag /action based with some focused around comical accents and stereotypical southern characteristics. Many of the storylines involve Deputy Dawg protecting his produce from Muskie and Vince, battling with some of the peculiar locals and trying to please the Sheriff.
However, most of the crimes committed by Muskie and Vince weren't treated seriously, and Deputy Dawg was on friendly terms with them most of the time (except when he had to perform his duties as a lawman and keep them from causing trouble). Deputy Dawg would pal around with Muskie and Vince just as often as he would lock them up in the Jailhouse, and the trio would often engage in their favorite pastime, fishin' for catfish.
* These DVDs are region free so the will play on any DVD player Worldwide and DVD-Rom, X-Box or PS2 worldwide, they come with artwork and are boxed.
Order now and get a chance to relive your nostalgic memories of this classic cartoon!
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What is the name given to a professional rose grower | American Rose Society
A wealth of rose wisdom is at your fingertips
with our in-depth library of helpful advice!
Here you will find all types of roses in different
regions, along with seasonal information.
Explore our offerings and discover something
now that will help you save time — and effort!
while rewarding you with beautiful roses!
The American Rose Society has access to the
top rosarians in the country who are here to help
you grow your roses! Explore our video library to
learn, by seeing and hearing, from experts in the
field; well actually the rose garden!
| List of rose breeders |
Which garden plants are also known as cranebills | American Rose Society
A wealth of rose wisdom is at your fingertips
with our in-depth library of helpful advice!
Here you will find all types of roses in different
regions, along with seasonal information.
Explore our offerings and discover something
now that will help you save time — and effort!
while rewarding you with beautiful roses!
The American Rose Society has access to the
top rosarians in the country who are here to help
you grow your roses! Explore our video library to
learn, by seeing and hearing, from experts in the
field; well actually the rose garden!
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Liquid tomato fertiliser is rich in which plant food | How To Fertilize Tomato Plants | Veggie Gardener
Home » Growing Tomatoes » How To Fertilize Tomato Plants
How To Fertilize Tomato Plants
Posted on May 10, 2009 by Admin in Growing Tomatoes // 0 Comments
Tweet
Tomatoes are vigorous, fast growing, and heavy feeding plants which require fertilization a few times during the season. Tomatoes have specific nutritional needs such as nitrogen, phosphate, potash, calcium, magnesium, potassium and other micro-nutrients to build cell wall structure and increase plant vigor.
There has been much debate about what kind of fertilizer to use, how often to use it, and how to apply it. Here I will explain how I fertilize my tomato plants and what kind of fertilizers I use. I have always had very good results using these methods – producing robust tomato plants and a bountiful harvest.
Fertilizers I Use for Tomato Plants
When fertilizing tomato plants I use two types of fertilizer – granule and a liquid fertilizer. The granule fertilizer is Tomato-tone Organic Fertilizer , made by Espoma. I prefer to use Tomato-tone because it has a 3-4-6 guaranteed analysis and features over 3 million beneficial colony-forming microbes per pound. These beneficial microbes help to provide healthy soil which results in stronger roots and a better tomato plant. The 3-4-6 nitrogen, phosphate, potash make-up is ideal for producing large, plump tomatoes. Tomato-tone supplies calcium, magnesium and sulfur for an added tomato boost.
You can check out my review of Tomato-tone , as well.
Another granular tomato fertilizer that works very well is Tomatoes Alive! made by Gardens Alive. It is very similar to Tomato-tone and has a 6-2-2 guaranteed analysis of nitrogen, phosphate and potash.
The liquid fertilizer I use for my tomatoes is fish emulsion . Fish emulsion is just what it sounds like – emulsified fish. It boasts a 5-1-1 guaranteed analysis and will not burn plants like granular fertilizers. This is a great product for giving any plant a boost. A warning though – this stuff stinks to high heaven, so be prepared. The smell is worth the results!
Click here to compare prices on the best organic tomato fertilizers!
How I Apply the Fertilizers
First thing I do is to gather up the products and tools I will be using – here they are:
the bag of Tomato-tone
the bottle of fish emulsion
a clean bucket or watering can
water
a plastic fork
That’s it!
Next I use 2 capfuls of fish emulsion for every gallon of water in the watering can, then fill the can with water, mixing the fish emulsion. Now my watering solution is ready to go.
I use mulch around my tomatoes, so I need to pull the mulch away from the stem to form a circle about 4 inches all the way around the plant.
I take a good handful of the Tomato-tone and sprinkle it all the way around the plant, forming a fertilizer circle. I want the fertilizer to be about 3 inches away from the stem. NEVER let the fertilizer touch the plant stem.
Next I take the plastic fork and gently work the fertilizer into the first couple inches of soil. I am careful on this step not to go so deep that I may damage any plant roots. That would be bad. I just gently chop the plastic fork up and down, working my way around the stem.
Once I have finished working in the fertilizer, I give the area a good drink of the fish emulsion/water solution. I like to give the plant a good soaking of at least a half gallon per plant.
After the watering is complete, I replace the mulch back around the plant and viola! my tomato plant is fertilized and on its way to a promising growing season. I then repeat the steps for all my tomato plants.
I like to give my tomatoes a good watering of the fish emulsion mix about once every two weeks and use the Tomato-tone fertilizer once a month. Once the plants begin to fruit, I may give them a light dusting of Tomato-tone every 15 days or as needed if the plants are producing heavily.
Tomato-tone and fish emulsion can be used in the same way for peppers and eggplant since they have primarily the same needs as tomatoes.
Check Out These Great Organic Tomatoes & Fertilizers!
| Potash |
To what plant did botanist Leonard Fuchs give his name | How To Fertilize Tomato Plants | Veggie Gardener
Home » Growing Tomatoes » How To Fertilize Tomato Plants
How To Fertilize Tomato Plants
Posted on May 10, 2009 by Admin in Growing Tomatoes // 0 Comments
Tweet
Tomatoes are vigorous, fast growing, and heavy feeding plants which require fertilization a few times during the season. Tomatoes have specific nutritional needs such as nitrogen, phosphate, potash, calcium, magnesium, potassium and other micro-nutrients to build cell wall structure and increase plant vigor.
There has been much debate about what kind of fertilizer to use, how often to use it, and how to apply it. Here I will explain how I fertilize my tomato plants and what kind of fertilizers I use. I have always had very good results using these methods – producing robust tomato plants and a bountiful harvest.
Fertilizers I Use for Tomato Plants
When fertilizing tomato plants I use two types of fertilizer – granule and a liquid fertilizer. The granule fertilizer is Tomato-tone Organic Fertilizer , made by Espoma. I prefer to use Tomato-tone because it has a 3-4-6 guaranteed analysis and features over 3 million beneficial colony-forming microbes per pound. These beneficial microbes help to provide healthy soil which results in stronger roots and a better tomato plant. The 3-4-6 nitrogen, phosphate, potash make-up is ideal for producing large, plump tomatoes. Tomato-tone supplies calcium, magnesium and sulfur for an added tomato boost.
You can check out my review of Tomato-tone , as well.
Another granular tomato fertilizer that works very well is Tomatoes Alive! made by Gardens Alive. It is very similar to Tomato-tone and has a 6-2-2 guaranteed analysis of nitrogen, phosphate and potash.
The liquid fertilizer I use for my tomatoes is fish emulsion . Fish emulsion is just what it sounds like – emulsified fish. It boasts a 5-1-1 guaranteed analysis and will not burn plants like granular fertilizers. This is a great product for giving any plant a boost. A warning though – this stuff stinks to high heaven, so be prepared. The smell is worth the results!
Click here to compare prices on the best organic tomato fertilizers!
How I Apply the Fertilizers
First thing I do is to gather up the products and tools I will be using – here they are:
the bag of Tomato-tone
the bottle of fish emulsion
a clean bucket or watering can
water
a plastic fork
That’s it!
Next I use 2 capfuls of fish emulsion for every gallon of water in the watering can, then fill the can with water, mixing the fish emulsion. Now my watering solution is ready to go.
I use mulch around my tomatoes, so I need to pull the mulch away from the stem to form a circle about 4 inches all the way around the plant.
I take a good handful of the Tomato-tone and sprinkle it all the way around the plant, forming a fertilizer circle. I want the fertilizer to be about 3 inches away from the stem. NEVER let the fertilizer touch the plant stem.
Next I take the plastic fork and gently work the fertilizer into the first couple inches of soil. I am careful on this step not to go so deep that I may damage any plant roots. That would be bad. I just gently chop the plastic fork up and down, working my way around the stem.
Once I have finished working in the fertilizer, I give the area a good drink of the fish emulsion/water solution. I like to give the plant a good soaking of at least a half gallon per plant.
After the watering is complete, I replace the mulch back around the plant and viola! my tomato plant is fertilized and on its way to a promising growing season. I then repeat the steps for all my tomato plants.
I like to give my tomatoes a good watering of the fish emulsion mix about once every two weeks and use the Tomato-tone fertilizer once a month. Once the plants begin to fruit, I may give them a light dusting of Tomato-tone every 15 days or as needed if the plants are producing heavily.
Tomato-tone and fish emulsion can be used in the same way for peppers and eggplant since they have primarily the same needs as tomatoes.
Check Out These Great Organic Tomatoes & Fertilizers!
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What is the currency of Switzerland | Currency - Switzerland Tourism
Currency
The best hotels
Currency
Please note that Switzerland remains with the Swiss franc, usually indicated as CHF. While Switzerland is not part of the European Union and thus is not obliged to convert to the Euro, many prices are nonetheless indicated in euros so that visitors may compare prices.
Merchants may accept euros but are not obliged to do so. Change given back to the client will most likely be in Swiss francs.
The Swiss franc comes in the following denominations:
| Swiss franc |
In American slang how much is a sawbuck | 7 biggest losers from Swiss currency blowout - Jan. 16, 2015
7 biggest losers from Swiss currency blowout
by Alanna Petroff @AlannaPetroff January 16, 2015: 10:48 AM ET
The franc's ripple effect on European markets
Switzerland's decision to remove its currency peg on the franc is expected to wreak havoc on certain industries -- and unlucky individuals.
The value of the franc has soared since the announcement , up by about 22% versus the euro and nearly 20% versus the U.S. dollar.
Here's a roundup of the biggest losers from this unexpected move:
1. Swiss watchmakers (and collectors): Watchmakers including Rolex, TAG Heuer, Richemont and Swatch ( SWGAY ) will see costs skyrocket in Switzerland, where they do most -- if not all -- of their design and manufacturing work.
But Swiss bank UBS ( UBS ) notes that watchmakers should ultimately be able to pass those higher costs on to their customers.
The Swatch Group's CEO, Nick Hayek, was less optimistic. He said the central bank decision on the franc is akin to a "tsunami" that will hit exporters and the entire nation.
2. The Swiss economy: Switzerland's economic growth projections are being slashed as economists worry that a higher franc will hit exporters and usher in deflation.
UBS predicts the Swiss economy will expand by just 0.5% in 2015, down from an earlier projection of 1.8%. Expectations for 2016 have also been lowered, down to 1.1% from 1.7%.
3. Chocolate companies (and chocolate lovers): Shares in Lindt & Sprungli tumbled by as much as 8% on the Swiss stock exchange.
Kathleen Brooks, a research director at Forex.com, jokingly recommends stockpiling Lindt chocolate balls.
"A stronger franc could force the retailer to put up its ... prices to protect its profits."
But Lindt told CNNMoney that is has eight production facilities outside Switzerland, which will "somewhat compensate [for] the disadvantages of the strong Swiss franc."
Lovers of artisanal Swiss cheese may also want to stock up.
4. Roger Federer: The Swiss tennis star, who is an official spokesperson for a variety of Swiss companies, including Lindt and Rolex, may find that his earnings get squeezed.
Winning tennis prizes in other countries won't be nearly as lucrative when he exchanges the money for francs.
Tennis star Roger Federer and chocolate company Lindt are expected to suffer from a higher franc.
5. Tourists: If you had grand plans to go skiing in Switzerland this year, be prepared to pay more.
The tourism industry across Switzerland is expected to suffer as prospective visitors opt for other destinations.
6. Polish mortgage holders: Poles have taken out about 30 billion euros ($35 billion) worth of franc-denominated mortgages, according to the Financial Times .
If the franc continues to trade around its current level, average mortgage repayment costs could surge by about 17%. This raises concerns about a jump in mortgage defaults.
7. Currency traders: Currency brokers are bleeding after clients endured heavy losses from the unexpected market gyrations.
Interactive Brokers Group ( IBKR ) said its customers lost around $120 million due to the sudden move in the franc. Shares in the company sank Friday.
Meanwhile, FXCM ( FXCM ), a leading global currency broker, said it may not have enough capital to continue trading after its clients suffered significant losses.
CNNMoney (London) First published January 16, 2015: 10:48 AM ET
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What is the name of Germany's central bank | Germany's Central Bank and the Eurozone - Council on Foreign Relations
Council on Foreign Relations
Germany's Central Bank and the Eurozone
Connect With Us:
Germany's Central Bank and the Eurozone
Author: Christopher Alessi
Additional Resources
Introduction
The German Bundesbank was established in 1957 as the world's first fully independent central bank with a simple but all-encompassing mandate: to keep the price of the German deutsche mark stable by limiting inflation. The Bundesbank's anti-inflationary ethos stems from a searing recollection of the hyperinflation Germany endured amid the 1920s economic crisis, which ultimately triggered lasting political and social turmoil. Due to its political independence and unwavering commitment to its mandate, the Bundesbank became the most powerful central bank in Europe in the second half of the twentieth century--and, ultimately, the model upon which the European Central Bank was constructed when the eurozone came into being more than a decade ago. While the Bundesbank's power has since been curtailed, its president remains a key player in crafting eurozone monetary policy at the ECB. However, in the wake of the eurozone sovereign debt crisis, the Bundesbank has been increasingly at odds with ECB, accusing it of overstepping its mandate and monetizing debt through its government bond buying programs.
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History and Structure
The Bank Deutsche Länder was the central banking system established in western Germany by the United States and the other allied powers in 1948, which ultimately evolved into the autonomous Bundesbank with the Bundesbank Act of 1957. The legislation enshrined the newly developed central bank's independence by giving it complete control over German monetary policy (or control over the money supply), leaving fiscal policymaking (or matters related to taxes and government spending) to elected officials. Largely free from political interference, the Bundesbank's primary task through the 1990s was to control inflation and ensure the stability of the deutsche mark, the country's postwar currency. The bank "gives priority to monetary stability and central bank independence, while sound public finances and free competition provide the prerequisites for economic growth," explains Daniela Schwarzer , a senior associate at the German Institute for International and Security Affairs and a visiting fellow at Harvard University's Weatherhead Center.
In addition to regulating the "amount of currency and credit in circulation," the Bundesbank has achieved its goal of price stability by setting both monetary and inflation targets, explain Richard H. Clarida and Mark Gertler in their paper "How the Bundesbank Conducts Monetary Policy." By pursuing this narrow mandate, the Bundesbank helped keep German inflation relatively low and spur economic growth in the post-War period, instituting a new paradigm for central banking in Europe and throughout the world.
Bundesbank President Jens Weidmann at the bank's headquarters. (Photo: Alex Domanski/Courtesy Reuters)
The Bundesbank Council--or Zentralbankrat--is the primary policymaking body of the bank, and its arrangement "reflects Germany's federal structure," writes André Szász for the book The History of the Bundesbank: Lessons for the European Central Bank .Below the Council sits the Directorate and its president and vice president, who are nominated by the federal government, and the Land--or regional--central banks and their presidents, who are nominated by the Land governments. The council "consists of up to eight members of the Directorate and the presidents of the Land central banks," explains Szász. By way of comparison, Clarida and Gertler liken the Bundesbank Council to the U.S. Federal Reserve's Open Market Committee, adding that "from the perspective of political independence, any differences between the institutional setup of the Bundesbank and the Federal Reserve are not dramatic."
"Germany had a long and really ugly history of monetary instability that the Bundesbank had going for it." -- David Laidler, University of Western Ontario
Despite the Bundesbank's legal independence, it was not immune from German politics and was required to cultivate public support for its aims in order to maintain that independence. In the early years of the bank, the Bundesbank and its supporters tapped into the collective German memory of hyperinflation and the ensuing social unrest after World War I that led to the Nazi era, explains David Laidler of the University of Western Ontario. During World War I, Germany decoupled the mark from the gold standard and printed large quantities of banknotes in order to pay for the mounting costs of the war, ultimately triggering unprecedented inflation. In 1914, the dollar was worth 4.2 marks; in 1923, it was worth a staggering 4.2 trillion marks. "Germany had a long and really ugly history of monetary instability that the Bundesbank had going for it," says Laidler. Similarly, writes Jörg Bibow in the essay "On the Origin and Rise of Central Bank Independence in West Germany" (PDF), the Bundesbank's role "as a political actor in its own right and in carving public opinion should not be underestimated in explaining a peculiar German tradition that was finally exported to Europe in the 1990s."
Moreover, in the complicated postwar years in Germany, the country's stable currency became an important political symbol, Schwarzer suggests. "'National pride,' which seemed displaced after the Second World War, was replaced by the pride in Germany's economic success," she says.
Bretton Woods and the Bundesbank
The goal of the Bretton Woods international monetary system, established in 1944, was to "avoid a repetition of the economic chaos that had followed the First World War and done so much to precipitate the second," writes Laidler in an essay for the 2009 book Monetary Policy Over Fifty Years: Experiences and Lessons . Participating nations fixed their exchange rates by binding their currencies to the U.S. dollar, which was, in turn, linked to gold. As Laidler writes in his essay, the system "implied that stability of the exchange rate rather than of prices was the key goal." This tenet ultimately posed a significant challenge for the Bundesbank as the German economy gained strength and demand for its exports grew throughout the 1960s. "The Bundesbank was compelled ever more frequently to intervene in the foreign exchange market in order to counter appreciation pressures on the D-Mark," writes former Bundesbank president Axel Weber in Monetary Policy Over Fifty Years. As such, Weber explains, the bank was, for a period, torn between allowing the deutsche mark to appreciate vis-à-vis the dollar for the sake of external exchange rate stability and maintaining internal price stability at the expense of the international monetary order.
While the Bretton Woods system disintegrated in large part due to the Smithsonian Agreement of 1971, followed by former U.S. president Richard Nixon's unilateral decisions to de-link the dollar from gold and subsequently adopt a flexible exchange rate in 1973, the Bundesbank also played a role in the monetary order's demise. In the face of high U.S. inflation in 1969, the Bundesbank revalued the deutsche mark in order to limit the risk of external inflationary pressures. "The first nail went into the coffin [of Bretton Woods] when the Bundesbank and the Swiss National Bank and a few others broke away from the U.S. dollar in the face of U.S. inflation in the late 1960s," Laidler says.
In the first half of the 1970s, inflation, fueled in part by the 1973 oil crisis, rose throughout the developed world, including in Germany. But while inflation in the UK, for example, peaked at above 25 percent, in Germany it peaked at around 8 percent. Indeed, as Markus K. Brunnermeier of Princeton University explains, the Bundesbank's deft handling of that crisis solidified its role as an unrivaled paradigm for central banking around the world.
A Model for the ECB
"The ECB was the Bundesbank 2.0, but even a bit stronger in terms of its independence."--Daniel Gros, Center for European Policy Studies
Following the collapse of Bretton Woods, European nations took steps to create a new monetary order in Europe and to harmonize their exchange rates. Most significantly, they established the European Monetary System in 1979, which employed an Exchange Rate Mechanism to stabilize exchange rates between European member countries, including Germany. The EMS was the precursor to the Economic and Monetary Union that was formalized in the Maastricht Treaty of 1992 . The EMU paved the way for the establishment of the eurozone and the European Central Bank , the ultimate successor to the Bundesbank. "The ECB was the Bundesbank 2.0, but even a bit stronger in terms of its independence," explains Daniel Gros , director of the Center for European Policy Studies. Indeed, the ECB's goals of price stability and independence were written into the Maastricht Treaty.
"The whole plan of the ECB was essentially to bring the reputation of the Bundesbank to the ECB," explains Brunnermeier. Indeed, throughout the 1980s, the "prevailing paradigm" of monetary policy had shifted from a Keynesian one, which sees a role for government intervention, to a Monetarist one, which favors a more laissez-faire approach, argues the London School of Economics' Paul De Grauwe . To achieve price stability, an institutional design ensured that the central bank was governed by unelected technocrats who fell outside the purview of political accountability. The Bundesbank fit the bill, and, as such, Germany had a strong strategic advantage when negotiating its accession to the EMU, De Grauwe argues. Germany was able to insist that if it were to join the eurozone, the ECB would be designed as a "close copy of the Bundesbank," he says.
The Bundesbank and the Euro Crisis
While the Bundesbank president only has one vote on the governing council of the ECB, it's a position that has nonetheless maintained an outsized influence at the bank since its inception over a decade ago. Current Bundesbank President Jens Weidmann echoed this sentiment in July 2012 in an interview marking the bank's fifty-fifth year : "We are the central bank that is most active in the public debate on the future of monetary union," he said.
Throughout the ECB's short history, it has largely acted in line with the Bundesbank's approach to monetary policy. However, in the wake of the eurozone sovereign debt crisis, significant differences between the Bundesbank and the ECB have emerged over the latter's efforts to shore up the euro and arrest the burgeoning crisis. The rupture between the two banks first began in 2010 when former ECB president Jean-Claude Trichet initiated the Securities Markets Program in order to buy Greek government bonds on the secondary market. The Bundesbank forcefully opposed the move, arguing that the ECB was overstepping its mandate. Ultimately, former Bundesbank president Axel Weber--then considered the most viable candidate to succeed Trichet as ECB president--resigned his post nearly a year early, in 2011, in protest over the bond-buying program.
The Bundesbank-ECB rift further widened in mid-2012 after current ECB President Mario Draghi unveiled a new--and potentially unlimited--program to buy the government bonds of struggling eurozone sovereigns on the secondary market, known as Outright Monetary Transactions. Weidmann was the only member of the ECB's governing council to vote against the move, which he likened to "state financing via the money presses" (DerSpiegel) . The Bundesbank, explains an October 2012 Economist report, holds two deep-seated concerns over ECB bond buying: "First it exposes taxpayers in northern countries to risks that belong to those in southern states, but does so opaquely within the Eurosystem. Secondly, it takes monetary policy too close to the realm of fiscal policy and thus compromises the ECB's independence."
The Bundesbank believes that monetary financing of budget deficits violates the ECB's independence while undermining its objective of ensuring price stability. This line of thinking, De Grauwe says, has been used by the Bundesbank to "argue that any bond-buying program should be ruled out because of its inflationary potential and because of a fear it would make the central bank dependent on the political world." But De Grauwe suggests this argument disregards the fact that the ECB bond buying programs have been restricted to the secondary market, which means it would be buying government bonds from financial institutions and not directly financing budget deficits.
Moreover, despite the ECB's commitment to enact the OMT program, it has yet to begin buying government bonds. In this regard, Brunnermeier argues, the Bundesbank can "still have an influence on the extent to which the ECB program will be conducted." While the Bundesbank is not "at the center of the ECB's decision making," Brunnermeier says, its opposition to OMT will likely have an impact on the speed of the program, if it is enacted.
Separately, the Bundesbank has voiced concerns over plans for a new EU banking supervisor, which would be housed within the ECB. Weidmann has called for large eurozone states like Germany to have a greater role in the future banking supervision process at the ECB, notes Schwarzer. More significantly, she explains, "Weidmann has questioned whether the ECB should supervise banks at all, as the banking supervision activities may not be sufficiently separated to ensure the ECB's independence."
Additional Resources
Highlights From 2015–2016
Learn more about CFR’s mission and its work over the past year in the 2016 Annual Report . The Annual Report spotlights new initiatives, high-profile events, and authoritative scholarship from CFR experts, and includes a message from CFR President Richard N. Haass.
Read and download »
The Chronicle
The Fall 2016 issue of CFR's member newsletter, the Chronicle, is a guide to CFR's most important news since August 2016, and includes announcements about new programs, partnerships, fellows, meetings, publications, and members. Read it now.
Now Available: Foreign Policy Begins at Home
The biggest threat to America's security and prosperity comes not from abroad but from within, writes CFR President Richard N. Haass in his provocative new book. More
New Foreign Affairs eBook: Tiananmen and After
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What was a hundredth of a German mark before the introduction of the Euro | Germany's Central Bank and the Eurozone - Council on Foreign Relations
Council on Foreign Relations
Germany's Central Bank and the Eurozone
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Germany's Central Bank and the Eurozone
Author: Christopher Alessi
Additional Resources
Introduction
The German Bundesbank was established in 1957 as the world's first fully independent central bank with a simple but all-encompassing mandate: to keep the price of the German deutsche mark stable by limiting inflation. The Bundesbank's anti-inflationary ethos stems from a searing recollection of the hyperinflation Germany endured amid the 1920s economic crisis, which ultimately triggered lasting political and social turmoil. Due to its political independence and unwavering commitment to its mandate, the Bundesbank became the most powerful central bank in Europe in the second half of the twentieth century--and, ultimately, the model upon which the European Central Bank was constructed when the eurozone came into being more than a decade ago. While the Bundesbank's power has since been curtailed, its president remains a key player in crafting eurozone monetary policy at the ECB. However, in the wake of the eurozone sovereign debt crisis, the Bundesbank has been increasingly at odds with ECB, accusing it of overstepping its mandate and monetizing debt through its government bond buying programs.
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History and Structure
The Bank Deutsche Länder was the central banking system established in western Germany by the United States and the other allied powers in 1948, which ultimately evolved into the autonomous Bundesbank with the Bundesbank Act of 1957. The legislation enshrined the newly developed central bank's independence by giving it complete control over German monetary policy (or control over the money supply), leaving fiscal policymaking (or matters related to taxes and government spending) to elected officials. Largely free from political interference, the Bundesbank's primary task through the 1990s was to control inflation and ensure the stability of the deutsche mark, the country's postwar currency. The bank "gives priority to monetary stability and central bank independence, while sound public finances and free competition provide the prerequisites for economic growth," explains Daniela Schwarzer , a senior associate at the German Institute for International and Security Affairs and a visiting fellow at Harvard University's Weatherhead Center.
In addition to regulating the "amount of currency and credit in circulation," the Bundesbank has achieved its goal of price stability by setting both monetary and inflation targets, explain Richard H. Clarida and Mark Gertler in their paper "How the Bundesbank Conducts Monetary Policy." By pursuing this narrow mandate, the Bundesbank helped keep German inflation relatively low and spur economic growth in the post-War period, instituting a new paradigm for central banking in Europe and throughout the world.
Bundesbank President Jens Weidmann at the bank's headquarters. (Photo: Alex Domanski/Courtesy Reuters)
The Bundesbank Council--or Zentralbankrat--is the primary policymaking body of the bank, and its arrangement "reflects Germany's federal structure," writes André Szász for the book The History of the Bundesbank: Lessons for the European Central Bank .Below the Council sits the Directorate and its president and vice president, who are nominated by the federal government, and the Land--or regional--central banks and their presidents, who are nominated by the Land governments. The council "consists of up to eight members of the Directorate and the presidents of the Land central banks," explains Szász. By way of comparison, Clarida and Gertler liken the Bundesbank Council to the U.S. Federal Reserve's Open Market Committee, adding that "from the perspective of political independence, any differences between the institutional setup of the Bundesbank and the Federal Reserve are not dramatic."
"Germany had a long and really ugly history of monetary instability that the Bundesbank had going for it." -- David Laidler, University of Western Ontario
Despite the Bundesbank's legal independence, it was not immune from German politics and was required to cultivate public support for its aims in order to maintain that independence. In the early years of the bank, the Bundesbank and its supporters tapped into the collective German memory of hyperinflation and the ensuing social unrest after World War I that led to the Nazi era, explains David Laidler of the University of Western Ontario. During World War I, Germany decoupled the mark from the gold standard and printed large quantities of banknotes in order to pay for the mounting costs of the war, ultimately triggering unprecedented inflation. In 1914, the dollar was worth 4.2 marks; in 1923, it was worth a staggering 4.2 trillion marks. "Germany had a long and really ugly history of monetary instability that the Bundesbank had going for it," says Laidler. Similarly, writes Jörg Bibow in the essay "On the Origin and Rise of Central Bank Independence in West Germany" (PDF), the Bundesbank's role "as a political actor in its own right and in carving public opinion should not be underestimated in explaining a peculiar German tradition that was finally exported to Europe in the 1990s."
Moreover, in the complicated postwar years in Germany, the country's stable currency became an important political symbol, Schwarzer suggests. "'National pride,' which seemed displaced after the Second World War, was replaced by the pride in Germany's economic success," she says.
Bretton Woods and the Bundesbank
The goal of the Bretton Woods international monetary system, established in 1944, was to "avoid a repetition of the economic chaos that had followed the First World War and done so much to precipitate the second," writes Laidler in an essay for the 2009 book Monetary Policy Over Fifty Years: Experiences and Lessons . Participating nations fixed their exchange rates by binding their currencies to the U.S. dollar, which was, in turn, linked to gold. As Laidler writes in his essay, the system "implied that stability of the exchange rate rather than of prices was the key goal." This tenet ultimately posed a significant challenge for the Bundesbank as the German economy gained strength and demand for its exports grew throughout the 1960s. "The Bundesbank was compelled ever more frequently to intervene in the foreign exchange market in order to counter appreciation pressures on the D-Mark," writes former Bundesbank president Axel Weber in Monetary Policy Over Fifty Years. As such, Weber explains, the bank was, for a period, torn between allowing the deutsche mark to appreciate vis-à-vis the dollar for the sake of external exchange rate stability and maintaining internal price stability at the expense of the international monetary order.
While the Bretton Woods system disintegrated in large part due to the Smithsonian Agreement of 1971, followed by former U.S. president Richard Nixon's unilateral decisions to de-link the dollar from gold and subsequently adopt a flexible exchange rate in 1973, the Bundesbank also played a role in the monetary order's demise. In the face of high U.S. inflation in 1969, the Bundesbank revalued the deutsche mark in order to limit the risk of external inflationary pressures. "The first nail went into the coffin [of Bretton Woods] when the Bundesbank and the Swiss National Bank and a few others broke away from the U.S. dollar in the face of U.S. inflation in the late 1960s," Laidler says.
In the first half of the 1970s, inflation, fueled in part by the 1973 oil crisis, rose throughout the developed world, including in Germany. But while inflation in the UK, for example, peaked at above 25 percent, in Germany it peaked at around 8 percent. Indeed, as Markus K. Brunnermeier of Princeton University explains, the Bundesbank's deft handling of that crisis solidified its role as an unrivaled paradigm for central banking around the world.
A Model for the ECB
"The ECB was the Bundesbank 2.0, but even a bit stronger in terms of its independence."--Daniel Gros, Center for European Policy Studies
Following the collapse of Bretton Woods, European nations took steps to create a new monetary order in Europe and to harmonize their exchange rates. Most significantly, they established the European Monetary System in 1979, which employed an Exchange Rate Mechanism to stabilize exchange rates between European member countries, including Germany. The EMS was the precursor to the Economic and Monetary Union that was formalized in the Maastricht Treaty of 1992 . The EMU paved the way for the establishment of the eurozone and the European Central Bank , the ultimate successor to the Bundesbank. "The ECB was the Bundesbank 2.0, but even a bit stronger in terms of its independence," explains Daniel Gros , director of the Center for European Policy Studies. Indeed, the ECB's goals of price stability and independence were written into the Maastricht Treaty.
"The whole plan of the ECB was essentially to bring the reputation of the Bundesbank to the ECB," explains Brunnermeier. Indeed, throughout the 1980s, the "prevailing paradigm" of monetary policy had shifted from a Keynesian one, which sees a role for government intervention, to a Monetarist one, which favors a more laissez-faire approach, argues the London School of Economics' Paul De Grauwe . To achieve price stability, an institutional design ensured that the central bank was governed by unelected technocrats who fell outside the purview of political accountability. The Bundesbank fit the bill, and, as such, Germany had a strong strategic advantage when negotiating its accession to the EMU, De Grauwe argues. Germany was able to insist that if it were to join the eurozone, the ECB would be designed as a "close copy of the Bundesbank," he says.
The Bundesbank and the Euro Crisis
While the Bundesbank president only has one vote on the governing council of the ECB, it's a position that has nonetheless maintained an outsized influence at the bank since its inception over a decade ago. Current Bundesbank President Jens Weidmann echoed this sentiment in July 2012 in an interview marking the bank's fifty-fifth year : "We are the central bank that is most active in the public debate on the future of monetary union," he said.
Throughout the ECB's short history, it has largely acted in line with the Bundesbank's approach to monetary policy. However, in the wake of the eurozone sovereign debt crisis, significant differences between the Bundesbank and the ECB have emerged over the latter's efforts to shore up the euro and arrest the burgeoning crisis. The rupture between the two banks first began in 2010 when former ECB president Jean-Claude Trichet initiated the Securities Markets Program in order to buy Greek government bonds on the secondary market. The Bundesbank forcefully opposed the move, arguing that the ECB was overstepping its mandate. Ultimately, former Bundesbank president Axel Weber--then considered the most viable candidate to succeed Trichet as ECB president--resigned his post nearly a year early, in 2011, in protest over the bond-buying program.
The Bundesbank-ECB rift further widened in mid-2012 after current ECB President Mario Draghi unveiled a new--and potentially unlimited--program to buy the government bonds of struggling eurozone sovereigns on the secondary market, known as Outright Monetary Transactions. Weidmann was the only member of the ECB's governing council to vote against the move, which he likened to "state financing via the money presses" (DerSpiegel) . The Bundesbank, explains an October 2012 Economist report, holds two deep-seated concerns over ECB bond buying: "First it exposes taxpayers in northern countries to risks that belong to those in southern states, but does so opaquely within the Eurosystem. Secondly, it takes monetary policy too close to the realm of fiscal policy and thus compromises the ECB's independence."
The Bundesbank believes that monetary financing of budget deficits violates the ECB's independence while undermining its objective of ensuring price stability. This line of thinking, De Grauwe says, has been used by the Bundesbank to "argue that any bond-buying program should be ruled out because of its inflationary potential and because of a fear it would make the central bank dependent on the political world." But De Grauwe suggests this argument disregards the fact that the ECB bond buying programs have been restricted to the secondary market, which means it would be buying government bonds from financial institutions and not directly financing budget deficits.
Moreover, despite the ECB's commitment to enact the OMT program, it has yet to begin buying government bonds. In this regard, Brunnermeier argues, the Bundesbank can "still have an influence on the extent to which the ECB program will be conducted." While the Bundesbank is not "at the center of the ECB's decision making," Brunnermeier says, its opposition to OMT will likely have an impact on the speed of the program, if it is enacted.
Separately, the Bundesbank has voiced concerns over plans for a new EU banking supervisor, which would be housed within the ECB. Weidmann has called for large eurozone states like Germany to have a greater role in the future banking supervision process at the ECB, notes Schwarzer. More significantly, she explains, "Weidmann has questioned whether the ECB should supervise banks at all, as the banking supervision activities may not be sufficiently separated to ensure the ECB's independence."
Additional Resources
Highlights From 2015–2016
Learn more about CFR’s mission and its work over the past year in the 2016 Annual Report . The Annual Report spotlights new initiatives, high-profile events, and authoritative scholarship from CFR experts, and includes a message from CFR President Richard N. Haass.
Read and download »
The Chronicle
The Fall 2016 issue of CFR's member newsletter, the Chronicle, is a guide to CFR's most important news since August 2016, and includes announcements about new programs, partnerships, fellows, meetings, publications, and members. Read it now.
Now Available: Foreign Policy Begins at Home
The biggest threat to America's security and prosperity comes not from abroad but from within, writes CFR President Richard N. Haass in his provocative new book. More
New Foreign Affairs eBook: Tiananmen and After
| i don't know |
What is the name of the flat hat worn by academics | Types of Hats - Alphabetic List E - M
An Alphabetic List E - M
Types of Hats Continued:
Below, you will find more of many different types of hats that have been recorded in the history of Millinery. While this is not a complete list, I am still discovering more as my research continues and I suspect that I will be researching for the rest of my life.
I love all hats and to list every style I would have a massive list, and as I don't profess to know them all, I will list those that I do know, and as you read on, you will see how many types there really are.
Listed are many different types of hats, spanning over centuries, and each have different means of technique to produce. Given time, you will find a link to "how to Make" some of the styles which are worn currently, however, you will also find that some hats are called by several different names, so you are sure to find repetition on occasions. Over the years, the millinery techniques used are very similar, but of course, some of the materials used in millinery today is different to that of years gone by.
Types of Hats
EGYPTIAN CROWN - Illustration of the Egyptian Helmet Crown, from the portrait bust of Queen Nofretete, Dynasty XVII, c.1372-1355 B.C. About 3000 B.C., King Narmer united Upper and Lower Egypt. He combined the tall, pointed ATEF crown of white felt or wool with the RED WICKER CROWN, when he united the two kingdoms. Crowns were often decorated with the URAEUS ( a rearing viper ) and with the ANKH crown ( a sign of life ).
EMBROIDERED HATS - Many types of hats which featured hand or machine embroidery.
EMPIRE BONNET - 1865-70 small close-fitting bonnet similar to a baby's bonnet exposing the forehead and back of neck.
ESCOFFIN - ( 14c., 15c. )Late medieval to Renaissance headdress shaped into a halo or horns with padded rolls of various shapes. Originally a turban or heart shaped form, finally the two-horned shape worn over a caul and with wimple, or both. Began as GOLDEN NET CAUL, over a caul, finally the ESCOFFION was supplanted by the HENNIN with veil ( 15c. )
ETON - ( ee ton ) - Cap worn by boys at Eton College, England.
EUGENIE HAT - (u shay nee ) - The EMPRESS HAT of 1859. Style of Empress Eugenie, wife of Napoleon III. A revival of this style in 1931 was worn tilted over the right eye, and trimmed with ostrich feather. These types of hats were a favorite style worn by Princess Diana in 1980.
EUGENIE WIG- was a knitted montero cap, so named because they were presented to the English Arctic expedition of 1875 by refugee Empress Eugenie. This form of cap still worn by farmers and huntsmen.
To see even more different types of hats, click on the link below:-
FANCHON - Triangular shape forming a gentle slope over the back of the head when seen in profile.
FANCY DRESS HATS - Many types of hats worn depicting a character of the past.
FASCINATORS - A romantic name for a long knitted or crocheted scarf-like hood that came down over the shoulders 1865-1910 More recently refers to a small headpiece.
FAUX FUR HATS - Many types of hats covered in fake fur instead of fabric.
FEATHER HATS - Many types of hats that are covered with any kind of feather
FEDORA - ( fe doe ra ) - Men's soft felt hat with brim and lengthwise crease in crown , adopted by women. The name Fedora was after the heroine of Victorian Sardou's drama presented in Paris in 1882. Also TYROLEAN HAT, ALPINE HAT, HOMBURG.
FELT HATS - Many types of hats that are made from fur, beaver or wool felt.
FERRONIERE - Renaissance headdress of Oriental design that had a jewel in middle of forehead, suspended from a fine chain or ribbon that was tied around the head. Fashion revived at various times.
FEZ - Red or black, felt cap that is shaped like a truncated cone and trimmed with a tassel. Turkish official dress from early 19c. until outlawed in 1923. Still worn in other parts of the near East. Got its name from Fez, French Morocco, where juice of red berry, used for dye, grew in vicinity. Also CHECHIA, TARBOOSH.
FILLET - A band worn around the head that holds the hair in place. In the early 13c., the fillet widens into a pillbox.
FLAT CAP - See CITY FLAT CAP, STATUTE CAP.
FONTANGE - ( FON TAHNZH ) - Style originated in 1678, when the elaborate headdress of Duchess de Fontange was disarranged during a royal hunt. She tied her curls up with a garter of ribbon and lace and created a fashion. She became mistress of Louis XIV. This high curled coiffure with ribbon loops later became the BONNET FONTAGE, with a lace peak in front and a small cap. Fashionable until 1714, when Lady Sandwich, while presented at the French Court, appeared in a simple low hair-do and started a new fashion. In England called the TOWER CAP, COMMADE.
FORAGE CAP - Late 19c. American Army cap. See KEPI, Copy of German cap.
FRENCH HOOD - ( 16c. ) Worn in various forms. The French Hood gradually replaced the Gable Hood. Smaller versions of the French Hood appeared in Holbein portraits. ( Lady Lee )
FRONTLET - ( 15C. ) The CALOTTE had a black velvet or gold, rounded or V-shaped loop showing on the forehead to which the HENNIN was attached. The FRONTLET enabled the wearer to adjust the weight of the HENNIN which was worn at 40 degree angle.GORGET ( gor jit ) - ( 14c., 15c. ) Draped linen or silk cloth, covering neck and pinned to the hair plaits or chin strap. Also tucked into neckline of grown. Also GUIMP.
FUR HATS - Many types of Hats that are made from animal pelts.
To see even more different types of hats, click on the link below:-
Back to Types of Hats - Alphabetical list A - B
GABLE OR DIAMOND SHAPED HOOD - ( 16c. ) Hood with a long back curtain, front lappets down on either side or pinned up. Later versions showed back curtain divided and pinned up. Style associated with the reign of Henry VIII, as portrayed by court paint, Holbein. Also PEDIMENTAL HOOD.
GAINSBOROUGH or MARLBOROUGH - ( 18c. ) These two English portrait painters influenced feminine fashion. Hat had a low crown and wide brim that turned up at one side, trimmed with plumes and taffeta or velvet ribbon. Designed to cover elaborate headdress.
GANGSTER HATS - A fedora style hat named after the American gangsters of the early nineteenth century.
GARIBALDI PILLBOX - ( 1860's ) The braid scrolled pillbox, inspired by the triumphs of the Italian liberator, Garibaldi, was adopted by fashionable women in London.
GAUCHO - ( gow cho ) - Hat with wide tilted brim anchored with cord that tied under the chin. Worn by South American gauchos.
GIBSON GIRL - ( 1890's ) Sailor hat style shown in illustrations by American artist, Charles Dana Gibson.
GIBUS - ( jy bus ) - A Top hat with a fabric crown which concealed a metal framework enabling the hat to collapse for carrying under the arm. Man's collapsible silk opera hat. Patented in 1837 by French inventor, Gibus.
GLENGARRY BONNET - Blue woolen cap creased through the crown, like today's overseas cap. Appeared in 1805 in Glengarry, Invernesshire, Scotland. Cap has stiff sides and bound edges, finished with short ribbons hanging in back. GOB CAP - White cotton twill hat, four piece crown, and multi-stitched, turned-up brim. Formerly worn by sailors or gobs of the U. S. Navy.
To see even more different types of hats, click on the link below:-
Types of Hats - Alphabetical list N - Z
HALF HAT - Any small hat that covers part of crown area.
HALO HAT - A late nineteenth century hat with an upturned brim that framed the face in a semi-circle shape, popular throughout the 1940s.
HAVELOCK - Protective material that covers the neck and is attached to back of cap. ( Sir Henry Havelock, 1857 )
HEAD - ( 1770's ) Monstrous hair and hair covering styles worn during reign of Queen Marie Antoinette.
HEADPIECES - A small head decoration that isn't strictly a hat.
HEADRAIL - ( 10c., 11c. ) ( Britain ) Woman's headdress, consisting of drapery wrapped over the head, around the neck, and crossed over the shoulder.
HEART SHAPED HEADDRESS - ( 15c. ) The CAULS developed into wide horned headdresses. In time the horned formations gradually rose from a horizontal position to a vertical position. This created a heart shaped effect.
HELMET - A close fitting rigid head covering first worn by the military to protect the head in battle. In Millinery terms, it refers to a brimless close fitting bowl shaped hat, something like the cloche of the 1920s.
HENNIN - ( 1440-1470 ) Term later applied derisively to all huge head coverings. The Oriental tiara headdress from the end of which floated a light veil. A very tall, steeple like medieval headdress. usually pointed headdress brought to Europe by the Crusaders. Also LITTLE HENNIN, STEEPLE HEADDRESS ( tall ) BUTTERFLY.
HOMBURG - ( hom burg ) - From hat manufactured at Bad Homburg, Germany. Soft, elegant, felt hat with tapered, creased crown and rolled brim that had a bound edge. British version made popular by the Prince of Wales, later Edward VII of England from 1901 to 1910, who went to Germany for the spa. Popularity of the hat revived in the 1930's the 1940's and the 1950's. Worn by British Prime Minister, Anthony Eden. Dwight D. Eisenhower wore it for his inauguration as President of the United States in 1953.
HOOD - ( 20c. ) Nylon, cotton, insulated with goose down. Zippered front and tunneled draw cord gives wind tight fit to hood.
HOOD - At first hoods were fashioned from a coned shaped piece of fabric with the face hole cut out. Medieval hoods were attached to short capes.
HORNED HEADDRESS - ( late 14c., 15c. ) CAULS extended to great widths. They were supported with padded wires, and draped with veils that created a horned effect.
HUKE - ( Renaissance ) Hooded mantle covering the head and body. From 11c., black clothe of Moorish design. Appeared in Europe ( 16c., 17c. ) in Netherlands, Flanders, Germany Spain. Also HEUKE, HUIK HAIK Worn by Arabs, Moors, Mohammedans as an outer garment for centuries.
To see even more different types of hats, click on the link below:-
Back to Types of Hats - Alphabetical list A - D
JULIET CAP - ( Renaissance ) Mesh cap decorated with jewels or pearls. A small soft skullcap worn well back on the head, and is popular for bridal wear. A CALOTTE, takes its name from cap worn by Juliet in Shakespeare's tragedy, " Romeo and Juliet." Original story was published in 1476 in Naples.
To see even more different types of hats, click on the link below:-
KAFFIYEH, KEFFIYED - ( Arabian and Bedouin ) The headdress scarf that is held in place by the AGAL.
KAMELAUKION - ( kam e law ki on ) - ( Ancient ) Tall, cone-shaped cap of felt or fur formerly worn by religious of various Mohammedan sects. Also TAJ.
KATE GREENAWAY CAP - From illustrations in books written by Kate Greenaway ( 1846-1901 ). Children shown in 1st Empire style clothes. Also MOB
KEPI - ( kep I ) - Copy of German KOPPI, KEPI. Army cap adopted by French troops in Algiers. Cap with flat-topped crown and stiff horizontal visor.
KEVEN HULLER - 1740-1760 - large cocked hat with the front cock pinched into a sharp peak.
KLAFT, KHAT - ( Coptic for hood ) Ancient Egyptian striped lined headdress.
KRIZIA - Lacquered woven straw hat. Round crown with rolled brim. ( 1979 ). Also WEDDING RING.
KULAH - ( Persian ) Pointed skullcap. Ancient Oriental, high, cylindrical cap of lambskin or felt.
KYRBASIA - ( Ancient BASHLYK ) Persian or Median cap of felt, round, with flaps which could be fastened under chin, or with no flaps and a hanging cord.
To see even more different types of hats, click on the link below:-
Types of Hats - Alphabetical list N - Z
LEATHER HATS - Many types of hats that are made from leather
LEGHORN - ( leg horn or leg en ) - Close fitting, red woolen cap with elongated crown on which the tip folds over. Style called "El bonnet rouge," inspired by French Revolutionists ( 1792-3 ). Also style of PHRYGIAN BONNET.
LIBERTY CAP - Style evolved from the long point on the conical hood with face hole ( 12c. ). This peak was later wrapped around the head to form turbaned CHAPERON in 14c.
LINGERIE BONNETS - A smaller version of the eighteenth century mobcap
LIRIPIPE - ( lira I pipe ) - Finely plaited straw hat exported from Laverne, Italy.
LUNDARDI HAT - Hats with huge puffy crowns, usually brimmed, very popular 1783-1795
To see even more different types of hats, click on the link below:-
Back to Types of Hats - Alphabetical list A - D
MACARONI - Small tricorn worn perched above a high wig. Style adopted by fashion extremists of the Macaroni Club ( London, 1760 ), who were Italian-traveled young men. The term evolved from the 17c. Italian common people habit of calling the court dwarfs by the name of their favorite food, such as macaroni.
MAD HATTER - An oversized top hat known because of the Mercury used in hat making, which sent Milliners mad.
MANTILLA - ( man tee ya, man til a ) - French 18c. Chantilly lace replaced Moorish head scarf, black or white ( blonde ). Shawlike 19c. national Spanish or Mexican headdress of lace worn with a high comb.
MANTLE - ( Middle Ages ) Woman's head covering in any Catholic religious assembly. Evolved into HEADRAIL, HEADTIRE, WIMPLE. Also PALLA. Until 12c.
MARIE STUART COIFS AND CAPS - Small wired FRENCH HOOD that dips in front to give a heart-shaped effect. From Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots ( 1542-87 ), who was educated in France.
MARLBOROUGH HAT - A large brimmed, plumed hat: also called Gainsborough hat
MARY/MARIE STUART HAT - A Hat coming from the centre point in the middle of the forehead. Named for Mary, Queen of Scots
MATADOR HAT - ( Also BULLFIGHTER HAT ) Shape is a copy of a bull's head with short stubby horns. Broad decorated piece on crown represents bull's eye ( Ancient Cretan symbol ).
MERRY WIDOW HAT - ( Early 20c. ) Fashioned named for operetta " Merry Widow " by Franz Lehar. Large hat with wide brim, decorated with " willow" plumes and flowers.
MILKMAID HAT - ( 18c. ) " Country " fashion, garden hat with a low crown and wide brim, worn over a lingerie cap. Hat tied down with ribbon under chin. Fashion of fine straw, leghorn or horsehair. Also BERGERE, SHEPHERDESS, GYPSY, SKIMMER.
MITER, MITRE - ( my ter ) - Modern headdress of Catholic church dignitaries. A tall conical cap with ties or lappets hanging in back. Cap has two peaks, which fold flat against each other. Evolved from Ancient Eastern mitra.
MOBCAP - Worn both indoors and outdoors in 18c. Lace cap, also, linen, net, lawn. Large ribbon bow in center of cap. Took many forms, from a small lace cap to a towering MOB.
MONMOUTH - ( 17C. ) Originally mad in " capper's town " Monmouth, England. Knitted woolen cap with turned up band. Stocking cap is the modern version.
MONTERO - ( mon tar o, mon tay ro ) - Spanish word for huntsman or horsemen. A round-crowned cap with a divided flap which can be turned up or worn down to protect the neck and ears. Appeared in late 15. In 17., worn in place of a wig over a shaved head, cap usually of velvet. EUGENIE WIG was a knitted montero cap, so named because they were presented to the English Arctic expedition of 1875 by refugee Empress Eugenie. This form of cap still worn by farmers and huntsmen.
MONTGOMERY BERET - ( mont gum er I, mon gum ri ) - British type of beret worn by Sir Bernard L. Montgomery in WW II. Dark blue felt with insignia.
MORTAR BOARD - Consists of close-fitting cap with point over the forehead, attached to square top. Tassel in academic colors.
MUSHROOM HAT - Hat with shallow crown and downward curved brim. Shape resembles a mushroom. ( 20c. )
You will note that all the different types of hats above, range from the thirteenth century, some names in the list may not be familiar to you, however, there will be several types of hats listed that are common to today's millinery.
| Square academic cap |
From which country do we get the cheese Roquefort | Types of Hats - Alphabetic List E - M
An Alphabetic List E - M
Types of Hats Continued:
Below, you will find more of many different types of hats that have been recorded in the history of Millinery. While this is not a complete list, I am still discovering more as my research continues and I suspect that I will be researching for the rest of my life.
I love all hats and to list every style I would have a massive list, and as I don't profess to know them all, I will list those that I do know, and as you read on, you will see how many types there really are.
Listed are many different types of hats, spanning over centuries, and each have different means of technique to produce. Given time, you will find a link to "how to Make" some of the styles which are worn currently, however, you will also find that some hats are called by several different names, so you are sure to find repetition on occasions. Over the years, the millinery techniques used are very similar, but of course, some of the materials used in millinery today is different to that of years gone by.
Types of Hats
EGYPTIAN CROWN - Illustration of the Egyptian Helmet Crown, from the portrait bust of Queen Nofretete, Dynasty XVII, c.1372-1355 B.C. About 3000 B.C., King Narmer united Upper and Lower Egypt. He combined the tall, pointed ATEF crown of white felt or wool with the RED WICKER CROWN, when he united the two kingdoms. Crowns were often decorated with the URAEUS ( a rearing viper ) and with the ANKH crown ( a sign of life ).
EMBROIDERED HATS - Many types of hats which featured hand or machine embroidery.
EMPIRE BONNET - 1865-70 small close-fitting bonnet similar to a baby's bonnet exposing the forehead and back of neck.
ESCOFFIN - ( 14c., 15c. )Late medieval to Renaissance headdress shaped into a halo or horns with padded rolls of various shapes. Originally a turban or heart shaped form, finally the two-horned shape worn over a caul and with wimple, or both. Began as GOLDEN NET CAUL, over a caul, finally the ESCOFFION was supplanted by the HENNIN with veil ( 15c. )
ETON - ( ee ton ) - Cap worn by boys at Eton College, England.
EUGENIE HAT - (u shay nee ) - The EMPRESS HAT of 1859. Style of Empress Eugenie, wife of Napoleon III. A revival of this style in 1931 was worn tilted over the right eye, and trimmed with ostrich feather. These types of hats were a favorite style worn by Princess Diana in 1980.
EUGENIE WIG- was a knitted montero cap, so named because they were presented to the English Arctic expedition of 1875 by refugee Empress Eugenie. This form of cap still worn by farmers and huntsmen.
To see even more different types of hats, click on the link below:-
FANCHON - Triangular shape forming a gentle slope over the back of the head when seen in profile.
FANCY DRESS HATS - Many types of hats worn depicting a character of the past.
FASCINATORS - A romantic name for a long knitted or crocheted scarf-like hood that came down over the shoulders 1865-1910 More recently refers to a small headpiece.
FAUX FUR HATS - Many types of hats covered in fake fur instead of fabric.
FEATHER HATS - Many types of hats that are covered with any kind of feather
FEDORA - ( fe doe ra ) - Men's soft felt hat with brim and lengthwise crease in crown , adopted by women. The name Fedora was after the heroine of Victorian Sardou's drama presented in Paris in 1882. Also TYROLEAN HAT, ALPINE HAT, HOMBURG.
FELT HATS - Many types of hats that are made from fur, beaver or wool felt.
FERRONIERE - Renaissance headdress of Oriental design that had a jewel in middle of forehead, suspended from a fine chain or ribbon that was tied around the head. Fashion revived at various times.
FEZ - Red or black, felt cap that is shaped like a truncated cone and trimmed with a tassel. Turkish official dress from early 19c. until outlawed in 1923. Still worn in other parts of the near East. Got its name from Fez, French Morocco, where juice of red berry, used for dye, grew in vicinity. Also CHECHIA, TARBOOSH.
FILLET - A band worn around the head that holds the hair in place. In the early 13c., the fillet widens into a pillbox.
FLAT CAP - See CITY FLAT CAP, STATUTE CAP.
FONTANGE - ( FON TAHNZH ) - Style originated in 1678, when the elaborate headdress of Duchess de Fontange was disarranged during a royal hunt. She tied her curls up with a garter of ribbon and lace and created a fashion. She became mistress of Louis XIV. This high curled coiffure with ribbon loops later became the BONNET FONTAGE, with a lace peak in front and a small cap. Fashionable until 1714, when Lady Sandwich, while presented at the French Court, appeared in a simple low hair-do and started a new fashion. In England called the TOWER CAP, COMMADE.
FORAGE CAP - Late 19c. American Army cap. See KEPI, Copy of German cap.
FRENCH HOOD - ( 16c. ) Worn in various forms. The French Hood gradually replaced the Gable Hood. Smaller versions of the French Hood appeared in Holbein portraits. ( Lady Lee )
FRONTLET - ( 15C. ) The CALOTTE had a black velvet or gold, rounded or V-shaped loop showing on the forehead to which the HENNIN was attached. The FRONTLET enabled the wearer to adjust the weight of the HENNIN which was worn at 40 degree angle.GORGET ( gor jit ) - ( 14c., 15c. ) Draped linen or silk cloth, covering neck and pinned to the hair plaits or chin strap. Also tucked into neckline of grown. Also GUIMP.
FUR HATS - Many types of Hats that are made from animal pelts.
To see even more different types of hats, click on the link below:-
Back to Types of Hats - Alphabetical list A - B
GABLE OR DIAMOND SHAPED HOOD - ( 16c. ) Hood with a long back curtain, front lappets down on either side or pinned up. Later versions showed back curtain divided and pinned up. Style associated with the reign of Henry VIII, as portrayed by court paint, Holbein. Also PEDIMENTAL HOOD.
GAINSBOROUGH or MARLBOROUGH - ( 18c. ) These two English portrait painters influenced feminine fashion. Hat had a low crown and wide brim that turned up at one side, trimmed with plumes and taffeta or velvet ribbon. Designed to cover elaborate headdress.
GANGSTER HATS - A fedora style hat named after the American gangsters of the early nineteenth century.
GARIBALDI PILLBOX - ( 1860's ) The braid scrolled pillbox, inspired by the triumphs of the Italian liberator, Garibaldi, was adopted by fashionable women in London.
GAUCHO - ( gow cho ) - Hat with wide tilted brim anchored with cord that tied under the chin. Worn by South American gauchos.
GIBSON GIRL - ( 1890's ) Sailor hat style shown in illustrations by American artist, Charles Dana Gibson.
GIBUS - ( jy bus ) - A Top hat with a fabric crown which concealed a metal framework enabling the hat to collapse for carrying under the arm. Man's collapsible silk opera hat. Patented in 1837 by French inventor, Gibus.
GLENGARRY BONNET - Blue woolen cap creased through the crown, like today's overseas cap. Appeared in 1805 in Glengarry, Invernesshire, Scotland. Cap has stiff sides and bound edges, finished with short ribbons hanging in back. GOB CAP - White cotton twill hat, four piece crown, and multi-stitched, turned-up brim. Formerly worn by sailors or gobs of the U. S. Navy.
To see even more different types of hats, click on the link below:-
Types of Hats - Alphabetical list N - Z
HALF HAT - Any small hat that covers part of crown area.
HALO HAT - A late nineteenth century hat with an upturned brim that framed the face in a semi-circle shape, popular throughout the 1940s.
HAVELOCK - Protective material that covers the neck and is attached to back of cap. ( Sir Henry Havelock, 1857 )
HEAD - ( 1770's ) Monstrous hair and hair covering styles worn during reign of Queen Marie Antoinette.
HEADPIECES - A small head decoration that isn't strictly a hat.
HEADRAIL - ( 10c., 11c. ) ( Britain ) Woman's headdress, consisting of drapery wrapped over the head, around the neck, and crossed over the shoulder.
HEART SHAPED HEADDRESS - ( 15c. ) The CAULS developed into wide horned headdresses. In time the horned formations gradually rose from a horizontal position to a vertical position. This created a heart shaped effect.
HELMET - A close fitting rigid head covering first worn by the military to protect the head in battle. In Millinery terms, it refers to a brimless close fitting bowl shaped hat, something like the cloche of the 1920s.
HENNIN - ( 1440-1470 ) Term later applied derisively to all huge head coverings. The Oriental tiara headdress from the end of which floated a light veil. A very tall, steeple like medieval headdress. usually pointed headdress brought to Europe by the Crusaders. Also LITTLE HENNIN, STEEPLE HEADDRESS ( tall ) BUTTERFLY.
HOMBURG - ( hom burg ) - From hat manufactured at Bad Homburg, Germany. Soft, elegant, felt hat with tapered, creased crown and rolled brim that had a bound edge. British version made popular by the Prince of Wales, later Edward VII of England from 1901 to 1910, who went to Germany for the spa. Popularity of the hat revived in the 1930's the 1940's and the 1950's. Worn by British Prime Minister, Anthony Eden. Dwight D. Eisenhower wore it for his inauguration as President of the United States in 1953.
HOOD - ( 20c. ) Nylon, cotton, insulated with goose down. Zippered front and tunneled draw cord gives wind tight fit to hood.
HOOD - At first hoods were fashioned from a coned shaped piece of fabric with the face hole cut out. Medieval hoods were attached to short capes.
HORNED HEADDRESS - ( late 14c., 15c. ) CAULS extended to great widths. They were supported with padded wires, and draped with veils that created a horned effect.
HUKE - ( Renaissance ) Hooded mantle covering the head and body. From 11c., black clothe of Moorish design. Appeared in Europe ( 16c., 17c. ) in Netherlands, Flanders, Germany Spain. Also HEUKE, HUIK HAIK Worn by Arabs, Moors, Mohammedans as an outer garment for centuries.
To see even more different types of hats, click on the link below:-
Back to Types of Hats - Alphabetical list A - D
JULIET CAP - ( Renaissance ) Mesh cap decorated with jewels or pearls. A small soft skullcap worn well back on the head, and is popular for bridal wear. A CALOTTE, takes its name from cap worn by Juliet in Shakespeare's tragedy, " Romeo and Juliet." Original story was published in 1476 in Naples.
To see even more different types of hats, click on the link below:-
KAFFIYEH, KEFFIYED - ( Arabian and Bedouin ) The headdress scarf that is held in place by the AGAL.
KAMELAUKION - ( kam e law ki on ) - ( Ancient ) Tall, cone-shaped cap of felt or fur formerly worn by religious of various Mohammedan sects. Also TAJ.
KATE GREENAWAY CAP - From illustrations in books written by Kate Greenaway ( 1846-1901 ). Children shown in 1st Empire style clothes. Also MOB
KEPI - ( kep I ) - Copy of German KOPPI, KEPI. Army cap adopted by French troops in Algiers. Cap with flat-topped crown and stiff horizontal visor.
KEVEN HULLER - 1740-1760 - large cocked hat with the front cock pinched into a sharp peak.
KLAFT, KHAT - ( Coptic for hood ) Ancient Egyptian striped lined headdress.
KRIZIA - Lacquered woven straw hat. Round crown with rolled brim. ( 1979 ). Also WEDDING RING.
KULAH - ( Persian ) Pointed skullcap. Ancient Oriental, high, cylindrical cap of lambskin or felt.
KYRBASIA - ( Ancient BASHLYK ) Persian or Median cap of felt, round, with flaps which could be fastened under chin, or with no flaps and a hanging cord.
To see even more different types of hats, click on the link below:-
Types of Hats - Alphabetical list N - Z
LEATHER HATS - Many types of hats that are made from leather
LEGHORN - ( leg horn or leg en ) - Close fitting, red woolen cap with elongated crown on which the tip folds over. Style called "El bonnet rouge," inspired by French Revolutionists ( 1792-3 ). Also style of PHRYGIAN BONNET.
LIBERTY CAP - Style evolved from the long point on the conical hood with face hole ( 12c. ). This peak was later wrapped around the head to form turbaned CHAPERON in 14c.
LINGERIE BONNETS - A smaller version of the eighteenth century mobcap
LIRIPIPE - ( lira I pipe ) - Finely plaited straw hat exported from Laverne, Italy.
LUNDARDI HAT - Hats with huge puffy crowns, usually brimmed, very popular 1783-1795
To see even more different types of hats, click on the link below:-
Back to Types of Hats - Alphabetical list A - D
MACARONI - Small tricorn worn perched above a high wig. Style adopted by fashion extremists of the Macaroni Club ( London, 1760 ), who were Italian-traveled young men. The term evolved from the 17c. Italian common people habit of calling the court dwarfs by the name of their favorite food, such as macaroni.
MAD HATTER - An oversized top hat known because of the Mercury used in hat making, which sent Milliners mad.
MANTILLA - ( man tee ya, man til a ) - French 18c. Chantilly lace replaced Moorish head scarf, black or white ( blonde ). Shawlike 19c. national Spanish or Mexican headdress of lace worn with a high comb.
MANTLE - ( Middle Ages ) Woman's head covering in any Catholic religious assembly. Evolved into HEADRAIL, HEADTIRE, WIMPLE. Also PALLA. Until 12c.
MARIE STUART COIFS AND CAPS - Small wired FRENCH HOOD that dips in front to give a heart-shaped effect. From Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots ( 1542-87 ), who was educated in France.
MARLBOROUGH HAT - A large brimmed, plumed hat: also called Gainsborough hat
MARY/MARIE STUART HAT - A Hat coming from the centre point in the middle of the forehead. Named for Mary, Queen of Scots
MATADOR HAT - ( Also BULLFIGHTER HAT ) Shape is a copy of a bull's head with short stubby horns. Broad decorated piece on crown represents bull's eye ( Ancient Cretan symbol ).
MERRY WIDOW HAT - ( Early 20c. ) Fashioned named for operetta " Merry Widow " by Franz Lehar. Large hat with wide brim, decorated with " willow" plumes and flowers.
MILKMAID HAT - ( 18c. ) " Country " fashion, garden hat with a low crown and wide brim, worn over a lingerie cap. Hat tied down with ribbon under chin. Fashion of fine straw, leghorn or horsehair. Also BERGERE, SHEPHERDESS, GYPSY, SKIMMER.
MITER, MITRE - ( my ter ) - Modern headdress of Catholic church dignitaries. A tall conical cap with ties or lappets hanging in back. Cap has two peaks, which fold flat against each other. Evolved from Ancient Eastern mitra.
MOBCAP - Worn both indoors and outdoors in 18c. Lace cap, also, linen, net, lawn. Large ribbon bow in center of cap. Took many forms, from a small lace cap to a towering MOB.
MONMOUTH - ( 17C. ) Originally mad in " capper's town " Monmouth, England. Knitted woolen cap with turned up band. Stocking cap is the modern version.
MONTERO - ( mon tar o, mon tay ro ) - Spanish word for huntsman or horsemen. A round-crowned cap with a divided flap which can be turned up or worn down to protect the neck and ears. Appeared in late 15. In 17., worn in place of a wig over a shaved head, cap usually of velvet. EUGENIE WIG was a knitted montero cap, so named because they were presented to the English Arctic expedition of 1875 by refugee Empress Eugenie. This form of cap still worn by farmers and huntsmen.
MONTGOMERY BERET - ( mont gum er I, mon gum ri ) - British type of beret worn by Sir Bernard L. Montgomery in WW II. Dark blue felt with insignia.
MORTAR BOARD - Consists of close-fitting cap with point over the forehead, attached to square top. Tassel in academic colors.
MUSHROOM HAT - Hat with shallow crown and downward curved brim. Shape resembles a mushroom. ( 20c. )
You will note that all the different types of hats above, range from the thirteenth century, some names in the list may not be familiar to you, however, there will be several types of hats listed that are common to today's millinery.
| i don't know |
What modern innovation was began by Tim Berners Lee | History of the Web – World Wide Web Foundation
Image: © CERN
Sir Tim Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web in 1989.
Sir Tim Berners-Lee is a British computer scientist. He was born in London, and his parents were early computer scientists, working on one of the earliest computers.
Growing up, Sir Tim was interested in trains and had a model railway in his bedroom. He recalls :
“I made some electronic gadgets to control the trains. Then I ended up getting more interested in electronics than trains. Later on, when I was in college I made a computer out of an old television set.”
After graduating from Oxford University, Berners-Lee became a software engineer at CERN , the large particle physics laboratory near Geneva, Switzerland. Scientists come from all over the world to use its accelerators, but Sir Tim noticed that they were having difficulty sharing information.
“In those days, there was different information on different computers, but you had to log on to different computers to get at it. Also, sometimes you had to learn a different program on each computer. Often it was just easier to go and ask people when they were having coffee…”, Tim says .
Tim thought he saw a way to solve this problem – one that he could see could also have much broader applications. Already, millions of computers were being connected together through the fast-developing Internet and Berners-Lee realised they could share information by exploiting an emerging technology called hypertext.
In March 1989, Tim laid out his vision for what would become the Web in a document called “ Information Management: A Proposal ”. Believe it or not, Tim’s initial proposal was not immediately accepted. In fact, his boss at the time, Mike Sendall , noted the words “Vague but exciting” on the cover. The Web was never an official CERN project, but Mike managed to give Tim time to work on it in September 1990. He began work using a NeXT computer, one of Steve Jobs’ early products.
Tim’s original proposal. Image: CERN
By October of 1990, Tim had written the three fundamental technologies that remain the foundation of today’s Web (and which you may have seen appear on parts of your Web browser):
HTML: HyperText Markup Language. The markup (formatting) language for the Web.
URI: Uniform Resource Identifier. A kind of “address” that is unique and used to identify to each resource on the Web. It is also commonly called a URL.
HTTP: Hypertext Transfer Protocol. Allows for the retrieval of linked resources from across the Web.
Tim also wrote the first Web page editor/browser (“WorldWideWeb.app”) and the first Web server (“httpd“). By the end of 1990, the first Web page was served on the open internet, and in 1991, people outside of CERN were invited to join this new Web community.
As the Web began to grow, Tim realised that its true potential would only be unleashed if anyone, anywhere could use it without paying a fee or having to ask for permission.
He explains : “Had the technology been proprietary, and in my total control, it would probably not have taken off. You can’t propose that something be a universal space and at the same time keep control of it.”
So, Tim and others advocated to ensure that CERN would agree to make the underlying code available on a royalty-free basis, for ever. This decision was announced in April 1993 , and sparked a global wave of creativity, collaboration and innovation never seen before. In 2003, the companies developing new Web standards committed to a Royalty Free Policy for their work. In 2014, the year we celebrated the Web’s 25th birthday , almost two in five people around the world were using it.
Tim moved from CERN to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1994 to found the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), an international community devoted to developing open Web standards . He remains the Director of W3C to this day.
The early Web community produced some revolutionary ideas that are now spreading far beyond the technology sector:
Decentralisation: No permission is needed from a central authority to post anything on the Web, there is no central controlling node, and so no single point of failure … and no “kill switch”! This also implies freedom from indiscriminate censorship and surveillance.
Non-discrimination: If I pay to connect to the internet with a certain quality of service, and you pay to connect with that or a greater quality of service, then we can both communicate at the same level. This principle of equity is also known as Net Neutrality.
Bottom-up design: Instead of code being written and controlled by a small group of experts, it was developed in full view of everyone, encouraging maximum participation and experimentation.
Universality: For anyone to be able to publish anything on the Web, all the computers involved have to speak the same languages to each other, no matter what different hardware people are using; where they live; or what cultural and political beliefs they have. In this way, the Web breaks down silos while still allowing diversity to flourish.
Consensus: For universal standards to work, everyone had to agree to use them. Tim and others achieved this consensus by giving everyone a say in creating the standards, through a transparent, participatory process at W3C.
New permutations of these ideas are giving rise to exciting new approaches in fields as diverse as information (Open Data), politics (Open Government), scientific research (Open Access), education, and culture (Free Culture). But to date we have only scratched the surface of how these principles could change society and politics for the better.
In 2009, Sir Tim established the World Wide Web Foundation. The Web Foundation is advancing the Open Web as a means to build a just and thriving society by connecting everyone, raising voices and enhancing participation.
Please do explore our site and our work . We hope you’ll be inspired by our vision and decide to take action. Remember, as Tim tweeted during the Olympics Opening Ceremony in 2012, “This is for Everyone” .
| World Wide Web |
What were solicitors in the U.K. allowed to do for the first time in 1984 | Tim Berners-Lee: Spies' cracking of encryption undermines the web | Technology | The Guardian
The Snowden files
Tim Berners-Lee: Spies' cracking of encryption undermines the web
World wide web inventor dismayed about US and UK attempts to undermine privacy and security, revealed by Edward Snowden
Tim Berners-Lee. 'If you try and really split up the web, then it fails,' he says. Photograph: Rick Friedman
Tuesday 3 December 2013 02.00 EST
First published on Tuesday 3 December 2013 02.00 EST
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Tim Berners-Lee is known as the gentle genius with the mild touch, a man who is strikingly modest despite having created one of the epochal inventions of the modern age, the world wide web. But get him on the subject of what the National Security Agency and its British equivalent, GCHQ, have been doing to crack encryption used by hundreds of millions of people to protect their personal data online, and his face hardens, his eyes squint and he fumes.
"I think that's appalling, deliberately to break software," he says in an entirely uncharacteristic outburst of ire. Of all the reasons he is concerned about Edward Snowden's disclosures relating to UK and US spying on the web – and there are many, as we shall see – it is the cracking of encryption revealed by the Guardian in partnership with the New York Times and ProPublica that seems to rile him most.
"Internet security is hard," he says with emphasis. "All systems have undiscovered holes in them, and it's only a question of how fast the bad guys can discover the holes compared with how fast the good guys can patch them up."
We are talking in his office in the wildly shiny and curvaceous Frank Gehry building at MIT in Cambridge, Massachusetts, where Berners-Lee leads the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) , a global community working to develop standards for the web. He continues with the encryption theme: "So it's naive to imagine that if you introduce a weakness into a system, you will be the only one to use it. A lot of the IT industry feels that's a betrayal."
Berners-Lee is astounded by the internal contradiction in the way London and Washington have handled the threat of cyberwarfare. The two governments have elevated the fight against organised hacker gangs and militarised cyber-attacks from states such as China to the rank of a top national security priority. Yet at the same time their spying branches have actively aided cybercriminals by weakening encryption.
"It's foolish from their point of view," he says, adding that it's also ethically misguided: "Any democratic country has to take the high road; it has to live by its principles. I'm very sympathetic to attempts to increase security against organised crime, but you have to distinguish yourself from the criminal."
Many people will know of Berners-Lee from his cameo role in the opening ceremony of the London Olympics . Towards the climax of Danny Boyle's spectacle, the stage opened up and the spotlight fell on the computer scientist sitting at a desk in the middle of the Olympic Stadium typing the words: "This is for everyone."
In a sense, all Berners-Lee's worries about Snowden's disclosures flow from this one simple slogan. "What do I mean when I say the web is for everyone?" he says. "I mean that everybody should be empowered by it, not just to read it but to have their voice heard and to participate in the democratic process."
Berners-Lee was convinced about the importance of what he calls "universality" from the instant in 1989 when he circulated to a few colleagues a memo proposing the creation of a web of information that would connect everything and everyone through links. Over time, though, he has come to realise there is a second imperative that is almost as vital as the first.
"What is obvious now is that not only must the web be for everyone, we also need everyone to be for the web. The ability to use the web, and the power of it, comes with an obligation: individual web users have to stick up for their rights. The obligation of a web user is to look at the way the internet is provided and complain very loudly if it deviates from being neutral."
Berners-Lee is not your average web user, but he certainly has been complaining very loudly about the deviations he perceives. He warns that the universality and openness of the web, for which he has so long campaigned, is "under very serious threat" from the systematic surveillance of people's internet metadata in programs such as the NSA's Prism and GCHQ's Tempora .
"You can argue about the legality or illegality of what the NSA and GCHQ were doing," he says. "But look at the ethics of it." The secret foreign intelligence surveillance court, often referred to as the Fisa court, that is supposed to be overseeing internet spying by the NSA, "was dysfunctional and unaccountable. Even if the court had been blocking a lot of things the NSA was doing, it would still have been unaccountable".
Well before the Guardian began publishing stories drawn from Snowden's leaked files, Berners-Lee was concerned that surveillance could damage the web by reducing confidence in its privacy. "When you think about privacy you have to think about how intimate our use of technology has become," he says. "When someone is worried about a social or medical issue, about their sexuality or whether they have cancer, they can put their trust in the complete secrecy of the web. Maybe they are a minor, and too embarrassed to go through their parents. It's important to preserve the ability to do things over the internet that are very intimate."
A loss of faith in privacy caused by government collection of metadata could have a chilling effect, he believes. "The chilling effect is where the teenager does not click on the button and ends up being misinformed. Or when somebody does not want to admit they are depressed and commits suicide because they are worried they were being watched when they clicked on a site. The chilling effect is when people know something is wrong but don't report it because they fear it will damage their career or put them in jail."
There's another, potentially even greater, danger that flows from interfering governments – that it could stymie what Berners-Lee calls "intercreativity", or the act of creativity that happens when people interact freely and safely with each other on the web. He tried to embed that quality in the architecture of the web right as he devised it at its very inception.
"Intercreativity is where people share half-formed ideas, brainstorm, put parts of a solution together over great distances through the web. It's clear that you need a very safe space for people to brainstorm. When people think their ideas will be reviewed, they will not do that. When you take away the safe space, you take away a lot of the power of human problem-solving."
Berners-Lee's personal brand of intercreativity is visibly on display on the whiteboard in his office. It is covered in a dense swirl of words, symbols and flow lines in several colours – a mad professor's frenzied splurge of ideas. To the uninitiated, the scribblings are gobbledegook. Take the sequence scrawled on one corner of the board: "html js / deeps / me. forts / msg / BBT subscribe files / ADD support / Facebook".
Berners-Lee talks in much the same way as he writes on the whiteboard, his thoughts rushing over each other in such a flurry he sometimes stumbles over his words. He browses widely in his search for examples to illustrate a point, drawing from internet geekery, politics and social sciences with such seamlessness that it provokes the feeling that the world wide web is nothing but a binary expression of its creator's own roaming mind.
Which leads us to talk about the most existential threat to the web that Berners-Lee fears could result from state surveillance – the risk that the simple act on which the power of the web depends, the ability to link from one page to the next in just one click, could be jeopardised. Already, governments such as Brazil are looking at ways to uncouple their internet networks from the US to curb NSA snooping, raising warnings that the internet is about to be Balkanised.
Any move in that direction would damage a central principle of the internet, that it should be multiply-connected. "If you try and really split up the web, then it fails," he says bluntly. "The power of the web is that you can link to anything. If there's any category of things you can't link to then the value of the whole system drops tremendously, so much so that people would no longer use it."
Any country that tries to create what he calls a "walled garden" of the internet would find the value of its GDP drop through the floor. Trade would be disrupted, cross-cultural exchange wither. "Boy, would it increase the cost of the system! It would be a horrible constraint and it wouldn't really help – it wouldn't stop the NSA getting its hand on the data."
Berners-Lee is clear-eyed about the various threats posed by state surveillance, but it doesn't end there. He is also clear about what needs to be done to redress the problem. He begins by saying he agrees with the British and US governments that they have to be able to pursue criminal activity on the internet. "Clearly we do have to have investigative police powers," he says. But he goes on: "Clearly too we need to have people to guard the guards themselves, and in both the UK and US we have been complete failures in setting up that system. We can't be naive. We've failed. When you look at who guards the guards, there has been only one answer to that: in practice it has been the whistleblowers."
Berners-Lee believes that the challenge of devising a new system of checks and balances that will protect the universality and vibrancy of the web while allowing the NSA and GCHQ to carry out necessary investigative functions needs to be met by an engaged and informed public. "The future of the internet must be in multi-stakeholder governance," he says, in which state agencies and large internet companies participate, but at arm's length.
Next year, the 25th anniversary of the birth of the world wide web as defined by that first memo he circulated in 1989, is the perfect moment, he suggests, to devise what he calls a charter of rights for the internet.
I ask him how he would he frame such a charter were he to write it himself. He answers the question with a stream of consciousness, firing out bullet points about the fundamentals he would expect as an internet user:
• "I can behave as though I'm not being spied on.
• "If I'm being spied on, I know it's by somebody I trust for reasons that I approved, even if it's done secretly, and I know there's a system in place that ensures it is accountable to the public.
• "I can communicate with everybody and I won't find my packets suddenly delayed because I go to an abortion site and my ISP provider disapproves of abortions.
• "That the internet is neutral politically from the point of view of race, colour, creed, sexual preference – all the things where we do not discriminate."
Berners-Lee, who was brought up in south-west London and still spends a part of every month in the UK, has a special message for his country of birth. He is convinced such a proactive search for an internet charter could be transformative for the UK. After all, he quips, isn't the British constitution famously not worth the paper it isn't written on?
"Maybe it's time for Brits to decide that being constitution-less has lasted long enough. That it's time to put down some basic rights. We've seen our rights being violated, so let's write down what they are. Let's include the rights of the internet, let's include the independence of the fourth estate which is parallel but different. And let's include something that Britain can learn from America – the right to freedom of speech."
A life of sharing information
1955 Born in London
1976 Graduated in physics, Oxford University
1980 While working at Cern, the Geneva-based European laboratory for particle physics, he proposes a hypertext project to allow sharing information between scientists. Calls it ENQUIRE
1989 Proposes an internet-based initiative for global information sharing which he calls world wide web Aim is 'to allow all links to be made to any information anywhere"
1990 Writes the first web client and server. His specifications of URLs, HTTP and HTML are refined as web technology spreads
1994 Founds the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), an organisation that seeks to lead the web to its full potential, at the at Massachusetts Institute of Technology where he is a professor
2009 Sets up World Wide Web Foundation that campaigns to end the global digital divide between those who are on the web and those who aren't.
| i don't know |
On which ship did Fletcher Christian lead a mutiny in 1787 | The Bounty, Pitcairn Island, and Fletcher Christian's Descendants
The Bounty, Pitcairn Island, and Fletcher Christian's Descendants
April 28 marks the anniversary of the world's most famous mutiny
by Borgna Brunner
Phrases in the Pitcairnese Dialect
I starten. – I'm going.
Bou yo gwen? – Where are you going?
I gwen down Farder's morla. – I'm going down to Father's place tomorrow.
Bou yo bin? – Where have you been?
I gwen out yenna fer porpay. – I'm going out yonder for red guavas.
Foot yawly come yah? – Why did you come here?
Up a side, Tom'sa roll. – Up at that place, Tom fell down.
Source: Ray and Eileen Young, New Zealand residents descended from Midshipmen Edward Young of the Bounty. Courtesy of the Pitcairn Island Web site.
It is not surprising that the most famous of all mutinies , that of the British HMS Bounty , has become ideal fodder for popular history and legend. The mutiny has generated five films (who can think of Fletcher Christian without picturing Marlon Brando ?) as well as countless books (including a historical novel by Mark Twain , The Great Revolution in Pitcairn).
Set in the paradisiacal islands of the South Seas, the mutiny involved a host of colorful characters, including the tyrannical Captain Bligh , the aristocratic Fletcher Christian (a distant relation of William Wordsworth's ), numerous uninhibited Tahitian women, and a pack of sailors made up of cockney orphans and ruffian adverturers.
Anglo-Tahitian Culture Preserved
What has also helped to perpetuate the romantic fascination with the mutiny is the existence of a small community on Pitcairn Island directly descended from the mutineers and their Tahitian wives.
Living on a 1.75 square mile volcanic speck in the South Pacific that is surely one of the most isolated places on Earth, the contemporary Pitcairn Islanders still bear the surnames of the eighteenth century mutineers (Tom Christian, for example, is the great-great-great-grandson of Fletcher). The islanders speak a dialect that is a hybrid of Tahitian and eighteenth-century English. It is as if history had been preserved in a petri dish (another admittedly romantic notion about an already widely romanticized past).
Paradise
The Bounty left England on Dec. 23, 1787, and reached Tahiti in 1788. It was sent to collect a cargo of breadfruit saplings, which was then to be transported to Jamaica where the breadfruit would serve as food for slaves working on the plantations. After sailing 27,000 miles over ten months, the crew spent a sybaritic idyll on Tahiti, where they reveled in the subtropical climate, lush surroundings, and overwhelming warmth and hospitality of the Tahitians.
A scientist of the time, gladly abandoning reason for passion, claimed that the Tahitians knew "no other god but love; every day is consecrated to it, the whole island is its temple, all the women are its idols, all the men its worshippers." Many of the men found Tahitian companions, and Fletcher Christian and a Tahitian named Maimiti fell deeply in love and later married. For Christian, Maimiti had the face that launched one mutinous ship.
Breadfruit Bligh
On April 4, 1789, the Bounty embarked on the second leg of its journey with a cargo of a thousand breadfruit saplings aboard. A little more than three weeks later, near the island of Tonga , the crew, led by first mate Fletcher Christian, staged a mutiny against Captain William Bligh, under whom they claimed to suffer inhuman treatment.
Bligh and eighteen loyal sailors were set adrift in a 23-foot open boat. According to Captain Bligh's diary, the mutineers threw breadfruit after him as he was forced off the Bounty, and yelled, "There goes the Bounty bastard, breadfruit Bligh!" Miraculously, Bligh and his loyalists survived the seven-week, 3,600-mile voyage in the cramped boat, finally reaching the island of Timor .
Discovering Pitcairn
Pitcairn's coordinates are 25 04 S, 130 06 W.
After the mutiny, Christian and his sailors returned to Tahiti, where sixteen of the twenty-five men decided to remain for good. Christian, along with eight others, their women, and a handful of Tahitian men then scoured the South Pacific for a safe haven, eventually settling on Pitcairn on January 23, 1790.
An isolated volcanic island 1,350 miles southeast of Tahiti, it was named after British midshipman Robert Pitcairn, who first sighted the island on July 2, 1767. Its location had been incorrectly charted by the explorer Carteret , who missed the mark by 200 miles, and was therefore the ideal refuge for the mutineers. Although a British ship spent three months searching for them, the mutineers eluded detection. Those who had remained on Tahiti were not so lucky. They were swiftly captured and brought to trial in England, where seven were exonerated and three were hanged.
Psychoanalyzing Captain Bligh
The circumstances leading to the mutiny remain unclear. History has alternately presented William Bligh as horrifically cruel or as a disciplined captain merely running a tight ship. Scenes from movies in which he keel-hauled sailors or gave their water rations to the breadfruit plants have no historical basis, but diplomacy and compassion were clearly not his strong suits. In short, the captain is believed to have been a foul-tempered, highly critical authoritarian with a superiority complex.
Bligh himself contended that the mutineers "had assured themselves of a more happy life among the Otaheitans [Tahitians] than they could possibly have in England, which, joined to some female connections, has most likely been the leading cause of the whole business."
Bligh Climbs the Naval Ladder Rather than Walking the Plank
Certainly the stark contrast between the pleasures of Tahiti and the bleak life aboard the Bounty played a role in igniting the mutiny, but the blame seems to rest largely on Bligh's failings as a captain. The fact that Bligh was later involved in yet another mutiny and again accused of "oppressive behavior" makes the occasional attempts to rehabilitate his reputation unconvincing. In 1805 he was appointed governor of New South Wales, Britain's colony of Australia. The colonists, well accustomed to harsh leaders and conditions, found Bligh's rule intolerable. Within three years, they mutineed; Bligh was imprisoned and sent back to England.
Ironically, having two mutinies on his record did not stymie Bligh's career–he was eventually promoted to Vice Admiral. Although he was arrogant and cruel, he was also courageous and intelligent, as well as an excellent navigator, astronomer, and cartographer–he could never have survived the seven-week, 3,600-mile post-mutiny voyage otherwise.
The Ebb & Flow
2014: 48
* Pitcairn's population dropped to zero when all the inhabitants emigrated to Norfolk Island.
Landing on Pitcairn Island in 1790, the mutineers and Tahitians remained invisible to the world for eighteen years. Despite the fledgling society's opportunity to invent itself from scratch, island culture more closely resembled Lord of the Flies than a Rousseauvian utopia. When an American whaler discovered the island in 1808, murder and suicide had left eight of the nine mutineers dead.
Pitcairn Joins the Commonwealth
Pitcairn flourished under the leadership of the last surviving mutineer, John Adams, a Cockney orphan who had joined the Bounty under the pseudonym Alexander Smith. He reverted to his real name on Pitcairn–apparently deciding it was the sort of place where he could let his hair down. Adamstown, the capital, is named after him.
Despite his former hard-drinking days and near illiteracy, Adams emphasized the importance of religion and education to the Bounty's second generation–which included Fletcher Christian's son, Thursday October Christian, the first child born on the island.
In 1825, a British ship arrived and formally granted Adams amnesty, and on November 30, 1838, the Pitcairn Islands (which also include three uninhabited islands–Henderson, Ducie, and Oeno) were incorporated into the British Empire .
Emigration to Norfolk Island
By 1855, the population had grown to nearly 200, and the tiny island, with only 88 acres of flat land, could no longer sustain its people. As a result, Queen Victoria bequeathed them Norfolk Island , a former penal colony more than 3,700 miles to the west.
On May 3, 1856, the entire population of 194 people reluctantly abandoned Pitcairn. Within 18 months, however, seventeen of the immigrants returned to Pitcairn, followed by another four families in 1864. Contemporary Norfolk has approximately 1000 Bounty descendants–about half its population–and celebrates Bounty Day (the day the Pitcairners first arrived) on June 8.
Contemporary Pitcairn
Languages: English (official); Anglo-Tahitian dialect
Chief Occupations: subsistence farming and fishing
Agriculture: citrus fruits, sugarcane, watermelons, bananas, yams, and beans.
Average Temperature: 55°-90°F
Major source of revenue: postage stamps and handicrafts
Currency: New Zealand dollar
Area: 1.75 square miles
Today about 50 people live on Pitcairn. All but a handful–a pastor, the schoolteacher, and others–are direct descendants of the mutineers. The only way to reach the island is by ship, but storms and Pitcairn's dangerous harbor have sometimes prevented landings. In recent years one of Pitcairn's thrice-annual supply ships ran aground on a reef on its way from Norfolk to Pitcairn.
Mail service takes approximately three months, and for medical attention, Pitcairners must wait for a ship to transport them to New Zealand, several thousand miles to the west. All are Seventh-Day Adventists who converted sometime after 1886, when an American missionary arrived on the island.
The islanders support themselves by producing postage stamps and making handicrafts, which they sell primarily to visitors on passing ships. Their meager revenue does not cover the enormous costs incurred in keeping the remote island running–electricity, among other things, is exhorbitant and cargo costs several thousand dollars per ton to transport. Great Britain has until now subsidized the island, but it is uncertain whether it will continue to underwrite the expenses of its tiny but costly colony.
World Wide Web Brings the Wide World to Pitcairn
There are individuals and organizations around the world devoted to the Pitcairners, their genealogy, and the history of the mutiny (the genealogical tree extends to 7,500 known descendants throughout the world). Friends of the Pitcairn Islanders have even launched the island into cyberspace–the Pitcairn Island online portal , and Norfolk Island has its own site . It is now even possible to buy Pitcairn Island handicrafts through the Pitcairn Island Online Shop !
Pitcairn has also recently begun to sell its Internet domain name–".pn"–to those needing a unique URL. "Yahoo.com" may be out of the question, but "Yahoo.pn" just might be up for grabs. Islander Tom Christian originally sold the rights to the ".pn" domain to a British Internet company. When the cash-strapped islanders realized they were seeing no financial reward they fought for and eventually took back control of their domain name.
Pitcairn Island. Courtesy of the Pitcairn Island Web Site.
Paradise Lost
In recent years, however, a sexual abuse scandal has cast a deep shadow over the island. Accounts of the victimization of women and young girls on Pitcairn began surfacing in 1999. Seven men–more than half the adult male population of the island–were charged with 96 counts of abuse, including rape and sexual assault. Some of the charges dated back four decades. Subject to British law, the accused faced trial in October 2004 on Pitcairn. Three judges, a number of lawyers, and legal staff members made the 3,000-mile journey to Pitcairn from New Zealand. Eight women, all former Pitcairn Islanders, testified by video link from Auckland, New Zealand.
On Oct. 29, 2004, four men were convicted of multiple sex offenses and received jail sentences of up to six years; two others were sentenced to community service. Jay Warren, the island's magistrate, was found innocent. The appeals of all four men were dismissed, and they are currently being jailed on Pitcairn and guarded by a prison staff from New Zealand.
| Bounty |
What extraordinary item of dress is a gibus | HMS BOUNTY MISSION TO TAHITI FOR BREADFRUIT CAPTAIN WILLIAM BLIGH AND FLETCHER CHRISTIAN MUTINY AND SETTLING ON PITCAIRN ISLAND
THE BOUNTY and PITCAIRN ISLAND
HMS Bounty sailed from Spithead, England on December 23, 1787 with Captain William Bligh and a crew of 45 men bound for Tahiti . Their mission was to collect breadfruit plants to be transplanted in the West Indies as cheap food for the slaves.
There was a lot happening in the world in 1789. The Constitution of the United States of America was ratified. The French Revolution occurred. In England, King George III was influenced by the members of the Royal Society in their quest for scientific and economic expansion, and the King had authorized the Bounty expedition. The mutiny onboard HMS Bounty happened in the remote South Pacific.
Life in the Royal Navy was harsh. The majority of crewmembers of each ship were pressed into service by "Press Gangs." They were forced onto the ship and then not allowed to leave, sometimes for years at a time. A vital statistic in the story of HMS Bounty is that every person in the crew was a volunteer.
Bethia tall ship, renamed HMS Bounty
CAPTAIN WILLIAM BLIGH
William Bligh , the Captain of the expedition, was born September 9, 1754. He was heavily built and below average in height, with black hair, blue eyes and a pale complexion. He gained a reputation in the Royal Navy for having a volatile temper and he used foul language when angered. Bligh went to sea at the age of sixteen as an able bodied seaman and not a midshipman. Seven months after he entered the service, he was given his warrant as a midshipman and then he made his way through the officer ranks.
When the famous explorer Captain James Cook was preparing to go to the Pacific for his third voyage, in HMS Resolution, Bligh was designated as his navigator. Bligh at the time was twenty-three and a warrant officer not yet carrying the King�s commission. Bligh received high praise from Captain Cook. Bligh�s charts surveys and records were impeccable and some are still used today because of their accuracy. When Cook was killed in Hawaii, Bligh navigated HMS Resolution back to England.
Bligh then served with distinction in the Fleet during the war with France. He was promoted to Lieutenant in 1781. Also in 1781 he married Elizabeth Betham and was appointed as Master of HMS Cambridge. Onboard HMS Cambridge, Bligh became acquainted with Fletcher Christian. In his diary, Christian claimed that Bligh �treated him like a brother.� Bligh taught Christian the use of the sextant and frequently dined with him.
With the advent of peace in 1783, England reduced the size of the Navy and Bligh was reduced to half pay. Through his wife�s family he was appointed as Commander of the merchant ship Britannia and sailed between England and the West Indies. Among his crew was his friend Fletcher Christian. In 1787, while he was still away, he was appointed to command HMS Bounty for the voyage to Tahiti and the West Indies. It is interesting to note that he would be earning much less in the Royal Navy than in the Merchant Navy. Bligh was the only commissioned officer on HMS Bounty, but he was not appointed to Captain. Bligh understood that he would be promoted to Captain upon successful completion of the voyage.
FLETCHER CHRISTIAN
Fletcher Christian was born in Cumberland on September 15, 1764 of a well to do family. He went to sea at the age of sixteen, and two years later he sailed aboard HMS Cambridge where he met William Bligh for the first time. Christian was about five feet nine inches tall with a dark complexion and well muscled. He was sometimes described as swashbuckling, a slack disciplinarian, a great favorite with the ladies, conceited but also mild, generous, open and humane. In describing the mutineers, Bligh described Christian as �master�s mate, aged twenty-four years, five feet nine inches high, blackish, or very dark brown complexion, dark brown hair, strong made, a star tattooed on his left breast, tattooed on his backside; his knees stand a little out, and he may be called rather bow-legged. He is subject to violent perspirations, and particularly in his hands, so that he soils anything he handles.�
THE MISSION: CHEAP FOOD FOR PLANTATIONS
The planters of the West Indies had for years been looking for a cheap way to feed their slaves. The Royal Society petitioned King George III to send an expedition to the South Seas to bring back for transplantation the easily grown breadfruit plant. The King had his scientific advisor, Sir Joseph Banks, make the arrangements. Sir Joseph had sailed to the South Pacific with Captain Cook and had a first hand knowledge of the breadfruit plant. He had eaten and enjoyed the breadfruit. Sir Joseph Banks was a botanist, and he employed the person he considered best suited for this voyage�s botanist, David Nelson. They were well acquainted and had served together in Tahiti. An assistant, William Brown, was hired to help Nelson. Sir Joseph Banks also knew William Bligh through their association with Captain Cook, and Banks recommended Bligh to head the expedition because of his navigational skills.
A SHIP FOR THE MISSION
The collier ship Bethia was converted for the voyage and renamed HMS Bounty. (There is a sailor�s tradition that it is bad luck to change the name of a ship.) Very technically, the ship was named HMAV (His Majesty�s Armed Vessel) Bounty. The ship carried four four-pounders and ten swivels. The ship was 215 tons, ninety feet ten inches on deck, with a beam of twenty-four feet three inches. From the beginning Bligh considered the ship too small for the mission. He had the masts shortened and the ballast reduced to support the ship. The great cabin and other spaces were taken over for the transportation of the breadfruit, and part of the decks were lined with lead to collect fresh water for the plants. The result was an overcrowding of the ship, which left even less room for the officers and crew.
A CREW FOR THE MISSION
Some of Bligh�s former shipmates asked to join him on this voyage. Along with Christian he had Lawrence LeBogue, the sailmaker; John Norton, the quartermaster; David Nelson, the botanist; and William Peckover, the gunner. Christian applied for the appointment as Master, but John Fryer had been appointed by the Admiralty. Bligh had his friend appointed as Master�s Mate in addition to William Elphinstone. The Admiralty also appointed John Huggen as Surgeon, obviously not knowing he was a drunk. Thomas Denman Ledward was the Surgeon�s Mate.
There were five warrant officers onboard and no marines. The Master-at-Arms, Charles Churchill, was one of Bligh�s biggest problems, and of no help. The crew was relatively young, several only fourteen and the oldest was thirty-nine.
Bligh had been ready to sail for weeks but was held up by the Admiralty. Finally his orders came to go to Tahiti via Cape Horn. He asked for and received discretionary orders to proceed via the Cape of Good Hope.
THE OUTWARD VOYAGE
On December 23, 1787 HMS Bounty sailed from Spithead for Tahiti via Cape Horn. There were 46 volunteers onboard. Bligh split the crew into three watches instead of the usual two. This was considered a kindly gesture and made life aboard more restful and healthy. Bligh appointed Fletcher Christian acting Lieutenant and second in command over Fryer.
Bligh had learned from Captain Cook that the well being of the crew is of paramount importance in the success of any mission. He knew that sauerkraut would prevent the dreaded scurvy and it was always on the menu. He knew that exercise was important for the crew�s well being, and he brought along an almost blind fiddler, Michael Byrne, to play music and lead the dancing. Seaman James Valentine died on the outbound voyage from a fall, and from totally inadequate care by the surgeon. One punishment was recorded. Fryer reported Matthew Quintal for insolence and Bligh ordered twenty lashes. (Thirty-six were the norm in the Navy for this offence.)
When the ship approached Cape Horn it was impossible to get through to the Pacific Ocean. Bligh and the crew of Bounty tried for thirty days, fighting terrible storms with at least hurricane force winds, snow and rain with very high seas. To Bligh�s credit he did not lose a man or a spar or a yard of canvas. Bligh was still using the Great Cabin at that time, and he opened it for the use of the crew during those bad days. That was considered as kindly and unusual for a captain to do at that time. They were at last forced to turn east for the Cape of Good Hope at the southern tip of Africa. Bligh addressed the crew and thanked them for their valiant effort. They landed at False Cape, stayed there thirty-eight days, and refitted the ship. Finally they arrived in Tahiti on October 26, 1788.
TAHITI
This was Bligh�s second visit to Tahiti and he had many friends on the island. The Bounty stayed in Tahiti nearly six months in a luxury most of the crew could never imagine. They were never cold or hungry. The beautiful flora were only surpassed by the women of the island, and it was considered a paradise.
The reasons for the long stay in Tahiti were completely rational: (1) They had been delayed in leaving England; (2) They had to collect their plants in the proper season in order for them to survive; and (3) They had to wait for the proper winds to take them home.
Bligh has been criticized for his leadership role while the ship was in Tahiti. While his log and observations of the island and people were meticulous, he was too slack and his men knew it. When he delegated responsibilities to his subordinates, he did not check to make sure that his orders were followed. Examples of this led to the sails being allowed to rot and an anchor line was cut. Bligh also never took the ship underway for short cruises to keep the crew sharp. The chronometer also stopped because he left the ship himself to look for deserters and gave no one the responsibility to check the chronometer.
On January 5, 1789 William Muspratt, John Millward and Charles Churchill stole a ship�s boat and some muskets and deserted. Midshipman Thomas Hayward was Officer of the Watch and he was asleep when this happened. Bligh had Hayward confined in irons and then Bligh set off to find the deserters. It took three weeks but he found them. Churchill got 12 lashes, and Muspratt and Millward each got 24 lashes. (The normal punishment would have been hanging after the flogging.)
Bligh made Christian commander of the shore party to collect the breadfruit plants. Living arrangements were set up ashore and there is conflicting evidence as to all the many relationships that were developed with the Tahitian women. When the Bounty eventually left with the breadfruit, many crewmembers left behind strong attachments.
THE RETURN VOYAGE
When HMS Bounty finally left Tahiti on April 6, 1789 there were 1015 breadfruit plants onboard, and a very unhappy crew. They were back to the harsh realities of shipboard life. Bligh�s reaction was ranting and raving. The crew and the officers reacted with disgruntled compliance. Christian was affected the most and seemed to be the recipient of most of Bligh�s abuse. Bligh berated Christian during the day, and invited him to dine in the evening. Christian decided to desert. Right up until the mutiny, Bligh never had a clue that he and Christian were not still friends.
After about three weeks of sailing, Christian confided to Midshipman Edward Young his plan to build a raft and sail away. Young pointed out there were sharks in the water that would make it certain death. It was probably Young who suggested that Christian should take the ship and do away with Captain Bligh. Christian put the idea to Quintal, William McCoy, Alexander Smith, Charles Thompson, Williams and Burkitt. These were all seamen. They then tried to recruit three midshipmen, Stewart, Hayward and Hallet, but they refused and were confined below decks. Christian then broke into the arms chest and took the ship.
MUTINY MR CHRISTIAN
In the early morning of April 28, 1789 Bligh was awakened and brought out on deck in his night shirt, and with his hands tied, was held abaft the mizzenmast. When the crew was asked who wanted to leave with Bligh thirty men volunteered. Bligh made several last pleas pointing out that � I have a wife and four children in England, and you have danced my children on your knee.� Christian�s answer was, �It is too late Captain Bligh, I have been forced through hell these past three weeks.� The mutiny was described as a very confused event, filled with threats and counter-threats. Some of the men who wanted to go with Bligh were forced to stay with the Bounty because of the lack of space in the boat. No person was killed or physically injured.
Captain Bligh and 18 men were cast adrift in the South Pacific Ocean in a 23 foot boat. The people in the boat with Bligh were: John Fryer, William Elphinstone, William Cole, William Peckover, William Purcell, Thomas Denman Ledward, Thomas Hayward, John Hallet, Peter Linkletter, John Norton, George Simpson, Thomas Hall, Robert Lamb, David Nelson, Lawrence LeBogue, John Samuel, John Smith, and Robert Tinkler.
Bligh then proceeded to make one of the most heroic voyages in history. First they made to the nearby island of Tofoa. The natives were hostile and they were lucky to get away with only the loss of John Norton, who was a hero in allowing the boat to escape. Then there were eighteen men with enough food and water for five days. Bligh made the decision to sail to Kupang and to reapportion the food to serve for 50 days. They eventually made the heroic voyage in 48 days, landing in Timor on June 12, 1789. No one died on the voyage, however three men died in Batavia. Bligh�s Clerk, John Samuel, saved the Log and Bligh�s journals and Bligh was grateful to him for his loyal actions.
After Bligh arrived back in England on March 14, 1790 he was court-martialed and acquitted. Shortly thereafter Bligh published his �Narrative of the Mutiny on Board His Majesty�s Ship �Bounty�.� It was followed 2 years later by a more complete version, describing the entire �Voyage.� These books were among the first of over 250 books that have described some aspect of the adventure and its consequences.
SEARCH FOR THE MUTINEERS
Captain Edward Edwards was given the assignment to take HMS Pandora to Tahiti and find the Bounty mutineers. Two Bounty midshipmen, Thomas Hayward and John Hallet, were also assigned to that mission to identify members of the crew. By the time Pandora arrived in Tahiti on March 23, 1791 there were only fourteen Bounty crewmembers there. Churchill and Thompson had been murdered. Eight crewmembers gave themselves up immediately and others took off to the mountains only to be caught and brought back to Pandora in irons. All of the Bounty crewmembers were put into a cage on the main deck called �Pandora�s Box.� Pandora struck a reef near Australia on August 28, 1791. Ten of the fourteen Bounty crewmen escaped with the Pandora crew, and four drowned in their chains. Four boats got away from the Pandora wreck and arrived at Timor, 1000 miles away, on September 16, 1791.
COURT MARTIAL
The surviving Bounty crewmen from the Pandora were tried by court martial in England starting on August 12, 1792. Thomas Ellison, John Millward and Thomas Burkitt were found guilty of mutiny and hanged at Spithead onboard HMS Brunswick on October 29, 1792. Others were declared innocent of mutiny and released, and two notables, James Morrison and Peter Heywood, were pardoned.
William Bligh was promoted to Captain, given command of HMS Providence and with the escort vessel Assistant, was dispatched to Tahiti for another breadfruit mission. This mission was successful in that the breadfruit was transplanted in the West Indies, and the ships returned safely to England. However, the slaves hated the breadfruit, and refused to eat it.
Bligh was involved in three mutinies. After the Bounty, there was the Fleet Mutiny at the Nore, and then the mutiny while he was Governor of New South Wales in Australia in 1805. He died with the rank of Vice-Admiral of the Blue at the age of 64 on December 7, 1817. He is buried at St. Mary�s at Lambeth Churchyard and Garden in London.
MUTINEERS SEARCH FOR SAFE HAVEN
After the mutiny, the Bounty first returned to Tahiti. Christian was elected captain, and the ship set off to find a place to live. The mutineers started, then abandoned a settlement on the island of Tubuai, and the ship again returned to Tahiti. Nine of the Bounty mutineers with six Polynesian men, twelve women and one baby left Tahiti onboard Bounty. They searched for and found, Pitcairn Island, which had been incorrectly charted years before. They found the island on January 15, 1790. After they took everything of value off the ship, HMS Bounty was burned on January 23, 1790 and the mutineers set up life on Pitcairn.
The mutineers who settled on Pitcairn Island were Fletcher Christian, Edward Young, John Mills, William Brown, Isaac Martin, William McCoy, Matthew Quintal, John Williams and John Adams (at that time known as Alexander Smith). The Polynesian men who settled with the mutineers were: Taroamiva, Uhuu, Minarii, Teimua, Niau, and Tararo. The Tahitian women were: Mauatua, Teraura, Tevarua, Teio, Tehuteatuaonoa, Toowhaiti, Vahineatua, Fahoutu, Tetuahitea, Mareva, Tinafoonia, Obuarei, and the baby Sarah.
The little colony was not a happy one, in great measure due to the inequality between the British mutineers and the Polynesian men regarding sharing the women and the land. The mutineers had plenty of female companionship and the Polynesians very little, and dissention, then murder were the result. On September 20, 1793 five of the whites, including Christian, and all of the Polynesian men were killed. Most of the remaining mutineers died or were killed by the Tahitian women, especially after a method to make spirits was discovered. Only Adams and Ned Young remained. Ned Young died of asthma in 1800.
John Adams, (who signed onboard Bounty hiding from the law as Alexander Smith), was the only male survivor. He had been a violent person, but had changed dramatically. Midshipman Young had taught him to read and the Bible became his saving grace. He went on to become the respected leader on Pitcairn, and died on March 5, 1829, forty years after the mutiny.
The island colony was first visited in 1808 by Captain Mayhew Folger in the American sealer Topaz. Adams gave Folger a copy of the Log, along with the Bounty�s chronometer, as proof of the colony�s existence. The Admiralty took no action regarding the report from Topaz. Pitcairn was next visited by two British men of war (Captains� Staines and Pipon in Briton and Tagus) in 1814. Staines reported to the Admiralty that, after he and Pipon had studied the circumstances on the island, to take John Adams back to England to stand trial for the mutiny would be �an act of great cruelty and inhumanity.�
The Log of the Bounty is in the British National Maritime Museum, and the Bounty�s chronometer (K2) is in the Royal Observatory, also in Greenwich, England.
PITCAIRN ISLAND
Pitcairn Island became and is a part of the British Empire. In 1831, the people were very briefly moved to Tahiti. The experience was a failure, and the people quickly returned to Pitcairn. In 1856, the population had become overcrowded, and all of the people were moved to Norfolk Island. Very soon thereafter many moved back to Pitcairn. Since then the fortunes of the Pitcairn people have ebbed and flowed, depending upon each other, the weather, the passing of ships, the sale of postal stamps, and the sale of island made products. The descendents of the Bounty mutineers and their Tahitian wives still live on Pitcairn Island, with remnants of the original ship, in addition to their descendents on Norfolk Island, and all around the world. January 23 is celebrated each year on Pitcairn Island as �Bounty Day.�
LINKS TO OTHER BOUNTY SITES
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What was the name of Buddy Holly's backing group | Buddy Holly - Biography - IMDb
Buddy Holly
Biography
Showing all 42 items
Jump to: Overview (4) | Mini Bio (1) | Spouse (1) | Trade Mark (2) | Trivia (32) | Personal Quotes (2)
Overview (4)
5' 11½" (1.82 m)
Mini Bio (1)
Buddy Holly was born on September 7, 1936 in Lubbock, Texas, USA as Charles Hardin Holley. He was married to Maria Elena Santiago. He died on February 3, 1959 in Clear Lake, Iowa, USA.
Spouse (1)
Wore horn rimmed black glasses
Fender Stratocaster
Trivia (32)
Died when his chartered plane (N 3794 N) crashed. Also on board and killed in the crash were Ritchie Valens and The Big Bopper (J.P. Richardson). An investigation determined the cause of the crash was "pilot error"; the pilot was not qualified to fly by instruments, and the plane took off in a snowstorm. Despite later urban legends, the plane was not named the "American Pie"; it had no name.
His date of death (February 3, 1959) was forever immortalized as "The Day the Music Died" in the song "American Pie" by Don McLean .
Many, including Holly's father and his manager, were against Buddy's marriage to Maria Elena Santiago, a young Puerto Rican girl he met in New York months before his death.
Waylon Jennings was part of Buddy's backup group and was supposed to be on the fateful flight but, instead, allowed The Big Bopper , who was sick, to take his place.
Buddy's group was The Crickets and they stayed together after his death.
Had a cat named Booker T. and a dog named Alonzo.
Attended and graduated from Lubbock High School in Lubbock, Texas (1955).
Had two brothers: Larry Holley (born 1925), Travis Holley (born 1927), and one sister: Patricia Lou Holley (1929-2008).
Pictured on one of four 29¢ US commemorative postage stamps in the Legends of American Music series, issued in booklet form 16 June 1993. This Rock & Roll/Rhythm & Blues set of stamps also honored Otis Redding , Dinah Washington and Elvis Presley .
He was voted the 13th Greatest Rock 'n' Roll Artist of all time by Rolling Stone.
His wife was pregnant at the time of his death, but later suffered a miscarriage.
Following his untimely death, he was interred at City of Lubbock Cemetery in Lubbock, Texas.
Holly was a member of an independent Baptist church in Lubbock called Tabernacle Baptist Church; his funeral was conducted there. His brother is still a member.
Actual Crickets (the ones that chirp) got into the recording studio and are heard in the fade out of the single "Listen to Me".
Inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame (charter member) (1986), the American Songwriters Hall of Fame (1986), and the Nashville Songwriters Hall of Fame (1994).
Although he used the last name "Holly" as a professional recording artist (it was an uncorrected mistake on his first recording contract; he liked the spelling and kept it), his gravestone gives the correct spelling of his name which is Holley.
In recognition for his achievements, the city of Lubbock erected a life-size statue of Holly next to the convention center. The statue shows Holly strumming his Fender Stratocaster guitar and tapping his heel (he tapped his heel instead of his toe) which also serves as a monument to the West Texas Hall of Fame. At the base of Holly's feet, there are plaques with the names of famous Texans.
The Beatles took their name in tribute to Buddy Holly and The Crickets . John Lennon and Paul McCartney were both inspired to write their own songs after learning that Holly wrote (or co-wrote) many of his own songs. In the period of 1958 to 1960, the band had been using many different names, most prominently "The Quarrymen" (after the school they attended) and "Johnny and the Moondogs". According to some stories, it was Stuart Sutcliffe (the famed "fifth Beatle") who suggested the name "The Beetles" and that John changed the spelling to give the name a double meaning.
In 1959, The Crickets ' recorded a tribute to Buddy written by member Sonny Curtis , "(I Love You) More Than I Can Say". It was later a charted hit for Bobby Vee in 1961 (#61) and Leo Sayer in 1980 (#02).
Buddy Holly and The Crickets' first million seller for Brunswick Records in 1957, "That'll Be the Day", was a reworking of an earlier solo version by Buddy for Decca Records, the parent company. In order not to confuse the record-buying public, "The Crickets" were printed on the Brunswick label as the groups's full name. On Coral Records they were only listed as Buddy Holly. Subsequently, the group would continue to issue two singles at a time, instead of the usual one, one on Coral ("Peggy Sue") and the other on Brunswick ("Oh Boy"). This arrangement remained in effect for the rest of Buddy's recording career. A net result of 11 singles from 1957-58.
Holly's longtime manager was independent studio owner and producer Norman Petty ; he eventually split with Petty because Petty insisted on a co-credit for the songs he recorded with Holly and the Crickets (entitling Petty to a share of the royalties). Petty withheld royalty money owed to Holly, after the split and Holly's move to New York. Financial reasons forced Holly to go on his final tour, the Winter Dance Party.
He was posthumously awarded a Star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for Recording at 1750 North Vine Street in Hollywood, California on what would have been his 75th birthday [September 7, 2011].
Buddy and his friends went to see The Searchers (1956) starring John Wayne . Several times throughout the film, Wayne says "That'll be the day". The repeated phrase stuck with Holly and he wrote the song that would become his first #1 hit.
Buddy Holly had written a song for his niece called "Cindy Lou". It was a slow ballad. But then his bandmate, Jerry Allison, asked Buddy to change the title to "Peggy Sue" after his girlfriend. They had been fighting and he asked Holly to alter the song as a way of making up with her.
Buddy's band was not originally called "The Crickets". The name came about after a recording of the song "I'm Gonna Love You Too". At the end of the track is a real chirping cricket. The band took it's name from that point on. Every issue of that track on record, tape, and CD still includes the cricket at the end.
The odd lyric "Drunk Man, Street Car, Foot Slipped, There You Are!" in the song "I'm Looking for Someone to Love" comes from an odd saying of Buddy's uncle. (According to family lore).
The title of the song "Maybe, Baby" is derived from a saying of Buddy's mother.
Before forming The Crickets, Buddy Holly performed country and western music with a singing partner, Bob Montgomery. The two of them recorded some songs together but never drew any attention until Buddy turned his attention to rock-n-roll.
"Not Fade Away" a 1957 B-side to "Oh Boy" by Buddy Holly and The Crickets, written by Holly, is ranked #107 within "Rolling Stones' 500 Greatest Songs". Featuring a "Bo Diddley backbeat", it became The Rolling Stones' (group) first single in 1962. It was later reworked by The Who, in 1965, to form their signature standard "My Generation".
On October 25, 1958, he appeared, for the only time, on The Dick Clark Show (1958). He performed "It's So Easy" with The Crickets. Later in the show, he performed "Heartbeat", solo, while standing on a makeshift bridge, with guitar in hand.
"Peggy Sue Got Married/Crying, Waiting, Hoping" was a 2-sided single, released after his death, in the summer of 1959 on Coral. The songs were found on his tape recorder, performed by Buddy with an acoustic guitar. A weak background chorus was added to both songs, in the first release. The record didn't receive any degree of popularity at the time. "Crying, Waiting, Hoping" was later covered by The Beatles as well as other groups. "Peggy Sue Got Married" was later the title song of the 1986 film. There the original unedited version of the song was used and was well received.
He made his final television appearance on October 28, 1958 with The Crickets on New American Bandstand 1965 (1952), performing "It's So Easy".
Personal Quotes (2)
None of us could have made it without Elvis.
Lyrics: That'll be the day when you say goodbye / That'll be the day when you made me cry / You say you're gonna leave, you know it's a lie 'cause / That'll be the day when I die.
See also
| The Crickets |
Who had a number one album in 1986 with True Blue | The Crickets — Free listening, videos, concerts, stats and photos at Last.fm
60s
The Crickets were the backing band formed by singer/songwriter Buddy Holly in the 1950s. It consisted of Jerry Allison (drums), Joe B Mauldin (bass) and Nikki Sullivan (rhythm guitar).
Many believe that The Crickets chose their name while listening to a playback of "I'm Gonna Love You Too." This is not true; the name was chosen while going through an encyclopedia of names. Other names had been considered including The Scoundrels and The Spiders. Holly's manager(Norman Petty… read more
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What was the Monkees best selling single | Top 10 Monkees Songs
Top 10 Monkees Songs
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Hulton Archive, Keystone Features, Getty Images
The best Monkees songs underscore how their music has stood the test of time, decades after the group first popped onto our TV sets. Their albums, it’s since become clear, were some of the best pop music of the ’60s and beyond. That made narrowing things down no small task, but we dug deep to compile this list of the Top 10 Monkees Songs:
10
Written by Peter Tork, this ode to the youth culture of the times – released just before the “summer of love” kicked in – was from the Monkees’ third album. Headquarters was their own creation – and yes, that means the instruments were played by the group! It contained no hit singles, but still made it to No. 1 – only to be toppled after one week by Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band. The Monkees ultimately sat in the Beatles ‘ shadow at No. 2 for nearly three months. “For Pete’s Sake” was also used as the closing theme for the Monkees television show’s second season.
‘I’m Not Your Stepping Stone’
From: ‘More of the Monkees’ (1967)
This is the first and certainly not the only track worthy of inclusion on this list of Top 10 Monkees Songs to come from their second album. Even though Paul Revere and the Raiders put it to vinyl first, the Monkees’ version remains definitive. Tough, snotty vocals from Mickey Dolenz give it a jolt of garage-punk attitude.
From: ‘More of the Monkees’ (1967)
What better end to a list of Top 10 Monkees Songs than with their biggest and most enduring hit? “I’m A Believer” sat at No. 1 for seven weeks and, along with “Last Train To Clarksville,” is the song probably most identified with the Monkees. It was written by a young Neil Diamond, but the group made it their own thanks to the dynamic vocals of Mickey Dolenz. This song also helped More of the Monkees to an 18-week run at No. 1, making it one of the biggest selling pop albums of the ’60s.
| I'm a Believer |
Which Scottish comedian had his World Tour of Australia shown on TV | The Monkees - I'm A Believer
The Monkees
1997
▸ Alternative video Spotify
“I’m a Believer” is a song composed by Neil Diamond and recorded by the band The Monkees in 1966 with the lead vocals by Micky Dolenz. The song is written in G major but the intro riff uses notes from the G minor scale. The single, produced by Jeff Barry, hit the number one spot on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 chart on December 31, 1966 and remained there for seven weeks, becoming the biggest-selling record for all of 1967, and one of the biggest of all time. Because of advance orders, over 1,051,280, it went gold within two days of release. The song became Billboard’s top single of the year and kept the novelty smash, “Snoopy & the Red Baron” by The Royal Guardsmen, at number two for four weeks. Neil Diamond had already recorded this song before it was covered by the Monkees,... Read on...
Song lines: ♪ Of doubt in my mind ... Now I'm a believer ... Not a trace ♫
Current Rank: ...
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Which actress plays the title role in the TV series Linda Green | Linda Green (TV Series 2001–2002) - IMDb
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Title: Linda Green (2001–2002)
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2 wins & 1 nomination. See more awards »
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Interconnected dramas about the lives of a group of workers at a Manchester textile factory, with each episode focusing on the home life of a different character.
Stars: Jack Deam, Tony Mooney, Joan Kempson
Touching Evil (TV Series 2004)
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Returning from a year-long psychological leave of absence after surviving an almost-fatal gunshot wound to the head, a detective is assigned to the FBI's new Organized and Serial Crime Unit... See full summary »
Stars: Jeffrey Donovan, Vera Farmiga, Zach Grenier
Young doctor Owen Springer returns to Manchester to care for his ailing father and proceeds to fall in love with an older woman, who just happens to be married to his boss.
Stars: Francesca Annis, Michael Kitchen, Robson Green
Touching Evil (TV Series 1997)
Crime | Drama | Mystery
Touching Evil is a crime drama following the exploits of a crack squad on the Organised & Serial Crime Unit, a rapid response police force that serves the entire county.
Stars: Robson Green, Nicola Walker, Shaun Dingwall
Follows the life of transgender contract killer Mia, who travels to West Yorkshire to seek out her ex girlfriend.
Stars: Jonas Armstrong, Chloë Sevigny, Karla Crome
Unconventional psychologist Gerry "Fitz" Fitzgerald is one of the best police interrogators in the business, mostly because his own quirks and perversities help him get inside the criminal mind.
Stars: Robert Pastorelli, Carolyn McCormick, Josh Hartnett
A father and son story, with a thriller motor. It explores a mystery from the past with a brutal and shocking revelation.
Stars: John Simm, Jim Broadbent, Olivia Colman
This British children's drama series, set in the children's ward of the fictitious South Park Hospital, tells the stories of the young patients and the staff present there.
Stars: Janette Beverley, Rita May, Carol Harvey
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 4.8/10 X
A teenage boy is gunned down outside a nightclub and a young girl dies in a hit and run in two seemingly unrelated deaths. Deeva Jani, returns home to clear her brother Vipon of the shooting and soon discovers a much deeper conspiracy.
Directors: David Kew, Neil Thompson
Stars: Kaya Scodelario, Nathalie Emmanuel, Stephen Dillane
The series revolves around a corporate law team led by partner Stephen Bradley, a maverick lawyer who often finds sense in apparently senseless argument.
Stars: Robson Green, Sarah Parish, Neil Stuke
Yorkshire award-winning crime drama by Sally Wainwright following a young woman's release from prison after 15 or 16 years time served for murdering two police officers. All she wants now is to find her younger sister.
Stars: Suranne Jones, Emily Beecham, Matthew McNulty
Surreal black comedy about an assortment of odd characters trapped in an asylum, in a quiet English countryside. It is run by staff whose sanity is decidedly suspect, as proved by their ... See full summary »
Stars: Julian Barratt, Adam Bloom, Norman Lovett
30 October 2001 (UK) See more »
Company Credits
Kathy Burke turned down the lead. See more »
Frequently Asked Questions
(Ireland) – See all my reviews
I picked up series 1 on DVD very cheaply about 4 years ago but never watched an episode until this week. I have watched 8 of the 10 episodes now and I have to say overall I found it quite enjoyable. The show was created by Paul Abbott who went on to do 'Shameless' so it has a good pedigree.It doesn't always hit the mark but the dialogue is witty and generally sharp even if none of the story lines amount to a whole lot. But life is like that isn't it.
Liza Tarbuck carries the title role well, she's big brassy and confident - most of the time anyway. The singing is probably a bit overdone, I felt there was no need to sing a full song at the beginning, middle and end which is pretty much how it goes in each episode.
I really like Daniel Ryan, Claire Rushbrook and Sean Gallagher who are the principal members of the supporting cast - being Linda's best mates. I love watching out for early appearances of established stars or cameos even and this series is packed with them. Pam Ferris is brilliant as are David Morrissey and Christopher Eccleston - he plays twins - which I thought was a great storyline. I also spotted Maxine Peake (later to be Veronica in Shameless) as a receptionist in a gym.
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| Liza Tarbuck |
Who is Sting married to | "Linda Green" Reviews & Ratings - IMDb
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Overview
16 out of 20 people found the following review useful:
Liza Tarbuck is hillarious
from LONDON
18 November 2001
Liza Tarbuck is hillarious. In this comedy series Liza basically is looking for love and it's side splitingly funny. She's an excellent actress. I wish I could meet her in person. And she's a great role model for people trying to act who arn't a stick insect e.g Callister Flockheart. Liza if you ever read this I just want to say that you are the queen of comedy and I hope this series runs for many year and I hope to see you in other projects aswell.
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11 out of 13 people found the following review useful:
Beautifully written and acted comic drama about a realistic woman
from United Kingdom
18 June 2006
You really have to be have been locked in your house for 40 years not to appreciate the wry, honest account of 30-something Linda Green's attempts at relationships, friendship and sex. Earthy without being vulgar and set in Manchester, England, the ensemble cast work wonderfully together, with each having their moment over the series. Linda (Lisa Tarbuck) works as clerical manager in a car-repair workshop, has a regular "jump" (sex) with Jimmy the mechanic (subtly played by the always excellent Sean Gallagher). In the evening, Linda sings (live and, like everything else, not perfectly) at the local social club where Jimmy and Linda's other friends join her for a gossip and to sort out each other's problems. The songs comment naturally on the story without being crass and the dialogue sparks. Lisa Tarbuck is not a showy star and allows the rest of the regular cast as well as the guest actors to breathe, but it's her natural portrayal as a funny, modern, complicated woman that really makes this work. In two words, hugely satisfying.
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Not the worst
from Ireland
7 September 2010
I picked up series 1 on DVD very cheaply about 4 years ago but never watched an episode until this week. I have watched 8 of the 10 episodes now and I have to say overall I found it quite enjoyable. The show was created by Paul Abbott who went on to do 'Shameless' so it has a good pedigree.It doesn't always hit the mark but the dialogue is witty and generally sharp even if none of the story lines amount to a whole lot. But life is like that isn't it.
Liza Tarbuck carries the title role well, she's big brassy and confident - most of the time anyway. The singing is probably a bit overdone, I felt there was no need to sing a full song at the beginning, middle and end which is pretty much how it goes in each episode.
I really like Daniel Ryan, Claire Rushbrook and Sean Gallagher who are the principal members of the supporting cast - being Linda's best mates. I love watching out for early appearances of established stars or cameos even and this series is packed with them. Pam Ferris is brilliant as are David Morrissey and Christopher Eccleston - he plays twins - which I thought was a great storyline. I also spotted Maxine Peake (later to be Veronica in Shameless) as a receptionist in a gym.
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0 out of 6 people found the following review useful:
Tiresome and tedious
17 January 2007
*** This review may contain spoilers ***
This show seemed to be about a rather large, plain woman who was regarded highly for her singing but spent a lot of time trying to keep men out of her pants. Trouble is, the script calls for someone who is truly attractive. The casting of Lisa is unforgivable as Ms Tarbuck is not "sexy" and the plot therefore lacks all credibility. Did I say plot? The show meandered, talking scenes linking pointless nightclub singing spots that are designed to show off "Lisa's" talent. I am astonished that the show has received so many high votes on this site. Dare I suggest that Ms Tarbuck's famous daddy is the main reason that she got the part? No, there is no nepotism in showbiz. I expect that Ms Tarbuck does have acting talent and her character roles, such as Mrs Jellyby in Bleak House, are more suited to her persona.
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2 out of 16 people found the following review useful:
I had more sympathy for Norman Bates.
6 September 2004
This refers to one particular episode as opposed to the whole series.
It concerns Linda and her mates gatecrashing the funeral of someone they've never even met just for 'fun'. They giggle at the audacity of their cruel dare during the service of a girl who died young, whom they pretend was a close schoolfriend...And, get this - the grieving mother even forgives Linda for permanently marring the memorial of her daughter.
I think this was in the first series. I immediately lost sympathy for characters capable of such insensitivity, and didn't watch any further episodes as a consequence. Nor did I derive any satirical point from the proceedings. It seems the writer must've thought "Haha...They gatecrash a funeral...No one's done that in a sitcom before...".
Linda's a monster.
Author: Nicko Tarotti
24 November 2004
I may go into a very boring discussion about the character development on this so-called comedy, but 'nuff said it's about a very annoying, frustrated woman who makes a very bad favor to single women all over the world. Situations seem like a recycling of old shows from the 60's, but under a very "contemporary" point of view. I live in a Spanish spoken country, and I gave the show the benefit of doubt, using the SAP feature on my TV to listen to the original English audio track (which I do with shows like The Office), but the stories never got me, really. The TV station struggles to make catchy spots announcing the show, calling her "modern", "funny" and borderline pathetic, "sex *is* Linda".
Thank God the series is over. Hopefully they won't make any reruns of the show, using air time they could use to broadcast, for example, BBC classics, like "Doctor Who".
Even "Changing Rooms" or any BBC news show has more hilarious situations. BTW, the Spanish dubbing sucks, too, big time.
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Who is game show host Les Dennis married to | Les Dennis on Amanda Holden split, turning 60, fatherhood and his new show Spamalot - Mirror Online
Age gap: But Claire and Les are smitten (Photo: Getty)
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Les Dennis is a few weeks away from turning 60 and is enduring the constant pressure of being a dad to two young children.
The star is also having to deal with the stress of performing eight shows a week on the West End stage.
So it’s not hard to work out why he looks exhausted. But it’s equally clear that he’s also blissfully happy.
Les’s dressing room is filled with family photos of third wife Claire, 42, and their kids Eleanor, five, and Tom, two.
And while he’s loving every minute of it, he admits that he has no plans for more children.
“No – no more!” he says, laughing. “We had Tom because we didn’t want Eleanor to be an only child. We meant to have two kids and two is enough.
“It’s hard work but it’s hard work for any dad, no matter what age they are.
"It’s great being a father and I’m actually looking forward to turning 60. It’s a kind of rite of passage.”
The former Family Fortunes host is juggling his family commitments with what he calls his “first proper West End lead” as King Arthur in the Monty Python musical Spamalot.
Les’s personal life is unrecognisable from a decade ago when his second marriage, to Amanda Holden, hit the rocks.
Britain’s Got Talent judge Amanda, now 42, had a very public affair with Men Behaving Badly star Neil Morrissey and, as a result, Les had an equally high-profile meltdown on Celebrity Big Brother.
Old flame: Les Dennis and Amanda Holden (Photo: Getty)
The despair has now disappeared, leaving behind an older and wiser man.
But, while philosophical, Les obviously does not relish talking about his ex-wife.
“It’s part of my history,” he says, with a fixed smile. “I’m the sum of the parts of everything that has happened to me.
“People use this as a cliche but it’s true – what doesn’t kill you makes you stronger. That’s my philosophy.
"I have very few regrets. Big Brother may have seemed like a mistake but it got me Extras with Ricky Gervais.”
The BBC comedy parodied Les’s real-life breakdown and inadvertently showcased his acting skills.
After his 16-year stint as a game show host he suddenly became a credible stage star.
Reaching the final of Celebrity MasterChef this year has also cast him in a new light.
Cooking up a storm: Les Dennis during Celebrity Masterchef (Photo: BBC)
But his role as husband and dad is what gives him greatest satisfaction.
He met Claire eight years ago at a charity event. She approached Les and asked him to dance.
He then asked her out for dinner and they married in 2009.
“When Claire and I knew we wanted to be together I wasn’t sure about starting a family,” he says.
“But I loved her enough that I’d be happy with it.
‘Then, when she got pregnant, I was over the moon and released somehow from any worry about being a dad again in my mid-50s.”
The family are now moving from their North London house to Cheshire, taking the Liverpudlian comedian nearer his roots.
They also chose the area because it’s flat. “I am constantly seen pushing a pram up Highgate Hill,” he says.
“I put a seat on the back of my bike last week and had a lovely chat with my daughter as we rode through parkland.
"Now I have the time and energy to enjoy them to the full – well, sometimes.”
The dad-of-three – whose eldest child is 32 – has a role in the forthcoming Midsomer Murders Christmas special.
And as Les rapidly approaches his 60th birthday on October 12, he reveals he still has plenty ambition.
“A regular part in a TV drama would be ideal but I wouldn’t turn a game show down either,” he says with a grin.
Iconic role: Les Dennis on Family Fortunes (Photo: ITV)
“The great thing about a career in this business is you never know what will happen.
“Look at Bruce Forsyth. He had some time in the wilderness, then he did Have I Got News For You and he was back with a vengeance.
“Just one TV appearance can make a difference. Or look at Nick Lyndhurst, who has just got into New Tricks.
"It’s great to see people you trust and believe in back on the box.
“People seem to like you to go away then make a comeback. But the trouble is you’re either offered stuff on TV or you’re not.
“Theatre is what I’ve been pursuing, because I wanted to. Shakespeare is still the one thing I haven’t conquered yet.
"I’d like to play the Fool in King Lear or Feste in Twelfth Night.”
The near constant smile on Les’s face confirms that his life is no longer like a Shakespearean tragedy.
The man once branded Les Miserables credits his transformation to his wife, a life coach.
Lost in thought: Les Dennis during Celebrity Big Brother (Photo: Channel 4)
Les says: “She is someone who thinks about everybody. She has a really good heart.
“The night after we got married we found a lost purse and I said, ‘Just hand it in somewhere’.
"Instead, we went back to the hotel and she tracked the owners down, called them and arranged for them to come to the hotel.
"It was about 12.30 at night. She will always go that extra mile.”
And he doesn’t care one bit about the 17-year age gap.
“Claire encourages me not to get too insular, which I could be in the past,” he says. “She gets me to be more gregarious too.”
It is obvious Les has battled back from his pain.
He says: “I’m in a new chapter. I wrote in my autobiography about the karma of all that period of my life and now here I am sitting here with a fantastic family.
“That was then, this is now. I’m a happy man and I hope she (making one last reference to Amanda) is a happy woman.”
My sorry tale
Good knight out: Les Dennis with our man Rod McPhee (Photo: John Alevroyiannis / Daily Mirror)
I have proof that sorry really is the hardest word.
It was the only thing I had to say when I made a cameo appearance in Spamalot with Les but I was tongue-tied and quaking in my plastic armour as I prepared for my West End debut with a packed house of 800 people.
Luckily my role – as a knight who stumbles into the wrong show – went by in a flash.
I blurted out “sorry” as I proved that I’d been perfectly cast as a dimwit impostor.
Spamalot is on at The Playhouse Theatre, central London (www.playhousetheatrelondon.com)
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Which actor married Melanie Griffith twice | The Les Dennis Picture Pages
Family Fortunes
Background:
British actor Les Dennis first gained notice as part of the wacky “Madhouse” team and appeared in the series “Russ Abbot's Madhouse” (1982-1984) and the specials that followed. He went on to earn success as part of a comedy duo with fellow “Madhouse” regular Dustin Gee (died in 1986), with whom he headlined his first TV show, “Les and Dustin's Laughter Show” (1984-1985). He eventually emerged on his own with “The Les Dennis Laughter Show” (BBC, 1987-1991). Dennis further boosted his fame as the host of the hit TV game show “Family Fortunes,” which ran from 1987 to 2002. Dennis has acted in such films as “Intimate Relations” (1996), “Large” (2001) and “Fat Slags” (2004) and was cast as a regular in the TV series “Brookside” (2001) and “Crossroads” (2003). Dennis' more recent stage credits include “Marlon Brando's Corset” (2006), where he was critically applauded for portraying author Nick Chase, “Certified Male” (2007), “The Servant of Two Masters” and “Cinderella.”
Dennis has been married three times. He and first wife Lynne Heseltine (divorced in 1990) have a child together. He was then married to actress Amanda Holden from 1995 to 2003. Dennis’ current wife is Claire Nicholson, whom he married in November 2009. They have one child together.
The multi-faceted entertainer published an autobiography in 2009.
Liverpool
Childhood and Family:
Les Dennis was born Leslie Dennis Heseltine on October 12, 1954, in Liverpool, England. He divorced his first wife, Lynne Heseltine, in 1990 after having one child together. On June 4, 1995, he married actress Amanda Holden (born on February 16, 1971). Five years later, in May 2000, the couple became estranged after Les discovered his wife was having an affair with actor Neil Morrissey. They reconciled shortly thereafter, but finally divorced in November 2003.
Dennis married his third wife, Claire Nicholson, in November 2009. They have one child together.
Certified Male
Career:
A noted stage and television entertainer, Les Dennis made a strong impression on stage with performances in such productions as “Amos Hart,” “Bill Snibson in Me and My Girl,” “Mr. Wonderful,” “Skylight,” “Misery,” “Cherished Disappointments In Love” and “Murderer.” He also toured in a production of “Just Between Ourselves” and joined Christopher Cazenove and John Duttine in a national tour of “Art.”
First stepping in front of the TV camera in 1974 as a winning competitor in “New Faces,” which was hosted by Derek Hobson, Dennis rose to prominence as a yes-man to Russ Abbot in the sketch comedy show “Madhouse,” where he played various characters from 1982 to 1984. While on the show, he met fellow impressionist Dustin Gee and they then formed a comedy duo. After leaving “Madhouse,” the two men starred in their own show called “Les and Dustin's Laughter Show,” which aired on BBC from 1984 to 1985. They also headlined the LWT series “Go For It” and guest starred in such shows as “Live From Her Majesty's” and “The Royal Variety Show.” Their partnership was over, however, when Gee died of a heart attack in 1986.
After the tragedy, Dennis went on to perform on his own in “Les Dennis' Laughter Show,” which ran from 1988 to 1991, and with Russ Abbot in “The Russ Abbot Show” from 1988 to 1991 and the short lived “The Russ Abbot Show” in 1995. He also started his famous hosting gig on Central Television's game show “Family Fortunes” in 1987, which went on to become one of the most successful TV game shows in the United Kingdom and received a 2000 National TV nomination for Most Popular Quiz. Dennis stayed with the show until it left the airwaves in 2002.
Dennis made his debut as a film actor in 1996 with a supporting role in “Intimate Relations,” which was written and directed by Philip Goodhew and starred Julie Walters. He next provided his voice for the animated TV film “Wyrd Sisters” (1997), based on the Terry Pratchett novel, starred with his then-wife Amanda Holden in television’s “Happy Birthday Shakespeare” (2000) and guest starred as Charles Lee in an episode of “Doctors” (2000). He next appeared on the large screen in Justin Edgar's “Large” (2001), in which he appeared as Steve. Also in 2001, he joined the cast of the British soap “Brookside” in the reoccurring role of Jeff Evans.
A year after the demise of “Family Fortunes,” in 2003, Dennis portrayed Dr. Harry Richmond in the last season of the TV series “Crossroads,” a modern adaptation of the popular British soap opera of the same name that originally ran from 1964 to 1988. The following year, he supported David Jason, Hywel Bennett and Roy Hudd in the TV film “The Second Quest” and was cast in the comedy film “Fat Slags,” which starred Fiona Allen. His more recent TV acting credits include guest starring in episodes of such shows as “New Street Law” (2006), “The Bill” (2006), “Holby City” (2007) and “Hotel Trubble” (2009).
Dennis made his return to the game show realm in 2006 in “In the Grid” for Five TV. The same year, he also portrayed scriptwriter Nick Chase in a new comedy play called “Marlon Brando's Corset,” which toured the United Kingdom and earned praise for his performance. He followed it up by starring in “Certified Male,” a successful play that debuted at the Edinburgh Festival in August 2007. He then joined a touring production of “The Servant of Two Masters,” for director Michael Bogdanov, and costarred with Hollywood veteran Mickey Rooney in the pantomime “Cinderella” at the Sunderland Empire.
In 2009, Dennis starred in the short video “Waiting In Rhyme” by director Kevin Powes. He was then cast in “The All Star Impressions Show,” in which he performed the song “It’s Not Unusual.”
Awards:
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Which comedy duo starred in a Chump at Oxford and Way Out West | A Chump at Oxford (1940) - IMDb
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A Chump at Oxford ( 1940 )
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As a reward for capturing a bank robber, Stan and Ollie get scholarship to Oxford, but are met with resentment by other students.
Director:
Alfred J. Goulding (as Alfred Goulding)
Writers:
Charley Rogers (original story) (as Charles Rogers), Felix Adler (original story) | 4 more credits »
Stars:
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Unbeknownst to Stanley and Oliver, their long-lost twin brothers, sailors Alfie and Bert are in town on shore leave carrying a valuable pearl ring entrusted to them by their ship's captain.... See full summary »
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Directors: John G. Blystone, Hal Roach
Stars: Stan Laurel, Oliver Hardy, Grete Natzler
When Stan and Ollie trick their wives into thinking that they are taking a medicinal cruise while they're actually going to a convention, the wives find out the truth the hard way.
Director: William A. Seiter
Directors: James W. Horne, Charley Rogers, and 1 more credit »
Stars: Stan Laurel, Oliver Hardy, Thelma Todd
Two homeless vagabonds hide out in a vacant mansion and pose as the residents when prospective lessees arrive and try to rent it.
Director: James Parrott
Directors: George Marshall, Ray McCarey, and 2 more credits »
Stars: Stan Laurel, Oliver Hardy, Don Dillaway
In the hospital with a broken leg Ollie is visited by Stan, who brings him hard-boiled eggs, nuts, and total mayhem.
Director: James Parrott
Stan and Ollie take a trip into the mountains ('the high multitude') so that Ollie can recover from gout. Bootleggers have dumped their moonshine in the well from which the boys sample ... See full summary »
Director: Charley Rogers
Two guys end up in prison after attempting to sell beer to a policeman during Prohibition.
Director: James Parrott
Edit
Storyline
With Stan in drag, the boys get jobs as a butler and maid for a dinner party at the Vandevere's. After that ends in disaster, they're reduced to sweeping streets, and accidentally capture a bank robber. The grateful bank president sends them to Oxford for a proper education. There they become victims of student pranks, getting lost in the Maze and taking over the Dean's quarters as their own. But then a knock on the head gets Stan to believing he's the famed Lord Paddington, scholar and athlete extraordinaire. Suddenly erudite and supercilious, he retains Oliver as his valet, "Fatty." Written by Paul Penna <[email protected]>
Those Philosophers of Phun in a new screamlined comedy! (Newspaper ad). See more »
Genres:
16 February 1940 (USA) See more »
Also Known As:
Les as d'Oxford See more »
Filming Locations:
Mono (Western Electric Mirrophonic Recording)
Color:
Did You Know?
Trivia
Anita Garvin 's final film with Laurel & Hardy. She came out of retirement as a favor to Stan Laurel , playing basically the same role she had played in Laurel & Hardy's silent film From Soup to Nuts (1928), whose title is a line of Ollie's dialogue in this movie. See more »
Quotes
Traditional and famously used in the fairy tale "Jack and the Beanstalk"
Sung a cappella by Oxford students with modified lyrics
(United States) – See all my reviews
In 1940, Laurel and Hardy made their last two movies for Hal Roach, A Chump At Oxford and Saps At Sea. Oxford is the better film, but both are entertaining. In any case, this was the last time the pair had any creative input regarding their own films. (At MGM and Fox, they were handed a script and told to do it "the studio way.")
A Chump At Oxford is really two movies in one. The opening shot shows Stan and Ollie hitchhiking to an employment agency. The only job that's open requires a maid and butler team, so for the second time in his career (the first was in Another Fine Mess), Stan plays Agnes the maid. What follows is a partial re-make of another short, From Soup to Nuts (in fact, as dinner is about to be served, Ollie announces, "We've got everything from soup to nuts.") Stan once again serves the salad undressed, but he is also drunk, having taken Mr. Vanderveer's (Jimmy Finlayson) instruction to "Take all those cocktails" a bit too literally. He chases them out of the house with a shotgun, shooting a policeman in the derriere along the way.
In the next scene, Ollie and Stan are sweeping streets. Ollie, usually the eternal optimist, is more depressed here than in any L & H film. "Well, here we are, right back down in the gutter. We're just as good as other people, but we don't advance ourselves. We never get anywhere." They decide to attend night school, but their fortunes change sooner than they expect. Like W.C. Fields in The Bank Dick, they (quite accidentally) capture a couple of bank robbers. As Ollie explains that they have no education, the bank manager rewards them with the finest education money can buy, at Oxford University.
Arriving in England, our friends are preyed upon by a dreary crowd of students, among them old nemesis Charley Hall and a very young Peter Cushing. They play childish pranks on the boys, getting them lost for hours in a weird-looking maze, and dressing up like a ghost to scare them to death. Soon after they arrive, Stan makes it very clear that he is out of his element.
Johnson (Peter Cushing): Haven't you come to the wrong college? You're dressed for Eton (the famous British prep school).
Stan: Why, that's swell, we haven't eaten since breakfast, have we Ollie?
The worst prank of all is when Johnson disguises himself as the dean and directs them to the real dean's rooms, telling them that these are their quarters. When the dean (Wilfred Lucas) returns and the students are caught, he tells them they will all be expelled. They vow to take revenge against Stan and Ollie.
Shown to their proper quarters, the boys meet their valet Meredith (Forrester Harvey). He refers to Stan as Your Lordship, stating that before a window came down on his head and he wandered away, he was the greatest athlete and scholar in the history of Oxford, and "oh, what a brilliant mind." When Ollie hears this, he bursts into laughter. "Why I've known him for years and he's the dumbest guy I ever met."
Meanwhile the expelled students are heading for their lodgings singing a bizarre "chant of revenge." As Stan looks out the window, it crashes down on his head, and he becomes Lord Paddington. As the students enter his room, His Lordship fights them all, throwing them all out the window (in a rather cruel weight joke, he throws Ollie out, too, and he makes a huge crater in the ground when he lands.)
A certificate on the wall informs us that Lord Paddington has been reestablished as the leading scholar/athlete at the University. He speaks like a cultured English gentleman, and Ollie is now his valet. (This is not too hard to understand when you consider that Stan was the creative genius of the team, writing many of the gags we see in the films.) Ollie is now a humiliated figure, and no other actor can use camera looks to express humiliation like Oliver Hardy. At one point, the dean comes in to tell Paddington that Professor Einstein has arrived from America and is a bit confused about his theory. Could he straighten him out? Ollie is incredibly shocked, muttering under his breath, "If it wasn't for that bump on the head, he wouldn't know Einstein from a beer stein." But he's helpless to do anything about it.
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| Laurel and Hardy |
In which film did Harrison Ford come from the future to destroy an android played by Rutger Hauer | 1000+ images about Laurel & Hardy on Pinterest | Comedy film, Funny and Gravy
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Laurel & Hardy
These old comedy movies make me laugh every time. Love Laurel & Hardy! Keep in mind that the humor of way back then was a lot different that it is now - so some of these old L & H movies can be somewhat simple minded & draggy in places - however - it's really worth just overlooking those parts because the funny parts (in most of these) are truly funny & entertaining. Each one is great in it's own unique way. Enjoy!!!
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Who directed the 1957 Oscar winning film Bridge on the River Kwai | 1957 Academy Awards® Winners and History
Witness For the Prosecution (1957)
Actor:
ALEC GUINNESS in
"The Bridge On The River Kwai" , Marlon Brando in "Sayonara" , Anthony Franciosa in "A Hatful of Rain", Charles Laughton in "Witness for the Prosecution", Anthony Quinn in "Wild Is the Wind"
Actress:
JOANNE WOODWARD in "The Three Faces of Eve", Deborah Kerr in "Heaven Knows, Mr. Allison", Anna Magnani in "Wild is the Wind", Elizabeth Taylor in "Raintree County", Lana Turner in "Peyton Place"
Supporting Actor:
RED BUTTONS in "Sayonara" , Vittorio De Sica in "A Farewell to Arms", Sessue Hayakawa in
"The Bridge On The River Kwai" , Arthur Kennedy in "Peyton Place", Russ Tamblyn in "Peyton Place"
Supporting Actress:
MIYOSHI UMEKI in "Sayonara" , Carolyn Jones in "The Bachelor Party", Elsa Lanchester in "Witness for the Prosecution", Hope Lange in "Peyton Place", Diane Varsi in "Peyton Place"
Director:
DAVID LEAN for
"The Bridge On The River Kwai" , Joshua Logan for "Sayonara" , Sidney Lumet for "12 Angry Men" , Mark Robson for "Peyton Place", Billy Wilder for "Witness for the Prosecution"
This awards ceremony, held on March 26, 1958 and broadcast live, was the first TV production to be produced by the motion picture industry itself. The entire show was broadcast from Hollywood - there were no cut-ins from New York as in the previous five years.
The number of competitive categories, which had grown to 30 in the previous year, was now downsized to 24.
Unfortunately, the presentations were overshadowed by the recent death (March 22, 1958) four days earlier of the previous year's Best Picture producer/winner Michael Todd, husband of Elizabeth Taylor. And Columbia Pictures' legendary but often-despised boss Harry Cohn, one of the original founders of the studio that produced the Best Picture winner this year, also died a month before the ceremony, on February 27, 1958.
The big winner in 1957 was David Lean's epic (almost three hour long) prison-war film based on Pierre Boulle's best-selling World War II novel
The Bridge On The River Kwai (with eight nominations and seven Oscars - Best Picture (producer Sam Spiegel), Best Actor (Alec Guinness), Best Director, Best Screenplay, Best Cinematography, Best Musical Score (including the catchy British whistling military march - 'Colonel Bogey's March'), and Best Film Editing). The large-scale film was financed and distributed by Columbia Studios, but used a British cast and crew almost entirely. [The true screenwriters for the Best Picture winner were blacklisted Michael Wilson and Carl Foreman (who received no screen credit). They were posthumously awarded Oscars in 1984.]
The war-time film centered on a battle of wills between an obsessed and rigid British colonel and a Japanese POW camp commander within a prison camp deep in an Asian jungle - with the theme of the folly of war. [Historically, this was the second Best Picture Oscar for a British film.] The Best Director Oscar was David Lean's first Oscar after three previous nominations ( Brief Encounter (1946) , Great Expectations (1947), and Summertime (1955)), and it was Lean's first sweeping epic picture - the kind of film for which he would became famous. He also became the first British film-maker to ever win Best Director. The only nomination that did not succeed for the film was veteran silent film actor Sessue Hayakawa's Best Supporting Actor nomination as the POW camp commandant Colonel Saito.
All five directors of the Best Picture nominees were also nominated for Best Director - the first time in Oscar history. [It has also happened in 1964 and 1981.]
Other films nominated for Best Picture included:
Sayonara (with ten nominations and four wins, including Best Supporting Actor and Best Supporting Actress, Best Art Direction/Set Decoration, and Best Sound), the adaptation of James Michener's novel directed by Joshua Logan, another film set in occupied Tokyo about a soap-opera romance and marriage between West (Oscar-winning Red Buttons, an enlisted air force man named Joe Kelly) and East (Oscar-winning Miyoshi Umeki as Japanese girl Katsumi) and the ensuing bigotry and tragedy of their double suicide
director Billy Wilder's engrossing courtroom murder mystery - an adaptation of Agatha Christie's story and hit stage play Witness for the Prosecution (with six nominations and no wins)
director Sidney Lumet's debut film of a teleplay-turned-film 12 Angry Men (with three nominations and no wins) about an all-male jury's tense deliberations over a Puerto Rican boy suspected of pre-meditated murder of his father
director Mark Robson's version of Grace Metalious's popular novel Peyton Place (with nine nominations and no wins), a shocking, trashy melodrama of lust, greed, scandal, deception and violence in a small New England town
Alec Guinness (with his second acting nomination out of a career total of four acting nominations) brilliantly played the role of a rigid, stiff-lipped, militarist, humorless British officer Colonel Nicholson, who fought a by-the book, gentleman's war in the Best Picture winner. The unparalleled Guinness had previously been known for his British Ealing comedies including Kind Hearts and Coronets (1949), The Lavender Hill Mob (1952), and The Man in the White Suit (1951). Now he would go on to make similar blockbusters such as
Lawrence of Arabia (1962) and Doctor Zhivago (1965).] The Best Actor award was Guinness' sole acting Oscar in his career.
His Best Actor competitors included:
Charles Laughton (with his third and last career nomination) as the crochety, obstinate barrister Sir Wilfrid Robarts in Witness for the Prosecution [Laughton won his sole Oscar in 1932-3]
Marlon Brando (with his fifth of eight career nominations) as air force officer Major Lloyd "Ace" Gruver in love with a beautiful Japanese dancer during the Korean War in Sayonara
Mexican-born Anthony Quinn (with his third of four career nominations) as Italian immigrant/Nevada rancher Gino in director George Cukor's Wild is the Wind (with three nominations and no wins)
Anthony Franciosa (with his sole career nomination) in a repeat of his successful Broadway role as Polo, the caring brother of a heroin addict in director Fred Zinnemann's A Hatful of Rain (the film's sole nomination)
The Best Actress category included new and previous nominees including:
Deborah Kerr (with the fourth of six unsuccessful career nominations) as nun Sister Angela - ship-wrecked and stranded on a Pacific island with Marine corporal Robert Mitchum in director John Huston's Heaven Knows, Mr. Allison (with two nominations and no wins)
Anna Magnani (with her second and last career nomination) as Italian mail-order bride Gloria in Wild is the Wind
Elizabeth Taylor (with her first nomination) as Southern belle Susanna Drake in love with Indiana teacher Montgomery Clift during the Civil War in director Edward Dmytryk's costume drama Raintree County (with four nominations and no wins)
Lana Turner (with her first and sole career nomination) as Constance MacKenzie - the sexually-repressed, small-town New Hampshire widowed mother of a teenage daughter in Peyton Place
The Best Actress award was presented to a talented newcomer - Joanne Woodward (with her first nomination in her third film and first starring role) in her tour-de-force performance as a drab, plagued young housewife with multiple, tri-phasic personalities (Eve 'White', Eve 'Black' and 'Jane,' exhibiting characteristics of a housewife, flirt, and sophisticate). It was an authenticated representation of an actual psychiatric case recorded by two Georgia psychiatrists in director/writer Nunnally Johnson's The Three Faces of Eve (the film's sole nomination). [Now with four career nominations, it appears that Woodward's performance in the film would be her sole Academy Award. Husband Paul Newman (who married 28 year-old Woodward on January 29, 1958, only two months before her Oscar win) wouldn't win his first Oscar until twenty-nine years later for The Color of Money (1986), a reprise of his role of pool shark Fast Eddie Felson in The Hustler (1961) twenty-five years earlier.]
The Best Supporting Actor and Actress awards were won by co-stars and first-time nominees:
Red Buttons (with his sole career nomination and Oscar win) as the ultimately suicidal Sgt. Joe Kelly in Sayonara
twenty-two year old Japanese-born Miyoshi Umeki (with her sole career nomination in her film debut) as Japanese war bride Katsumi who faces racial prejudice during the American Army's occupation of Tokyo, Japan in Sayonara . Umeki was the first Asian actress to win an Oscar award
Other actors in the Best Actor category included:
Vittorio De Sica (with his sole career nomination) as Major Rinaldi in Selznick's re-make of the 1932 film titled A Farewell to Arms
two co-stars in Peyton Place
- Arthur Kennedy (with his fourth of five unsuccessful career nominations) as drunken school caretaker and rapist Lucas Cross
- Russ Tamblyn (with his sole career nomination) as teenage Norman Page in love with Lana Turner's daughter (Diane Varsi)
Japanese native Sessue Hayakawa as POW camp commandant Colonel Saito in
The Bridge On The River Kwai
Hope Lange (with her sole nomination) as rape victim and self-defense murderer Selena Cross (Arthur Kennedy's step-daughter) and Diane Varsi (with her sole nomination) as teenager Allison MacKenzie were nominated as Best Supporting Actresses for their tangled character roles in Peyton Place. The other nominees were:
the front-runner favorite Elsa Lanchester (with her second and last unsuccessful career nomination) as Charles Laughton's (her real-life husband) pesty nurse Miss Plimsoll in Witness for the Prosecution
Carolyn Jones (with her sole career nomination) as a dark, 'Existentialist', Greenwich Village beatnik in another movie adapted from a TV play titled The Bachelor Party (the film's sole nomination) - an attempt by the director and writer of Marty (1955) to repeat their success of two years earlier
Gilbert M. "Broncho Billy" Anderson, famed silent cowboy star, and filmdom's first major Western hero (he briefly appeared in The Great Train Robbery (1903) and other silent westerns), was presented with an Honorary Academy Award as a "motion picture pioneer, for his contributions to the development of motion pictures as entertainment."
Oscar Snubs and Omissions:
Platinum blonde actress Lana Turner, with a film career of nearly twenty years in length, received her first and only Oscar nomination in 1957, although she had more exceptional, un-nominated roles in earlier films including The Postman Always Rings Twice (1946) and The Bad and the Beautiful (1952) . About ten days after the awards ceremony, on April 4, 1958 (Good Friday), the Best Actress nominee was involved in a notorious Hollywood scandal, in which her 14 year-old daughter Cheryl Crane fatally stabbed Lana's mobster boyfriend Johnny Stompanato while he was beating up her mother in her Beverly Hills home (for not taking him with her to the awards ceremony!). Some rumored that there was a cover-up and/or speculated that Crane and Stompanato had been lovers. The killing was later ruled a justifiable homicide. This event rejuvenated Lana's career more than her Oscar nomination - her next film Imitation of Life (1959) was a hit.
And actress Elsa Lanchester, wife of Charles Laughton, received her second and last Best Supporting Actress nomination in 1957 (her only other nomination was for Come to the Stable (1949)) as co-star Laughton's nurse in Witness for the Prosecution, but she had more memorable, unnominated performances during her career, including her role as Anne of Cleves in The Private Life of Henry VIII (1932-33) and the title role as the Bride in
Bride of Frankenstein (1935) .
Marlene Dietrich deserved a nomination for her role as the murder suspect's wife Christine Helm/Vole (and in a second role as a mysterious Cockney-accented woman) in the plot-twisting Witness for the Prosecution.
There were three superb, powerful films without any nominations in 1957 - each could easily have won been nominated for Best Picture - or for numerous acting accolades:
one of the greatest anti-war films of all-time - Stanley Kubrick's
Paths of Glory with Kirk Douglas as French Col. Dax (who defended three innocent WWI soldiers scapegoated and executed unjustly for cowardice) and George Macready as the despicable, glory-seeking French General Mireau
Alexander MacKendrick's film noirish Sweet Smell of Success featured Tony Curtis in a breakthrough role as venal, ambitious, success-seeking, hustling, slick, unethical and smarmy, PR press agent Sidney Falco, and Burt Lancaster as power-hungry gossipy newspaper columnist J.J. Hunsecker
Elia Kazan's A Face in the Crowd with Andy Griffith in his remarkable screen debut as the vicious, ambitious and power-hungry hillbilly philosopher Lonesome Rhodes, and Patricia Neal as journalist Marcia Jeffries
None of the actors in the jury in Sidney Lumet's 12 Angry Men (Henry Fonda as Mr. Davis (liberal, stoic and compassionate Juror No. 8), E.G. Marshall, Ed Begley, or Lee J. Cobb) received an acting Oscar nomination. And William Holden was neglected in the oft-nominated Best Picture winner
The Bridge On The River Kwai as American POW Shears.
Stanley Donen's Funny Face, a delightful musical romantic comedy with Fred Astaire, Audrey Hepburn, and Gershwin tunes, received only four minor nominations (and didn't win any of them): Best Art Direction, Best Cinematography, Best Costume Design (Edith Head), and Best Original Screenplay.
The Best Original Screenplay award was undeservedly presented to George Wells for Designing Woman, when it should have been given instead to either Federico Fellini (and fellow authors Ennio Flaiano and Tullio Pinelli) for their Best Foreign Language film winner Nights of Cabiria, or to un-nominated director/screenwriter Ingmar Bergman for The Seventh Seal. Toshiro Mifune was snubbed for his performance (with his memorable death scene from archers' arrows) as increasingly-insane, ruthless feudal lord General Taketori Washizu, as was Isuzu Yamada's Noh-influenced Lady Macbeth role as his wife Lady Asaji, in Akira Kurosawa's Throne of Blood (Jp.), an adaptation of William Shakespeare's Macbeth, and released in the US in 1961.
| David Lean |
What was the name of Charles Bronson's character in The Magnificent Seven | Instant Video Play: Bridge on the River Kwai Trailer
Bridge on the River Kwai Trailer
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Bridge on the River Kwai Trailer
Go to http://oldmoviequotes.com for more great classic films. Bridge on the River Kwai Trailer - Watch Bridge on the River Kwai Movie trailer for the 1957 Columbia Pictures film directed by David Lean and produced by Sam Spiegel . Bridge on the River Kwai stars William Holden as Shears, Alec Guinness as Colonel Nicholson, Jack Hawkins as Major Warden, Sessue Hayakawa as Colonel Saito, James Donald as Major Clipton, and Geoffrey Horne as Lieutenant Joyce. The screenplay was written by Michael Wilson and and Carl Foreman from the novel "Le Pont de la Rivière Kwaï" by Pierre Boulle. Cinematography is by Jack Hildyard and music is by Malcolm Arnold. Bridge on the River Kwai won seven Oscars (Best Picture; Best Director - David Lean; Best Actor in a Leading Role - Alec Guinness; Best Cinematography - Jack Hildyard; Best Film Editing - Peter Taylor; Best Music, Scoring - Malcolm Arnold; and Best Writing, Screenplay Based on Material from Another Medium - Pierre Boulle, Carl Foreman, and Michael Wilson). Sessue Hayakawa received an additional Oscar nomination for Best Actor in a Supporting Role.
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Who is the quizmaster on the Radio 4 programme I'm Sorry I Haven't a Clue | I'm Sorry I Haven't A Clue / Shows / Colston Hall
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Following sell-out tours in 2007, 2008, 2009 and 2010, BBC Radio’s multi-award-winning, self-styled antidote to panel games heads back on the road. Barry Cryer, GraemeGarden, Tim Brooke-Taylor, Jeremy Hardy and host Jack Dee host an evening of inspired nonsense. “They have now become the National Theatre of fun,” says the Daily Telegraph.
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I'm Sorry I Haven't A Clue
The popular panel show ‘I’m Sorry I Haven’t A Clue’ has been delighting audiences since 1972. It has always been billed as ‘the antidote to panel games’, although the panel games to which it was originally an antidote are now long gone. The programme was devised as an alternative to I’m Sorry I’ll Read That Again, the chaotic sketch show that ran from 1964 to 1973 starring John Cleese, Graeme Garden, Bill Oddie, Tim Brooke-Taylor, Jo Kendall and David Hatch. The format of the game is very simple: four players are given silly things to do by the Chairman, with Colin Sell setting some of them to music.
Jazz legend Humphrey Lyttelton was the the first chairman, until his death in 2008. Over the years many well-known names have joined the team, including Jack Dee, who hosts the radio show and chairs the live shows, along with Rob Brydon and others. The world of Clue continues to expand and evolve, constantly creating new games and welcoming a new generation of Clue players, attracting new fans along the way.
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Jack Dee
The master of deadpan humour Jack Dee has been performing stand-up since 1986, when he attended an open mic at the Comedy Store. He garnered a British Comedy Award in 1991 for Best Stage Newcomer, which led to him bagging his own Channel 4 show, The Jack Dee Show, a year later.
Since then he has played to sell-out crowds at high-profile venues such as London Hammersmith Apollo and the London Palladium, as well as being a regular face on our screens appearing as a team captain on the BBC’s Shooting Stars, QI, and starring in his own sit-com, Lead Balloon. He is now the regular host of BBC Radio 4’s I’m Sorry I Haven’t A Clue, filling the shoes of the late Humphrey Littleton.
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On which radio programme did the dreaded batter pudding hurler of Bexhill on sea appear | I'm Sorry I Haven't A Clue / Shows / Colston Hall
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Following sell-out tours in 2007, 2008, 2009 and 2010, BBC Radio’s multi-award-winning, self-styled antidote to panel games heads back on the road. Barry Cryer, GraemeGarden, Tim Brooke-Taylor, Jeremy Hardy and host Jack Dee host an evening of inspired nonsense. “They have now become the National Theatre of fun,” says the Daily Telegraph.
Were you at this show?
We'd love to hear your memories of the performance. Add your photos, reviews and memories via Twitter using the hashtags: #colstonhall and #show35842 and they will appear on this page
Previous Next
I'm Sorry I Haven't A Clue
The popular panel show ‘I’m Sorry I Haven’t A Clue’ has been delighting audiences since 1972. It has always been billed as ‘the antidote to panel games’, although the panel games to which it was originally an antidote are now long gone. The programme was devised as an alternative to I’m Sorry I’ll Read That Again, the chaotic sketch show that ran from 1964 to 1973 starring John Cleese, Graeme Garden, Bill Oddie, Tim Brooke-Taylor, Jo Kendall and David Hatch. The format of the game is very simple: four players are given silly things to do by the Chairman, with Colin Sell setting some of them to music.
Jazz legend Humphrey Lyttelton was the the first chairman, until his death in 2008. Over the years many well-known names have joined the team, including Jack Dee, who hosts the radio show and chairs the live shows, along with Rob Brydon and others. The world of Clue continues to expand and evolve, constantly creating new games and welcoming a new generation of Clue players, attracting new fans along the way.
facebook
Jack Dee
The master of deadpan humour Jack Dee has been performing stand-up since 1986, when he attended an open mic at the Comedy Store. He garnered a British Comedy Award in 1991 for Best Stage Newcomer, which led to him bagging his own Channel 4 show, The Jack Dee Show, a year later.
Since then he has played to sell-out crowds at high-profile venues such as London Hammersmith Apollo and the London Palladium, as well as being a regular face on our screens appearing as a team captain on the BBC’s Shooting Stars, QI, and starring in his own sit-com, Lead Balloon. He is now the regular host of BBC Radio 4’s I’m Sorry I Haven’t A Clue, filling the shoes of the late Humphrey Littleton.
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What word is spoken twice at the beginning of the radio 4 programme Today in Parliament | Spoken Word in Music - TV Tropes
Spoken Word in Music
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Studio recorded music sometimes contains barely audible pieces of lo-fi recording. This may be used for an intro or outro, or it might be used to make a long instrumental sequence more interesting.
This generally is done by tacking on spoken word recordings.
So what counts? It should fall into one of these categories:
The bit was recorded by someone other than the original artist at the time of the recording.
The bit is created by the original artist, but was likely recorded separately from the song (this is where Pink Floyd and experimental music gets confusing.)
The bit is from radio or television, or other media.
And of course, it has to be spoken word. It does not include hidden tracks and outtakes. It doesn't include noise from live performances. As always, feel free to rework any of this.
A variant of this is used in classical vocal works, especially those of the Baroque era. Such works are broken up into movements, some of which are recitatives, or spoken sequences as opposed to the singing in the rest of the work. Occasionally, longer recitatives may have singing, but for the most part, recitatives are just spoken parts with added musical accompaniment to emphasize the ends of sentences.
Examples
Barenaked Ladies :
"Enid" is the perfect example of this trope: right before it launches into the song, there's a very brief snippet of some sort of Depeche Mode -esque radio recording ("The silence, the terror, the pain, the horror / As your mom comes downstairs"). As a bonus, this little joke wasn't actually performed by the band themselves — it's the album's producer, Philip Wojewoda.
"Peterborough and the Kawarthas" has a weather report during the instrumental breaks.
"Maybe Katie:" "I'll set the metronome."
The better part of "Crazy" is meaningless words under instrumental music.
Steven Page's solo album The Vanity Project has "Hit and Run" fade out with a traffic collision report.
It would almost be easier to list the songs in which Pulp doesn't have an interlude using this trope, but we'll stick to listing examples for the time being:
"Love is Blind" from Separations: "We held hands and we looked out of the bedroom window . . . "
The very beginning of "Acrylic Afternoons", on His 'N' Hers.
"I Spy" and "F.E.E.L.I.N.G.C.A.L.L.E.D.L.O.V.E." off of Different Class
"A Little Soul" from This is Hardcore.
A few tracks, such as "Wickerman" from We Love Life and "David's Last Summer" from His 'N' Hers, are entirely spoken word over background music.
Gwen Stefani's "Long Way To Go" samples an excerpt from Martin Luther King, Jr.'s "I Have a Dream" speech.
Some of the lyrics for blur songs Parklife, Ernold Same and Essex Dogs are in spoken word.
Fort Minor's "Kenji" begins and closes with clips from an interview with Mike Shinoda's father and aunt about their experience during their family's internment at Manzanar during WWII. Justified as the song was inspired by those events.
As for Linkin Park , their latest album contained samples of speeches by J. Robert Oppenheimer, Mario Savio, and Martin Luther King, Jr.
Jawbreaker's "Jet Black" starts with a bit of Christopher Walken's One-Scene Wonder monologue from Annie Hall ("I tell you this because as an artist, I think you'll understand..."), then continues with more of it during the bridge.
"Condition Oakland" features excerpts from Jack Kerouac 's book Lonesome Traveler being recited by Kerouac himself, apparently sourced from a TV appearance.
"Hounds of Love" opens with a sound clip from the film Night of the Demon: "It's in the trees...It's coming!"
More accurately, it was a re-creation of the clip.
There's a long, eerie instrumental break near the end of "Breathing" with a recording of a man describing the effects of a nuclear bomb.
"Houdini:" "Rosabelle, believe!"
"Experiment IV:" "I'll bet my mum's gonna give me a little toy instrument!"
"Lily":
''Oh thou, who givest sustenance to the universe
From whom all things proceed
To whom all things return
Unveil to us the face of the true spiritual sun
Hidden by a disc of golden light
That we may know the truth
And do our whole duty
As we journey to thy sacred feet''
Creature Feature loves these. "The Greatest Show Unearthed" opens with a talker's spiel for a Circus of Fear ; "Buried Alive" begins with a quote from Edgar Allan Poe ; "Aim For The Head" contains dialogue from Night of the Living Dead (1968) ; "A Gorey Demise" opens with a bunch of corpses having a party... There are fewer Creature Feature songs without spoken word than with.
Fastball's "The Way" opens with a radio tuning and snippets of various stations before the song starts playing. For the first few lines, it sounds like it's playing on a low-quality radio.
The Bloodhound Gang 's "The Bad Touch" opens with a line from a documentary: "This is called the act of mating! But there are many other differences between humans and animals that you should know about."
Beck uses this on occasion - "Where It's At" features several clips from a Totally Radical 70's sex education record ("We're all part of the total scene!"), while "Truck Drivin' Neighbors Downstairs" starts with two men engaging in a Cluster F-Bomb filled drunken shouting match. Scarily enough these are the actual downstairs neighbors the song was written about - they were being so loud he accidentally picked up their argument on his four-track while trying to record home demos.
The b-side "Zatyricon" is probably his most extensive use of the trope, as the vocals consist entirely of prank calls to cosmetic surgery practices
made by Tony Hoffer (who was a member of Beck's backing band at the time).
"Critical Acclaim" by Avenged Sevenfold features the singer shouting criticisms of the right wing and those who put them in place.
Eels ' "Manchild" from Beautiful Freak contains samples from a depressed-sounding answering machine message left by Jill Sobule ("I'm not having any fun...")
"Selfish" by Ned's Atomic Dustbin includes a repeated sample of Reginald VelJohnson from Die Hard ("Why don't you wake up and smell what you're shovelin'?").
"What Gives My Son?" has a couple of different samples of fathers yelling at their sons to get a haircut and a job ("you want to be a bum all your life, be a bum, but not under my roof!"). They both seem to come from different movies or shows, but no one seems to have figured out the original sources.
"Car Seat (God's Presents)" by Blind Melon ends with a poem written and recited by Shannon Hoon's great grandmother set to a fairly lengthy instrumental jam.
Sonic Youth 's "Providence" consists entirely of feedback, piano, and an answering machine message from Mike Watt , which apparently concerns Thurston Moore accidentally throwing equipment in the trash while stoned.
Slint 's album, Spiderland had many elements of this in some of its songs. The albums opener Breadcrumb Trail, for example, features a spoken word segment of the narrator reciting his visit to an amusement park and having his fortune read, then courting the teller all set to a slow and brooding post-apocalyptic Instrumental.
Sublime 's "April 29, 1992 (Miami)", a song about the Los Angeles riots in 1992, is interspersed with recordings of police communications on that day alerting officers to break-ins and looters.
Ben Folds Five's "Your Most Valuable Possession" is a message Ben Folds' father left on his answering machine, set to loungey backing music.
Foo Fighters ' "Everlong" features some faint and semi-unintelligible whispering over the quiet part of the interlude after the second chorus, supposedly taken from sources including a love letter and a technical manual.
One of the gimmicks of the Manic Street Preachers ' album The Holy Bible is that a lot of the songs have quotes lifted from various sources as intros. This gimmick is revisited on the "sequel" to the album, ''Journal for Plague Lovers."
Madness ' Cover Version of "Lola" by The Kinks was originally meant to be sung the whole way through, but a problem in the studio resulted in Suggs speaking the last lines of the song instead.
Radiohead 's "Fitter Happier" has what sounds like radio chatter in the background, along with some other unsettling noises.
They Might Be Giants were somewhat fond of this trope for their first few albums. "Snowball In Hell" features a segment of a motivational tape for salesmen, while "I'm Def" and "I'll Sink Manhattan" feature messages left on the answering machine used for their Dial-A-Song phone line.
Mary And The Black Lamb 's song "Emily" has a phone call reenactment just before the final chorus.
Green Day throws one in at the start of "East Jesus Nowhere": "And we shall see how godless a nation we have become."
Godspeed You! Black Emperor does this often, perhaps most notably in "The Dead Flag Blues."
Blaise Bailey Finnegan III from the EP Slow Riot For New Zero Kanada, contains a lengthy excerpt involving an interview, a long rant about an encounter at a traffic court over a parking ticket and finally a �poem� which is basically the slightly plagiarized lyrics of Iron Maiden Virus all set to a slowly ascending, post-rock crescendo.
Sister project Thee Silver Mt. Zion Memorial Orchestra is also occasionally does this as well, notably in He Has Left Us Alone But Shafts Of Light Still Sometimes Grace The Corner Of Our Rooms... where the same narration spans across most of the first half of the album.
Mike Watt's "Heartbeat" ends with an answering machine message from Bikini Kill 's Kathleen Hanna about how she refuses to appear on the album because another, unnamed guest on the album raped her friend when she was 13, as well as because the rest of the contributors are "just doing the whole, like, big-white-baby-with-an-ego-problem thing". The clip stirred up some controversy at the time of release, both over its content and over Watt possibly using the revealing message without permission. However, Hanna eventually revealed that she was the one who offered to be on the album in the first place, but she then opted to submit a faux answering machine monologue as an "art piece"
instead.
Self's Gizmodgery is an album recorded entirely using toy instruments (and noise-making toys in general), so talking toys are occasionally used this way. For instance, in "Pattycake" the lyric "So you called the chief of police" is followed by a computerized voice cheerfully announcing "This is the pig! This is the pig!".
"Cinderblocks For Shoes" starts with an answering machine message from someone who is either a genuine Loony Fan (at one point she gushes "I know where you live and everything, ha ha ha ha!") or just someone playing a prank on Matt Mahaffey.
The Divine Comedy uses this quite a lot. Generation Sex has clips from Katie Puckrik on a talkshow, Becoming More Like Alfie contains a clip from, well, Alfie and The Certainty Of Chance has Neil quoting La Dolce Vita .
There's also Dexter Fletcher's contribution to "Here Comes The Flood".
He continues this with future songs, including To Die A Virgin starting off with an appropriate exchange from The Camomile Lawn. Taken to the extreme in The Lost Art of Conversation, where the end of the song is comprised of near-indecipherable conversation between groups of people while the music plays out (even at live shows, he encourages the audience to start talking to one another as the song ends ).
Their album Promenade is rife with this. The album begins and ends with this trope; the first track, "Bath", opens with Neil quoting from the hymn Our God, Our Help in Ages Past, and the final track, "Ode to the Man", is a recording of Micheál Mac Liammóir
reciting one of Horace's odes (taken from the British film Tom Jones). "The Booklovers" and "When the Lights Go Out All Over Europe" use clips from Audrey Hepburn and Breathless respectively, and the last minute of "Don't Look Down" consists of the narrator having an argument with God .
Too Much Joy's Son Of Sam I Am included these as introductions for most songs. In a somewhat infamous infringement case, a sample of a Bozo The Clown record ( "I found something in one of my pockets. It was about as big as your shoe, but it was shaped like a rocket!" ) had to be removed from the song "Clowns" after the band were sued by Larry Harmon, one of the performers to portray Bozo himself.
CAKE 's "Thrills" is what seems to be an old time sermon set to music, quite good actually.
The Gorillaz song "Fire Coming Out Of The Monkey's Head" from Demon Days narrated by Dennis Hopper , is basically a spoken word track with a little music spliced in.
The Starflyer 59 song "First Heart Attack" ends with what sounds like a couple of surgeons conversing mid-operation.
The Mighty Mighty Bosstones ' cover of "Detroit Rock City", from the Kiss tribute album Kiss My Ass: Classic Kiss Regrooved, starts out with an answering machine message from Gene Simmons: Ironically enough, it's Simmons telling Bosstones singer Dicky Barrett that they should cover something else, because "Detroit Rock City" was already being covered by another band for the album.
The Paper Chase really loves this trope. It might be easier to list their songs that don't qualify.
Quite a few of Space 's songs qualify. 'No One Understands' has a sample from The Elephant Man as its middle eight; 'Bastard Me Bastard You' has an Alfred Hitchcock sample; 'I Am Unlike A Lifeform You've Ever Met' is entirely spoken word and ends with an American radio announcer talking about a zombie attack; 'Disco Dolly' starts with a car horn and a group of Scousers talking outside a club; 'The Man' and 'Juno' are instrumental tracks with sampled speech scattered throughout; and other songs have fragments of unintelligible speech, some apparently from the band themselves.
Soul Coughing 's "$300" has a slowed down loop from a Chris Rock bit functioning as the chorus ("how much? she said for three hundred dollars I'll do an-"). Chris Rock 's album Roll With The New had a track called "My Favorite Joke", where the joke itself is back-masked, and after loading the track into his sampler just to play it backwards, Mike Doughty also ended up making a loop and building a song around it.
Because it's about The Great Ape-Snake War, Third Eye Blind's "If There Ever Was A Time" begins and ends with the sounds of protesters at Zucotti Park.
Mick Jones' post- Clash band, Big Audio Dynamite, frequently used audio clips in their music.
"Medicine Show" features audio clips from A Fistful of Dollars ("Get three coffins ready") and The Good, the Bad and the Ugly (the "Wanted in 14 counties of this state ..." speech).
Weezer 's "Undone - The Sweater Song" has a couple of sections of simulated crowd dialogue, although one of the participants is in fact a band member: bassist Matt Sharp is heard alongside band archivist Karl Koch and fan club co-president Mykel Allan. There's also a particularly bizarre Unplugged Version where they got their friend Tim "Speed" Levitch to recite his poetry during these sections instead.
There's also "Falling For You", where a snippet of a radio broadcast in Korean slipped into the recording due to interference with an amplifier and they decided to Throw It In .
Black Grape 's "Get Higher" includes samples of Ronald and Nancy Reagan speaking about drugs, which of course have been manipulated to sound pro-drug-use ("And there's one more thing, Nancy and I are hooked on heroin..."). The audio came from an edited video
that made the rounds as a bootleg years earlier, while Reagan was still president.
"Fantastic Fabulous" by Luscious Jackson has Deborah Harry on guest vocals, and it also includes a sample of an answering machine message from her about singing the song itself:
Hello, Tony note Most likely Tony Visconti, who was the Record Producer for that particular song? This is Debbie Harry calling. I think we did say something about tonight to sing or something for Luscious Jackson...
65daysofstatic utilized this in many of their earlier songs, best exemplified from their song "Retreat! Retreat!":
"What kills me only makes me stronger. We will never retreat: This band is unstoppable!"
Fall Out Boy 's "Get Busy Living Or Get Busy Dying" has a spoken word outro ("From day one I talked about getting out/But not forgetting about/How my worst fears are letting out"...).
," after a spate of static, a tinny, muted lo-fi commentary can be heard as vocalist Marko Saaresto explains that "Hounds" is a polished rehash of the first version of their earliest song, " Late Goodbye
."
EMF's hit "Unbelievable" included repeated samples of Andrew "Dice" Clay delivering his Catch Phrase "OHHH!" as well as saying "What the fuck?" - the latter sample was distorted enough that the song managed to get uncensored airplay anyway . The album it's from, Schubert Dip, featured a few other songs that opened with spoken word samples:
"Girl Of An Age" starts with a sample of Ernie from Sesame Street : "Okay Bert, I'll clean it up so clean you wouldn't recognize it!"
"Longtime" starts with an uncredited voice reading from T. S. Eliot 's poem "The Hollow Men": "This is the way the world ends, this is the way the world ends, this is the way the world ends, not with a bang..."
On the first pressing of the album, "Lies" opened with John Lennon 's assassin Mark David Chapman saying "People say I'm crazy..." (sourced from a recording made while he was in police custody, in which he was quoting the lyrics from Lennon's single "Watching The Wheels"). Yoko Ono objected to the sample, and all subsequent pressings of the album removed it.
Christian
John Elefante's "If You Just Believe" starts with a snippet of somebody saying "Sit down, please."
Two tracks from the second album from For King & Country, Run Wild. Live Free. Love Strong., have spoken-word sections. "Shoulders" opens with a spoken-word section that foreshadows the song's theme, and the album's final track, "O God Forgive Us", closes with a spoken-word section that riffs on the album title.
Comedy
"Craigslist:" " An open letter... to the snotty barista... at the Coffee Bean on San Vicente Boulevard... " This is, of course, in homage to Jim Morrison's vocal style, as previously mentioned.
"Confessions Part III:" "You don't know how hard it is for me to tell you this... but remember that shirt you got me for my birthday? Well... I returned it for store credit. That-that thing was hideous, what were you thinking? ..."
"Whatever You Like:" "Hey girl, you know our economy's in the toilet, but I'm still gonna treat you right!"
"TMZ" has a series of celebrity gossip reports announced by Tom Kenny .
The Bonzo Dog Band used speech a lot, beginning their song "Shirt" with a lengthy man-on-the-street interview, and using nothing but in "Rhinocratic Oaths", as Vivian Stanshall narrates four very odd slice-of-life stories.
Country
Sugarland 's "Happy Ending" also samples MLK's "I Have a Dream" speech, along with Neil Armstrong's first words stepping onto the moon. Baby's born in the ghetto... "I have a dream that one day..." Baby's born with a silver spoon... "That's one small step for man..." One tells his mama I have a dream/One tells his mama I'll walk the moon...
Eddie Rabbitt's "American Boy" includes samples of speeches from Martin Luther King Jr., Neil Armstrong, and John F. Kennedy.
"This Ain't No Rag, It's a Flag" by the Charlie Daniels Band includes a recording of a kid reading the Pledge of Allegiance.
Mark Wills ' "And the Crowd Goes Wild" has snippets of sports play-by-plays done by George Plaster before the final chorus.
The Johnny Cash song When The Man Comes Around opens and closes with Cash reading from Revelation .
Sherrié Austin's "Put Your Heart into It" opens with backing vocalist Donna McElroy saying, "Okay, honey. Girl, you don't even... you're too young to know what this song's talking about!" followed by Austin laughing. This was removed from the radio edit.
Eddy Raven tended to ad-lib spoken lines in the fade-outs of his songs, including "Operator, Operator", "Joe Knows How to Live", "I'm Gonna Get You", and others.
Lee Roy Parnell's 1994 cover of Hank Williams ' "Take These Chains from My Heart", recorded as a duet with Ronnie Dunn of Brooks & Dunn , features the two having an offhanded conversation about going to Mexico at the end.
Mark McGuinn's "Mrs. Steven Rudy", the first track on his debut album, opens with a female voice saying "play ball".
Marcel's "Country Rock Star" is Book Ended by a kid saying "I wanna be a country rock star".
Garth Brooks does it three times in In The Life Of Chris Gaines . In the middle of the chorus of "Way Of The Girl", Chris says "it's just the way it is, can't do nothing 'bout it." And near the end of "Right Now", he says "you know, if we don't talk about it, it ain't going to get better." There's also a spoken section in the bridge of "My Love Tells Me So."
Dean Miller's "I Feel Bad" opens with country radio and TV host Ralph Emery announcing "You're listening to good music recorded in the country and western style, here on Capitol Records."
Cowboy Troy's album Loco Motive has a spoken interlude by Larry The Cable Guy in between "If You Don't Wanna Love Me" and "My Last Yee Haw".
Jerrod Niemann included short comedy sketches between some of the tracks on his major-label debut album Judge Jerrod and the Hung Jury.
Sara Evans' "I Keep Looking" opens with a baby laughing and Evans saying, "That cracked me up."
An alternate mix of James Wesley's "Thank a Farmer" includes snippets from Paul Harvey 's "So God Made a Farmer" speech.
The end of Marie Sisters' "Real Bad Mood" features the sisters (Chaz and Kessie Marie) ad-libbing a discussion about "having one of those days" and laughing, while the guitarist starts making random noises on the talk-box and a voice (possibly the record producer) says "Come on, guys, quit messing around in there!", followed by one of them saying "Was he just talking to me?"
Tommy Shane Steiner's "What We're Gonna Do About It" is about a man hitting on a woman in line at a Starbucks. Throughout, the song is interspersed with actress Bridgette Wilson-Sampras having a phone conversation with someone else about what is happening:
Bridgette: You're not gonna believe this story. Picture this: I'm standing in the world's longest line at Starbucks. I'm half asleep, I have no make-up on, and this guy I've never seen before taps me on the shoulder. I turn around and he says...
Tommy: (singing) Did you know there's 35 Starbucks and 3 million people in Atlanta
The odds of you and me being in the very same line are staggering
Is it coincidence, or is there a power bigger than you and me
That made us both crave a three dollar cup of coffee...
"Backwood Bump" by Waterloo Revival features a random line from Siri after the line "Ask Siri where the good times be".
Toby Keith 's "Cryin' for Me (Wayman's Song)", a tribute to Wayman Tisdale, opens with a snippet of Tisdale's answering machine greeting.
"4th of July" by Shooter Jennings. The album version of the song features George Jones singing the chorus of "He Stopped Loving Her Today", after which he says "When we gonna get paid for this?" followed by Shooter laughing.
Disco
"Move On" by ABBA starts with Swede Bjorn Ulvaeus affecting an American Southern drawl saying:
"They say a restless body can hide a peaceful soul.
A voyager, ad a settler, they both have a distant goal.
If I explore the heavens, or if I search inside.
Well, it really doesn't matter as long as I can tell myself
I've always tried."
Diana Ross's version of "Ain't No Mountain High Enough."
"Ma Baker" by Boney M does this three times. It starts with a clip of Ma Baker during a stick-up, then in the middle of the song is a news bulletin from the police asking for any information on Ma Baker's whereabouts, and this is followed by a second clip of Ma Baker.
Experimental
This is one of noise rock band The God Bullies' trademarks - they particularly seem to like using samples of religious records for irony's sake. For instance, "Fear And Pain" starts with a sample from Flight F-I-N-A-L, a record that compared going to heaven to traveling by airplane ("...your captain is The Lord Jesus Christ, and I am your Chief Stewardess, The Angel Of Mercy")
Cracker's cover of The Residents ' "Blue Rosebuds" includes some barely audible speech due to a Throw It In moment from the producer: An inmate from a nearby prison dialed the studio's phone number to make an obscene phone call while the band was recording, and the producer very quickly patched the phone line into the mixing board during an instrumental break. It certainly did add to the uncharacteristic creepiness of the cover.
Negativland's infamous "U2" EP consisted of 2 versions (full-length and radio edits) of an instrumental/spoken word track which combined samples of "I Still Haven't Found What I'm Looking For" by U2 with a profane rant by American Top 40 disk jockey, Casey Kasem .
Electronic
UNKLE's "Rabbit In Your Headlights" has a sound clip from Jacob's Ladder in the middle.
Also from Outro, "I... I feel... that this has been the most incredible and wonderful thing to have ever have happened... and also the worst. It's... it's a mixed bag. I've been taken to the depths of extreme... terror by this... on the one hand. On the other hand, this experience has been about finding great... joy"
"Frontier Psychiatrist" by The Avalanches is all spoken word.
Math The Band's "Hang Out Hang Ten" and "Almost!" both end in what seems to be nonsensical Quote Mining of some kind of self-help tape: "You've probably also realized that fears and anxieties are one of the most important skills you can acquire", and "I've had students tell me they have thousands of years of experience, which dates back twenty five thousand years, which means forty million discoveries of ancient wisdom and of new insights".
"Little Fluffy Butts" by The Orb relies heavily on an interview with Rickie Lee Jones.
The Ess Zed song 'Life and Death'
features small interludes of the narrator discussing death and mourning with his grandfather, with the grandfather pleading the narrator to not be upset, because once we were all parts of suns, and we'll die, but we'll go on and become stars again, and maybe even be reborn as life on a new planet.
Daft Punk 's "Giorgio by Moroder" has a two-minute-long spoken intro by the eponymous man, out of a nine-minute-long track.
Music/ÓlafurArnalds incorporated synthesizer voices into his album Dyad 1909, in which the voice refers to someone who has left them despite the voice having begged them not to leave.
VNV Nation 's "Goodbye 20th Century" begins with a speech from General Motors' "Futurama" ride/exhibit at 1939 World's Fair.
Technotronic reuses various spoken sound samples (including those not spoken by the band members) in their instrumentals.
Filk
, was made with auto-tuned voice samples from GLaDOS' dialogue, however, it opens with Cave Johnson's spoken word about how he intends to turn his assistant Caroline into GLaDOS.
Folk
Loreena McKennitt's Dicken's Dublin has a lot of this, with a child speaking intermittently during the song.
Jonathan Coulton 's song "Shop Vac" has a brief spoken word portion under the last verse, a mock-up news broadcast which is then cut off by static. It is difficult to hear it in its entirety but it appears to say, "... the case of two men who have come up with an idea for ads reaching a captive audience. The ads can now be seen inside public bathroom stalls. 'It may seem silly,' says ... A forty-nine-year-old, unidentified man went berserk last night, opening fire with a twelve-gauge shotgun in a crowded, downtown..."
Shawn Mullins' Signature Style is spoken verses and sung choruses. In an interview, he said it came from his earlier days when he would play in noisy clubs, and he'd speak some of the lyrics to get the audience's attention.
The Simon & Garfunkel song "Seven O'Clock News/Silent Night" has the duo singing the Christmas carol over a rather downbeat news broadcast.
Van Morrison plays with the idea on tracks like Rave On John Donne, and especially on the Sense of Wonder album. This is as near as he gets to rap; Sense of Wonder incorporates lyrical nostalgia for a Belfast upbriging, and a later track involves Morrison reciting a William Blake poem set to his own music.
The Israeli song about the Battle of Ammunition Hill
is traditionally sung with the soldiers' recollections of the battle read out between the stanzas.
Steeleye Span 's "The Good Witch", from the Concept Album based on the Discworld novel Wintersmith , ends with Sir Terry Pratchett saying "A good witch never cackles" followed by the section from the book begining "Cackling is not just nasty laughter".
Funk
The Revolution Will Not Be Televised by Gil Scott-Heron is a groundbreaking album that influenced rap, despite being nothing of the sort. It's just Scott-Heron dictating poetry, with some percussion in the background, but sounds awesome!
Indie
Many Bright Eyes albums begin like this.
The song An Attempt To Tip The Scales concludes with a ten minute mock-radio interview parodying the melodramatic nature of the album and Conor Oberst's musical persona.
Also, Oberst's Desaparecidos side project. The band's only album begins with a tape recording of a group of teenage girls' superficial opinions on what makes "an ideal man".
The creepy guy speaking at the beginning of 1940
by the Submarines
Creepy Man's Voice: The year is one thousand nine hundred and forty... and something... isn't... right...
Stars' "The Woods" features samples from the documentary Grey Gardens, specifically "Little Edie" Bouvier Beale talking about accidentally dropping her scarf off the porch and into the massively overgrown backyard ("It's a sea of leaves, sea of leaves... if you lose something you can�t find it again, lost at the bottom�).
Also by Stars, from the beginning of "Your Ex Lover Is Dead", "When there's nothing left to burn, you have to set yourself on fire." Apparently a recording of one of the band member's fathers.
The beginning of Kate Nash's Mansion Song.
Say Anything... goes meta with this in "Belt."
Max: I have to record the spoken-word introduction to the record. It's only a few lines, but I'm having anxiety about it.
The outro of Belle and Sebastian 's "I Could Be Dreaming" features Isobel Campbell reading from Washington Irving's Rip Van Winkle in the background.
Sebadoh's "Open Ended" ends with a looped snippet of an announcer saying "It's weed against speed!" (it's really an intro to the next track, an instrumental called "Weed Against Speed")
The band's first two albums, The Freed Man and Weed Forestin, also have quite a lot of spoken word in them.
Ride's "Cool Your Boots" starts with Paul McGann 's narration from Withnail & I : "Even a stopped clock gives the right time twice a day".
Sidewalk Driver's For All The Boys And Girls has two tracks that end in lo-fi spoken clips: "Radio" ends in a clip of stage banter from one of the band's concerts, run through studio effects to make it sound like it's being heard on an crackly radio broadcast ("Well, this is our last song. Thank you, everybody, for comin' out..."). The clip in "Small Talk (Social Butterfly)" is hard to make out, but sounds like it's a woman at a noisy train stop discussing traveling all around the Boston area over the course of a day (intelligible bits include "...Jamaica Plain again" and "...Go out to Cambridge, and hop around Harvard, and wind up at M.I.T.?"), which would fit the lyrics about trying to find the time to catch up with a friend who seems to always be on the go.
Islands' "Volcanoes" starts with a very strange monologue from someone who introduces himself as Oscar, claiming to be a demon and warning that the world will end in 2007 (the song being released in 2006). This was taken from a Coast to Coast AM caller - Nicolas Thorburn happened to hear this call on his car radio late one night, and it inspired the song's lyrics, which deal with the world ending due to natural disaster.
Industrial
Marilyn Manson 's "Para-noir" from "The Golden Age Of Grotesque" has a woman repeating various versions of the sentence "I fuck you..." including "I fuck you for fun", "I fuck you because I am your whore" "I fuck you to fuck you over", "I fuck you so you will protect me" and "I fuck you so I have a place to stay".
My Life With The Thrill Kill Kult uses this constantly, citing and repeating lines from cult films to really up the strangeness.
Metal
Many extreme metal bands will do this as a contrast to the loud, often violent intensity of their music. They also can sum up the lyrical attitude of the musician in question.
Skyfire's Spectral - "This is not a dream."
At the Gates's Slaughter of the Soul - "We are blind, to the worlds within us, waiting to be born."
I'm In A Coffin's One Final Action - "The best day of my life."
Caïna uses this a lot, typically of the third variety.
Iron Maiden uses this sometimes, like at the beginning of " The Number of the Beast ", "The Prisoner", and the bridge of "Rime of The Ancient Mariner", which directly quotes the Coleridge poem.
Ayreon has the mysterious voice at the beginning of several songs in Into The Electric Castle and has excerpts of a few different speeches during "Unnatural Selection" on 01011001.
Blind Guardian has these between several songs on the Concept Album Nightfall in Middle Earth, presumably to make it easier to understand what each of the songs is about - though it still probably won't help much if the listener hasn't read The Silmarillion .
Many Ministry songs have these: Earlier on they were mainly from movies, though "NWO" included many samples of George W. Bush . As they essentially released three straight albums of protest songs after the election of George W. Bush, a lot of out of context samples of him came in too. And "End Of Days Part II" ends with a lengthy excerpt from Dwight D. Eisenhower 's famous speech about the military-industrial complex.
"Your Touch" by The Black Keys (at least the music video) has the two band members talking over a guitar solo. "So, how do you feel about...y'know, being dead?" "I dunno, my neck hurts."
Rob Zombie seems pretty fond of using movie samples in songs: For instance, every song on White Zombie's La Sexorcisto featured at least an instrumental break or two with clips from horror films, exploitation films or b-movies, along with Iggy Pop making a guest appearance to recite Word Salad Lyrics in a monster truck rally commercial announcer voice (in "Black Sunshine" and "Soul-Crusher"). These have shown up plenty of times in his solo career too, and the song " House of 1000 Corpses " featured extensive dialogue from his directorial debut film of the same name, despite coming out two years before the film itself did note Naturally, the movie was already finished at that time, it was just being held up by Executive Meddling .
Living Colour 's hit "Cult of Personality" contains clips of speeches given by Malcolm X , Franklin D. Roosevelt and John F. Kennedy
Occurs in a few Stratovarius songs.
"Visions (Southern Cross)" (from Visions) has someone reciting the verses of Nostradamus 's prophecy on which the song is based.
The live recording of "Hunting High and Low" opens with a deep voice saying "Welcome... to the soul... of... Stratovarius!"
"Dreamspace" (from the album of the same name) features a creepy little girl's voice in the middle of the song. (She says "Who's there? ...Mother? I'm losing my mind...", followed by evil laughter.)
The otherwise-instrumental "Metal Frenzy" (from Twilight Time) starts with someone counting "1, 2, 3, 4!" and ends with maniacal laughter.
"I'm Still Alive" (from Elements Pt. 2) ends with a conversation between what is presumed to be two of the band members (though it's hard to make out what they're saying). Strangely enough, they're speaking English, even though the band themselves are Finnish (though at the time they had a Swede and a German as part of their lineup).
"Back to Madness" (from their self-titled album) ends with a long, surreal and mildly-creepy spoken word section (which sounds like it's done by the same person who did the spoken-word sections in "Visions (Southern Cross)", judging by the similar-sounding voices).
"Event Horizon" (from Elysium) ends with an automated voice warning about an approaching black hole, with warning sirens playing over it.
Sonata Arctica have also done this occasionally.
"...of Silence" (from Silence) is entirely spoken-word and instrumental.
"The End of This Chapter" (also from Silence) starts off with a phone call between the stalker main character and his ex. Includes a bit of Gratuitous French (part of which is repeated in the song proper).
Cormorant have a few examples along with some Sampling , but the most noteworthy example is the bridge of "Scavengers Feast" which not only have many people reciting passages, but in different languages too.
New Wave
"The Look of Love": "Martin, maybe one day you'll find true love."
"Poison Arrow": "I care enough to know I can never love you"
The Information Society song "What's On Your Mind" had snippets of Mr. Spock saying "pure energy" from a Star Trek: The Original Series episode.
Squeeze used snippets of The Shining in the intro to The Last Time Forever, including Jack Nicholson's line "A momentary loss of muscular coordination" and Shelley Duvall shrieking.
Most of the vocals on Tom Tom Club 's autobiographical "Atsababy (Life Is Great)" are spoken by drummer/founder Chris Frantz.
Peter Schilling 's "City Of Night (Berlin)" contains a portion of American President John F. Kennedy 's "Ich bin eine Berliner" speech. "The Noah Plan" begins with a spoken intro setting up the situation that the people in the song are facing.
Culture Club 's "Do You Really Want To Hurt Me" begins with a person saying "Popularity breeds contempt" on the version that appears on At Worst..The Best Of Boy George And Culture Club.
A voice that says "Telephone call for Mr. Bones" introduces the Duran Duran song "To Whom It May Concern" from The Wedding Album .
The Police 's "On Any Other Day" begins with Stewart Copeland's voice saying "The other ones are complete bullshit."
On Daniel Amos 's Doppelg�nger , the Bookends "Hollow Man" and "Hollow Man (Reprise)" are both spoken monologues set to music. And "Autographs for the Sick" has four or five different speakers talking over each other, with music in the background.
OST
Spark Plug Entertainment 's Spider's Web: A Pig's Tale features one near the beginning, when the main character Walter tries to explain to his mother how her pie went missing after he had ate it.
Happens frequently on the soundtrack album for Natural Born Killers - dialogue from the movie will frequently get layered over instrumental sections of songs.
The nonsensical song "Chicken Bone" from Cowboy Bebop is peppered with various sound effects and voices, such as a bullet ricochet. They're very faint, and hard to completely decipher through the lyrics and music. They're not listed in the lyrics either. Among them is a doctor saying "Proceed with the operation" and a villainous voice giving an Evil Laugh followed by "DESTROY!"
Pop
La Roux 's "Tigerlily" has a similar interlude as an homage to Thriller .
A Kanon Wakeshima song ends with what sounds like Wakeshima singing the song in the shower.
Ennui Kibun (bored feeling!)
The Veronicas Insomnia, Cold, Untouched and more.
The Spice Girls ' "Naked" has this at the beginning of the song, after the first chorus, and the middle is done as a phone conversation heard on Emma's end: "Hello...it's me...I thought you'd understand...well, maybe I should give it my best shot...I keep seeing such a pretty picture...But I don't want to be hated or pitied either...maybe I should leave it up to your imagination...I just want to be me..."
"Steal My Sunshine" by Len opens with two band members talking about how another member looks down. Later in the song is another segment, this time talking about how another member looks like she had a rough night. The radio edit removes the spoken bits and just leaves those sections instrumental in part because the first section alludes to LSD use.
The second hidden track on the Robbie Williams album I've Been Expecting You (officially named "Stalker's Day Off (I've Been Hanging Around)") features two spoken word segments in the form of answering machine messages left by the eponymous stalker on his victim's phone, done by Robbie himself. "Win Some Lose Some" on the same album starts with a woman's voice saying "I love you, baby!" twice, and ends with the same clip played once. "No Regrets" (also from that album) ends with a spoken-word segment by Robbie, which sounds like he gave up on singing and just decided to speak the rest of the lyrics instead.
On his album Sing When You're Winning, the hidden track "Outro Message" is a 13-second long track featuring a message spoken by Robbie saying that this album doesn't contain any hidden tracks.
The hidden track "Hello Sir" on the album Life thru a Lens is a poem written and performed by Robbie dedicated to one of his old schoolteachers (ostensibly, anyway).
"Everybody" by Madonna , from her debut Madonna starts with a heavily synthesized and spoken introduction with Madonna taking a loud intake of breath.
"White Heat" from True Blue has spoken bits of dialogue from the titular movie.
"What It Feels Like For A Girl" has a spoken intro that comes from The Cement Garden.
George Michael 's "Too Funky" begins with a snippet from Anne Bancroft as Mrs. Robinson from The Graduate :
I am not trying to seduce you. Would you like me to seduce you? Is that what you're trying to tell me?
And at the end, a line from The Tony Hancock Show episode "The Radio Ham":
Will you stop playing with that radio of yours? I'm trying to get to sleep.
Prog Rock
An excerpt from a Stephen Hawking speech in 'Keep Talking' from The Division Bell .
Dream Theater uses this a lot. About a third of their songs have either spoken word sections, or sound samples from movies or something.
"The Necromancer" by Rush starts with the narration of the story of Prince By-Tor, spoken by Neil Peart (possibly with an edited voice).
Also, Countdown includes snippets of radio talk from a Space Shuttle launch.
"Double Agent", from the Counterparts album, contains lyrics spoken, instead of sung, by Geddy.
The end of "2112" has "Attention, all planets of the Solar Federation ... We have assumed control" repeated as if from a speaker, several times, supposedly suggesting that the song's hero eventually led a successful uprising against the Temples of Syrinx.
The title word in "Subdivisions" is spoken in the song's chorus.
Mike Oldfield 's "Amarok" has someone impersonating Margaret Thatcher towards the end of the song.
Supertramp 's "Fool's Overture" includes a clip from Winston Churchill 's most famous speech.
Sound Horizon 's works, which albums tell stories through singing, narration and characters speaking. Since their major debut they have also invited mainstream voice actors to speak lines, such as Norio Wakamoto , Hikaru Midorikawa and Marina Inoue .
Bay Area progressive/death/black/folk/etc. metal band Cormorant has the interlude of their song Scavenger's Feast includes layered samples of members of the band (and other people who were at the studio at the time) reading from different books (in various languages). Good luck trying to out the words, though.
Robert Fripp 's 1979 album Exposure featured several tracks with extraneous speech mixed with the music:
"NY3" includes the tape of a quarrel by the three neighbors next to Fripp's apartment in New York one night. They were so loud that they kept him from sleeping, so he got up and recorded their voices, and later added music around them.
"Exposure" and "Water Music 1" include excerpts from J.G. Bennett's inaugural address at Sherborne House, the International Academy for Continuous Education. (The complete 40-minute address also appears as a track on the album, condensed into only 3 seconds of white noise.)
"Disengage" includes a tape of Fripp interviewing his mother.
King Crimson itself has several examples, but the most interesting is "Thela Hun Ginjeet" from Discipline. The spoken word is Adrien Belew recounting being threatened by gangsters; it was recorded minutes after the assault. He walked into the studio in a state of obvious distress, and as he told Robert Fripp what happened, Fripp signaled for the engineer to start recording.
Asia 's "Countdown To Zero" from Astra has an ominous voice speaking during the bridge section and the ending.
The Moody Blues often included a poem read by one of the members in one or two songs on their early albums, most famously the "Breathe deep, the gathering gloom ..." one (titled "Late Lament") near the end of "Nights in White Satin."
Psychedelic
Roky Erikson's "Creature With The Atom Brain" contains extensive dialogue snippets from the B-Movie of the same name... sort of. It's the original dialogue from the movie, but it's Roky reciting the lines instead of the actors.
Combined with So Bad, It's Good , this is essentially the basis for William Shatner 's musical career, especially his cover of " Lucy in the Sky With Diamonds ".
The Byrds ' "2-4-2 Fox Trot (The Lear Jet Song)".
Psonic Psunspot by The Dukes Of Stratosphear includes a little girl reciting odd, Alice in Wonderland -inspired prose at the end of a couple of songs ("The puffin sipped at his herbal tea and sighed 'you can't get the buttons these days!'"). Also, their song "My Love Explodes" ends with a an offended call-in radio show listener who sounds uncannily like Woody Allen complaining about a song played on air ("...What possessed you to write such a disgusting, degeneratized song as that? And I'm complimenting you by considering it a song...")
Hawkwind have a number of spoken word songs, most of them on the Space Ritual album.
Shpongle's Vapour Rumours heavily samples a newscast from The Outer Limits .
Punk
Steel Pole Bath Tub frequently used television and movie clips in songs; "Train To Miami" uses a sample of Jack Nicholson sneering "yeah, yeah, yeah" from Five Easy Pieces for instance. When they put out their major label debut they were specifically cautioned against doing this by the label's legal department.
"Scary Picture Show" by Riot Squad opens with a line from Night of the Creeps : "Let's play a game! It's called 'Scary Noises'."
Schoolyard Heroes did this in a few of their very early demo songs, such as at both the beginning and end of "Living Dead (Ravers)".
At The Drive-In's "Enfilade" starts with a simulated ransom phone call, fitting it's lyrics about a kidnapping. The "caller" is Iggy Pop , who also made a sung guest appearance on a different song on the same album:
"Hello?"
"Hello, mother leopard. I have your cub. You must protect her, but that will be expensive. Ten thousand cola nuts, wrapped in brown paper. Midnight, behind the box. I'll be the hyena, you'll see..."
The Clash 's Capitol Radio One single consisted of the non-album single "Capitol Radio" and separately indexed lo-fi excerpts of an interview with the band. The version of "Capitol Radio" on the compilation The Story Of The Clash, which is the song's only official CD release note The B-Side album Super Black Market Clash featured "Capitol Radio Two'', a re-recording, puts one of those interview excerpts on the same track... Meaning there's three minutes of spoken word and a little over two minutes of actual song.
"Inoculated City" includes a clip of a toilet cleaner commercial - because the sample wasn't authorized, some editions of the album Combat Rock contain an edited version of the song without it.
The Dingees ' song "Street vs. State" consists of several recordings of protesters played over dub reggae backing music.
"Divorced", the Melvins ' collaboration with Tool , splices in a phone conversation between Maynard James Keenan and Buzz Osborne, apparently regarding a mutual friend going out with a woman who Maynard describes as having "a voice like a fuckin' modem, dude!".
Black Flag 's "Armageddon Man", which is placed right in between an album side's worth of spoken word tracks and an album side's worth of instrumentals (album being Family Man).
Darkbuster's "Pub" begins and ends with vocalist Lenny Lashley reading from a pamphlet that warns about the risks of drinking alcohol, apparently recorded over the phone ("remember, just because others drink alcohol doesn't mean that you have to drink too"). It's done for irony's sake, since the song is one of their several odes to intoxication , and he sounds a little bit drunk while reading it.
Poison Idea's "The Badge" is bookended with dialogue sampled from Taxi Driver . When Pantera covered the song, they went so far as to use the exact same clips.
Henry Rollins lives and breathes this trope. He often blurs the line between this, singing and shouting. "Liar" is a good example (spoken-word verses, shouted/sung chorus). It helps that he's a spoken word artist as well...
Masked Intruder include a faked 911 call skit at the end of "Hello Beautiful", wherein a woman complains that some men (heavily implied to be the members of the band) keep breaking into her house and singing. It makes sense in context because Masked Intruder are a Kayfabe Band whose back-story involves being escaped burglars.
R&B
"ABC" by the The Jackson Five .
The breakdown section of "Smooth Criminal" (also from Bad) has a male voice (presumably a police officer) shouting, "OK, I want everyone to clear the area right now."
Isaac Hayes ' landmark album Hot Buttered Soul featured a cover of "By the Time I Get to Phoenix" that turned this trope into an art form. The song itself follows a man, having just left his wife, describing what he thinks she will be doing as he reaches certain destinations by car. Hayes turned this three-minute country song into an eighteen-minute soul epic, including an eight-minute spoken introduction of how the man came to his decision to leave his wife.
Barry White has a spoken intro in "Can't Get Enough Of Your Love." In fact, he's often just speaking over the music.
Rap
and "Ransom" with Lil Wayne .
Childish Gambino has a 3 minute long monologue at the end of "That Power", which is just him talking about an incident at summer camp (fitting, because the track is the last song on his debut studio album Camp).
Most rappers have done a song with them or someone else (usually their producer or a friend) talking over the beginning or the end.
Kanye West is an exception to the above example, using spoken-word in music frequently - the Intros to both The College Dropout and Late Registration have him being chastised by his high-school principal, "Last Call" has an 8-minute outro of Kanye explaining how he got to make The College Dropout, "Crack Music" and "Sin City" both have spoken-word poems by Malik Yusuf, "Never Let Me Down" has another one performed by J.Ivy. My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy uses it as Bookends , the first track, "Dark Fantasy" opening with a poem (taken from Roald Dahl ) performed Nicki Minaj (affecting a British accent ), and the closing track "Lost in the World/Who Will Survive in America" ending with a poem/address performed by Gil Scott-Heron . This is also the case in the deluxe edition of the same album, since "See Me Now" ends with Kanye adlibbing various comments... including "Now I'mma let you finish, but I got Beyonce on the track" .
He gets DJ Khaled and DJ Pharris to talk for the last minute (basically shouting out various people) on "Cold"
Rock
Elvis Presley : Arguably the most notorious, yet atrocious concert album in his career is Having Fun With Elvis On Stage , a 35 minute collection of nothing but Elvis cracking jokes with the audience, without any music or context of what is going on? Not only is the record painfully unfunny, a lot of it is technically not even a joke, just Elvis saying random things in interaction with his audience. Half of the time he is clearly just rambling, before deciding his jokes are falling flat or his story isn't going anywhere.
Vernian Process , "Her Clockwork Heart".
Many steampunk bands, in fact. Among them, Abney Park 's "Until the Day You Die:"
"Dr. Weird's Mysteries will be continued shortly. So by the way, doctor, is mystery your sole pleasure?"
"Young man, what can be more pleasant than mystery?"
"Well, music. I mean the kind of music a man can hum or whistle when he feels on top of the world."
A similar case occurs in Abney Park's "Herr Drosselmeyer's Doll,"
"Gentlemen, this fallen angel is the illegitimate daughter of art and science. A modern marvel of engineering, clockworks elevated to the very natural process which even now is in your blood, racing, your eyes flashing at such irreproachable beauty. Here is Gaia, here is Eve, here is Lilith, and I stand before you as her father. Sprung fully-formed from my brow, dewy and sweet; she can be yours and yours again, for her flesh is the incorruptible pale to be excused from the wages of sin . . ."
"The Inventor's Daughter" by The Cog Is Dead segues into the next song, "The Death Of The Cog," with a spoken "report:"
"We interrupt this broadcast to bring you breaking news. At approximately 2:05 PM this afternoon, an English clockmaker by the name of Hamilton revealed to the world a new kind of clock. This sick, twisted design displays the time digitally on a small backlit screen and is run entirely on electricity. Hamilton predicts that this new abomination is the way of the future, and believes that someday these hideous creations of his will be in every home in the world. It is with deep regret that we announce to you, dear listeners, that the cog is dead. We repeat: The Cog Is Dead ."
"Mr. Soot's Little Black Book" by Unextraordinary Gentlemen ends with:
"Come on, boys — and girls — enjoy! Mr. Soot's Traveling Parade of Pulchritude! You will see such delights as you have never witnessed before. Come on, now, form a proper queue, that's right...if you have the money, we have the honey! Behind these curtains you will see a frolicsome view that will leave your toes a-tingling and you brain aflame with desire!"
Everclear 's "AM Radio" opens with some radio squeaks and squawks of the sort that might be made by tuning in, and then "Portions of today's programming are reproduced by means of electrical transcription of tape recordings."
Guns N' Roses has done this once or twice - most notably, their song "Civil War" from Use Your Illusion opens with a soundbyte from Cool Hand Luke and, during an instrumental segment plays a rather chilling sample from an anonymous Peruvian militant general. ("As popular war advances, peace is closer.")
In the song "Madagascar" from their newest album, they reuse the Cool Hand Luke soundbyte, along with others.
Kiss ' "Detroit Rock City" starts with a radio anchor reporting the car crash that inspired the song itself. "Finale", the song immediately following "I" on Music from "The Elder" , closes out the album with The Order speaking to Morpheus about The Boy. And "Living In Sin" from the Gene Simmons 1978 solo album has Cher talking on the phone in the middle of the song.
Sam Black has one in "Religion Song (Put Away The Gun)".
The album version of Chicago 's "Does Anybody Really Know What Time It Is?" features a monologue by keyboardist Robert Lamm mixed into the final verse.
Boston 's "Higher Power" has a female voice reciting the Serenity Prayer during the beginning of the bridge section.
Van Halen did this a lot when David Lee Roth was singing lead in their early years:
The end of "Beautiful Girls", where we learn he's a lousy pickup artist.
"Have you seen Junior's grades?" at the end of the "And the Cradle Will Rock" bridge.
The middle of "Everybody Wants Some!", where he seems to be giving instructions to a stripper.
There were two on Fair Warning: that whole "Hey man, that suit is you ..." bit, with Ted Templeman providing "C'mon Dave, gimme a break" in the bridge of "Unchained", and the more serious "See a gun is real easy, in this desperate part of town ..." interlude in "Mean Street"
The monologue in "Panama" about how he likes to reach down between his legs and ... ease seat back.
Vocal
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Who is the presenter of radio 4's Woman's Hour | Mark Whitecage | BushWacked - A Spoken Opera | CD Baby Music Store
BushWacked - A Spoken Opera
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BushWacked - A Spoken Opera
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BushWacked is an oral critique of the political climate of the USA as culled by the artists from print and internet media, i.e., all aspects of media create the centerpiece and original, creative jazz frees the words from the page to craft a spoken opera.
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Release Date: 2005
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Tracks
5. Who's the War For?
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7. Fool Me Twice, Shame on Me
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Available as MP3, MP3 320, and FLAC files.
ABOUT THIS ALBUM
Album Notes
PERSONNEL:
MARK WHITECAGE - alto & soprano sax; ROZANNE LEVINE - alto clarinet, clarinet; SCOTT STEELE - guitar; BILL LARIMER - piano; ROBERT MAHAFFAY - drums.
"BushWacked", a spoken word opera, finds Mark Whitecage with a totally new Band, Concept, and Direction! In addition to West Coast electronic wizard Scott Steele on guitar combined with the keyboard artistry of Bill Larimer, Mark has added Perry Robinson's prize pupil Rozanne Levine on alto & Bb clarinets, with long-time collaborator Robert (Mike) Mahaffay on drums, to produce a hard-hitting and sometimes angry indictment of the Bush Crime Family, all without losing the sense of swing and intensity he is known for!!
"Mark Whitecage knocks me out. He has achieved rare union of tradition and innovation all coupled with finesse and at times, raw muscle. He is a totally unique player who raises the spirits of rebellion, while at the same time lifting the music to a new plateau." (Tim Price) Saxophone Journal
"The man is an absolute master of the alto saxophone and clarinet (not to mention a dab hand at electronics), and one of the finest and most original jazz composers in the world, and has been for years." - (Dan Warburton) Paris Transatlantic, Signal to Noise.
Mark Whitecage (alto & soprano saxophone, clarinet, electronics, composer) is an internationally-known musician who performs solo and with several ensembles ranging in size from duos to quintets. He has performed and recorded with a wide range of creative artists including The Nu Band, Anthony Braxton, Perry Robinson, Jeanne Lee, Gunter Hampel, Mario Pavone, Joe McPhee, William Parker, Dominic Duval, Marshall Allen and Steve Swell, in a career spanning four decades. Whitecage can be heard on over 50 recordings, a number of them award-winning. His release with his trio No Respect, self-titled No Respect - Duval / Rosen / Whitecage, was named one of 2003's Top Ten Recordings by Time Out New York's Steve Smith.
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Bruce Lee Gallanter, Downtown Music Gallery Newsletter
Impressive, bold and timely
'BushWacked' is an impressive, bold and timely work from alto sax wiz, Mark Whitecage, and his new crew.
Sandile Ngidi, freelance journalist and independent producer, So
What a splendid and healing joy to listen to this CD!
What a splendid and healing joy to listen to this CD! I just can't put it down, it's terrific and explosive stuff.
Robert Iannapollo, Signal to Noise
When these mad times are just a bad memory, 'BushWacked' will still be standing
Even after five years of Bush and his cronies' systematic dismantling of our governmental system, there's been little overt protest music within the field of creative jazz. Along comes saxophonist Mark Whitecage with a healthy dose of indignation. The music runs the gamut from freebop to collective improv to straight ahead swing, and every player gets a moment to shine. When the dust has settled and these mad times are just a bad memory, 'BushWacked' will still be standing tall.
Rex Butters, All About Jazz-LA
Say hi to a clear picture of our shared predicament on Bushwacked.
Mark Whitecage and the Bi-Coastal Orchestra step up to the podium to deliver the statement of sanity many have been waiting on for five years. Bushwacked: A Spoken opera takes aim at the deadly dada debacle that has inexplicably passed for government and foreign policy in this country since the turn of the millenium. Whitecage and company surgically remove the masks from these gibbering ninnies and the slow brained zombies who support them with texts built of incisive previously published commentaries and pertinent constitutional quotes recited against a musical backdrop that emphasizes free jazz, while including elements of a century of American popular music. Whitecage's broad stylistic background is well represented by his ensemble, creating a lively listenable soundtrack equal to the seething passion in the composer's text.
Rozanne Levine intones the first oratorio, "In Our Name", with dramatic urgency, supported by the ensemble's growing forte. Scott Steele's slippery guitar gives the scenario's inherent unreality the appropriate wiggle. "0 for 5000" refers to former Attorney General John Ashcroft's inability to prosecute anybody, and pianist Bill Larimer takes the opportunity to play tasty New Orleans licks that escalate to Cecil Taylorisms. Not to be left out of the fun, the ensemble jumps into a hot free blow followed by spare, ghostly electronics. Robert Mahaffay gracefully rains drum kit, as he does beautifully on each track. Whitecage and Levine on alto sax and clarinet respectively, duo with Steele's rubbery guitar. A pertinent constitutional quote from Whitecage ends the piece. Named for Deep Throat's most cogent phrase, the all-instrumental "Follow the Money" frees Whitecage to meditate on alto sax. A masterful statement ensues, followed by Larimer's atmospheric synth strings framing Whitecage's understated clarinet. Back on piano, Larimer's left hand initiates an off-kilter swing with Steele snaky on guitar. Levine and Whitecage again cross alto reeds to take it out. The group resurrects Jeanne Lee's still relevant lyrics for "Who's the War For?" Levine and Whitecage blow fire and Larimer throws ivory gasoline. When it cools down, the reedists switch to higher pitched instruments and converse as birds.
This is not a newspaper set to music, but rather a quaint artifact of Jeffersonian Democracy involving an informed citizenry and open debate framed as art. At the beginning, Levine addresses the empty materialistic alienation that's brought us to this bleak point in our history: "I also feel the vacuum, the loneliness, the silence, the dehydration of the soul as people who want desperately to save our constitution, country and planet still wander the streets without even knowing how to say 'hi' to one another." Say hi to a clear picture of our shared predicament on Bushwacked.
Ron Sweetman, host, "In A Mellow Tone", CKCU Radio, Ottawa, Cana
Thank you for sending me this CD. Thank you for making this CD.
Thank you for sending me this CD. Thank you for making this CD. It's been so long that I have been waiting for creative artists to raise their voice against this criminal gang that has taken over the government of the United States, and brought its reputation to its lowest depths ever with their lies, their illegal wars, their torture, their secret prisons. After 9/11, the whole world sympathized with the US. Four years later it is seen as a rogue state, universally feared and detested.
As your near neighbour, Canada has not remained immune from infection. We have enacted laws under which persons are locked away without trial, without evidence. Canadians have been shipped to Syria for torture, the questions being supplied to the torturers by the Canadian version of the CIA. A Canadian moslem truck driver has been in jail for several years without any trial accused of plotting to blow up the Houses of Parliament because a map of Ottawa was discovered in his truck's glove compartement; his employer says the map belongs to a previous trucker who used that truck to make deliveries in the Ottawa area, but no-one listens to him.
I will get your CD onto my program as soon as possible.
Again, thank you for having the conscience and the courage to speak out!
Ron Sweetman
Bruce Lee Gallanter, Downtown Music Gallery Newsletter
'BushWacked' is an impressive, bold and timely work from alto sax wiz, Mark Whit
'BushWacked' is an impressive, bold and timely work from alto sax wiz, Mark Whitecage, and his new crew. It features Rozanne Levine & Mr. Whitecage on alto sax, clarinets & voices, Scott Steele on guitar, Bill Larimer on keyboards & voice and Robert Mahaffay on drums. The title piece of this disc is not included here but was written in 1990 with lyrics by Jeanne Lee and recorded on her 'Natural Affinities' disc. It was played live by The Nu Band in January of 2005 and sung by Roy Campbell on their tour that month, while Mark spoke his mind about the lies told by our fascist president, Mr. Bush. Mark and his partner Rozanne Levine, collaborated with their friends from Portland, Oregon, the Bi-Coastal Orchestra and that's how this disc came to be. Whitecage collected 17 pages of evidence against Bush Crime Family and their cowardly draft-dodging associates. The spoken words are taken from these texts and remind us of the sad state of affairs that this country has gradually slid into. The music swirls freely around the words, which provide a powerful balm, while we consider the consequences of the current administration. Three of the seven pieces are pretty long, so we get to hear the players stretch out with some fine soloing from the sax, clarinets, keyboards and guitar. Still, it is the words that really stand out and make one think of the mess we have gotten into and the way the rest of the world must view us. The day I received this disc in the mail, I saw a headline in a newspaper that said the very same thing, "Bush-Wacked"! Perhaps there might just be some justice left for Bush, Cheney, Condy and the rest of their pathetic clan. Only time will tell. No doubt that some asshole out there will complain about the political content of this music review & newsletter platform. Don't bother, because I couldn't give a flying...this is a free country isn't it?!?
Massimo Ricci
Archie Shepp and ragtime, Frank Zappa and off-Broadway, anarchy and democracy: i
Apart from the obvious sociopolitical implications of the lyrics, the "jazz-and-much-more" raging authority unleashed by Whitecage (alto sax, clarinet) Scott Steele (guitar) Bill Larimer (piano) Rozanne Levine (alto & soprano clarinets) and Rober Mahaffay (drums) will curl up your toes: a show-stopping virtuosity does not waste an ounce of the pulsating conceptual energy of the group, whose components encapsulate hundreds of different artistic experiences, throwing them against the often disappointing aesthetics of today's swing/jazz realities with sardonic smiles and thoroughly irreverent musicianship. Archie Shepp and ragtime, Frank Zappa and off-Broadway, anarchy and democracy: it's all here for your mental and auditive pleasure - and your radio won't play it for sure.
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What is the name of Barbie's new boyfriend | Barbie Finds a New Boyfriend - Raving Toy Maniac - The Latest News and Pictures from the World of Toys
Barbie Finds a New Boyfriend
MALIBU, Calif. -- June 29, 2004 -- Since the Barbie(R) and Ken(R) February break-up, Barbie(R) has been cruising in her Chevy SSR, soaking up sun, and hanging out at the Surf and Skate Shop with her best pals. With summer just around the corner, Barbie(R) is ready to date again and has looked to her friends from around the globe to help her choose a new crush. Over the past few weeks, more than two million girls worldwide logged on to Barbie.com to help Barbie(R) choose a new beau, and Blaine(TM) doll is the undisputed winner.
"Since the break-up, Barbie(R) and Ken(R) have remained friends and are looking forward to the release of their latest film, 'Barbie(TM) as Princess and the Pauper,' coming out this fall," said Julia Jensen, publicist, Barbie(R). "So spending the summer roaming the beach with her best friends and Blaine(TM) is the perfect antidote for the upcoming busy fall press junket."
Beach living Cali Girl(TM) style wouldn't be complete without a summer romance, and Blaine(TM), the suave new Aussie surfer in the group, caught more than a few waves when he snagged Barbie(R) doll's attention. With a mature character and worldly, seasoned surfing style, Blaine(TM) doll is giving America's surfer girl some tips and tricks from international waters.
Blaine(TM) doll was born an Australian boogie-boarder, and lived and surfed in Hawaii for a few years before moving to the states and becoming a west coast wave-rider. The older brother of Barbie's friend Summer(TM), Blaine(TM) doll has sun-bleached hair and surf-bronzed skin, and sports the latest in beach and casual surfer gear. And, as the newest addition to the Cali Girl(TM) fall collection, he can be found on store shelves in August for a suggested retail price of $14.99.
About Mattel
Mattel, Inc., (NYSE:MAT)( www.mattel.com ) is the worldwide leader in the design, manufacture and marketing of toys and family products, including Barbie(R), the most popular fashion doll ever introduced. The Mattel family of toys and games is comprised of such best-selling brands as Hot Wheels(R), Matchbox(R), American Girl(R) and Fisher-Price(R), which also includes Little People(R), Rescue Heroes(TM) and Power Wheels(R), as well as a wide array of entertainment-inspired toy lines. With worldwide headquarters in El Segundo, Calif., Mattel employs more than 25,000 people in 36 countries and sells products in more than 150 nations throughout the world. The Mattel vision is to be the world's premier toy brands -- today and tomorrow.
| Blaine |
What is Paddington Bear's favourite food | Barbie's New Boyfriend Blaine
Barbie's New Boyfriend Blaine
Australian surfer hunk from down under takes place of discarded Ken doll, who remains just a friend
Since the Barbie and Ken February break-up, Barbie has been cruising in her Chevy SSR, soaking up sun, and hanging out at the Surf and Skate Shop with her best pals. With summer just around the corner, Barbie is ready to date again and has looked to her friends from around the globe to help her choose a new crush. Over the past few weeks, more than two million girls worldwide logged on to the official site to help Barbie choose a new boyfriend and Blaine doll won.
"Since the break-up, Barbie and Ken have remained friends and are looking forward to the release of their latest film, Barbie as Princess and the Pauper, coming out this fall," said Julia Jensen, publicist, Barbie. "So spending the summer roaming the beach with her best friends and Blaine is the perfect antidote."
Beach living Cali Girl style wouldn't be complete without a summer romance, and Blaine, the suave new Aussie surfer in the group, caught more than a few waves when he snagged Barbie doll's attention. With a mature character and worldly, seasoned surfing style, Blaine doll is giving America's surfer girl some tips and tricks from international waters.
Blaine doll was born an Australian boogie-boarder, and lived and surfed in Hawaii for a few years before moving to the states and becoming a west coast wave-rider. The older brother of Barbie's friend Summer, Blaine doll has sun-bleached hair and surf-bronzed skin, and sports the latest in beach and casual surfer gear. And, as the newest addition to the Cali Girl fall collection, he can be found on store shelves in August for a suggested retail price of $14.99.
| i don't know |
Which TV puppets live on a canal barge | Rosie and Jim TV Programme product reviews and price comparison
Disadvantages
WHY I THINK ROSIE AND JIM ARE CUTE!!
Rosie and Jim is a childrens television programme which is aired on ITV. It is a wonderful show which allows children to explore their imaginations.
I remember being a real fan of this show when I was young. I loved everything about this show, from the vibrant colours to the wonderfully catchy theme tune.
The storyline for this programme was that a man named John has a canal boat called the 'old rag doll' he also has two dolls who live on this boat with him. But what John does not know is that when he is not looking the dolls,'Rosie' and 'Jim' come to life. They have conversations with each other and are beyond cute. But when anyone else comes along they freeze and go back into doll mode.
I think what I loved most about this series was that it lets you feel as though you are in on the secret. There was always part of me wishing that someone would catch Rosie and Jim talking. This does tend to create a little bit of suspense to the show.
With each episode, comes a new adventure. The show is also very educational as it allows viewers to see how certain things are manufactured. John sets out to discover how certain things are made. He will visit farms or factories in order to establish how Things such as milk gets onto our supermarket shelves.this proves to be quite intresting viewing. as it is not overly complicated so that young children can follow the process with ease. What adds to the fun is that John has no idea that his two narrowboat dolls are following him. Listening and learning all the while.
There is also a story time section within the programme. The stories are quite good fun and have an association with that days theme. Which further adds to the intrest of the subject matter.
Rosie and Jim is a bright and colourful show. The dolls themselves are brightly cololured and the narrowboat is very pretty and adds to the viewing pleasure. There is also great footage of the canal and the surrounding area which is also very picturesque.
When it first came out in the early 1990's the show soared to great poularity. There was enough Rosie and Jim merchandise to keep even the most avid fan happy. There were dolls, videos, posters, toys, books and lots more.
Rosie and Jim is not being shown on ITV at the moment. However now and again a series will pop up on the citv channel. It is a truly delightful childrens tv programme which has the charm and warmth to keep an adult enchanted too.
fact of the day
The man who plays John in the show is also the writer of the show. He also wrote postman pat
| Rosie and Jim |
Which country's car international index mark is S.F. | Rosie and Jim TV Programme product reviews and price comparison
Disadvantages
WHY I THINK ROSIE AND JIM ARE CUTE!!
Rosie and Jim is a childrens television programme which is aired on ITV. It is a wonderful show which allows children to explore their imaginations.
I remember being a real fan of this show when I was young. I loved everything about this show, from the vibrant colours to the wonderfully catchy theme tune.
The storyline for this programme was that a man named John has a canal boat called the 'old rag doll' he also has two dolls who live on this boat with him. But what John does not know is that when he is not looking the dolls,'Rosie' and 'Jim' come to life. They have conversations with each other and are beyond cute. But when anyone else comes along they freeze and go back into doll mode.
I think what I loved most about this series was that it lets you feel as though you are in on the secret. There was always part of me wishing that someone would catch Rosie and Jim talking. This does tend to create a little bit of suspense to the show.
With each episode, comes a new adventure. The show is also very educational as it allows viewers to see how certain things are manufactured. John sets out to discover how certain things are made. He will visit farms or factories in order to establish how Things such as milk gets onto our supermarket shelves.this proves to be quite intresting viewing. as it is not overly complicated so that young children can follow the process with ease. What adds to the fun is that John has no idea that his two narrowboat dolls are following him. Listening and learning all the while.
There is also a story time section within the programme. The stories are quite good fun and have an association with that days theme. Which further adds to the intrest of the subject matter.
Rosie and Jim is a bright and colourful show. The dolls themselves are brightly cololured and the narrowboat is very pretty and adds to the viewing pleasure. There is also great footage of the canal and the surrounding area which is also very picturesque.
When it first came out in the early 1990's the show soared to great poularity. There was enough Rosie and Jim merchandise to keep even the most avid fan happy. There were dolls, videos, posters, toys, books and lots more.
Rosie and Jim is not being shown on ITV at the moment. However now and again a series will pop up on the citv channel. It is a truly delightful childrens tv programme which has the charm and warmth to keep an adult enchanted too.
fact of the day
The man who plays John in the show is also the writer of the show. He also wrote postman pat
| i don't know |
What nickname does New York's 28th Street have | Songwriters Hall of Fame - Eras - Tin Pan Alley
Songwriters Hall of Fame
Contemporay Stage + Film
"Tin Pan Alley" was the nickname given to the street where many music publishers worked during the period of 1880 to 1953. In the late 19th century, New York had become the epicenter of songwriting and music publishing, and publishers converged on the block of West 28th Street between Broadway and Sixth Avenue in Manhattan. There are several stories about how the block got its name. One that is often repeated tells of a reporter for the New York Herald who was hired to write about the new business of sheet music publishing in the city. As he walked down 28th Street toward the publishing offices, he heard the dissonant chords and strings of competing pianos through the open windows. The sound, he remarked, sounded like a bunch of tin pans clanging.
During the period before Elvis Presley made a song's performance more important than its publication--when a song's popularity was determined not by the number of records it sold but by the number of sheet music copies it sold--publishing companies hired composers and lyricists on a permanent basis to create popular songs. The publishers then used extensive promotion campaigns to market these songs to the general public in sheet music form.
Never in the history of American popular music were so many genres centered in one area. Through the 1880s and into the early 1900s, the European operettas were a heavy influence on American songs. This period is referred to as the golden age of the ballad. Between 1900 and 1910, more than 1800 "rags" had been published on Tin Pan Alley, beginning with "Maple Leaf Rag" by Scott Joplin. In 1912, W.C. Handy introduced popular music to the underground sound of the Blues. By 1917, a recording by a new musician, Louis Armstrong, took over Tin Pan Alley and the 1920s were dedicated to the playing and recording of Jazz. Theatre, which had remained the entertainment of choice, fused all preceding stage shows--minstrel, vaudeville, musical comedy, revues, burlesque and variety--to create the spectacular Broadway production. By 1926, the first movie with sound came creating a new outlet for production music. Folk and Country Music was introduced to mainstream audiences in the mid-1930s. Big bands and swing music defined the 1930s and 40s, introducing new accompanying vocalists such as Ella Fitzgerald and Billie Holiday. In the early 40's, publishers imported Latin American sound from Brazil, Mexico and Cuba and English lyrics were adapted to foreign themes.
At the close of World War II, instrumental big bands faded behind the popularity of vocal groups and the new modern sound called "be-bop".
In the beginning of the 1950s, radio play and disc jockeys became more prominent, and records were being produced for sale to the public-mostly targeted toward teenagers--rather than sheet music created for adults who bought music for their home. Publishers were no longer in charge of the promotion of a song, and from 1953 to the present, rock and roll dominated the charts.
The collaboration between publishers, songwriters and songwriting teams created the greatest popular songs of our country's musical history. While obsolete now, Tin Pan Alley remains synonymous with the most prolific and diverse period in American popular music.
Chauncey Olcott
Chauncey Olcott was born in Buffalo, New York on July 21, 1858. After being educated at the Christian Brothers school, Olcott moved to London to study voice.
In his early professional career, he performed as a singer in minstrel shows and acted in several Broadway shows including Barry…
Discography Highlights
| Tin Pan Alley |
What item of tableware was introduced into England by Thomas Coryat in 1608 | Songwriters Hall of Fame - Eras - Tin Pan Alley
Songwriters Hall of Fame
Contemporay Stage + Film
"Tin Pan Alley" was the nickname given to the street where many music publishers worked during the period of 1880 to 1953. In the late 19th century, New York had become the epicenter of songwriting and music publishing, and publishers converged on the block of West 28th Street between Broadway and Sixth Avenue in Manhattan. There are several stories about how the block got its name. One that is often repeated tells of a reporter for the New York Herald who was hired to write about the new business of sheet music publishing in the city. As he walked down 28th Street toward the publishing offices, he heard the dissonant chords and strings of competing pianos through the open windows. The sound, he remarked, sounded like a bunch of tin pans clanging.
During the period before Elvis Presley made a song's performance more important than its publication--when a song's popularity was determined not by the number of records it sold but by the number of sheet music copies it sold--publishing companies hired composers and lyricists on a permanent basis to create popular songs. The publishers then used extensive promotion campaigns to market these songs to the general public in sheet music form.
Never in the history of American popular music were so many genres centered in one area. Through the 1880s and into the early 1900s, the European operettas were a heavy influence on American songs. This period is referred to as the golden age of the ballad. Between 1900 and 1910, more than 1800 "rags" had been published on Tin Pan Alley, beginning with "Maple Leaf Rag" by Scott Joplin. In 1912, W.C. Handy introduced popular music to the underground sound of the Blues. By 1917, a recording by a new musician, Louis Armstrong, took over Tin Pan Alley and the 1920s were dedicated to the playing and recording of Jazz. Theatre, which had remained the entertainment of choice, fused all preceding stage shows--minstrel, vaudeville, musical comedy, revues, burlesque and variety--to create the spectacular Broadway production. By 1926, the first movie with sound came creating a new outlet for production music. Folk and Country Music was introduced to mainstream audiences in the mid-1930s. Big bands and swing music defined the 1930s and 40s, introducing new accompanying vocalists such as Ella Fitzgerald and Billie Holiday. In the early 40's, publishers imported Latin American sound from Brazil, Mexico and Cuba and English lyrics were adapted to foreign themes.
At the close of World War II, instrumental big bands faded behind the popularity of vocal groups and the new modern sound called "be-bop".
In the beginning of the 1950s, radio play and disc jockeys became more prominent, and records were being produced for sale to the public-mostly targeted toward teenagers--rather than sheet music created for adults who bought music for their home. Publishers were no longer in charge of the promotion of a song, and from 1953 to the present, rock and roll dominated the charts.
The collaboration between publishers, songwriters and songwriting teams created the greatest popular songs of our country's musical history. While obsolete now, Tin Pan Alley remains synonymous with the most prolific and diverse period in American popular music.
Chauncey Olcott
Chauncey Olcott was born in Buffalo, New York on July 21, 1858. After being educated at the Christian Brothers school, Olcott moved to London to study voice.
In his early professional career, he performed as a singer in minstrel shows and acted in several Broadway shows including Barry…
Discography Highlights
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Which tradesman would hammer with a fuller and use a leaf hammer | Blacksmith Fuller | Blacksmith Flatter | Blacksmiths Depot
Use this Blacksmith Fuller for fullering or flatting under power hammer. treadle hammer or press
This Blacksmith Flatter is also great for drawing under the same equipment
4140 or H13 heat treated die with metal handle
Drop Forged in the USA from diemakers dies
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| Blacksmith |
Who would do his work in an atelier and use a mahlstick | Metal Working Hammer | eBay
Metal Working Hammer
MALLET BRASS - METALSMITH HAMMER. Mallet can be used for hammering of ferrous and non ferrous metals. Hammer is useful in Metalsmithing applications for forming, dapping, and stamping-punching operati...
Condition:
$9.95
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This vintage hammer is in good used condition. Shows signs of used. Handle has paint and wear. No cracks or splits. Measures 11" long Head measures 4" x 1.25" Total weight 10.6 oz.
$39.99
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Estate find. Heads are in fair condition,have light surface rust but solid. The one has heavier rust than other two. The one handle is good the other needs to be replaced. With handles, weigh, 1 lb 4 ...
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or Best Offer
9-10 oz Hickory Hammer Mallet. Blacksmith Metal Work. Body Work Machinist. marked hickory on handle and stamped with a symbol on middle of body. approx 12.5" long 12.7 oz with handle. very tight and s...
$7.99
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Handle tight to head. Marked Plumb. Tested Hickory. Bottom of handle stamped 375. Handle has slight offset curve to it. Not sure if it was made that way.
$225.00
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(A WORKING SET OF SMALL SIZE METAL WORKING HAMMERS, all of different forms. Most retain their original handles. Also small cast iron anvil having dual horns and in excellent working condition. Id No.:...
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Tarnish and loss of finish. Used tools may have some typical dirt, grime, scuffs, dings, scratches, possible tarnish, pitting, loss of finish and/or rust. Short, slightly curved handle, tight and nice...
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or Best Offer
Small metal hammer with metal handle. Not sure what this was used for, but has been used as head is worn. Handle has what appears to be cement in it. Measures Handle 3 3/4" head is 2 1/2". Has some su...
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For Your Consideration is the small specialty Cross Pein hammer pictured. Quite frankly I'm not sure what it's special use is for. Thought maby fine finish blacksmithing on smaller work pieces, or mab...
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11 sold
2lb Stone Hammer for Carpentry, Construction, Engineering & Shaping Metal. This is a new 2 lb stone hammer.
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1/2lb Dead Blow Hammer for Carpentry, Construction, Engineering & Shaping Metal. This is a new 1/2 lb dead blow hammer. Dead blow hammers allow maximum striking force, increase accuracy, make work eas...
$21.95
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Measures 15" in total length and a combined weight of 31 ounces. Head is snug and seated great. For more info on dents, dings, surface scratches and other blemishes, study the pictures. I do my best b...
$12.95
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Bricklayers Mason Hammer. Machinist Blacksmith. Body Metal Working Tool. chipped at bottom corner of striking area (pic 4). minor surface rust due to age. 2 lbs 3.3 oz in weight with handle. we can on...
$9.99
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Good used condition. Some use wear. Look good. Work fine. JUST THE HEAD. HANDLE WILL BE CUT OFF! Nothing is perfect.
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On what day of the week do Australians always celebrate Australia Day | New Year's Day in Australia
Home Calendar Holidays Australia New Year's Day
New Year's Day in Australia
New Year's Day is on January 1 and is the first day of a new year in the Gregorian calendar , which is used in Australia and many other countries. Due to its geographical position close to the International Date Line, Australia is one of the first countries in the world to welcome the New Year.
The start of the New Year is celebrated by fireworks in Sydney, Australia.
The start of the New Year is celebrated by fireworks in Sydney, Australia.
©iStockphoto.com/Tim Starkey
What Do People Do?
In Sydney, the start of the New Year is heralded by a huge fireworks display. It is estimated that one to one-and-a-half million people watch the display at the Sydney Harbour. In other towns and cities, smaller displays are organized by local authorities.
For many people, New Year's Day is a time to recover from New Year's Eve parties the evening before. Others use the day to travel home to end the summer vacation or to spend time with family members. People who enjoy horse racing may watch or bet on the Perth Cup. The race is run over 3200 meters (just over two miles) at the Ascot Racecourse in Perth, Western Australia. The prize money for the race totals 400,000 Australian dollars.
Public Life
New Year's Day is a public holiday. If January 1 is a Saturday or Sunday, the public holiday moves to Monday, January 2 or 3. Schools and other educational establishments are closed, as New Year's Day falls in the summer holiday. Many organizations and businesses are closed.
Stores may be open or closed according to state laws and local custom. In the states of New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia and Victoria, there are trading restrictions on New Year's Day. In these states, many stores do not open on New Year's Day or the first Monday in January if January 1 is a Saturday or Sunday. In some areas, public transport is limited. In other areas, there are no services. There may be some congestion on roads and at airports, as people return from holidays or from relatives' homes.
Background
New Year's Day marks the start of a new year according to the Gregorian calendar, which was introduced to Australia by European settlers. It replaced the Julian calendar, which used a year that was slightly shorter than the solar year. Over time, the seasons moved out of line with their positions on the calendar. The Gregorian calendar was introduced by Pope Gregory XIII on February 24, 1582. It was adopted immediately in some areas of Europe, such as Spain, Portugal and parts of Italy, but it took hundreds of years before it was used throughout Europe. In Great Britain, it was introduced in 1752.
The start of the year according to the Gregorian calendar is not the only New Year observed in Australia. For instance, Australia's tax year begins on July 1 and the Asian lunar year starts on the second or third new moon after the December solstice, sometime between January 21 and February 20. The Hindu, Coptic, Jalali, Jewish and Islamic New Years are also celebrated in some communities.
Before the European settlers arrived in Australia, Indigenous Australians used a variety of methods to track the passing of the seasons. Some reflected patterns of weather conditions and the life cycle of different plants. For instance, the people of the Crocodile Islands of Arnhem Land recognize six seasons that are important in their ritual life, movements around the land and how they hunt. Since the timing of this type of event can vary from year to year, the relationship between these and the Gregorian calendar changes.
However, this type of calendar was important in maintaining the connection between Indigenous Australians and their land. The movement patterns of the stars were also important to many Indigenous Australians. They used this method to predict when certain plants were ready for harvesting or when they could supplement their diet with migratory birds.
About New Year's Day in other countries
Read more about New Year's Day .
New Year's Day Observances
| Monday |
What is Australia's smallest mainland state | We have much to celebrate on Australia Day
We have much to celebrate on Australia Day
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Bit by bit, Australia Day is starting to look like the national days of other countries. Once upon a time, the anniversary of the arrival of the first British settlers was celebrated in ways that were remarkable solely for not being in any way remarkable. Today, our national day by chance falls on a Monday; until 1994 it was always so. Australia Day was routinely moved to the Monday closest to January 26 so everyone could enjoy a long weekend. Most people would accept it as a day off work, to be spent with family – at a barbecue, perhaps, or at the beach.
How Australian, was the general feeling – a national day where everyone just did nothing.
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Far from celebrating our divisions, Australia Day celebrates what has brought, and continues to bring, Australians together.
Photo: Simon O'Dwyer
That is changing.
Indigenous Australians, who have understandably different ideas about the meaning of the anniversary, were probably the first to challenge this unthinking tranquillity. Their early protests, at Australia's sesquicentenary in 1938, attracted no widespread attention then, though they are rightly celebrated now.
Half a century later, the declaration of 1988 as a year of mourning gained more attention to a cause and a grievance – indigenous disadvantage – that had too long been neglected, and was only just starting to be seriously addressed. Arguments about whether the Europeans who first arrived in Australia were settlers or invaders can never be conclusive.
Partisan positions on either side can become shrill – but they need not, and should not. What is important is that the Indigenous view of our shared history is fully acknowledged and respected.
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The debate is an important part of the long and still incomplete healing from the transformation – at times peaceful, at others traumatic – which began 227 years ago today and created modern Australia. That view, the debates to which it has given rise, and the freedom with which those different viewpoints can be expressed, are part of the way modern Australians understand themselves as a nation.
If Indigenous Australians began the process, other forces have shaped it. The related trend, multiculturalism, has played a substantial part. The last generation to feel strongly the bonds of empire – roughly, the generation which came to adulthood during World War II – is slowly passing into history, and with it the idea that authentic Australian loyalties might be divided exclusively between just two homelands – Australia and Britain.
Post-war immigration means Australians have backgrounds which span the globe. By diffusing the loyalty to a non-Australian homeland from Britain alone to the whole world, multiculturalism has made Australia the nation, and the idea, which is common to all.
Little by little, a national consciousness has grown which has filled out Australia's national day, and released it from the occasionally resentful and peevish attitudes which once characterised the Australian nationalist's relations with Great Britain – attitudes which may survive today in sporting contests but, thank heavens, nowhere else.
Today's citizenship ceremonies across the country reflect the mature confidence of contemporary Australia. Soon, let us hope, there will be further reason for national pride – an Australian republic, in which it will be possible for a citizen of this country to reach the highest of all offices in this country: head of state.
But the pride of which we speak should not extend – today or in the future – to jingoistic displays, aggression or triumphalism, any more than to clamorous complaints. In its calm and benevolence, the spirit of the old Australia day was refreshingly free of flaws of that kind, and that aspect of it is worth preserving.
Australians, whether their forebears came here 40 millennia ago, two centuries ago, or five years ago, all have much to be grateful for.
Far from celebrating our divisions, Australia Day celebrates what has brought, and continues to bring, Australians together. So let us make a modest proposal. Australians are not a demonstrative people, but sometimes we make exceptions.
We stop at 11am on Armistice Day; in RSL clubs, we turn to the flame at 9pm.
On our national day, at midday, let us stop and sing the national anthem.
Australians all, let us rejoice: we have much to celebrate.
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Pre-History
Australia was originally part of a super-continent called "GoneAwayland" which included "The Other America" ( South America ) and Canada , as well as "African America" and Caucasia. The mythical islands of Aotearoa (Noy Sealand) were also thought to be joined to the super-continent. However these countries decided to "split" from Oz (as they put it). But do we care? Huh! We don't care one bit! It's their loss! We took our ball and went home... Australia then became the largest island in the world, but was later discovered to be nothing more than a hilariously undersized continent .
Australia was first colonised by the Bogans around 60,000 BC (Before the Great Bogan Lader Costello), known as "Tell Him He's Dreaming Time". The following account accurately summarises the history of the ensuing years: "Back to 8th century AD, Australia still consists of many tiny islands. There was a tribe of natives, living confined from outside. The island was named beautifully as AuLai. Kangaroo was divinised as sacred animal, the embodiment of God . The animal was named KAIGELU ( kangaroot ), meaning Son of the God. In 17th century, Talise, the English navigator, arrived in AuLai with European civilisation. The island residents saw Talise curiously writing diary, using sharpened stick dipped in ink. Talise presented sharpened sticks to tribe leader as gift, which were treated as sacred things and carved with pattern of kangaroo later." -Handbook of Kaigelu Kangaroo Australia Holdings Limited, translated from Chinese.
Natives
Before a group of Asian-Phillipinos decided to see how long the water was 10 metres deep for, there were a bunch of ugly and sloppy group of people called bogans. As the Asians arrived, they brought food,which the bogans tried to scab at and this caused a war. The Asians won and bogans have been hated ever since. The Asians got a tan and became Aboriginals.
History
Main article: History of Australia
Australia, as drawn by Matthew Flinders on an ancient scroll known as "Risk"
The British took control after a bizarre administrative error which also created North Korea, Poland, That other country with the two Islands and Sweden. The first Queen of Australia, Captain James "Jimmy" Chook, built the first Aussie "barbie" (barbeque, not the doll - she came later after Ken moved in), on Lady Macquarie's Chair on Point Bennelong. After the chair was extinguished, a great celebration called Australia Day was held, and a lot of beers were drunk. Then the flag of Sweden was raised in error, then taken down, then the North Korean flag was raised, then taken down, then the Polish flag was raised, it was found there was no British flag available, so a Union Jack was drawn on to the Polish flag and the country was declared to be the possession of General Kosciuszko, who nobody had heard of, and the highest mountain was named after him.
After the English arrived in Australia, they immediately set up a camp and began saying Good Ay' to each other. The phrase came about after immigrants suffered from ear infections after the long boat journey. Good Ay' was meant to mean, Is your ear ok? A prison was soon built after crime was rife on the Island. The problem was the amount of criminals that arrived on a large pirate ship full of booty. When the Australia Force was formed, prisons were easily built with slave labour from trained crocodiles (affectionately known to the locals as "salties"). The prisons were very crude, and the sound of bells was used as a deterrent to crime, although just what that means no-one has ever worked out.
Other countries, however, viewed Australia as a tourist resort and Europeans came by the thousands - and after having had sex in Australia's drinking water supply - sunbathed on the pristine white beaches. After some undue violence with the prisoners, the English retreated back to England to support their Queen as well as their reigning Monarch, Victoria Beckham .
The governments of the UK and Australia met up in 1902 to discuss the possibility of burning a man, made from half an "Aussie" and half a "Brit" (one of the race unaffectionately known to the locals as "pommie bastards"), put the ashes in a small urn and then play test matches for possession of "The Urn". Australia were quick to dismiss the idea, but after China had started to play Cricket, they knew they must "play up, play up, and play the game". Originally the game was played naked in the burning sun, but clothes were introduced after the first team all died of skin cancer several years after the first match.
In 1978, a giant boat arrived on the shore of the Island, loud disco was booming out of it, but no one got off the boat was several days until the army was called. Once on board the army found a large group of sleeping party people. The people were awoken and welcomed to the Island. This is believed to be the origins of Australia's Gay Scene. The Police of Australia met with the people of the boat, and once they had all had massages on the beach from some nearby aborigines, then it was down to business. The party people agreed to keep the party scene going if they could have immunity from the country's drug laws. This was granted and the party scene grew from the boat. The first party was named "The Liberal Party", then "The Country Party" started up, followed by "The Labour Party". Other parties quickly formed including Democrat, Communist, Green, Brownish, Slightly-Puce, Even More Gay, and the Bugger-All (New Gay) Party.
Early British prisoners in Australia used their pickpocketing skills to steal a captain's ID and set sail in the direction of Antarctica , where they hoped to find Father Christmas and his tireless elves. Unfortunately, recent scientific discoveries have discovered that Santa actually lives at the North Pole, and not the South. Luckily for the ship crew, however, one Henry Barrington Smith had actually constructed his 3/4 flood pants entirely out of magnetic rock sourced from the motherland, England. And as he greatly enjoyed circling the ship's rim, he caused the compasses of the captain to go in random directions - east, west, north, up, into the fourth dimension, and so on. This lead them in a complete circle and back to the beach from which they had left. This is described in the captain's diary as such: "Antartica, I have found, is unlike Australia. It has the water, more culture, and much better night life."
Subsequently becoming the part of the Empire where the sun never set - mainly because Lord Voldemort doesn't trust God and also doesn't trust an Englishman in the dark - the former convicts (now Australians) cleverly got around the eternal daylight hours by the introduction of Daylight Saving Time , thereby throwing out all reckoning of time during the summer months - and so ensuring no one was ever again certain that the sun had indeed risen, or whether it was just a particularly bright moon that night.
From here the newly founded Australia built itself on a strong trade in being anal retentive, awesomely bogan-like, pathological cheats at any number of sporting fare, and drunken-destructive by nature. With this booming trade, the first brewery was founded in Sydney , finally freeing the locals from the unpopular practice of drinking each others urine. This transition from traditional English seafaring beverage to locally-produced products can be seen today in the architecture of the Sydney Opera House. Only with sufficient drunkenness could the local population have agreed to produce something worthy of being deemed erected , and allow the locals to miss the fact that it had been "erected" and not giggle at the term. The obsession that Australians found in gambling was finally put to good use - when they decided (like the dense lot they are) to follow blindly any lead the "good ol' US of A" lays down... They say "Hump", Oz says "How dry?"..."
From here the rest of Australia's arrested-development was chosen, and the Australian national motto decided: "Be wicked which you can't help anyway because you're Australian and criminal behaviour is your birth right!" This cryptic motto comes from an early regional dialect often referred to in early cave paintings as "boof-head/bogan". [3] It has yet to be fully translated, but its impact on Australia is unmistakable.
Australians don't not have tax, they have buckets in the street where people throw money they don't want. It has provided enough money to keep things under control. The buckets have a large vacuum inside that sucks notes in. In recent years, the machines have been repeatedly filled with dog excrement and photographs of money.
Politics and Government
See also: Australian Parliament
Quite the happy continent, this picture was taken after a "budweiser" beer boat sank around the southeast perimeter of Australia. It is a Commonwealth country known mostly by foreigners as Great Britain with a less fruity accent and sun in the sky you can actually see.
Australia is the only nation in the world to completely occupy an entire continent. This gives Australian government officials a +4 influence bonus, one extra Special Power usage, and two extra armies each turn. Another notable aspect about Australia is that it possesses the detached province of Tasmania , which are used in the Australian Army as shock troops, as well as making good moving targets down at the shooting range or as an alternative to abortion. Occasionally the government hold elections *cough* *cough*.
However, Australians are relatively passive in world affairs, preferring to save up their extra armies every turn and turtling in Indonesia or Siam until they have a sufficient force in reserve to suddenly envelop Asia and thereby enact world domination. Damned lamers. Despite having the best-trained, well-equipped army in the entire world consisting of all the cannons in the black army, half the cavalry, 15 solders and a shit rugby team, the Aussies generally choose to just own the Americans at war games and send them out on beer runs for the rest of us.
For most of the 20th century, Australia was ruled by England 's Queen Elizabeth II , a tyrannical and insane monarch who also runs things in New Zealand , Canada , America and India . The current government's international policy seems to be "No Worries, She'll be Right" and apparently consists of doing the American army's work for them, before heading off to the local pub while the Americans take the absence as an opportunity to claim credit for winning the war.
Contrary to Popular Belief among the English , Australia is no longer a colony of criminal miscreants and has grown annoyingly wealthy. The new 21st century Queen of Australia, Victoria Beckham , has pleaded with Australia to grow up and be independent. However, Australia prefers to still be governed by Great Britain for the sake of tradition, just like Americans prefer to be fat because they can't get off their behinds to save their lives, and the Japanese like to be productive and creative because they're stuck in the 1600s. Not that Australians think they are superior...
Australia, despite being ruled by the monkey queen, has escaped the iron grip of a mutant Grue-eating slug since mid/late-2008, and was controlled by the secret service double agent for SPECTRE, "Double-O-Kevin", until he got knifed by the nation's hottest ranga (don't tell Pauline), Julia Gillard. Comedy ensues! Everyone from the Labor Party hates each other! And yes, KRudd knifed Julia back in June 2013 looking for votes, but ended up getting stabbed by right-wing echidnas... ouch. So then, the not-so-secret reformation of the Liberal Party, lead by the ever ladsy, gracious, glorious overlord Tone Abet, resulted in the beautiful destruction of the ALP at the 2013 election! Now fellow Strayans are rejoicing in a party that proclaims to have great sex appeal (even more than the Aussie Sex Party) and a definite mission to stop the boats. Yeah, we're waiting for y'all, okay.
Wars
Illegal queue- jumping parasite Simpson (right) and his donkey. And some other dozy bludger who managed to get himself shot at Gallipoli.
Australia has a long tradition of supplying cannon fodder for its imperial overlords - ( Britain 1788-1958, and America 1958-Armageddon) - any time they decide to embark on a new adventure. This first began in the Boer War, which wound up with Edward Woodward being tied to a chair and shot. Australians recently commemorated this event by briefly renaming a pub on Chapel St, South Yarra, "Rorke's Drift".
The You-Beaut War
In World War I Australians performed an outstanding service to the British Empire by acting as bullet-collectors in the Somme and Gallipoli . The "idea" for the latter was conceived by the then British Monster of Navy, Winston Churchill . Churchill's reward for his brilliant strategy to reduce the population of Australia was to be eventually made leader of the Tory Party and subsequently elected as Prime Monster. Churchill famously neve visited Australia, because he was warned there were Anzacs queuing up to shoot him.
During a famous truce at Gallipoli the Turks lobbed tobacco into the Australian trenches and Australians lobbed their tinned beef into the Turkish trenches. The Turks tried the beef before promptly lobbing it back. Australians are particularly proud of having been slaughtered at Gallipoli, which is commemorated each year by thousands of young Australians booking a package tour to Turkey , getting pissed and throwing up on war graves.
In popular Straylian mythology (not the black mythology, the other unreal one), The Great War (or "The Bonza, You-Beaut War", as it is known in Australia) was the beginning of the modern Australian nation. The real pre- John Howard mythology, dating from 1989 BC (Before Costello) is that the beginning of the Australian nation was forged on the goldfields and at the "Eureka Stockade" (which was a stockade or corrale where "ideas" or "eurekas" were kept fenced in). Australia's most dramatic and successful war campaign during the You-Beaut War was its valiant relieving the Germans of Papua New Guinea , or "German New Guinea" as it was then known, distinguish it from "Dutch New Guinea" which was to west and spoke Dutch but now speaks Indonesian ("Don't mention West Irian"). Famous prisoners-of-war (POWs or Piss-Weaks as they are known to Aussie non-combatants) from the First You-Beaut Papuan Campaign included Bronislaw Malinowski (Who?), the father of modern Anthropology and well-known Stella Artois enthusiast.
The most potent icon to emerge out of the Gallipoli conflict was that of Simpson and his Donkey (pictured), who risked life, limb, hoof and tail ferrying wounded Australian soldiers away from the front line under heavy Turkish fire. However, it was recently discovered that Simpson was in fact an illegal Scottish immigrant, so his shattered remains were dug up and sent back to Britain at the British government's expense. Dirty yobbo, pretending to be an Aussie hero, may he rot in peace!
The Shit, not Again You-Beaut War
Main article: The battle of Brisbane
In World War II, the Australians were all over The Place , planting gum trees in Syria , liberating France , causing riots in Egyptian brothels, building the Burma Railway and the Bridge over the River Kwai. Note: the Burma War history was later amended to include William Holden, famous American (aka "Septic") car designer and other yanks and Brits, but Aussie soldiers were deleted by David Lean the infamous
"historical revisionist"
greatest man ever (see John Howard ) and movie director.
Other You-Beaut Wars
Australians were also in Malaya at some point in the '50s, though nobody seems to remember why. It may have been something to do with Britain's War on Communism . Then they piled into Korea. Returning soldiers tried to interest their loved ones in kimchi, which led to an unprecedented spike in the Australian divorce rate. Then it was Vietnam , though nobody seems to remember why. It may have been something to do with America's War on Communism . Then the "First Bush War" in Iraq , then the undeclared war in East Timor against those tricksy Indonesians who took away Dutch New Guinea ("Don't mention West Irian" again), then the "Second Bush War" in Afghanistan , and the Third Bush War" - Iraq again. Australia valiantly attacked the Solomon Islands, East Timor again, and is probably due to attack the World again. Australia enthusiastically joined the "Bush War on Terrierists" - which arose from a misinterpretation of the American accent of President George Bush who was angry at people keeping terrier dogs (he preferred poodles) but was later taken to mean anyone from the Middle East or an Arab (see Muslim or anyone wearing a towel on their head such as Cronulla residents or Maroubra expatriates).
The Hard War
In 1972, a war erupted between Australia and Hungary, after Australia declared that it did not like the country. Australia started to heavily bomb the country, and was joined in force by Italy, Japan, Russia, Jersey, Isle Of Wight, and London in the war. Hungary teamed up with Jamaica, but never started it's war effort due to everyone in the country evapourating after a lot of steam was poured on the country by Japan. Australia denies it being a hard war, because they do't want bogans saying how bad the country is.
More You-Beaut Wars
Japan and Australia went to war in 1967, after a disagreement about flared trousers. The war was settled with a massive game of conkers using cranes. Japan declined to comment after losing the war, and went into what is now known as 'The Great Japanese Silence'. The rest of the world were not to hear from Japan until 1978, when the country recorded a version of the 'Boy's are back in town'.
In 1983, Australia was embroiled in a war with Jamaica over the running man dance. It was never settled and the countries remain enemies.
Economy
See also: WorkChoices
The average change you get from a shop in Australia. Resemblance to 'chocolate money' is not coincidental.
Aussie Land is famous for its domestication of the bizarre eucalyptus tree, on which wooden kangaroos and emperor penguins grow. These animals are harvested, painted a variety of pleasing colours and exported around the world . Large amounts of raw alcohol are also annually excavated from mines and refined into beer through complex chemical processes.
Australia is also famous for its wide and diversified exports, these include such valuable commodities as: cheap, bad beer (all the good beer remains in Australia), emigrants (i.e. human excrement), putrid food, reconstituted putrid foof, child sex offendors (especially to Thailand and Vietnam), "innocent" drug traffickers (and their "specially packaged" surf-boards), Kylie Minogue Fan Club kits, AC/DC , unique and endangered fauna, putrified alcohol, crappy melodrama TV shows, and selling useless junk to American tourists .
Richard Gere , dressed as a woman, appears on Australia's $10 note for some reason
After switching to the metric system in 1983, Australian currency now takes the form of stubbies (single items), six packs, and slabs (of 12 or 24) - and as any Australian mathematical genius would deduce these are all perfectly divisible by 10. This is often broken down into various types, most common being VB and XXXX, [4] then progressing on to slightly classier brews, such as Crown Lagers or "Crownies" as they are affectionately referred to. Trade with such delicate currency can have devastating effects on the local economy. NOTE: the item Foster's Lager is not a true beer as it comprises (at least) 50% horse urine - hence it being the chief sponsoring product for the so-named "Foster's Melbourne Cup".
Geography
Australia is renowned for its beaches. However, contrary to Popular's beliefs and government propaganda, these seemingly wonderful places are chock full of piranhas, barracuda, poisonous sea serpents, box jellyfish, plankton, genetically-engineered killer dolphins , and of course, hated by all, floating speed humps - aka bodyboarders. The waters adjacent to the beaches are even worse. Despite the earnest effort of local authorities and the military, the number of syringe attacks is still sky-rocketing.
Much of Australia consists of flat desert. This makes going to Ayers Rock a rather tedious affair, and many a fatality was caused by some poor yob trying to win a Darwin Award while bored on the road. Other people hold a "corroboree" (Ancient Strayian for "Kiley Minogue Concert") in or near their cars (which are frequently parked on top of local beauty spots) until they get drunk and fall over. Or have sex. Or both.
On the plus side, it makes Australia an ideal location to put suburban sprawl . That should be interesting. [5]
States
States of Australia. This map is now invalid: Queersland seceded and was later sold and sailed to the Japan in the 1980s by Premier Sir Joh Bjerky-Whatshisname. Westraylia has been dug up and shipped to China
Australia has several states as well as the Fostern Territory. these are:
Southern Territory (Basically a southern hemisphere version of Quebec )
ACT (Everyone forgets this state, er territory, which is... somewhere in NSW near Queanbeyan)
Tascademania (Inhabited by Taswegians and cheese)
New South Ireland (Famous for its beaches such as Maroubra and Cronulla, which are good for a punch-up)
Victoriana or "Tramland" (Named for Queen Gracie but later reattributed to the 'other' Queen, Victoria Beckham)
Terra Australis (This has being dug up and exported to China)
Queersland (Named after the present British Queer, David Beckham. Seceded from Australia under Joh Bjerke-Whatshisname in 1983 and sold to Japan)
The larger island is divided into "more than 3" states - maybe 5 or 6 states - nobody is sure because states continually disappear and some are territories, or not, which is confusing. Norfolk Island, Heard Island, King Island and the Christmas Islands are not shown on maps, nor are the 'Outer Immigrant Islands'. Somewhere within New South Ireland lies the "Capital City of Australia", Queanbeyan, but no-one is sure if it is a myth or just a rumour. The usual comment by visitors to the Capital City is, "It's well laid out!" but so is a corpse. Antarctica was invaded by Australia in 1901 and declared the 7th state (or is 8th?) - it is ruled by the 'Emperor Penguin' (see Batman ). The Northern Territory was ceded by Fiji to Japan in 1982. Australia's favourite state, however, is Intoxication.
Capital Cities
An accurate rendition of Australia. Notice how Tasmania is missing. I wonder why that is...
Adelaide : Regretted labelling itself the "city of churches" since the 60's. Commonly referred to as "never heard of it". Home to 72% of Australia's bogan population, and, ironically, a best expensive wine and cabaret in the world. Go figure..
Brisbane : Population including Cane Toads : 5.2 million. Population minus Cane Toads : Nowhere near Melbourne and Sydney's. Interstate migrants have been introduced to correct this problem.
Canberra :AKA: The biggest hole on earth! The love child of a dummy spit between Melbourne and Sydney. The solution: Put the capital somewhere between the two cities. Everyone's a winner. Except if you have to move to Canberra.
Darwin : Hot, humid and crappy with the slight chance of crocodile. Only capital city in the world where businessmen wear shorts and long socks to meetings about resources, company mergers and acquisitions.
Melbourne : Best State-that's-really-a-city in the Country. All the cool (or deep frozen) people live there. It poops on Sydney's face frequently. Sporting capital, culture capital, should really be the Australian capital except that no-one living there can reliably spell the word "capital". The city's favourite sport is " AFL " and all its dwellers hate Sydney but worship a strange variant of Gaelic Football called "Aerial Pingpong".
Perth : A city that far away from the East coast cannot still be in Australia, can it? Getting to back to civilisation is a month-long walk through the desert. Its only tourist attraction is a phallic Bell Tower, hence making it the perfect secluded city for gays.
Sydney : Typical concrete jungle with everything that signifies it - that is, traffic jams and air pollution. The city's favourite sport is sodomy and all its dwellers hate Melbourne and the Sydney Swans , a team which plays Aerial Pingpong. Residents support a sport which is a local variant of brutal gladiatorial combat known as "Thugby" which derives from the English town of Rugby, famous for its gladiatorial massacres.
Flora and Fauna
Main article: Australian Wildlife
As mentioned previously, kangaroos and emperor penguins are part of the native fauna in the Australian bush. There is a lesser-known creature that is kept out of the media to prevent a drop in tourism, which is known locally as the ' Drop Bear '. The 'Drop Bear' (Phakus cinereus) is related to the common ' Koala bear', neither of which are related to the bear species. The platypus is also a native to this land, but the locals try to shun association with this horrible embarrassment of evolution . Hoopsnakes and One-eyed Trouser Snakes are also a vital part of Australian life, supplying much of the country's sperm donations.
Crocodiles are typically considered part of the wildlife of this country, but only by foreigners and the late Steve Irwin . In truth , with crocodiles so numerous, they have been allowed the same rights as humans. Of course in Australia, that really doesn't amount to much, since whiteys are legally allowed to hunt and kill Aborigines much in the same way humans can kill crocodiles. This is due mainly to the fact that Aborigines, up until 40 years ago, were considered fauna.
Of course, the most dominant animal species in Australia, the dingo, remains a deadly baby-eating monster. Most commonly known for eating the child of Meryl Streep, the dingo remains an ongoing problem in Queensland. In the bush areas of the state, it is well known that the nationally produced 'dingo patrol' must stay at bay 24 hours a day to stop swarms of dingoes getting through the great divide and devouring everything in site.
The country is also awashed in feral animals including cats , dogs , pigs , horses , goats , camels , plastic bags , prisoners of mother England posing as citizens (since 1788), pommies ,American|yankee]]s and those ehhh... people from that funny country attached to Alaska .
Things that will kill you
It is generally held that Australia is stuffed full of dangerous flora and fauna, many of them resident in the Federal Department of Immigration and released periodically when an election is in the offing. These include many snakes , things in the sea etc. What the locals usually don't mention are the really worrisome creatures:
Table of Dangerous Australian Fauna
Smooth Hermans
Stingrays are also notably dangerous for being capable of killing an Australian who made a living out of wrestling crocodiles. Sharks and Box Jellyfish have had 'bad press' recently and are considered dangerous by some, but are actually friendly, huggable creatures that make good pets and amusing nightclub companions.
Demographics
Main article: Australians
The customary greeting given to all local citizens, consisting of ripping off one's shirt and making unrestrained angry faces
'Straya consists largely of people who do not come from a country other than Australia. The long and the short of it is that Australians love beer , money , beer , cricket , beer , football , beer , sodomy , beer and anything they can fuck (including beer ). Things they can't fuck are great too, since deep down Australians really love a challenge - for example, first-year primary school English lessons. Almost all Australians have a "Blitish" or Asian or Italian or Greek or anything-else background, although it is a little known fact that half of the "immigrant" population of 'Straya in 1900 was Irish . As a result of this "mixed breeding", the locals usually refer to each other as mongrels, and enjoy being hailed by tourists with the endearing greeting, "Piss off, ya fuckin mongrel".
Australians typically birth litters generally numbering from 15 to 20 babies. If not for a strict birth control imposed on the nation by natural predators, Australia would have been suffering from significant overpopulation.
Dialects
Australians are widely thought to be uncultured on account of their accent, which is purely an environmental adaptation. In Australia, the wider you open your mouth and the longer you leave it open the more flies get in. [6]
Note that it may sometimes be difficult to tell the difference between Australians and New Zealanders (commonly known as kiwis ). The most popular method of quickly checking which one they are is by asking them to say "chips". While Australians are able to pronounce the word correctly (i.e. "cheeps"), kiwis invariably pronounce it as "chups". However, there is another distinctive difference in that whereas kiwis can spell the word, a high proportion of Australians cannot actually spell "chips". (Google: "Remedial English for Australian Adults"). Local terms that tourists should endeavour to learn include: Chunder (previously, "technicolour yawn"), Sheila (anything female on two legs, or sometimes four), and Bonza ("jolly good old chap").
Hoon: This is a unique Australian word of unknown derivation, but possibly was borrowed from the German word "Hunne" (Chicken) from which we get the charming description of Germans as 'huns'. Visitors to Australia are invited to study "hooning", which is a local method for driving cars and is greatly admired by the police . Visitors may also wish to become honorary hoons which involves drinking a lot of beer then attacking police officers. [7]
Current Demographics
Main article: Australian Values
“It is a common misconception that we Aussies are a friendly bunch. In reality, this is designed to attract tourists, who are then beaten, robbed and fed to the crocodiles or koalas”
~ Australian Tourism Commission
The famous "Oxley Moron". It is customary in Australia to dry wet flags by draping them over a local buffoon or (in the quaint Australian dialect) a 'bloody drongo'.
The term culture in Australia is synonymous with sport - see below. This is expressed by the well-known mathematical equation first devised by the the Australian-of-the-Year (1847) - Sir Les Patterson: Sport = Culture.
Australian culture is wide and diverse - about as diverse as a tub of plain, white sour cream. Much of Australia's culture (i.e. sour cream) lies in upholding the cultural barriers between themselves and their neighbour New Zealand , and flipping off the Americans in public while sucking up to them in private.
Another charming aspect of Australian culture is the humiliation of other nations, though conventional or unusual methods (such as genetically altering fauna and flora to hate tourists). A prime example is the koala , whose only purpose is to lure in Japanese tourists with furry good looks and leaf-eating predilections. Once cuddled up in the victim's arms for a photo opportunity, the koala slashes major blood vessels with its razor-like claws, causing instant (and often permanent) death. The Japanese would have put a stop to this long ago, were it not for Australia's strategic advantage (see " Politics and Government ").
Australia is a very relaxed society and it is considered OK to use abusive or ugly words to describe fellow citizens who may be suffering from physical or other handicaps. This is because Aussies have rejected the idea of "political correct" (PC) language - see John Howard - which may be amusing to visiting Europeans (wogs), Americans (septics), Asians (chinks), etc. On the other hand, Neo-Nazi visitors to Australia will be very pleased. Anyone who is intellectually handicapped can be abused, for example as 'autistic' or 'retard', and the locals will laugh along heartily: names like 'spastic' are enjoyed widely. Indigenous citizens can be referred as 'abbos', 'boongs' and 'niggers' and their hopelessness and poverty seen as hilarious, but no-one will take offence! Join in the fun!
Visitors to the country often comment on the uniquely Australian whimsy for place names. For example, the Sydney Opera House and Sydney Harbour Bridge are both, deceptively, kinds of fungus grown in caves in land-locked Alice Springs. Similarly the states of New South Wales, Western Australia, the Northern Territories, the Australian Capital Territory and South Australia are all national parks in the island of Tasmania . Contrast the states of Queensland, Tasmania and Victoria named by the plain-speaking English .
100% Aussie Prid
?
Did you know...
It has also been publicly stated that 66.6% of Australia is Communist. I mean, why would everyone call each other "mate" (including the sheilas)?
Australians are perhaps proudest of their long tradition of home-slaughtering , a cherished pastime in which the whole family joins in in killing, gutting and butchering animals ranging from emu , kangaroo and platypus to the more exotic dugong and wobbegong. Another common pastime is annoying the Brits, for example, by going into a drunken diatribe about how the English murdered all the Aborigines with the quaint recipe, "strychnine in the flour and cyanide in the billabong", then saying "Nah, just kidding, mate. You're all right ... for a stinkin', lousy, bath-dodging, whingeing Pom."
Sports
Main article: Sport in Australia
Australians are renowned for their unseemly, hairy-chested and generally puzzling obsession with sport. Anthropologists largely agree that this is because there's bugger-all in the way of Australian artistic, economic, scientific or culinary achievement for them to carry on about.
The biggest sports in Australia are, in order of popularity: cross dressing , Australian Rules football , cricket , anal sex , V8 Supercars , ferret racing , rugby union , two-up and the Olympics . Australians will, however, slap on the green-and-gold zinc cream and clamber aboard the bandwagon of any Australian sportsman or team that seems to be in with a sniff of winning something - for example, if an Australian tennis player other than L'il Lleyton Hewitt gets past the first round at a Grand Slam event - HA! Fat chance!!!
A new sport in Australia is Professional League Barbecuing. Each round takes place on a beach in Australia, and whoever manages to grill and eat the most weight of meat is the winner. First prize is death by massive coronary thrombosis and a complimentary bout of irritable bowel syndrome thrown in for good measure. Last year, at the end of the league, over 500 tonnes of meat was eaten by 10 contestants. There is another division of barbecuing called Extreme Power Barbecuing. This is where the contestants have to take out their V8s from their cars, hook them up to their barbecues, and grill away. So much meat is cooked in this league it is enough to feed an average sized farm of velociraptors. Instead, the Australians have developed a system where they can use the meat to make new cars, which they ship off to the UK and US. This is designed to kill as many English and Americans as possible. This all slots into place with their master plan - which amounts to "bupkiss".
Language
Main article: Australian-English Dictionary
Australian National Anthem
As might be expected for Australia, there is no 'real' or agreed National Anthem. However the nation does offer a smorgasbord of anthems from which any Aussie or visitor may like to choose:
God Save the Queen
This used to be the standard fare, but many Australians had not realised there are 5 verses to the song including one about buggering the Scots, and had trouble remembering more than the first verse. Also the non-English citizens of Australia (more than 50% of the population in 1900) had "problems" with singing about a British rock band.
The new selection includes:
Waltzing Matilda
The personal favourite of former Prime Monster Malcolm "The Grazier" Frazer, who enjoyed the rousing words about the troopers and "squatters" (trans: wealthy land-owners) riding rough-shod over the poor "swagman" (trans: bum ) who was only trying to huff a "jumbuck" (trans: sheep or kiwi - the context is not clear).
See also
Steve Irwin
Notes
↑ Though an alternative theory claims that the name comes from Igpay Atinlay and is a bastardization of ' Austria '.
↑ Not to mention the fact that you'll be looted, trashed and pee-ed upon if ever you don't find yourself dead.
↑ Australian archaeologists, before the 1960s, thought the name to be an attempt to distinguish white people from "abbo's". Turns out that it has to do with railways instead.
↑ The name of said beer coming from bogans and boof-head's inability to spell the word "Castlemaine". So the four letters that were known to be in Beer were replaced with 'x's.
↑ Blow your Horn if you like traffic jams ! No, not that horn, ya bastard!
↑ The word "Australia", for example, usually only has two syllables - "Straya" - though more advanced or inebriated Australian speakers can get it down to one.
↑ UK visitors should note: Australian police are armed, and this is your chance to experience the fresh aroma of "capsicum spray", a local police delicacy, or the invigorating shock of a taser)
| Billabong |
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Pre-History
Australia was originally part of a super-continent called "GoneAwayland" which included "The Other America" ( South America ) and Canada , as well as "African America" and Caucasia. The mythical islands of Aotearoa (Noy Sealand) were also thought to be joined to the super-continent. However these countries decided to "split" from Oz (as they put it). But do we care? Huh! We don't care one bit! It's their loss! We took our ball and went home... Australia then became the largest island in the world, but was later discovered to be nothing more than a hilariously undersized continent .
Australia was first colonised by the Bogans around 60,000 BC (Before the Great Bogan Lader Costello), known as "Tell Him He's Dreaming Time". The following account accurately summarises the history of the ensuing years: "Back to 8th century AD, Australia still consists of many tiny islands. There was a tribe of natives, living confined from outside. The island was named beautifully as AuLai. Kangaroo was divinised as sacred animal, the embodiment of God . The animal was named KAIGELU ( kangaroot ), meaning Son of the God. In 17th century, Talise, the English navigator, arrived in AuLai with European civilisation. The island residents saw Talise curiously writing diary, using sharpened stick dipped in ink. Talise presented sharpened sticks to tribe leader as gift, which were treated as sacred things and carved with pattern of kangaroo later." -Handbook of Kaigelu Kangaroo Australia Holdings Limited, translated from Chinese.
Natives
Before a group of Asian-Phillipinos decided to see how long the water was 10 metres deep for, there were a bunch of ugly and sloppy group of people called bogans. As the Asians arrived, they brought food,which the bogans tried to scab at and this caused a war. The Asians won and bogans have been hated ever since. The Asians got a tan and became Aboriginals.
History
Main article: History of Australia
Australia, as drawn by Matthew Flinders on an ancient scroll known as "Risk"
The British took control after a bizarre administrative error which also created North Korea, Poland, That other country with the two Islands and Sweden. The first Queen of Australia, Captain James "Jimmy" Chook, built the first Aussie "barbie" (barbeque, not the doll - she came later after Ken moved in), on Lady Macquarie's Chair on Point Bennelong. After the chair was extinguished, a great celebration called Australia Day was held, and a lot of beers were drunk. Then the flag of Sweden was raised in error, then taken down, then the North Korean flag was raised, then taken down, then the Polish flag was raised, it was found there was no British flag available, so a Union Jack was drawn on to the Polish flag and the country was declared to be the possession of General Kosciuszko, who nobody had heard of, and the highest mountain was named after him.
After the English arrived in Australia, they immediately set up a camp and began saying Good Ay' to each other. The phrase came about after immigrants suffered from ear infections after the long boat journey. Good Ay' was meant to mean, Is your ear ok? A prison was soon built after crime was rife on the Island. The problem was the amount of criminals that arrived on a large pirate ship full of booty. When the Australia Force was formed, prisons were easily built with slave labour from trained crocodiles (affectionately known to the locals as "salties"). The prisons were very crude, and the sound of bells was used as a deterrent to crime, although just what that means no-one has ever worked out.
Other countries, however, viewed Australia as a tourist resort and Europeans came by the thousands - and after having had sex in Australia's drinking water supply - sunbathed on the pristine white beaches. After some undue violence with the prisoners, the English retreated back to England to support their Queen as well as their reigning Monarch, Victoria Beckham .
The governments of the UK and Australia met up in 1902 to discuss the possibility of burning a man, made from half an "Aussie" and half a "Brit" (one of the race unaffectionately known to the locals as "pommie bastards"), put the ashes in a small urn and then play test matches for possession of "The Urn". Australia were quick to dismiss the idea, but after China had started to play Cricket, they knew they must "play up, play up, and play the game". Originally the game was played naked in the burning sun, but clothes were introduced after the first team all died of skin cancer several years after the first match.
In 1978, a giant boat arrived on the shore of the Island, loud disco was booming out of it, but no one got off the boat was several days until the army was called. Once on board the army found a large group of sleeping party people. The people were awoken and welcomed to the Island. This is believed to be the origins of Australia's Gay Scene. The Police of Australia met with the people of the boat, and once they had all had massages on the beach from some nearby aborigines, then it was down to business. The party people agreed to keep the party scene going if they could have immunity from the country's drug laws. This was granted and the party scene grew from the boat. The first party was named "The Liberal Party", then "The Country Party" started up, followed by "The Labour Party". Other parties quickly formed including Democrat, Communist, Green, Brownish, Slightly-Puce, Even More Gay, and the Bugger-All (New Gay) Party.
Early British prisoners in Australia used their pickpocketing skills to steal a captain's ID and set sail in the direction of Antarctica , where they hoped to find Father Christmas and his tireless elves. Unfortunately, recent scientific discoveries have discovered that Santa actually lives at the North Pole, and not the South. Luckily for the ship crew, however, one Henry Barrington Smith had actually constructed his 3/4 flood pants entirely out of magnetic rock sourced from the motherland, England. And as he greatly enjoyed circling the ship's rim, he caused the compasses of the captain to go in random directions - east, west, north, up, into the fourth dimension, and so on. This lead them in a complete circle and back to the beach from which they had left. This is described in the captain's diary as such: "Antartica, I have found, is unlike Australia. It has the water, more culture, and much better night life."
Subsequently becoming the part of the Empire where the sun never set - mainly because Lord Voldemort doesn't trust God and also doesn't trust an Englishman in the dark - the former convicts (now Australians) cleverly got around the eternal daylight hours by the introduction of Daylight Saving Time , thereby throwing out all reckoning of time during the summer months - and so ensuring no one was ever again certain that the sun had indeed risen, or whether it was just a particularly bright moon that night.
From here the newly founded Australia built itself on a strong trade in being anal retentive, awesomely bogan-like, pathological cheats at any number of sporting fare, and drunken-destructive by nature. With this booming trade, the first brewery was founded in Sydney , finally freeing the locals from the unpopular practice of drinking each others urine. This transition from traditional English seafaring beverage to locally-produced products can be seen today in the architecture of the Sydney Opera House. Only with sufficient drunkenness could the local population have agreed to produce something worthy of being deemed erected , and allow the locals to miss the fact that it had been "erected" and not giggle at the term. The obsession that Australians found in gambling was finally put to good use - when they decided (like the dense lot they are) to follow blindly any lead the "good ol' US of A" lays down... They say "Hump", Oz says "How dry?"..."
From here the rest of Australia's arrested-development was chosen, and the Australian national motto decided: "Be wicked which you can't help anyway because you're Australian and criminal behaviour is your birth right!" This cryptic motto comes from an early regional dialect often referred to in early cave paintings as "boof-head/bogan". [3] It has yet to be fully translated, but its impact on Australia is unmistakable.
Australians don't not have tax, they have buckets in the street where people throw money they don't want. It has provided enough money to keep things under control. The buckets have a large vacuum inside that sucks notes in. In recent years, the machines have been repeatedly filled with dog excrement and photographs of money.
Politics and Government
See also: Australian Parliament
Quite the happy continent, this picture was taken after a "budweiser" beer boat sank around the southeast perimeter of Australia. It is a Commonwealth country known mostly by foreigners as Great Britain with a less fruity accent and sun in the sky you can actually see.
Australia is the only nation in the world to completely occupy an entire continent. This gives Australian government officials a +4 influence bonus, one extra Special Power usage, and two extra armies each turn. Another notable aspect about Australia is that it possesses the detached province of Tasmania , which are used in the Australian Army as shock troops, as well as making good moving targets down at the shooting range or as an alternative to abortion. Occasionally the government hold elections *cough* *cough*.
However, Australians are relatively passive in world affairs, preferring to save up their extra armies every turn and turtling in Indonesia or Siam until they have a sufficient force in reserve to suddenly envelop Asia and thereby enact world domination. Damned lamers. Despite having the best-trained, well-equipped army in the entire world consisting of all the cannons in the black army, half the cavalry, 15 solders and a shit rugby team, the Aussies generally choose to just own the Americans at war games and send them out on beer runs for the rest of us.
For most of the 20th century, Australia was ruled by England 's Queen Elizabeth II , a tyrannical and insane monarch who also runs things in New Zealand , Canada , America and India . The current government's international policy seems to be "No Worries, She'll be Right" and apparently consists of doing the American army's work for them, before heading off to the local pub while the Americans take the absence as an opportunity to claim credit for winning the war.
Contrary to Popular Belief among the English , Australia is no longer a colony of criminal miscreants and has grown annoyingly wealthy. The new 21st century Queen of Australia, Victoria Beckham , has pleaded with Australia to grow up and be independent. However, Australia prefers to still be governed by Great Britain for the sake of tradition, just like Americans prefer to be fat because they can't get off their behinds to save their lives, and the Japanese like to be productive and creative because they're stuck in the 1600s. Not that Australians think they are superior...
Australia, despite being ruled by the monkey queen, has escaped the iron grip of a mutant Grue-eating slug since mid/late-2008, and was controlled by the secret service double agent for SPECTRE, "Double-O-Kevin", until he got knifed by the nation's hottest ranga (don't tell Pauline), Julia Gillard. Comedy ensues! Everyone from the Labor Party hates each other! And yes, KRudd knifed Julia back in June 2013 looking for votes, but ended up getting stabbed by right-wing echidnas... ouch. So then, the not-so-secret reformation of the Liberal Party, lead by the ever ladsy, gracious, glorious overlord Tone Abet, resulted in the beautiful destruction of the ALP at the 2013 election! Now fellow Strayans are rejoicing in a party that proclaims to have great sex appeal (even more than the Aussie Sex Party) and a definite mission to stop the boats. Yeah, we're waiting for y'all, okay.
Wars
Illegal queue- jumping parasite Simpson (right) and his donkey. And some other dozy bludger who managed to get himself shot at Gallipoli.
Australia has a long tradition of supplying cannon fodder for its imperial overlords - ( Britain 1788-1958, and America 1958-Armageddon) - any time they decide to embark on a new adventure. This first began in the Boer War, which wound up with Edward Woodward being tied to a chair and shot. Australians recently commemorated this event by briefly renaming a pub on Chapel St, South Yarra, "Rorke's Drift".
The You-Beaut War
In World War I Australians performed an outstanding service to the British Empire by acting as bullet-collectors in the Somme and Gallipoli . The "idea" for the latter was conceived by the then British Monster of Navy, Winston Churchill . Churchill's reward for his brilliant strategy to reduce the population of Australia was to be eventually made leader of the Tory Party and subsequently elected as Prime Monster. Churchill famously neve visited Australia, because he was warned there were Anzacs queuing up to shoot him.
During a famous truce at Gallipoli the Turks lobbed tobacco into the Australian trenches and Australians lobbed their tinned beef into the Turkish trenches. The Turks tried the beef before promptly lobbing it back. Australians are particularly proud of having been slaughtered at Gallipoli, which is commemorated each year by thousands of young Australians booking a package tour to Turkey , getting pissed and throwing up on war graves.
In popular Straylian mythology (not the black mythology, the other unreal one), The Great War (or "The Bonza, You-Beaut War", as it is known in Australia) was the beginning of the modern Australian nation. The real pre- John Howard mythology, dating from 1989 BC (Before Costello) is that the beginning of the Australian nation was forged on the goldfields and at the "Eureka Stockade" (which was a stockade or corrale where "ideas" or "eurekas" were kept fenced in). Australia's most dramatic and successful war campaign during the You-Beaut War was its valiant relieving the Germans of Papua New Guinea , or "German New Guinea" as it was then known, distinguish it from "Dutch New Guinea" which was to west and spoke Dutch but now speaks Indonesian ("Don't mention West Irian"). Famous prisoners-of-war (POWs or Piss-Weaks as they are known to Aussie non-combatants) from the First You-Beaut Papuan Campaign included Bronislaw Malinowski (Who?), the father of modern Anthropology and well-known Stella Artois enthusiast.
The most potent icon to emerge out of the Gallipoli conflict was that of Simpson and his Donkey (pictured), who risked life, limb, hoof and tail ferrying wounded Australian soldiers away from the front line under heavy Turkish fire. However, it was recently discovered that Simpson was in fact an illegal Scottish immigrant, so his shattered remains were dug up and sent back to Britain at the British government's expense. Dirty yobbo, pretending to be an Aussie hero, may he rot in peace!
The Shit, not Again You-Beaut War
Main article: The battle of Brisbane
In World War II, the Australians were all over The Place , planting gum trees in Syria , liberating France , causing riots in Egyptian brothels, building the Burma Railway and the Bridge over the River Kwai. Note: the Burma War history was later amended to include William Holden, famous American (aka "Septic") car designer and other yanks and Brits, but Aussie soldiers were deleted by David Lean the infamous
"historical revisionist"
greatest man ever (see John Howard ) and movie director.
Other You-Beaut Wars
Australians were also in Malaya at some point in the '50s, though nobody seems to remember why. It may have been something to do with Britain's War on Communism . Then they piled into Korea. Returning soldiers tried to interest their loved ones in kimchi, which led to an unprecedented spike in the Australian divorce rate. Then it was Vietnam , though nobody seems to remember why. It may have been something to do with America's War on Communism . Then the "First Bush War" in Iraq , then the undeclared war in East Timor against those tricksy Indonesians who took away Dutch New Guinea ("Don't mention West Irian" again), then the "Second Bush War" in Afghanistan , and the Third Bush War" - Iraq again. Australia valiantly attacked the Solomon Islands, East Timor again, and is probably due to attack the World again. Australia enthusiastically joined the "Bush War on Terrierists" - which arose from a misinterpretation of the American accent of President George Bush who was angry at people keeping terrier dogs (he preferred poodles) but was later taken to mean anyone from the Middle East or an Arab (see Muslim or anyone wearing a towel on their head such as Cronulla residents or Maroubra expatriates).
The Hard War
In 1972, a war erupted between Australia and Hungary, after Australia declared that it did not like the country. Australia started to heavily bomb the country, and was joined in force by Italy, Japan, Russia, Jersey, Isle Of Wight, and London in the war. Hungary teamed up with Jamaica, but never started it's war effort due to everyone in the country evapourating after a lot of steam was poured on the country by Japan. Australia denies it being a hard war, because they do't want bogans saying how bad the country is.
More You-Beaut Wars
Japan and Australia went to war in 1967, after a disagreement about flared trousers. The war was settled with a massive game of conkers using cranes. Japan declined to comment after losing the war, and went into what is now known as 'The Great Japanese Silence'. The rest of the world were not to hear from Japan until 1978, when the country recorded a version of the 'Boy's are back in town'.
In 1983, Australia was embroiled in a war with Jamaica over the running man dance. It was never settled and the countries remain enemies.
Economy
See also: WorkChoices
The average change you get from a shop in Australia. Resemblance to 'chocolate money' is not coincidental.
Aussie Land is famous for its domestication of the bizarre eucalyptus tree, on which wooden kangaroos and emperor penguins grow. These animals are harvested, painted a variety of pleasing colours and exported around the world . Large amounts of raw alcohol are also annually excavated from mines and refined into beer through complex chemical processes.
Australia is also famous for its wide and diversified exports, these include such valuable commodities as: cheap, bad beer (all the good beer remains in Australia), emigrants (i.e. human excrement), putrid food, reconstituted putrid foof, child sex offendors (especially to Thailand and Vietnam), "innocent" drug traffickers (and their "specially packaged" surf-boards), Kylie Minogue Fan Club kits, AC/DC , unique and endangered fauna, putrified alcohol, crappy melodrama TV shows, and selling useless junk to American tourists .
Richard Gere , dressed as a woman, appears on Australia's $10 note for some reason
After switching to the metric system in 1983, Australian currency now takes the form of stubbies (single items), six packs, and slabs (of 12 or 24) - and as any Australian mathematical genius would deduce these are all perfectly divisible by 10. This is often broken down into various types, most common being VB and XXXX, [4] then progressing on to slightly classier brews, such as Crown Lagers or "Crownies" as they are affectionately referred to. Trade with such delicate currency can have devastating effects on the local economy. NOTE: the item Foster's Lager is not a true beer as it comprises (at least) 50% horse urine - hence it being the chief sponsoring product for the so-named "Foster's Melbourne Cup".
Geography
Australia is renowned for its beaches. However, contrary to Popular's beliefs and government propaganda, these seemingly wonderful places are chock full of piranhas, barracuda, poisonous sea serpents, box jellyfish, plankton, genetically-engineered killer dolphins , and of course, hated by all, floating speed humps - aka bodyboarders. The waters adjacent to the beaches are even worse. Despite the earnest effort of local authorities and the military, the number of syringe attacks is still sky-rocketing.
Much of Australia consists of flat desert. This makes going to Ayers Rock a rather tedious affair, and many a fatality was caused by some poor yob trying to win a Darwin Award while bored on the road. Other people hold a "corroboree" (Ancient Strayian for "Kiley Minogue Concert") in or near their cars (which are frequently parked on top of local beauty spots) until they get drunk and fall over. Or have sex. Or both.
On the plus side, it makes Australia an ideal location to put suburban sprawl . That should be interesting. [5]
States
States of Australia. This map is now invalid: Queersland seceded and was later sold and sailed to the Japan in the 1980s by Premier Sir Joh Bjerky-Whatshisname. Westraylia has been dug up and shipped to China
Australia has several states as well as the Fostern Territory. these are:
Southern Territory (Basically a southern hemisphere version of Quebec )
ACT (Everyone forgets this state, er territory, which is... somewhere in NSW near Queanbeyan)
Tascademania (Inhabited by Taswegians and cheese)
New South Ireland (Famous for its beaches such as Maroubra and Cronulla, which are good for a punch-up)
Victoriana or "Tramland" (Named for Queen Gracie but later reattributed to the 'other' Queen, Victoria Beckham)
Terra Australis (This has being dug up and exported to China)
Queersland (Named after the present British Queer, David Beckham. Seceded from Australia under Joh Bjerke-Whatshisname in 1983 and sold to Japan)
The larger island is divided into "more than 3" states - maybe 5 or 6 states - nobody is sure because states continually disappear and some are territories, or not, which is confusing. Norfolk Island, Heard Island, King Island and the Christmas Islands are not shown on maps, nor are the 'Outer Immigrant Islands'. Somewhere within New South Ireland lies the "Capital City of Australia", Queanbeyan, but no-one is sure if it is a myth or just a rumour. The usual comment by visitors to the Capital City is, "It's well laid out!" but so is a corpse. Antarctica was invaded by Australia in 1901 and declared the 7th state (or is 8th?) - it is ruled by the 'Emperor Penguin' (see Batman ). The Northern Territory was ceded by Fiji to Japan in 1982. Australia's favourite state, however, is Intoxication.
Capital Cities
An accurate rendition of Australia. Notice how Tasmania is missing. I wonder why that is...
Adelaide : Regretted labelling itself the "city of churches" since the 60's. Commonly referred to as "never heard of it". Home to 72% of Australia's bogan population, and, ironically, a best expensive wine and cabaret in the world. Go figure..
Brisbane : Population including Cane Toads : 5.2 million. Population minus Cane Toads : Nowhere near Melbourne and Sydney's. Interstate migrants have been introduced to correct this problem.
Canberra :AKA: The biggest hole on earth! The love child of a dummy spit between Melbourne and Sydney. The solution: Put the capital somewhere between the two cities. Everyone's a winner. Except if you have to move to Canberra.
Darwin : Hot, humid and crappy with the slight chance of crocodile. Only capital city in the world where businessmen wear shorts and long socks to meetings about resources, company mergers and acquisitions.
Melbourne : Best State-that's-really-a-city in the Country. All the cool (or deep frozen) people live there. It poops on Sydney's face frequently. Sporting capital, culture capital, should really be the Australian capital except that no-one living there can reliably spell the word "capital". The city's favourite sport is " AFL " and all its dwellers hate Sydney but worship a strange variant of Gaelic Football called "Aerial Pingpong".
Perth : A city that far away from the East coast cannot still be in Australia, can it? Getting to back to civilisation is a month-long walk through the desert. Its only tourist attraction is a phallic Bell Tower, hence making it the perfect secluded city for gays.
Sydney : Typical concrete jungle with everything that signifies it - that is, traffic jams and air pollution. The city's favourite sport is sodomy and all its dwellers hate Melbourne and the Sydney Swans , a team which plays Aerial Pingpong. Residents support a sport which is a local variant of brutal gladiatorial combat known as "Thugby" which derives from the English town of Rugby, famous for its gladiatorial massacres.
Flora and Fauna
Main article: Australian Wildlife
As mentioned previously, kangaroos and emperor penguins are part of the native fauna in the Australian bush. There is a lesser-known creature that is kept out of the media to prevent a drop in tourism, which is known locally as the ' Drop Bear '. The 'Drop Bear' (Phakus cinereus) is related to the common ' Koala bear', neither of which are related to the bear species. The platypus is also a native to this land, but the locals try to shun association with this horrible embarrassment of evolution . Hoopsnakes and One-eyed Trouser Snakes are also a vital part of Australian life, supplying much of the country's sperm donations.
Crocodiles are typically considered part of the wildlife of this country, but only by foreigners and the late Steve Irwin . In truth , with crocodiles so numerous, they have been allowed the same rights as humans. Of course in Australia, that really doesn't amount to much, since whiteys are legally allowed to hunt and kill Aborigines much in the same way humans can kill crocodiles. This is due mainly to the fact that Aborigines, up until 40 years ago, were considered fauna.
Of course, the most dominant animal species in Australia, the dingo, remains a deadly baby-eating monster. Most commonly known for eating the child of Meryl Streep, the dingo remains an ongoing problem in Queensland. In the bush areas of the state, it is well known that the nationally produced 'dingo patrol' must stay at bay 24 hours a day to stop swarms of dingoes getting through the great divide and devouring everything in site.
The country is also awashed in feral animals including cats , dogs , pigs , horses , goats , camels , plastic bags , prisoners of mother England posing as citizens (since 1788), pommies ,American|yankee]]s and those ehhh... people from that funny country attached to Alaska .
Things that will kill you
It is generally held that Australia is stuffed full of dangerous flora and fauna, many of them resident in the Federal Department of Immigration and released periodically when an election is in the offing. These include many snakes , things in the sea etc. What the locals usually don't mention are the really worrisome creatures:
Table of Dangerous Australian Fauna
Smooth Hermans
Stingrays are also notably dangerous for being capable of killing an Australian who made a living out of wrestling crocodiles. Sharks and Box Jellyfish have had 'bad press' recently and are considered dangerous by some, but are actually friendly, huggable creatures that make good pets and amusing nightclub companions.
Demographics
Main article: Australians
The customary greeting given to all local citizens, consisting of ripping off one's shirt and making unrestrained angry faces
'Straya consists largely of people who do not come from a country other than Australia. The long and the short of it is that Australians love beer , money , beer , cricket , beer , football , beer , sodomy , beer and anything they can fuck (including beer ). Things they can't fuck are great too, since deep down Australians really love a challenge - for example, first-year primary school English lessons. Almost all Australians have a "Blitish" or Asian or Italian or Greek or anything-else background, although it is a little known fact that half of the "immigrant" population of 'Straya in 1900 was Irish . As a result of this "mixed breeding", the locals usually refer to each other as mongrels, and enjoy being hailed by tourists with the endearing greeting, "Piss off, ya fuckin mongrel".
Australians typically birth litters generally numbering from 15 to 20 babies. If not for a strict birth control imposed on the nation by natural predators, Australia would have been suffering from significant overpopulation.
Dialects
Australians are widely thought to be uncultured on account of their accent, which is purely an environmental adaptation. In Australia, the wider you open your mouth and the longer you leave it open the more flies get in. [6]
Note that it may sometimes be difficult to tell the difference between Australians and New Zealanders (commonly known as kiwis ). The most popular method of quickly checking which one they are is by asking them to say "chips". While Australians are able to pronounce the word correctly (i.e. "cheeps"), kiwis invariably pronounce it as "chups". However, there is another distinctive difference in that whereas kiwis can spell the word, a high proportion of Australians cannot actually spell "chips". (Google: "Remedial English for Australian Adults"). Local terms that tourists should endeavour to learn include: Chunder (previously, "technicolour yawn"), Sheila (anything female on two legs, or sometimes four), and Bonza ("jolly good old chap").
Hoon: This is a unique Australian word of unknown derivation, but possibly was borrowed from the German word "Hunne" (Chicken) from which we get the charming description of Germans as 'huns'. Visitors to Australia are invited to study "hooning", which is a local method for driving cars and is greatly admired by the police . Visitors may also wish to become honorary hoons which involves drinking a lot of beer then attacking police officers. [7]
Current Demographics
Main article: Australian Values
“It is a common misconception that we Aussies are a friendly bunch. In reality, this is designed to attract tourists, who are then beaten, robbed and fed to the crocodiles or koalas”
~ Australian Tourism Commission
The famous "Oxley Moron". It is customary in Australia to dry wet flags by draping them over a local buffoon or (in the quaint Australian dialect) a 'bloody drongo'.
The term culture in Australia is synonymous with sport - see below. This is expressed by the well-known mathematical equation first devised by the the Australian-of-the-Year (1847) - Sir Les Patterson: Sport = Culture.
Australian culture is wide and diverse - about as diverse as a tub of plain, white sour cream. Much of Australia's culture (i.e. sour cream) lies in upholding the cultural barriers between themselves and their neighbour New Zealand , and flipping off the Americans in public while sucking up to them in private.
Another charming aspect of Australian culture is the humiliation of other nations, though conventional or unusual methods (such as genetically altering fauna and flora to hate tourists). A prime example is the koala , whose only purpose is to lure in Japanese tourists with furry good looks and leaf-eating predilections. Once cuddled up in the victim's arms for a photo opportunity, the koala slashes major blood vessels with its razor-like claws, causing instant (and often permanent) death. The Japanese would have put a stop to this long ago, were it not for Australia's strategic advantage (see " Politics and Government ").
Australia is a very relaxed society and it is considered OK to use abusive or ugly words to describe fellow citizens who may be suffering from physical or other handicaps. This is because Aussies have rejected the idea of "political correct" (PC) language - see John Howard - which may be amusing to visiting Europeans (wogs), Americans (septics), Asians (chinks), etc. On the other hand, Neo-Nazi visitors to Australia will be very pleased. Anyone who is intellectually handicapped can be abused, for example as 'autistic' or 'retard', and the locals will laugh along heartily: names like 'spastic' are enjoyed widely. Indigenous citizens can be referred as 'abbos', 'boongs' and 'niggers' and their hopelessness and poverty seen as hilarious, but no-one will take offence! Join in the fun!
Visitors to the country often comment on the uniquely Australian whimsy for place names. For example, the Sydney Opera House and Sydney Harbour Bridge are both, deceptively, kinds of fungus grown in caves in land-locked Alice Springs. Similarly the states of New South Wales, Western Australia, the Northern Territories, the Australian Capital Territory and South Australia are all national parks in the island of Tasmania . Contrast the states of Queensland, Tasmania and Victoria named by the plain-speaking English .
100% Aussie Prid
?
Did you know...
It has also been publicly stated that 66.6% of Australia is Communist. I mean, why would everyone call each other "mate" (including the sheilas)?
Australians are perhaps proudest of their long tradition of home-slaughtering , a cherished pastime in which the whole family joins in in killing, gutting and butchering animals ranging from emu , kangaroo and platypus to the more exotic dugong and wobbegong. Another common pastime is annoying the Brits, for example, by going into a drunken diatribe about how the English murdered all the Aborigines with the quaint recipe, "strychnine in the flour and cyanide in the billabong", then saying "Nah, just kidding, mate. You're all right ... for a stinkin', lousy, bath-dodging, whingeing Pom."
Sports
Main article: Sport in Australia
Australians are renowned for their unseemly, hairy-chested and generally puzzling obsession with sport. Anthropologists largely agree that this is because there's bugger-all in the way of Australian artistic, economic, scientific or culinary achievement for them to carry on about.
The biggest sports in Australia are, in order of popularity: cross dressing , Australian Rules football , cricket , anal sex , V8 Supercars , ferret racing , rugby union , two-up and the Olympics . Australians will, however, slap on the green-and-gold zinc cream and clamber aboard the bandwagon of any Australian sportsman or team that seems to be in with a sniff of winning something - for example, if an Australian tennis player other than L'il Lleyton Hewitt gets past the first round at a Grand Slam event - HA! Fat chance!!!
A new sport in Australia is Professional League Barbecuing. Each round takes place on a beach in Australia, and whoever manages to grill and eat the most weight of meat is the winner. First prize is death by massive coronary thrombosis and a complimentary bout of irritable bowel syndrome thrown in for good measure. Last year, at the end of the league, over 500 tonnes of meat was eaten by 10 contestants. There is another division of barbecuing called Extreme Power Barbecuing. This is where the contestants have to take out their V8s from their cars, hook them up to their barbecues, and grill away. So much meat is cooked in this league it is enough to feed an average sized farm of velociraptors. Instead, the Australians have developed a system where they can use the meat to make new cars, which they ship off to the UK and US. This is designed to kill as many English and Americans as possible. This all slots into place with their master plan - which amounts to "bupkiss".
Language
Main article: Australian-English Dictionary
Australian National Anthem
As might be expected for Australia, there is no 'real' or agreed National Anthem. However the nation does offer a smorgasbord of anthems from which any Aussie or visitor may like to choose:
God Save the Queen
This used to be the standard fare, but many Australians had not realised there are 5 verses to the song including one about buggering the Scots, and had trouble remembering more than the first verse. Also the non-English citizens of Australia (more than 50% of the population in 1900) had "problems" with singing about a British rock band.
The new selection includes:
Waltzing Matilda
The personal favourite of former Prime Monster Malcolm "The Grazier" Frazer, who enjoyed the rousing words about the troopers and "squatters" (trans: wealthy land-owners) riding rough-shod over the poor "swagman" (trans: bum ) who was only trying to huff a "jumbuck" (trans: sheep or kiwi - the context is not clear).
See also
Steve Irwin
Notes
↑ Though an alternative theory claims that the name comes from Igpay Atinlay and is a bastardization of ' Austria '.
↑ Not to mention the fact that you'll be looted, trashed and pee-ed upon if ever you don't find yourself dead.
↑ Australian archaeologists, before the 1960s, thought the name to be an attempt to distinguish white people from "abbo's". Turns out that it has to do with railways instead.
↑ The name of said beer coming from bogans and boof-head's inability to spell the word "Castlemaine". So the four letters that were known to be in Beer were replaced with 'x's.
↑ Blow your Horn if you like traffic jams ! No, not that horn, ya bastard!
↑ The word "Australia", for example, usually only has two syllables - "Straya" - though more advanced or inebriated Australian speakers can get it down to one.
↑ UK visitors should note: Australian police are armed, and this is your chance to experience the fresh aroma of "capsicum spray", a local police delicacy, or the invigorating shock of a taser)
| i don't know |
In what year did Harold Wilson retire | The truth about Harold Wilson - after 30 years of scandalous rumours | Daily Mail Online
The truth about Harold Wilson - after 30 years of scandalous rumours
By ROY HATTERSLEY
Last updated at 10:12 24 June 2007
The real Mary Wilson is dramatically different from the dull suburban housewife who was caricatured so ruthlessly during her husband Harold's years of power.
Her reputation for doing little more than "standing by her man" was acquired in an era before Prime Ministers' wives became personalities in their own right.
It was exacerbated by Mrs Wilson's Diary - a long-running spoof in the satirical magazine Private Eye that mocked her apparent meekness and fondness for composing verse.
Mary never complained, and finally faded from public view during the many years she devotedly nursed her husband as he was gradually consumed by Alzheimer's.
Scroll down for more...Today, the "little woman" calumny is regurgitated whenever so-called new "revelations" about Wilson's premiership - which ended prematurely in 1976 after he resigned under rather mysterious circumstances - are spewed out by one of his "loyal" lieutenants.
But his widow must also take some responsibility for all the nonsense that is so often written, because she adamantly refuses to take on her husband's detractors. An intensely private woman, she despises the cult of personality that has infested modern politics. And she emphatically does not believe in letting her emotions show.
Now aged 90, she lives alone in a Westminster flat and observes the world through eyes that have lost none of their sharpness.
Despite all her years as a political wife (Harold became an MP in 1945), she has rarely talked to the media and has never given a full-blown newspaper interview. That she is giving one at all now - coincidentally, as yet another Prime Minister prepares to step down before the end of his term - is because we have known each other for more than 40 years.
Time after time, she prefaces her words by saying: "I have never told this to anyone before." But equally, time after time, she stops me from delving any further. It is a matter of principle that she will never retaliate against those who tell lies about her husband by telling the discreditable truth about them.
Of course, the story that has resurfaced the most persistently pivots on the role of Marcia Williams - now Lady Falkender - who served as Harold Wilson's political secretary for nearly 30 years, including his eight years as Prime Minister.
In 2003, Joe Haines, Wilson's former Press secretary, published a book which claimed that Marcia had had an affair with the Prime Minister and that she had treated him with derision.
One of his tallest tales - repeated in a BBC drama last year - had Marcia once telling Mary: "I've slept with your husband six times and it wasn't very satisfactory." (Subsequently, the BBC was forced to issue an apology.)
Mary Wilson, who combines moral certainty with the no-nonsense approach of a Northerner, says such allegations are beneath contempt and unworthy of comment.
When I ask if her disdain for scandal-mongering is built on her knowledge that none of the stories are true, she allows herself a contented smile.
To understand Mary Wilson's character, it is necessary to know something of her upbringing as "a daughter of the manse". Her father, a Congregationalist minister, encouraged plain living and high thinking. ("Church twice on Sundays and no novels to be read on the day of prayer," recalls Mary.) Little wonder, then, that the family watchwords were "pride" and "propriety".
Her background also goes some way to explaining why she has never complained about the Cabinet Office's decision, regarded by some as a disgrace, to halve her pension - to £15,000 - when her husband died in 1995. All she will say is: "I have a small annuity."
Mary Wilson is part of a disappearing generation that is determined to go through life without whining, blaming and emoting. There is not a trace of self-pity when she describes her husband's final, terrible illness, which became evident after he resigned from office in 1976.
As she charts his decline, she gives the lie to the persistent rumour that there was something deeply mysterious about his surprise resignation. Among the more sinister whispers was that MI5 had been about to expose him as a KGB agent.
At the time, Harold Wilson was a fixture in everyone's lives: the pipe-smoking PM who had devalued "the pound in your pocket", confirmed our membership of the Common Market and predicted the "white heat" of the coming technological revolution.
There seemed no reason for him to step down - and no convincing explanation was put forward. But the truth, Mary says, is simple. After his unexpected election victory in 1974, "Harold always meant to go quite quickly".
So why did he choose to make his announcement in the spring of 1976?
"He'd had enough. There was a seamen's strike, which he had just dealt with. He told me that he could not deal with it with the same level of energy, the same zest . . . and, possibly, he began to feel that his memory was going."
We will never know whether Wilson feared the early onset of Alzheimer's or if he thought he was just growing old - though, at 60, he was still a comparatively young prime minister.
But the truth is that he felt he could no longer do the job in the way that he wanted.
After the hand-over to Jim Callaghan, four good years followed before the brilliant mind began to go. I remind Mary of a story that Callaghan told me about his own investiture as Knight of the Garter in 1980, attended by the Wilsons.
Callaghan said: "Mary was marvellous. She spent every moment looking after Harold. Got him in and out of all those robes and chains. She couldn't have enjoyed it much herself."
This triggers difficult memories.
"I've never told anyone this before," says Mary. "At the beginning, when Harold knew that he couldn't remember, he was very distressed. But the time came when he didn't remember at all and we settled down into a sort of calm.
"It was a very quiet time after he got over his anxieties. Sometimes, he would say: 'I must go home. My mother and father [long since dead] aren't well.'
"So I would just take him out for a walk round the block. Strangely enough, it became a very calm period."
Leading up to that time, there was also the half-world between memory and oblivion when Wilson (by then Lord Wilson of Rievaulx) was still intent on attending the House of Lords.
"I'd take him early in the afternoon. Jim Callaghan would make room for him on the [Privy Councillors'] bench. Harold would keep an eye on me, sitting down there with the other peers' wives. After about an hour, I'd give him a thumbs-up sign and he'd come out for me to take him to tea."
But then the hard work - she dismisses the notion of suffering or sacrifice - began. It is only when we come to her recollections of Wilson's last few months that there is a rare expression of resentment.
"Roy Jenkins was the only one [of his old Cabinet ministers] who came to see him. And he wasn't even still a member of our party." (Jenkins had defected to help found the SDP).
My suggestion that people find it hard to deal with Alzheimer's produces a flash of steel.
"Then they should try harder!" Yet it was all worth it. "Above all, I didn't want him to go into a home. He stayed here with me right until the last two days, when he had to go into hospital."
Her devotion has never wavered. Pictures of him - Oxford don in cap and gown, young President of the Board of Trade, grave and greying Prime Minister - stand on every table and bookshelf in her living room.
She shows me the hand-written poem that she composed to mark her husband's funeral in the Scilly Isles, where they had spent many enjoyable family holidays:
"My love you have stumbled slowly
On the quiet way to death
And you lie where the wind blows strongly
With a salty spray on its breath
For this men of the island bore you Down paths where the branches meet
And the only sounds were the crunching grind
Of the gravel beneath their feet And the sighing slide of the ebbing tide
On the beach where the breakers meet."
Mary Wilson has published three volumes of verse and has always turned to poetry during times of crisis and disappointment.
The first of these was when she decided not to go to university - because it would have been an expense too far for her father.
"I have regretted it all my life," she tells me. "All my life."
Instead, she enrolled in a business college and became a secretary in the Lever Brothers soap factory at Port Sunlight.
In the summer of 1934, Harold Wilson - preparing to go to Oxford University - visited the tennis club where she was a member. He claimed it was love at almost first sight. But Mary says she took much longer to make up her mind.
Harold Wilson and Gladys Mary Baldwin were married in January 1940. He had just been elected a Fellow and she neither expected, nor wanted, to become a political wife. And perhaps that sowed the seeds of her second great regret.
"I loved being the wife of a don and would have been happy to remain one all my life," she says.
But fate intervened. After wartime service as a high-powered civil servant, Wilson (who had joined the Labour Party as a student) was nominated as candidate for a constituency no one expected him to win.
On the crest of the 1945 Labour landslide, he was swept into Westminster - and so began one of the most meteoric careers in parliamentary history.
Within months, Wilson was a parliamentary secretary and, in 1947, at the age of 31, was promoted to the Cabinet as President of the Board of Trade. Every step up the ladder came as "rather a shock" to Mary.
"I didn't know a thing about [the business of politics]." But she was never the passive little woman of Mrs Wilson's Diary.
Indeed, there were spirited arguments with Clement Attlee, Labour's greatest Prime Minister, about historical figures. "Bad choice, bad history," he told her, when she leapt to the defence of her heroes (Bonnie Prince Charlie, Charles II and Lord Byron).
And, in 1975, she had the courage to follow her convictions and vote against one of her husband's flagship policies.
His government had decided to let the people decide, through a referendum, if Britain should confirm its membership of the Common Market. After the Wilsons had returned to their ministerial car from the polling booth, Mary told her husband: "I couldn't do it. I just couldn't do it."
Wilson had voted for Britain to remain in Europe, and his wife had voted to come out. "He was very sweet about it," says Mary.
Asked if she still holds the same view, the best she can say about Britain's European destiny is: "You can't unscramble eggs."
Mary insists that she enjoyed her role in Downing Street, though she hated the house. "Everybody who has lived there seems to. I missed my real home, where I was cook, mother and gardener."
Was that one of the reasons why, after winning the 1974 election, the Wilsons chose to stay at their flat in nearby Lord North Street rather than move back into "that little flat upstairs"?
"We knew that even if we moved, we wouldn't be in Downing Street for long," she says, confirming that even at the moment of victory, Harold's departure had already been planned.
Despite her dislike of Number 10, Mary Wilson says that she "adored Chequers". Intriguingly, she says she plans to send a letter to Gordon Brown's wife, Sarah (whom she describes as "splendid"), urging her to persuade her husband to change his mind and use the Prime Minister's Buckinghamshire country residence at weekends.
She is far too canny and discreet to give her views on Tony Blair, but her comment: "After you've left the bridge, you don't spit on the deck" may provide a clue to her feelings. As, indeed, does her admission that she is "Old Labour".
As for how Cherie Blair has performed in the role of Prime Minister's wife, she says: "We all see things differently, and times have changed." Then, conscious this remark sounds frosty, she adds: "Cherie has been very kind to me. I like her very much."
Throughout her own years as a prime minister's wife, Mary Wilson was sustained by two great friendships: the poet John Betjeman, who was "a breath of fresh air", and Marcia Falkender, who particularly helped her though the early days.
Mary says: "She was a real politician. I wasn't. She knew all the ropes. Marcia never decided my diary - I decided where to go for myself - but she was a great help."
The women remain the firmest of friends and lunch together almost every Wednesday - most often in the House of Lords - and talk "both about the old days and what's going on now".
The sincerity of her affection for Harold's former political secretary cannot be doubted. Since Lady Falkender had a minor stroke five years ago, I have never met Mary Wilson without being given a bulletin about the health of her long-standing friend.
Scroll down for more...
So why will she not denounce Lady Falkender's detractors? "I just don't talk about such things," she replies.
Once again, her tone is overlaid with contempt. However, she does paint a vivid scene from the Downing Street years that provides a kind of answer.
One of Lady Falkender's detractors, she says, once "went absolutely wild" because he was required to canvass during a General Election campaign after a lunch of no more than cold ham. "He was very unpleasant to the Downing Street housekeeper."
Clearly, being unpleasant to the staff is regarded by Mary Wilson as unforgivable.
But the offender's name, she tells me, must not be mentioned. She holds the view that you cannot complain about character assassination if you wield the assassin's knife.
What, I ask Mary, are her happiest memories? The greatest joys, she says, were the births of her two sons. And the worst? Election defeats - but only because of the disappointment they caused Harold.
And, of course, the slow realisation that he was suffering from an incurable disease which, she believes, was worsened by a (successful) operation in 1980 for colon cancer.
"Afterwards, he was never the same again." How has she coped since his death? Faith has helped, she says. So has the support of her sons and their families. And, of course, her stern upbringing as a daughter of the manse has taught her to face pain with fortitude.
But, most important of all have been her memories of Harold, the lasting legacy of a close and happy relationship.
She says that during moments of doubt and sorrow, she still "talks" to him. "Sometimes, just inside my head - sometimes, when I am alone, out loud."
Three or four times a year, she returns to the Scilly Isles. One of these visits is an annual pilgrimage and act of remembrance, with a service at the Methodist church where Harold's funeral was held. This is followed by a graveside reading from John Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress.
Harold Wilson was lucky to have found Mary. Without him, she might have done more and better in the eyes of the world, but she is in no doubt that she was equally lucky to have found him.
| 1976 |
Lord Beaverbrook was Minister for Aircraft Production in world war 11 what was he the minister of in world war 1 | 22 OBITUARY; Lord Wilson of Rievaulx | The Independent
22 OBITUARY; Lord Wilson of Rievaulx
A homely, pipe-smoking, classless man, like a good family doctor
Wednesday 24 May 1995 23:02 BST
Click to follow
The Independent Online
Harold Wilson served as Prime Minister for almost eight years, then a peacetime record. For 13 years he led the Labour Party, winning four general elections and losing one. In 1976, shortly after his last victory, he gave up office for all time, to the astonishment of the world.
What was wrong? Was he suffering from a grave secret illness? Was some great scandal about to break? Why should a man held in high esteem by his party and who had just celebrated his 60th birthday resign from the prime ministership at an age when Churchill, Eden and Home had yet to form a government? The speculation was so lively that almost everyone missed the simple truth. It was that Wilson had had enough and did not intend to fight another election. He had no new solutions for Britain's old and recurrent problems and less energy than he had once had to sort out the party's internal feuds.
All but a few people missed too the historical significance of his resignation, that it signalled the approaching decline of the kind of demand-managed economy cum Welfare State which had begun in 1945, had been maintained by three Tory prime ministers and had been developed by Wilson. It was left to his successor James Callaghan to tell the party bluntly it was untrue that a government could simply spend its way out of depression and unemployment. The years of consensus between the parties and within them were coming to an end. The Labour Party was soon to be defeated by Margaret Thatcher's radical Conservatism; and, without Wilson to hold it together, was to lose some of its right wing to Roy Jenkins's breakaway movement, the Social Democratic Party, and to see the ''broad left'' flexing its muscles dangerously.
Though Wilson became the best-known man in Britain, he was an enigma to the public and even to his colleagues, ''I've had him on the air a dozen times,'' said a BBC producer on the day Wilson was appointed leader in 1963, ''yet I still feel I don't know him.'' ''You are right,'' said Richard Crossman, Wilson's friend. ''Isn't it wonderful?''
What did Wilson really think? He had a remarkable gift for equivocation and manoeuvre which he used to hold the party together and to achieve and retain the leadership. ''A nimble mind,'' Harold Macmillan once said. ''Sometimes a revolutionary driving the tumbril, sometimes affecting the part of moderate statesmanship.'' It was an exaggeration which contained a lot of truth. Nobody thought of Wilson as a left-winger until he resigned from Attlee's government with Aneurin Bevan. ''Then, he took our breath away,'' Herbert Morrison said.
But the mystery of Wilson's personality was simply that it was all there on display. There was nothing more to know. He was a brilliant academic but no intellectual. There were no philosophic depths to probe. He was one of the few university socialists of his generation to escape the tamed and benevolent Marxism of the Left Book Club. He kept away from the Oxford Labour Club which was run by Communists and joined the Liberals. But in Huddersfield he joined the Labour Party before he was 20, the party ''that represented my highest moral and religious ideas''. He was a Christian, inspired by the ''social gospel'', finding his code of conduct in the precepts of the Scout Law and Kipling's ''If''.
''Shall we,'' he asked later, ''build a new Britain of fair shares and equal opportunity, or return to boom-and-bust days with their inequality and restrictive national production?'' That was, and remained, his socialism in a nutshell. In the controversy about the proposed removal of Clause IV of the party's constitution which seemed to envisage the public ownership of almost everything, Wilson took a relaxed view. ''Let it stand,'' he said. ''It is an ideal, not a detailed programme.'' Yet it was wrong to say that he had no ideology or for him to claim he was wholly pragmatic. He shared the conventional outlook of the revisionist socialists of his generation: a mixed economy, a Welfare State, supported on an expanding industrial base, part of it publicly owned, and full employment made possible by Keynesian expansion and trade-union moderation.
When Hugh Gaitskell heard baseless sexual gossip about Wilson, he said, ''If only it were true! It would be one human attribute in the man.'' Yet his judgement of his rival was wrong. Wilson was not cold. Nobody wrote longer or more sympathetic letters to the widows of his colleagues. Nobody was more deeply concerned about the physically handicapped - he filled No 10 with them every Christmas. It was he who insisted that Jack Ashley should not give up his seat when he lost his hearing and that Susan Masham in her wheelchair should accept a life peerage. Wilson argued that they could set an example and show other handicapped people what they could achieve.
But Wilson was reticent. He had been taught by his parents never to display his emotions or to weep on anyone's shoulder. He was a member of the most loving but most undemonstrative of families.
To the end, there remained left-wingers who were suspicious of his politics and right-wingers who were sceptical of his compromises and of his motives. He was more loyal to his friends than some of them were to him. But in time he did become ''our Harold'' to the Labour rank and file - ''one of us'', as Attlee never was, and Gaitskell could never have been. ''No 10!'' Wilson would cry as he entered a Labour Club. ''Harold's den!'' the delighted would chorus.
Of course, many Tories in the South detested his provincial bounce. He was the archetype of the new meritocrats, a stocky man of undistinguished appearance who had been left with a stoop by typhoid, a common man from nowhere but with a mind of uncommon excellence and a prodigious capacity for work. He had, however, a weakness for boasting and a naive delight in the limelight about his head and the red carpet beneath his feet.
Though he spent six happy years at Oxford Wilson heard no whisper of those last enchantments. In his style, his tastes, his speech, he remained an unchanged man of the North, his Puritan earnestness graced by the affability of the Nonconformist chapel and spiced with a lethal wit. A Macmillan minion complained: ''You are acting as if you were Prime Minister.'' ''Well thank God somebody is,'' Wilson answered.
He married at 24, after six years courtship, Mary Baldwin, daughter of a congregational minister. She gave him two sons and a home in which he could forget about politics.
Wilson was a Yorkshire equivalent of Arnold Bennett's ''Card''. He preserved and cherished his roots. They were good ones. His mother was a schoolteacher and captain of a Girl Guides company. His father was a works chemist, skipper of a Rover (senior scout's) Crew at the Baptist chapel where the family worshipped. Father and son stood on the terraces together cheering Huddersfield Town and the father's motor-bike took Harold on a sidecar ride to see the Wembley Exhibition and to pose for the prophetic picture in front of No 10. ''A lot of lads who make their way up,'' Herbert Wilson observed, ''don't want anything to do with their old folk. But Harold's not like that.''
And Harold had certainly made his way up. King's Scout (12 proficiency badges); scholarship to secondary school; Captain of the School; exhibition at Jesus College, Oxford; First Class degree in Politics, Philosophy and Economics; winner of the Gladstone Memorial Prize and Webb Medley Scholarship; Fellow of University College and assistant to Beveridge; civil servant in the War Cabinet Secretariat; Head of Statistics and Economics at the Ministry of Fuel and Power; and all this by the age of 29.
Wilson had political ambitions and became candidate for Ormskirk, which he won back for Labour in 1945. Before he had seen Parliament in action, he found himself Parliamentary Secretary of the Ministry of Works. Two years later Attlee took him into the Cabinet as President of the Board of Trade, a complex department with a bureaucracy 14,000 strong.
In the House of Commons, he made a poor show. Head down in a departmental brief, he would rush through his speeches, dealing nervously with the barbed interruptions of Brendan Bracken and Oliver Lyttelton. Yet in the department he was most efficient. He was at the heart of the Labour government's effort to put Britain on a sound post-war footing, no matter what it might cost in popularity.
It suited his Puritan nature. Wilson enthusiastically rationed raw materials and clothes (longer than was necessary) and manipulated controls to restrict consumption and stimulate exports. Rationing by decree became the new socialist orthodoxy; rationing by the purse was wicked capitalism. The only popular gesture he allowed himself was a refusal to discourage Dior's New Look which used more cloth than the prevailing fashion. ''We can't dictate what length women shall wear their skirts,'' he said.
But he made himself a laughing stock by speaking of the bootless children of his youth. What he really said was never established. Wilson's version was that he said the boys had to have clogs instead of boots. Some believed that he had claimed to be a barefoot boy himself. For years press and politicians taunted him about barefoot children. ''If he was barefoot,'' Harold Macmillan said, ''it was because he was too big for his boots.''
Wilson stood for the restrictive, controlling, bureaucratic side of the 1945 government. But what was in his mind in the months before his resignation in 1951? Labour had been returned the previous year with a small majority and could not last long. Attlee was unwell, Cripps was ill and had had to retire and Ernie Bevin was dying. The top leadership was fading away. Who would take their place? Cripps's successor as Chancellor of the Exchequer was Hugh Gaitskell and Wilson would have been less than human if he had not been jealous of another economist coming into the Cabinet over his head. When Gaitskell, at the behest of the Americans, decided to finance a heavy programme of rearmament, was it envy and ambition that motivated Wilson to oppose it? Or was it simply that as a good chief of the Board of Trade he had to warn the Cabinet that the programme was impossible and that his own department could not procure all the raw materials needed?
Certainly he was not personally piqued as was Aneurin Bevan, the leader of the revolt, by Gaitskell's insistence on diluting the National Health Service by levying charges for false teeth and spectacles. One must remember that, though Wilson was by this time a mature cabinet minister, he was still an inexperienced politician who had been sheltered from the politics of rivalry and ambition by his giant department. Did he think that soon, when Labour had fought and lost the election, Bevan would replace Attlee as Leader and he, Wilson, would be Number Two?
It was long years in opposition that allowed Wilson to make himself into a politician, a potential leader and a brilliant House of Commons orator and wit. Bevan gave him the clue - ''Cut out the boring detail''. Wilson studied Bevan's methods and, elected to Labour's front bench, he made his attacks on Tory budgets a joyful annual event.
Noting the change in imagery when Macmillan succeeded Butler as Chancellor, he said that Butler's had been equestrian and horticultural, ''curbing the spirited horses'' and ''pruning the roses'' while Macmillan had gone to the electrician to describe the ''blowing of fuses and the pulling out of plugs''. Rarely, commented the unfriendly Daily Telegraph, ''has the clown been played to such effect''.
When the Tories subsidised industry, Wilson described the Treasury as ''a Public Assistance Board for mendicant capitalists'' and, when they decided to tax compensation paid to company directors, the Tory benches looked to him ''like a collection of St Bernards that had lost their brandy''. Macmillan took a connoisseur's delight in Wilson taunts. But when Macmillan became Prime Minister and claimed to draw on the heritage of both Gladstone and Disraeli, he did not enjoy Wilson's jibe, ''He has inherited the streak of charlatanry in Disraeli, but without his vision; and the streak of self- righteousness in Gladstone without his dedication to principle.''
For many years after Labour's defeat in 1951 there was bitter strife in the party between fundamental socialists, with Bevan at their head, and the revisionists, led by Morrison and Gaitskell, who did not believe that the new social and political reality went with the traditional total commitment to socialism. Many people in the party, and Wilson was one of them, stood between the two camps or had a foot in both of them.
In later years, Wilson claimed that he was never a Bevanite, simply a co-belligerent with Bevan sharing a place in the wilderness. But there was more to it than that. Wilson appeared on Tribune brains trusts and was popularly regarded as one of Bevan's lieutenants. That is why he was elected to the constituency section of the National Executive. His status depended not only on his intellect and on his reputation as a minister but on the support of the Left.
When Bevan resigned from the Shadow Cabinet because of disagreement with the policy on German rearmament, Wilson as runner-up in the last election automatically inherited his place. Bevan demanded that he resign at once, and when he refused warned him: ''You'll lose your seat on the Executive.'' ''Not so,'' Wilson said, ''I'll come top.'' So he did. He had learnt to show Conference as much sport in Tory-bashing as Bevan himself could, though he made the journey to the socialist promised land seem longer and more arduous.
Wilson lost nothing of his standing in the party, though he did in the country by hinting that Oliver Poole, the Tory Deputy Chairman, was somehow connected with a leak in the City about an impending change in the Bank Rate. A Tribunal of Inquiry showed there was nothing in it and Wilson, humiliated yet defiant, narrowly avoided disaster in a 90-minute speech in the Commons. With his back to the wall he was at his best.
His capacity for equivocation - or compromise - reached new heights after the loss of the 1959 election, a loss for which he shared responsibility with Gaitskell by an unconvincing claim that Labour's plans for a better Britain could be financed out of increased production without putting up taxation.
Gaitskell now wanted to amend Clause IV of the party's Constitution. Wilson was not a fundamentalist but he argued that the clause represented the central myth of the party, and so should be kept as it was. The conflict was defused, but then moved to Defence. The Executive had come to believe - like some non-socialists such as Selwyn Lloyd - that a country of Britain's size could not be an independent nuclear power, that Britain must leave the provision of the Western strategic deterrent to the United States.
The argument was really about Britain's continuance in Nato with its nuclear strategy and it was against neutralism that Gaitskell promised to fight, fight, and fight again, when Conference rejected a defence policy ''based on the threat of nuclear force''. Wilson did not differ from Gaitskell on policy but believed that the parliamentary party, while elected on a policy of nuclear defence, could yet not frontally oppose the Conference decision. Gaitskell, thought Wilson, ought to come up with a new policy reconciling the contradictory positions. The party leader was being confrontational again and so, as Wilson put it, in the interests of unity he decided to run against him for the leadership. He knew he would lose, but, he said, he could do no other. This was not merely a moral position. The Left, led by Frank Cousins, told him that if he did not run, they would drop him for ever.
Wilson got fewer than half the votes and lost the sympathy of many of his non-Left admirers. Gaitskell's prestige was at its highest when he won Conference back on defence and united the Labour movement solidly behind him in his sceptical approach of bearing. He had gravitas, and was valiant for truth, the hero in politics. Beside him, Wilson looked a devious anti-hero who had no real friends or followers, who was regarded with suspicion on the Left and dubiety on the Right.
Yet when Gaitskell died in January 1963, Wilson headed the first leadership poll with 115 votes. Brown got 88, Callaghan 41. In the second round, with Callaghan eliminated, Wilson got 144, Brown 103. He never forgot that more than half the party had rejected him on the first round and that he would always have to watch his back.
Wilson was 47. From the start he was not merely an able but also a surprisingly agreeable leader. The media, always hungry for personalia, built him up and the public began to respond as they saw on their television screens this homely, pipe- smoking, classless man, who resembled a good family doctor. Everything went his way. He flew to the United States and met the glamorous John F. Kennedy, who was in the same fashionable age-group. He went to Moscow, had several meetings with Khrushchev and discussed a test-ban treaty. The economy at home in which people had recently ''never had it so good'' was in trouble and Super-Mac's image was tarnished first by the Vassall and then by the Profumo scandals. Wilson, perhaps warned by his Bank Rate fiasco, played the situation with impeccable caution. He left the dirty work to others.
In the Sixties the public was in an anti-establishment mood and the desire for a more permissive society was part of it. Satire came to television through That Was The Week That Was and Private Eye was founded. Macmillan was depicted as an elderly, languid, aristocrat left over from the Edwardian era and Sir Alec Douglas-Home, who succeeded him, had to confess that only with the aid of matches could he understand economics. Wilson was the beneficiary of the new mood.
Wilson made no attempt to change Gaitskell's policy. Indeed he himself had been the principal author of the economic section of ''Signposts for the Sixties'' which visualised harnessing socialism to science and science to socialism. In his speech at the Scarborough conference in 1963 Wilson created a new political language much to the taste of younger, educated people. Here at last was the politician who understood the new age of automation and the computer, who would bring science and economic planning together in order to effect a structural change in British industry. There was an unforgettable sentence: ''The Britain that is going to be forged in the white heat of this revolution will be no place for restrictive practices or outdated methods on either side of industry.''
Later he made a patriotic appeal for a new Britain ''whose motivation is not private profit but national effort and national purpose; a Britain, not backward looking, though proud of its past, and willing to discover the true traditions of our nation as a guide to our role in the future.''
Wilson went into the election with all the authority that Gaitskell would have had if he had lived.
Wilson's first term as Prime Minister might have been judged more generously had he not aroused such high expectations. He was 48 when he entered No 10, the youngest Prime Minister since Rosebery and at the height of his powers. Only two years before he had been an also-ran and now he was leader of his party and leader of the nation too.
His zest for office overflowed. Labour had been in the wilderness for 13 years and now he had led them to the promised land. He had, however, a majority of only five and would soon have to fight another election. He resolved to carry out his programme until he was stopped, or was ready to face the electors. His Cabinet lacked governmental experience but was rich in intellect. Nine members like him were graduates of Oxford. Only 8 of the 23 had not been to university and they included his two rivals for the leadership, Brown and Callaghan. The parliamentary party had changed. Half its members were graduates.
Both Brown and Callaghan were men of the centre right with strong bases in the Labour movement, useful minds and a high temperament. Each was ready to fight his corner and Wilson must have known that trouble was ahead as Brown's Department of Economic Affairs had been set up to prevent Callaghan's Treasury from stifling demand-led growth. Brown was to evolve a national plan for an
annual economic growth of 4 per cent and negotiate a voluntary prices and incomes policy to make it feasible. And Wilson created a Ministry of Technology to stimulate science-based industries and the computer revolution he had foreshadowed at Scarborough. Then Wilson and his lieutenants were shown the Treasury books which revealed there was an immediate crisis, a record and rapidly increasing balance of payments deficit which carried an incipient threat to sterling.
For the next four years Wilson was struggling desperately to balance the books and protect the parity of the pound. His aim was ''to win through to surplus and independence, to steady growth based on full employment, to the high-wage economy''. And, Wilson said, these objectives could not be reached without great risk until a strong balance of payments could be assured.
Why did he not devalue the pound the moment he uncovered his bitter legacy? The question was still being asked 20 years after. The world expected a Labour government to devalue rather than to deflate. Wilson's answer was that to devalue may have made economic sense but was full of political danger. He knew from his days in Attlee's government how long it takes a devaluation to restore the balance and what unpopular things must be done to counter its inflationary effects. He feared too that instant devaluation would cause speculators to gamble dangerously on his doing it again when the going looked rough. And Wilson was anxious too to prove that Labour was not financially irresponsible. Treasury, Bank and City were against devaluation. And he did not want to risk upsetting the other world currency, the dollar, a few days before his populist friend President Lyndon Johnson had to face his electors.
The alternative to devaluation was to impose a 15 per cent surcharge and risk the wrath of Efta. He refused the advice of the Earl of Cromer, Governor of the Bank of England, to deflate heavily and said it was outrageous that a Labour government should have to change policies for which it had won democratic consent at the behest of foreign speculators. He threatened he would fight and win an election on that theme. Lord Cromer pointed out that the pound would have gone long before polling day but agreed to set about raising a loan from the central banks anxious to avoid the monetary chaos which would follow a failing pound.
And Wilson got away with it. All economic policy was designed to achieve re-election and to keep the party sweet. These were his best years. He looked omnicompetent. By early 1966 the country had come to believe that Wilson had proved himself a moderate and decisive prime minister and returned him to power with a majority of 97 seats. The Tories were so impressed that they discarded Alec Douglas-Home and chose, as their new leader, Wilson's Conservative clone, Edward Heath.
From 1966 to 1970 Wilson was to plunge from crisis to crisis. After the election, the balance of payments was still threatening, earnings were increasing by almost 10 per cent, and the seamen were on strike. In the July 1966 crisis, Wilson again turned down devaluation and heavily deflated. For the next two or three years he ran through the gamut of deflationary measures, wage and price freezes, special deposits, hire- purchase restrictions, foreign currency rationing, use of the regulator to increase sumptuary taxes, plus, of course, cuts in public expenditure. There were groans from old Labour Party stalwarts and from not so old Labour MPs. He had to legislate to try to break the wage/price spiral and in the end was driven to try to legislate against wildcat strikes.
On the way, Wilson first lost George Brown from the DEA. Brown saw that deflation, increased unemployment and the use of incomes policy as a crisis measure had wrecked his national plan. He stayed to put through a prices and incomes Bill which provided a 12-month price freeze and a six-month wage freeze, to be followed by six months of restraint. Wilson persuaded Brown to stay in government only by offering him the Foreign Office. Even then, Brown resigned before the end of the parliament because he did not like the way Wilson ran the Government.
Wilson lost Callaghan in 1967 when devaluation could no longer be avoided. Wilson persuaded Callaghan to accept the Home Office and appointed Roy Jenkins as Chancellor to carry out the deflation made necessary by devaluation in ''two years of hard slog''. The party groaned under the postponement of the Higher School Leaving Age and the return of prescription charges. A Prices and Incomes policy creating a 3.5 per cent ceiling was met with Labour abstentions in the Commons and rejected by the TUC and the Labour Party. Wilson said: ''The Government must govern.''
The economy was still being damaged by wildcat strikes and under his tutelage Barbara Castle produced In Place of Strife, which proposed allowing the minister to impose a 28-day stoppage, to insist on a ballot before an official strike, and to set up an official board that would impose penalties on defaulters. The unions reacted with horror; the Parliamentary Labour Party was appalled; one by one the Cabinet dissociated themselves and Wilson and Castle stood alone for the policy. The Chief Whip and the Chairman of the parliamentary party warned Wilson that he could not get the Bill through and he dropped it in return for a ''solemn and binding pledge from the TUC to do what they could''. Wilson might well have been ousted after this in favour of Callaghan, who had opposed the policy as a member of the party executive. A number of members, however, hoped that Jenkins would be the next leader and Jenkins had originally welcomed the new policy. The antagonism of the rival supporters preserved Wilson. But he was never the glad confident Wilson again.
The economic battle and the crises overseas obscured even from the party the traditional good works Wilson had carried through. There was some transfer of wealth to the poor; pensions and family allowances were increased, and a scheme for redundancy payments introduced. More resources were found for education and health. Dock labour was decasualised and 400,000 houses were built each year. Money was found for the arts and for sport. And women were to benefit from the Equal Pay Act.
Wilson used to claim that his best achievement was the creation of the Open University. If it had been less controversial in the party he could have boasted of his historic role of restarting the process which was to make Britain a member of the European Economic Community, and of keeping Britain in the community when it might have come out after Labour's return to power in 1974.
Wilson's political skills were at their height in dealing with the European question. There was a strong feeling in the party against the whole idea. The Left believed that the Community wanted to keep west Europe divided from east Europe for the foreseeable future. And even some Fabians and revisionists saw the Community as a rich man's club led by free-enterprise conservatives who would prevent Britain from following the path to socialist planning.
Wilson's prestige after the election of 1966 enabled him to say in the Queen's Speech that he would try to negotiate entry. The first two years of government taught him that he needed wider markets - particularly for aircraft and computers and greater financial resources. He began by taking George Brown on a round of European visits; he addressed the Assembly of the Council of Europe; he had remarkable talks in depth with de Gaulle. In a meeting at Chequers he got the Cabinet to agree to renew Britain's application.
But de Gaulle finally said no, troubled by Wilson's Atlanticism and the role of sterling.
While Government and party were agonising about the economic drama, they were further disturbed and divided by overseas crises. Playing a world role appealed to Wilson's histrionic side and some thought to his vanity. Indeed, they believed that external events distracted his attention from the economic problems. Yet these events were big enough and dangerous enough to demand a prime minister's intervention. From the beginning of his regime to the end Wilson had to face the problems of Rhodesia and Vietnam. Then in 1968 Britain became involved in the Nigerian civil war and a year later events in Northern Ireland took a tragic turn.
The cornerstone of Wilson's foreign policy was to sustain a ''close'' if not a ''special'' relationship with President Johnson, the old populist who headed the world's most powerful economy and was sympathetic to many of Labour's social aims. Johnson wanted Wilson to give at least token military support in Vietnam. But there was a strong desire in the Labour movement for Wilson to denounce the war. Wilson played it down the middle, giving Johnson diplomatic support, though unable to accept the bombing of Hanoi. He and Alexei Kosygin were co-chairmen of the Geneva Conference which had been put together years before to preserve the independence of Vietnam. Thus he had a duty to conciliate.
The reaction of the party to the Nigerian civil war was even more emotional. The republic of Biafra had broken away from the Federation of Nigeria in a complex regional and tribal struggle involving Nigeria's oil. Wilson supported the government of the Federation which Britain had created and whose integrity was accepted by the Commonwealth, and he continued Britain's custom of supplying that government with arms, arguing that, if we did not do so, the Soviet Union's influence in the area would supplant Britain's. Wilson only narrowly got his policies through Cabinet and would not have done so without the stout support of the Foreign Secretary, Michael Stewart, who was ready to resign. Biafran students lit a bonfire in Downing Street, called for Wilson and tried to burst in through the door of No 10.
Wilson's predecessor, Sir Alec Douglas-Home, had told Ian Smith, Rhodesia's prime minister, that he could not win independence unless it was the wish of a vast majority of the population, which consisted of 4 million blacks and about a quarter of a million whites. When Smith refused to come to London, Wilson warned him that a unilateral declaration of independence would be a rebellion against the Crown. The two did meet - in London, in Salisbury, and in the warships Fearless and Tiger off Gibraltar. Wilson sent out high- official and imaginative unofficial missions. Smith would raise their hopes but never gratify them - even though Wilson's final offer came dangerously close to giving Smith all he could hope to get from any government.
The Northern Ireland troubles began ironically with an easing of tension as Terence O'Neill, the most liberal prime minister the Province had ever had, engaged in friendly talks with Premier Lemass of the Republic. Wilson encouraged O'Neill in a programme of reforms concerning the allocation of public service jobs and houses which the civil rights movement was demanding for the underprivileged Roman Catholics. It looked at one time as though there was going to be a miracle in Ulster but O'Neill had difficulty with his colleagues and when his fight came to an end the demonstrations and riots reached such a pitch of violence that the police were exhausted and Wilson and Callaghan, now Home Secretary, had to bring in the Army to keep the peace. They hoped that firmness and fairness would still the quarrel and that the Army would be able to return after a month or two. Though they had been welcomed as protectors by the Catholics, opinion changed. Some of Wilson's supporters joined the Catholics in their call for ''Troops Out''.
In 1968 the chances of Labour's surviving the next election looked slim indeed. In the opinion polls the party sank as low as 21 per cent of the vote and remained in the twenties until September 1969. The by-election results were disastrous. The Cabinet was quarrelsome and as the gap between ideology and necessity widened some contemplated resignation but thought better of it. But Wilson never lost hope - in public at least. Successes were always just around the corner and some found his optimism hard to bear. Political correspondents who had found him the most approachable and frank of prime ministers were disenchanted by his failing predictions. His appearances on television, once so competent, now seemed glib and specious. Wilson suspected, with some justification, that plots were being hatched against him.
In May 1968, Cecil King, chairman of the Mirror Group and Wilson's only support in the popular press, turned on him and wrote: ''Britain is threatened with the greatest financial crisis in history. It is not to be removed by lies about our reserves but only by a fresh start under a fresh leader.'' His attack did Wilson no harm and a fortnight later the Mirror directors unanimously agreed that King must go at once.
At long last the deflation and devaluation began to work and in autumn 1969 the party passed the 30-per-cent mark in the opinion polls. By May 1970 Labour was ahead of the Conservatives and Wilson decided to go to the country. His popularity was always higher than that of the party, particularly in the provinces, and he fought the election largely as a personal fight as if he were a presidential candidate. The moment the first results appeared Wilson knew he was doomed and ordered the removal vans for No 10. Next morning he began to plot the memoirs which would earn the funds the party did not provide to run the leader's office.
Wilson found himself Prime Minister again in March 1974 in circumstances as difficult as those which had faced him 10 years before. True, the pound had been floated and he no longer had the sterling area round his neck. But now he headed a minority government that might be brought down within days and he had inherited an economic crisis aggravated by a four-fold increase in the price of oil. There was a state of emergency. The miners' threat to energy supplies had caused Heath to put the nation on a three- day week. More than 2 million were out of work; inflation was at its highest; there was a vast deficit on the balance of payments.
It was a less buoyant Wilson who now went back to No 10. After the shock of his unexpected defeat in 1970 he had buried his head for 12 months in his 400,000-word account of 1964-70. He regained party confidence only after a masterly attempt to deal with the Northern Irish problem which included secret meetings with the ''untouchable'' IRA. His leadership ceased to be questionable and he came to No 10 with 14 members of his previous Cabinet available for office. His 1974 style was so different that people wondered whether he was ill. But he explained to Labour MPs that with the inexperienced Cabinet of 1964 he had had to occupy every position on the field - goalkeeper, defence, attack. But now he could be a deep-lying centre-half concentrating on defence and initiating attacks. What he did not say was that he would resign the captaincy and leave the field before half-time.
Wilson decided that audacity was the only practical policy. First he got the TUC and the CBI to agree that they would co-operate with the Government to bring the coal dispute to an end. The Cabinet then sanctioned the terms for settlement he had advocated in the election and he was able to announce within 50 hours of going to Buckingham Palace to discuss the forming of a government that the solution had been found. The next day he brought the state of emergency to an end. The Queen's Speech, made eight days after Labour had taken office, covered Labour's commitments for a full Parliament. Heath threatened to defeat the Government but withdrew after Wilson had warned him that he would do so at his electoral peril.
The past hung heavily on Wilson. Many in the party felt that the previous Labour government had been too pragmatic and had neglected its ties with the unions. Wilson had been more like a Tory prime minister than a socialist one. Labour came to office in 1974 committed against the statutory control of incomes but hoping the unions would be moderate. To get their goodwill and encourage them to accept some responsibility for the level of wage increases, an understanding had been reached in opposition that there would be a ''social contract''. Not only would a Labour government repeal Heath's Industrial Relations Act and end legal wages restraint, it would also take action against price increases and seriously attack social inequalities.
Having been defeated 20 times on important amendments Wilson decided to go to the country in October and he won the election, though with an overall majority of only three. Yet he was in less danger than he seemed, since the Opposition parties could rarely co-operate against him. More worrying for him was the Parliamentary Labour Party, riven by differences on domestic policies and the Common Market. The quadrupling of the price of oil had helped to create a new and little understood phenomenon, an inflationary recession that could not be cured simply by increasing public expenditure as the party activists were demanding. On the contrary there would have to be cuts. And it was essential to check domestic inflation. One man's pay rise was another man's job loss, as Wilson put it.
Wilson was warned by all the authorities that the pound might go and it was essential to have a legally imposed incomes policy. The TUC guidelines on pay were not being observed by all unions. In the first 12 months of the new government the wage index rose by 33 and the RPI by 21. Wilson used all his goodwill to warn the unions that unless a voluntary policy near the guidelines was followed there would be more unemployment and lower living standards.
The solution was surprisingly found by Jack Jones, the left-wing leader of the Transport and General Workers' Union, who got a divided General Council to accept a practical proposal of a flat-rate increase of more than pounds 6 which was compatible with an inflation target of 10 per cent. Would the miners accept it? Wilson went to their conference and made a patriotic appeal. ''What the Government has the right to ask, the duty to ask,'' he said, ''is a year not for self but a year for Britain.'' Would the unions really stick by the pounds 6? Wilson closed the credibility gap by saying that if anybody stepped out of line, the Government would take reserve powers to apply legal restraints - not on workers but on employers. Wizardry, said the Times and the Guardian.
Wilson had come to office with the party opposed to the terms of Britain's entry to the Common Market and a commitment to renegotiate them. The people could decide by ballot whether they then wished Britain to remain a member. ''In all my 13 years as leader,'' Wilson afterwards said, ''I had no more difficult task than keeping the party together on this issue.'' Twice he had to threaten resignation to keep the national executive in line.
The renegotiation achieved more than was then obvious. Not only was Britain awarded a surprisingly generous share of the new regional fund but an agreement was reached to operate a corrective mechanism if Britain's budgetary contributions got too far out of line with its relative GNP. It provided a basis from which, later, Mrs Thatcher could make her uninhibited demands. Wilson was ready to claim success and recommend acceptance but some ministers were irreconcilable. He therefore proposed the extraordinary solution that dissident ministers could campaign in the country, though not at Westminster, for a ''No'' vote.
In March, Wilson got the Cabinet to recommend a ''Yes'' vote but next month a special meeting of the party conference rejected the terms by two to one. In the campaign Foot, Benn and Barbara Castle fought hard for rejection but in the Referendum it was the ''Yes'' side that got twice as many votes as the ''Nos''; the Left was humiliated.
In March 1976 Wilson shocked almost everybody by his announcement that he was about to retire. He was 60 and had had enough. All the old problems of the nation and the party were still there and he had no new and feasible solution for them. He would rather people asked why did he go, rather than why did he stay.
The view commonly taken of Wilson as Prime Minister may seem to historians to be too harsh. After all, complete economic success eluded every other post-war government. His classic error was thought to be his refusal to devalue the pound until he could hold out no longer. But, as Samuel Brittan wrote on Wilson's retirement in 1976, ''Early devaluation would not have avoided the conflict between traditional full employment objectives, the strike threat system, and maintaining a usable currency.''
Both in 1964 and 1974 Wilson came to office at a time of economic crisis and, as he was without a working majority, had to improvise until he could fight another election and increase his strength. Part of the disappointment in his subsequent performance was that he aroused too high hopes of a golden future once Labour had replaced the Conservatives. But his freedom to deal with the endemic problems of the balance of payments was restricted by the socialist myth which made conventional remedies appear to be attempts to make capitalism work; by the recurring strife between the left and right wings of the party and by the party's dependence on a trade-union movement which wanted to influence policy but could not play a sustained role in managing the economy.
The month after he resigned, the Queen appointed Wilson to the Order of the Garter. His own resignation Honours List was deplored by his friends and ridiculed by his foes. Wilson maintained that the list was his and his alone and that Baroness Falkender (as his political secretary Mrs Williams had become in 1974) denied the allegations that it was her list. Marcia Williams served Wilson for many years. There was never a shred of evidence for the gossip about their relationship. Some members of Wilson's kitchen cabinet found her difficult and she them, but too much was made of it.
Wilson remained an MP, presiding over a committee that reviewed the city's financial institutions, writing his memoirs and making an occasional lecture tour. He survived after two operations for cancer. In 1979 he became Lord Wilson of Rievaulx.
He played little part in the work of the House of Lords but voted dutifully. After the age of 70 his memory began to fail and though his wit could sparkle on some days, on others he was deeply withdrawn and he sadly failed to acknowledge old friends.
James Harold Wilson
1916 born Huddersfield 11 March; 1937 appointed Lecturer in Economics at New College, Oxford; 1938 elected Fellow of University College, Oxford; 1940 married Mary Baldwin; 1943 appointed Director of Economics and Statistics at Ministry of Power; 1945 elected MP (Labour) for Ormskirk, appointed Parliamentary Secretary at the Ministry of Works; appointed OBE; 1947 appointed Secretary for Overseas Trade, and a Privy Counsellor in May, in October became at 31 the youngest cabinet minister of the century as President of the Board of Trade; 1950 elected MP for Huyton; 1959-63 chaired Public Accounts Committee; 1963 challenged Hugh Gaitskell for party
'We are redefining . . . our socialism in terms of the scientific revolution . . . the Britain that is going to be forged in the white heat of this revolution will be no place for restrictive practices or outdated methods on either side of industry'
Harold Wilson in the Commons, October 1963
leadership; 1963 following Gaitskell's death, elected Leader of the Labour Party, and Leader of the Opposition; 1964 elected Prime Minister, ending 13 years in Opposition for Labour; 1966 called general election, boosting Labour's majority; 1967 devalued sterling by 14 per cent; 1968 launched "I'm backing Britain" campaign; 1969 elected Fellow of the Royal Society; 1970 became Leader of the Opposition after election defeat by Conservative Party under Edward Heath; 1974 re-elected Prime Minister, in year of two general elections, with a three-seat majority; 1976 resigned as Prime Minster and Leader of the Labour Party; appointed a Knight of the Garter; 1983 created Baron Wilson of Rievaulx; 1995 died London 24 May.
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Celebrities who posed for Playboy
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Madonna
In October 2015, after losing millions of readers to easily available Internet pornography, Playboy announced that it would be doing away with nudity in favor of partially clothed, raw intimacy. Not a bad idea considering that web traffic to Playboy's site jumped from about 4 million to 16 million when it removed nudity last year.
Still, though, the announcement has some mourning the loss of an iconic cultural cornerstone. Despite its raciness and the controversy that occasionally surrounded it, countless celebrities posed for the groundbreaking adult magazine as a sort of Hollywood rite of passage. This 1985 Madonna cover is just one of the most famous.
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Marilyn Monroe
When Playboy was first published in 1953, the inaugural issue featured nude photos of Marilyn Monroe. It was notably left undated because the magazine's founder, Hugh Hefner, didn't know if there would be a second issue.
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Steve Martin
While one might expect public figures like Madonna and Marilyn Monroe to grace the cover of Playboy, other celebrities' cameos were far more unexpected. Comedian Steve Martin, for example, was a bit of a surprising choice for the January 1980 cover. It's probably one of the most memorable ones ever, though.
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Mariah Carey
Between the time she came out with "All I Want For Christmas Is You" and when she married Nick Cannon, Mariah Carey appeared on the cover of Playboy. She donned a one-piece bathing suit with cutouts, and the issue hit the stands in March 2007.
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Kim Kardashian
"Keeping Up with the Kardashians" debuted on E! in October 2007. Two months later, its poster girl, Kim, posted up on the cover of Playboy.
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Cindy Crawford
Cindy Crawford appeared on the cover of Playboy's July 1988 issue, alongside articles on Jesse Jackson and "The Last Words On Ronald Reagan."
Playboy has stated that its history of provocative articles and newsmaking interviews will remain intact, even after the makeover -- something the magazine has featured since its very first issue, Hefner explained to CBS' Charlie Rose in 2005.
"It was all there, I mean there were food and drink features, fashion," Hefner said.
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In January 1995, Drew Barrymore graced the cover ... a child star, all grown up.
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Jessica Alba
In March 2006, fresh off her box office success with "Sin City," "Into the Blue," and "Fantastic Four," Jessica Alba posed for Playboy. Those, of course, were the days before she was a wife, a mother, and a pioneer of eco-friendly soap.
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Pamela Anderson
Model and actress Pamela Anderson has appeared on more Playboy covers than anyone else. Beginning in 1989, her Playboy career spans 22 years. She appears on numerous covers, in several centerfolds, and even wrote the foreword to the 2012 coffee table book, "Playboy's Greatest Covers."
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Chelsea Handler
Comedian Chelsea Handler appeared on the cover of Playboy's 2009 Christmas issue; the bigger shock perhaps not being that she bared it all, but that she did so in a rather serious context.
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Uma Thurman
Long before Uma Thurman slayed countless men with martial arts in "Kill Bill," she did it with pictorials in the Australian incarnation of Playboy.
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Lindsay Lohan
In 2012, "Mean Girls" star Lindsay Lohan struck a mean pose on the cover of Playboy's January/February double issue. Insiders said the shoot was designed to be reminiscent of the magazine's inaugural shoot with Marilyn Monroe.
Hugh Hefner later hinted on his Twitter that the Lohan issue was one of the best-selling in Playboy history.
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Bruno Mars
Steve Martin wasn't the only male to grace the cover of Playboy. In April 2012, Bruno Mars appeared on a Playboy cover as well, albeit fully clothed.
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Jenny McCarthy
Long before she became a co-host of "The View," Jenny McCarthy began her career as a Playboy model in 1993. In 1994, she was chosen as Playmate of the Year and parlayed her success into an acting career.
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Kate Moss
British supermodel Kate Moss graced the cover of Playboy's January/February 2014 double issue in the magazine's signature bunny ears and tail. The pictorial spread ran alongside a Q&A between Moss and Tom Jones, in which she discusses her cocktail of choice and a night when someone tried to take a picture of her going to the bathroom in the men's room.
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Vanna White
In May 1987, "Wheel Of Fortune" co-host Vanna White bared her behind on the cover of Playboy. In a cute play on her television personality, the two Y's in the magazine's name were left out, as if a contestant might soon spin the wheel and shout out that letter.
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Carmen Electra
"Baywatch" actress Carmen Electra appeared in Playboy several times over the course of her career. The first was in May 1996.
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Dolly Parton
Country icon Dolly Parton posed for Playboy in October 1978. It must have been good luck because, shortly afterward, she unleashed a stream of pop-country hits that topped the singles charts, including "9 to 5" and "Islands in the Stream."
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Charlize Theron
Charlize Theron appeared on the cover of Playboy in May 1999, the same year she appeared in both "The Astronaut's Wife" and "The Cider House Rules." It's probably safe to assume the Playboy Mansion had a fairly different set of rules than the Cider House.
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Nancy Sinatra
Nancy Sinatra earned the "sin" in her last name when she posed for Playboy in May 1995, just one month shy of her 55th birthday. What can you say? Her father was Frank Sinatra, so she learned how to do things "her way."
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Naomi Campbell
British supermodel Naomi Campbell stripped down for the December 1999 issue of Playboy, smack in the prime of her career. Her pictorial was 14 pages long.
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Farrah Fawcett
"Charlie's Angels" actress Farrah Fawcett largely resisted taking her clothes off for magazines or movies throughout the '70s and '80s. So, when she posed semi-nude for the December 1995 issue of Playboy, it created a bit of a stir.
At the age of 50, Fawcett posed for the magazine again. That July 1997 issue came with an accompanying video, in which Fawcett - also an artist - painted a canvas with her body.
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| Playboy |
Which newspaper was instrumental in getting Zola Budd to compete for England | BBC News | Entertainment | Naked ambition
Naked ambition
Publicity stunt: Gail Porter's nude image projected on to Parliament
By BBC News Online's Jonathan Duffy
Once she was a supermodel, among the most f�ted and aesthetically perfect creatures on the planet.
Now, at the ripe old age of 33, Cindy Crawford's star is in its descent. Yet there is still one sure way for her to be a cover girl again - get pregnant and get naked.
In celebrity speak Cindy has "done a Demi" - that is, followed in the footsteps of Hollywood actress Demi Moore, who caused a sensation when she stripped off to bare her bump for the cover of Vanity Fair.
First came Demi in 1991...
A legion of celebrities followed including Spice Girl Mel G, aka Scary Spice, who posed nude for a Sunday newspaper when she was heavily pregnant with daughter Phoenix Chi.
Whatever their professed motives - Crawford says she did it on the spur of the moment - stripping off is good for publicity, whether pregnant or not.
Just ask former BBC children's TV presenter Gail Porter, troubled supermodel Kate Moss or pop star Madonna.
On Tuesday, it emerged that one of Crawford's former supermodel cohorts, Naomi Campbell, has posed for Playboy.
The 28-year-old, who was once a darling of the high fashion world, has turned glamour model and is hotly tipped to be the magazine's "Millennial Playmate".
...then Cindy in 1999
Getting undressed for the cameras is now so par for the course that even non-celebrities are following suit. Historian Amanda Foreman raised a few eyebrows in the academic world when she went au naturel to promote her book on Georgiana, Duchess of Devonshire.
In April, 11 members of Rylstone and District Women's Institute posed for a nude calendar, while last year 35 staff at a London advertising agency - where they know a thing or two about promotion - did the same to raise their profile.
Common though it is, humans remain fascinated by each others bodies. Ever since John Lennon and Yoko Ono decided to show themselves fully for the cover of their Two Virgins album, celebrity nudity has been a headline grabber.
Psychologist Dr Mark Griffiths, of Nottingham Trent University, says publicity-seeking is just one of several reasons.
"There's a host of different reasons. Money is an obvious one - Demi Moore was supposed to have got a lot - but Gail Porter says she did it on the spur of the moment. She didn't even get paid."
A shot from the Rylstone Women's Institute calendar
The same is true of Crawford, who did her session gratis for W magazine in the US. She had been due to pose in evening gowns but did not look pregnant enough.
Deeper motives have been suggested elsewhere. Andrew Evans, an arts and media psychologist, suggests the urge to strip could be revealing an unconscious desire to have a baby.
In the case of former fresh-faced kids presenter Gail Porter, who has posed naked for both GQ - coated in baby oil - and FHM magazine, it was a bombastic attempt at changing her image.
"I'm not doing anything you wouldn't see on the beach. It's nothing really. It just makes me feel feminine," she said after the first photo shoot.
Meanwhile, Kate Winslet is said to have felt "released" after her first go at on-screen nudity.
One time Blue Peter girl Anthea Turner posed with just a python
Anthea Turner and Kate Moss might have been looking for the same experience - both stripped off while recovering from a personal crisis.
Turner said there were "many reasons" why she decided to be photographed for Tatler wearing nothing more than a live python. Her main motivation had been to raise money for the fight against breast cancer.
With Moss, it was less of a surprise. Months before the nude shoot she said in a Vogue interview: "I'll get my tits out at any chance. The more you do it, the more comfortable you are about it."
One thing which unites them all, from Jerry Hall (another pregnant poser) to Helen Mirren (who did it for the Radio Times); Madonna (see her book Sex) to Denise Van Outen (a star of the recent Tatler "nude" edition), is that they are all powerful women, in control.
Yet if it were as simple as naked body = good publicity, why are no men joining in?
| i don't know |
What is the name of the Salvation Army's most famous weekly paper | The Origin and Early Development of the Salvation Army in Victorian England
The Origin and Early Development of the Salvation Army in Victorian England
Dr Andrzej Diniejko , D. Litt. in English Literature and Culture, Warsaw University; Contributing Editor, Poland
[ Victorian Web Home —> Religion —> The Church of England —> Victorian Evangelicals ]
Introduction
The history of the Salvation Army began in 1865, when William Booth established an evangelical and philanthropic organisation to preach salvation from sins and propagate purity of life among the poor and destitute people of London's East End. William Booth and his wife Catherine Mumford Booth, who grew up in the most turbulent time of the Industrial Revolution , believed that evangelical work among the poor must be accompanied by well-organised social relief work.
Theological Roots
The Salvation Army, founded by William and Catherine Booth, aimed to continue the tradition of socially committed evangelicalism which dated back to John Wesley 's Methodism and American revivalism propagated by James Caughey. Booths' dogma was John Wesley's Arminian theology of “free salvation for all men and full salvation from all sin.” (Murdoch 2)
The Christian Mission (1865-1878)
In early 1865, William and Catherine Booth received invitations to preach in London. William began preaching outside the public house in Whitechapel Road called The Blind Beggar, trying to save the souls of people that were not particularly welcomed by the established churches. In late 1865, the Booths founded the Christian Revival Association, an independent religious association, which was soon renamed the East London Christian Mission. It was organised after the Wesleyan tradition. In 1867, the Christian Mission acquired the Eastern Star, a run-down beer shop, for 120 pounds, and turned it into its first headquarters known as the People's Mission Hall, which began to perform two functions: religious and social. It housed people for all-night prayer vigils, known as the Midnight Meeting movement, and also sold cheap food to the needy. (Rappaport 101-2)
Left: General William Booth. Right: Mrs. Catherine Booth both by George Edward Wade.
The East London Christian Mission, which operated as a charitable religious movement, was one of some 500 Christian missions established in the East London slum areas, but it soon began to distinguish itself by its unconventional social work, setting a number of mission stations across East London with the aim to spread the salvation message and to feed and shelter the destitute. In 1870, Catherine Booth started a social scheme called “Food for the Million” aimed at helping the poor and destitute. The Mission set up five outlets in East London, which were administered by Bramwell Booth and James Flawn. Hot soup was always available day and night and a modest dinner of three courses could be bought for sixpence, but due to insufficient funding this scheme had failed by 1874. (Inglis 197)
During its first years, the Christian Mission, restricted by a system of commissions and conferences, showed a slow progress in East London because it lacked funds, a firm doctrine, a stable organisational basis and devoted assistant evangelists, who could effectively address the unchurched working-class masses. When revivalist preaching produced a relatively little effect among the East End's, “heathens” as they were called by the Booths, a new strategy was devised. The Mission began to use new methods of approaching the attention of slum dwellers through militant language, uniforms, popular music, and a Victorian love of public spectacle.
Since theatres could not operate on Sundays, William Booth decided to hire one for the Mission's Sunday services. His first choice was the Oriental Theatre (Queen's Theatre) in Poplar, which offered music-hall entertainment and had a capacity of 800 people. Next Booth hired the Effingham Theatre, which was described as one of the “dingiest and gloomiest places of amusement in London,” but it could accommodate 3000 people. Booth's Sunday services were announced by sensational advertisements like: “Change of performance, ” or “Wanted 3000 men to fill the Effingham Theatre. The Rev. William Booth will preach in this theatre on Sunday next evening.” (Bennett 22) Booth attracted an audience of 2000 which listened to his preaching with great interest. His strategy was to combine serious preaching with popular entertainment, like that in music-halls.
William Booth and his wife Catherine adhered to the idea of militant or aggressive Christianity, and they believed that autocratic leadership was more effective in spreading evangelisation to uneducated and unchurched working-class masses than traditional forms of pastoral care. In 1870, William Booth assumed the position General Superintendent of the Christian Mission and became “the undisputed leader of the organization.” (Bennett 45) The popularity of the Christian Mission was growing steadily, particularly outside London, in spite of difficulties and opposition, and by 1878 it had 30 stations and 36 missioners in various locations across the United Kingdom. As Pamela J. Walker has written,
The Christian Mission was part of a broad evangelical missionary effort to reach the urban working class. Its theology drew on Methodism, American revivalism, and the holiness movement. William Booth's open air preaching was similar to the work that had been done by evangelicals for decades. The Mission, however, differed from other home missions. The authority it granted women, its emphasis on holiness theology and revivalist methods, its growing independence, and its strict hierarchical structure were all features that sharply distinguished it from its contemporaries. The Christian Mission was created in the midst of the working-class communities it aimed to transform. It fashioned an evangelical practice from the geography and culture of the working-class communities it strived to convert. [42]
The Birth of the Salvation Army
In 1878, when William Booth was dictating a letter to his secretary George Scott Railton, he used a phrase “The Christian Mission is a Volunteer Army.” His teenage son Bramwell heard it and said: “ Volunteer, I’m not a volunteer, I’m a regular or nothing!” (Gariepy 9) This prompted William Booth to substitute the word “Salvation Army” for the “Volunteer Army,” which became the new name of the Christian Mission. The last of the Christian Mission conferences, held in August, 1878, adopted unanimously the new military programme of the Salvation Army.
Uniforms, Flags and Tambourines
The Salvation Army developed its new image by emulating the structure and conduct of a military organisation. In the Christian Mission the male evangelists wore modest frock coats , tall hats and black ties. Women evangelists wore plain dresses, jackets and plain Quaker -type bonnets which protected them from being hit by a disrespectful mob that not infrequently threw at them cow manure, bad eggs, or stones. Women also wore brooches with an S letter. After the Mission became the Salvation Army, a type of uniform, modelled on Victorian military garb, was adopted.
In the 1880s, the Salvation Army, which resembled a quasi-military organisation, began to establish its mission stations all over Britain and also overseas. These mission stations were called “corps.” Their members wore distinctive quasi-military uniforms, had ranks ranging from “ Cadet” (a candidate for ministry), through “Lieutenant” and “Captain” to the highest one “ General” vested in William Booth. Rank-and-file members were called “soldiers” and new converts were “captives.”
Salvationists used military vocabulary to describe their religious practices. For example, revival meetings were “sieges,” places of worhip were “citadels” or “outposts,” daily Bible readings were called “rations.” Birth was referred to as the “arrival of reinforcements, ” and death was “promotion to glory” (Taiz 20). These military metaphors seemed to be more appealing to the masses than traditional preaching.
The first flag of the Salvation Army, designed by Catherine Booth, was presented to Coventry Corps in 1878. Initially, it was crimson with a navy-blue border, which symbolised holiness, and a yellow sun in the middle, which was later replaced by a star, that signified the fiery baptism with the Holy Ghost. The motto written on the star, 'Blood and Fire', stands for the blood of Christ and the Fire of the Holy Ghost. According to a contemporary estimate, at the close of the year 1878 the Salvation Army had 81 corps and 127 officers, of whom 101 had been converted at its own meetings. (Briggs 700)
Thanks to these transformations the Salvation Army became stronger, better organised and more effective. The Army's unconventional evangelistic and social activity, which was manifested by lively processions with banners, cornets and tambourines, appealed to the working-classes more than traditional preaching.
The Salvation Army was a neighborhood religion. It invented a battle plan that was especially suited to urban working-class geography and cultural life. Religious words were sung to music-hall tunes; circus posters and theater announcements were copied so closely that observers often failed to distinguish them; preachers imitated the idiom of street vendors; and congregations were encouraged to shout out responses to the preacher, much as they might in the music halls. Salvationists culled techniques from contemporary advertising and revivalism. Their military language aptly expressed Salvationists' command to do battle with the enemy. The Army regarded pubs, music halls, sports, and betting as its principal rivals, yet its ability to use popular leisure activities as its inspiration was a major facet in its success. [Walker 2]
The Social Wing of the Salvation Army
According to Norman H. Murdoch, “by 1886 the Salvation Army's growth had come to a halt in England — much as the Christian Mission's growth had ceased in East London by 1874” (113) — mostly because William Booth primarily preached the need for salvation, i.e. redemption from sin and its effects, but overlooked social work among the poor and destitute.
In the mid 1880s, the Salvation Army developed new strategies which aimed to deal with the poverty and squalor of urban slums. Street preaching, home meetings, prayer groups and Bible study were supplemented by social action. Francis S. Smith, who was for some time a Salvation Army commissioner in the United States, and William Thomas Stead, one of the most distinguished Victorian journalists and a dedicated supporter of the Salvation Army (later a Titanic victim), contributed to the rise of the Social Wing of the Salvation Army. They argued convincingly that the Army should not concentrate on pure evangelism only, but must be involved more actively in social work in order to win converts from the lower classes. William Booth quickly understood these arguments and he endorsed the new strategy which was to involve the Salvation Army in Christian social reform.
Smith and Stead helped Booth to write In Darkest England and the Way Out (1890), an important manifesto, which proposed social and welfare schemes aimed to eradicate poverty, squalor and unemployment in congested urban areas through organised labour exchanges, food distribution networks, co-operative workshops and farms, and emigration of surplus labour to the British colonies.
The Salvation Army magazine, All the World from 1893, reported that in the period from November 1, 1892, to October 1st, 1893, the Social Wing of the Salvation Army provided 3,886,896 meals, 1,094,078 men were sheltered, 1,987 passed through Elevators (work establishments), 267 were provided with situation, 159 passed to Farm Colony and 180 men from Prison-Gate Home were sent to situations (477). Besides, the Salvation Army promoted job creation schemes by encouraging local authorities to employ unemployed people in roadwork and tree-planting on public roads.
In 1893, the Army also expressed 'great interest' in the formation of a Government Labour Department, which would gather statistics and information about vacant jobs. By 1900, the Salvation Army had opened its own labour exchange in London to help poor people find jobs. However, it was not until 1909 that Parliament passed a law which provided for the establishment of nationalised labour exchanges. The social ministry of the Salvation Army became one of its most valuable assets in the last decade of Victorian Britain.
In Darkest England
Booth's book, In Darkest England and the Way Out, made a shocking comparison between darkest Africa and contemporary England. The General pointed out that of the thirty-one million population of Great Britain, three million people lived in what he called “darkest England.” Next he described his ideas how to apply the Christian faith to an industrialised society. The book became an instant bestseller “selling roughly 115,000 copies within the first few months after its publication ” (Robert Haggard 73). Almost immediately Booth received sympathetic responses not only from common readers but also from wealthy individuals, who promised to make substantial donations.
The title of Booth's book alludes to Henry Morton Stanley’s famous travel narrative, In Darkest Africa (1890). The general message of the book was that the subhumane living conditions in English urban slums were not different from those in Africa.
As there is a darkest Africa is there not also a darkest England? Civilization, which can breed its own barbarians, does it not also breed its own pygmies? May we not find a parallel at our own doors, and discover within a stone's throw of our cathedrals and palaces similar horrors to those which Stanley has found existing in the great Equatorial forest? [18]
Booth wanted the general public to fully realise that England was still a divided nation, and the divide between the rich and the poor threatened the spiritual and economic development of the nation.
The Equatorial Forest traversed by Stanley resembles that Darkest England of which I have to speak, alike in its vast extent – both stretch, in Stanley's phrase, “as far as from Plymouth to Peterhead;” its monotonous darkness, its malaria and its gloom, its dwarfish de-humanized inhabitants, the slavery to which they are subjected, their privations and their misery. That which sickens the stoutest heart, and causes many of our bravest and best to fold their hands in despair, is the apparent impossibility of doing more than merely to peck at the outside of the endless tangle of monotonous undergrowth; to let light into it, to make a road clear through it, that shall not be immediately choked up by the ooze of the morass and the luxuriant parasitical growth of the forest — who dare hope for that? At present, alas, it would seem as though no one dares even to hope! It is the great Slough of Despond of our time. [19 ]
The book provided shocking facts and statistics about England's poor, the majority of whom were homeless, jobless and starving. Booth estimated that one tenth of Britain's population, which he called the 'submerged tenth', lived in abject poverty and destitution. Shocked by the ugliness, misery and the grinding deprivation of slum dwellers, under the influence of his wife and collaborators William Booth devised a social relief programme to remedy the moral, spiritual and physical destitution of the poor. It was expressed succinctly by the slogan “soup, soap and salvation,” which served as the ideological basis of the Salvation Army.
Booth's social engineering scheme had some affinity with that proposed earlier by Thomas Carlyle. Both of these Victorian sages were concerned with the moral and material conditions in England. Booth included extracts from Carlyle's Past and Present in Darkest England. In writing his book Booth also drew on the social ideas of Cobbett, Disraeli, Ruskin, Morris, among others. Booth's treatise was aimed at revealing the economic, social, and moral problems of poverty, squalor, homelessness and unemployment in England at the end of the Victorian era. He then presented a number of proposals for a great reconstruction of the nation by eliminating squalor, poverty, destitution and vice from congested slum districts.
His welfare scheme proposed the establishment of homes for orphaned children, rescue centres for women and girls who were affected by prostitution and sex trafficking, rehabilitation centres for alcoholics and ex-prisoners. Besides, he planned to organise a Poor Man's Banker Service, which would make small loans to labourers who wanted to buy tools or start a trade, and a Poor Man's Lawyer Service, as well as establishments for industrial labour of unemployed, co-operative farms, and oversea colonies for people who could not find steady employment in England. Booth's programme was founded on both evangelical philanthropy and imperial ideology. His intention was to revitalise England's redundant labour within Britain's imperial expansion.
Booth drew attention to the Salvation Army by advocating a rather simple proposal. If private donors agreed to contribute L100,000, he would establish a number of city workshops and farm colonies to elevate the moral and material condition of the London poor. Within the workshops and colonies, the poor would be required to submit to strict discipline and moral supervision. They were also expected to take their work seriously. Those who graduated from one of the city workshops would be transferred to a farm colony in England; later, after they had proven themselves as farm laborers, they would be allowed to migrate overseas, either to a Salvation Army farm colony in Canada or Australia or to a homestead of their own. Pursuant to these goals, the Salvation Army purchased a one-thousand-acre estate in Essex for mixed farming and brick manufacture in 1891. By 1893, the Salvation Army had organized five city colonies in London providing work for 2,700 people — a match factory, a creche-knitting factory, a book-binding factory, a laundry, and a text-making and needlework factory; the Salvation Army also sponsored eighteen labor bureaux and a registry office for unemployed domestic servants. Although seemingly quite expensive, many people believed that Booth's program would be cost effective over time, particularly in comparison with the Poor Law. [Haggard 72]
In Darkest England provoked a relatively positive response. “Few books upon their first appearance have received so much attention, ” wrote an enthusiastic donor in the Contemporary Review, who himself gave 1,500 pounds for the Social Wing schemes (Inglis 204) After the publication of Booth's book the number of individual philanthropists, who aided the General with money and moral support, grew considerably. Many of Booth's ideas were implemented during his life, others were put into action in the 20th century when the state welfare system began to operate.
Rescue Shelters
The Salvation Army ran different types of shelters for men and women in London and other locations in Britain as well as overseas. The cheapest one was the penny sit-up shelter. Its inmates were allowed to sit on a bench in a heated spacious hall all night long. However, they could not lie down and sleep on the bench. If an inmate could spare another penny, he could get a rope put across the bench and was allowed to sleep hanging over the rope. The inmates were woken up abruptly early at daybreak because the rope was cut, and they had to leave the shelter which was then cleaned and ventilated. Another type of shelter, which cost four-penny, was called a 'coffin house' because homeless people could sleep in wooden boxes which looked like coffins. The package included hot breakfast in the morning. In some shelters soup and bread were also on offer.
In the 1890s the Salvation Army started again the soup for the poor scheme. In 1896, the Salvation Army distributed 3.2 million meals, provided lodgings for 1.3 million, and found employment for 12,000 men. By 1890, it had provided a substantial amount of charitable relief through its twelve food depots, sixteen night shelters, thirteen refuges for women, and numerous soup kitchens. The Salvation Army also held annual clothing and blanket drives, sold life insurance, and owned a savings bank during the 1880s. [Henry R. Haggard 72]
The first night shelter for men was opened in 1888 at 21 West India Dock Road in Limehouse. Next shelters were opened at 61A St John's Square, Clerkenwell; 272 Whitechapel Road, Whitechapel; and at 83 Horseferry Road, Westminster. Some of the shelter occupants could hope to get employment in factories, which Salvationists called, Elevators, because they were to elevate the moral character and the self-respect and capacity of the destitute people. They were trained in carpentering, brushmaking firewood, baskets, paper sorting, tinwork, shoemaking, matchmaking. Others could be sent to the large farm at Hadleigh, where they were trained in agricultural jobs. The farm at Hadleigh-on-Thames, which contained 1,500 acres, trained men in agriculture, joinery, and making of bricks and shoes. About 1,200 men served as colonists during a year. Of these more than 300 were discharged because they were unwilling to work or were irreformable drunkers. (Briggs 709) The Salvation Army also made efforts to secure occupation for them in the British Dominions.
Rehabilitation of Prostitutes
In 1881, a Whitechapel Salvationist Elizabeth Cottrill began to take to her home at 1 Christmas Street women who had fallen into prostitution, or who were homeless, destitute and vulnerable. Her house soon became overcrowded and another house was rented in nearby Hanbury Street for the fallen women. Each woman who entered the Hanbury Street Shelter had to put a penny through a little hatchway to receive in return a mugful of hot, strong, well-sweetened tea, with a slice of bread spread with dripping. Women ate and drank, sewed, knitted, talked, and waited for the evening service in the big hall. They could wash their dirty clothes in the wash-house. For threepence, they could get supper, bed and breakfast. At nine they had to go to bed. Their bedsteads were wooden boxes, placed close side by side. Bedding consisted of seaweed and a large leather sheet with a strap round the neck to prevent its slipping off. The rule of the Shelter was: bed at nine, rise at six, and all out by eight. Attached to the woman's Shelter was a place for mothers and their babies.
In the mid 1880s, Bramwell Booth and his wife Florence Soper Booth, joined Josephine Butler, a social reformer and feminist, and the journalist Thomas Stead in their campaign against the white slave trade. Bramwell Booth, together with W.T. Stead, exposed trafficking of young girls for prostitution. In July 1885, the Pall Mall Gazette published a series of articles, “The Maiden Tribute of Modern Babylon, ” which described how its editor, W. T. Stead, arranged for the purchase of thirteen-year old Eliza Armstrong for five pounds from her alcoholic mother, with the mother’s full consent that the girl would be put in a brothel. (Bartley 88) Although Stead's investigative journalism was controversial, the articles created a wide public outcry. Catherine and William Booth sent a petition to the House of Commons in support of the Criminal Law Amendment Act, which in the course of 17 days received 393,000 signatures. Ultimately, Parliament passed the Criminal Law Amendment Act in 1885, which raised the age of consent from 13 to 16. (Berwinkle 105)
In the same year, William Booth proposed in the Salvation Army weekly newspaper War Cry a “New National Scheme for the Deliverance of Unprotected Girls and the Rescue of the Fallen.” ” Bramwell and his wife established in London an office for women who were victims of sexual exploitation and formed volunteer Midnight Rescue Brigades to search for streetwalkers in “Cellar, Gutter, and Garret,” offering them Army's homes of refuge.
Temperance
William and Catherine Booth were committed to temperance throughout all their lives. They castigated excessive drinking and prostitution as the root of all evil. In 1853, Catherine Booth heard the American temperance crusader, John Bartolomew Gough (1818-1886) at Exeter Hall in London. She was inspired by his arguments and devised a temperance campaign of house-to-house visitation, which she later implemented within the framework of the Salvation Army's social rescue work. By the 1880s Catherine Booth made the Salvation Army “the world's largest abstinence society.” (Mumford 30)
The Salvation Army ran several homes for “inebriates,” this term referred to people addicted to alcohol, morphine and laudanum. Hillsborough House Inebriates' Home located on Rookwood Road, London, accommodated female patients, who were first admitted free of charge, but in the late 1890s they were expected to contribute 10s. per week towards the cost of their maintenance. Patients usually stayed in the Home for twelve months, or for a shorter period. When the cure was completed, they were returned to their husbands if they were married, and some unmarried patients were sent out to positions, such as servants or nurses, on condition that the authorities of the Home gave them a satisfactory opinion.
Match Girls Strike
Many workers (mostly women), who were employed in the matchmaking industry suffered from necrosis, or “ phossy-jaw,” which affected workers who dipped the sticks into the phosphorus paste. Young women, who were carrying boxes of poisonous matches on their heads, were bald by age 15. In 1891, the Booths started a campaign against Bryant and May's match factory in London. William Booth bought a derelict factory in Old Ford, London and fitted it with machinery and employed workers to manufacture safety matches. Booth’s match boxes carried the inscription: “Lights in Darkest England. ” Soon his competitors decided to produce safety matches, which did not cause necrosis.
Labour Emigration
In Darkest England William Booth conceived the idea of overseas colonies for English surplus labour. The earliest recorded emigration occurred as early as 1882, when the Salvation Army participated in recruitment of women emigrants for Australia. Then, in 1885, a regular series of notices appeared in the Army's magazines advertising emigration to Australia, South Africa, and Canada. The first emigration ship sailed with 1,000 people from Liverpool for Canada in 1905. By the summer of 1908, more than 36,000 migrants had travelled to the British Dominions under the auspices of the Army.
Funds
At the outset, the Booths established an independent Christian organisation with virtually no money and no property. In the mid 1860s they began their missionary work with financial help from nondenominational evangelical societies. (Murdoch 170) The Christian Mission received some funding from the Evangelization Society and a few dedicated private donors. In 1867, Booth set up a Council of ten prominent philanthropists to assist him in the work of the Mission and conceived a more effective fundrising plan. By the early autumn 1869, he had raised 1,300 pounds, with another 1,600 pounds promised, 2,900 pounds altogether. (Bennett 37) This money was spent on the purchase of the People's Market, which was converted to the People's Mission Hall in 1870.
In the same year Booth dissolved the Council and set up a Conference, which consisted of the Booths themselves and evangelists in charge of various Mission stations. The financial situation of Booth's organisation was still bad and debts were not cleared until 1872. In April 1870, The Christian Mission Magazine called for donations and voluntary offerings to keep the Mission going. The Soup Kitchens, run by the Mission between 1870 and 1874, which offered cheap meals to the poor, did not bring substantial revenue to cover the debts of the Mission.
In order to carry his social ministry William Booth was completely dependent on the funds donated by the general public and organisations. The first balance sheet of the Salvation Army for the year ended 30th September 1879 shows total receipts of 7,194 pounds, of which 4,723 pounds (59%) was received from “outside sources.” (Irvine 14) During the next decade receipts of the Salvation Army exceeded 18,750,000 pounds. This was due, amongst others, to a more effective fundraising under the control of Bramwell Booth.
In September 1886, when the first “Self-Denying Week” was organised, the Salvation Army started a programme of a systematic small financial contributions as well as large donations, gifts and legacies. Additionally, William Booth decided that each corps must be responsible for raising their own funds. At the end of 1888, Booth requested the Home Secretary to provide funds for the Salvation Army in the annual amount of 15,000 pounds to improve the inhumane conditions of the “ vast numbers of men and women” in East London slums. The request was rejected, but Booth managed to raise 102,559 pounds from individual philanthropists to start implementing this scheme. (Irvine 17) By the end of the Victorian era, the Salvation Army had been widely recognised as an important Christian social relief organisation and developed effective fundraising techniques which helped it extend its social work in Britain and overseas. All donations collected from individuals and the amount donated were publicised in the annual reports.
Oversea Activity
Confession of an Indian. [Click on image to enlarge it and to obtain more imformation.]
In 1880, the Salvation Army opened its missions in the United States, in the following year in Australia; in 1882 in Canada; in 1887 in Jamaica; in 1898 in Barbados; and in 1901 in Trinidad. By the end of the century, the Salvation Army established its posts in several European countries, India, South Africa, and South America. In the 1890s, the Salvation Army had some 45,00 officers in Britain and 10,000 worldwide.
Opposition and Recognition
The unconventional activity of the Salvation Army began to provoke opposition. Many denominations, including the om1.html Church, regarded William Booth's open-air evangelism with suspicion because it allowed women to preach. The politician Lord Shaftesbury condemned the activities of the Salvation Army and described William Booth as the “Antichrist. ” (Gariepy 31) The magazine Punch called him “Field Marshal Von Booth. ” (Benge 164) Apart from that, the Army “soldiers” were initially often persecuted by authorities and mobs.
From the outset the activity of the Salvation Army stirred controversy and resentment in some circles. Critics described Booth's social schemes as totally utopian and impractical. They also put into question the honesty of the General and his family and accused him of authoritarianism. Thomas Huxley, natural scientist and agnostic, wrote twelve letters to The Times in which he tried to discourage people from giving Booth money for his scheme. He described Booth's venture as “autocratic socialism masked by its theological exterior. ” (7) Charles Bradlaugh, a political activist and atheist, is said to have died muttering: “General Booth's accounts, General Booth's accounts.” (Inglis 208)
Many people did not like the Salvation Army parades with loud singing and shouting. Brewers feared that the temperance actions would diminish alcohol consumption. Owners of drink stores organised gangs of thugs, who called themselves the Skeleton Army to disrupt the activities of the Salvation Army. They followed Salvationists' processions carrying skull and crossbones banners and dirty dishcloths on broom handles. Their intention was to mock the practices of The Salvation Army. Meetings were also disrupted by loud jeering, stone and rat throwing. The most violent disturbances against the Salvation Army occurred in 1882, when 56 buildings were attacked and 669 Salvationists were brutally assaulted in provincial towns such as Honiton, Frome, Salisbury and Chester. (Swift 186, 193) However, in spite of violence and persecution, some 500,000 people were on and off under the ministry of the Salvation Army in Britain in the last quarter of the 19th century.
However, the Salvation Army began to gain powerful supporters too. Winston Churchill, who was then the Undersecretary of State, agreed with Booth's social ideas. Cardinal Manning, the Head of the Catholic Church in Britain, wrote a letter to General Booth sympathising with him in his efforts to ameliorate the condition of the London poor. (The Mercury, Nov. 7, 1890 ) Charles Spurgeon, a Particular Baptist preacher, known as the 'Prince of Preachers', also expressed his support for the General. He wrote: “Five thousand extra policemen could not fill [the Salvation Army's] place in the repression of crime and disorder. ” (Benge 165)
Gradually, the Salvation Army began to earn respect from both the lower and upper strata of society. Although Queen Victoria never gave her official patronage to the activities of the Salvation Army, she sent Catherine Booth the following message in 1882: “Her Majesty learns with much satisfaction that you have, with other members of your Society, been successful in your efforts to win many thousands to the ways of temperance, virtue, and religion. ” (Walsh 185) Towards the end of the Victorian era the Salvation Army became widely recognised as the champion of the poor and destitute.
By the end of the Victorian Era the social work of the Salvation Army had become officially recognised. In 1902, Booth was invited to attend the coronation of King Edward VII, and in 1907 he received an honorary doctorate from Oxford University. A number of religious leaders expressed support to the social work of the Salvation Army, and Robert William Dale, a Congregationalist church leader, said that “the Salvation Army was a new instrument for social and moral reform. ” (Inglis 205)
Conclusion
The Salvation Army grew from an obscure Christian Mission, established in East London in 1865, into an effective international organisation with numerous and varied social programmes. By the end of the Victorian era it had become one of the most successful Christian social relief organisations which was not only engaged in street preaching but also in a variety of social services for the poor, destitute and homeless. Its programmes, such as rescue homes for sexually-abused women and rehabilitation centres for alcoholics, drug addicts, juvenile delinquents, and ex-prisoners, anticipated similar welfare programmes in the twentieth century. Although the Salvation Army generally revealed conservative attitudes towards a liberal society, and its members often lived in self-imposed cultural isolation, it nevertheless supported first-wave Christian feminism by allowing women to preach and carry out social work. The spiritual and social ministry of the Salvation Army stirred the social conscience of many Victorians and contributed significantly to a number of welfare reforms in Britain and elsewhere.
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Name Cliff Richard's first five number one hits in the correct order | Salvation printing | The Typographic Hub
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Every Saturday, a woman dressed in a bonnet and dark blue uniform rattles a collection box and distributes newspapers in my local shopping precinct. At Christmas she is joined by a brass band in rousing the festive spirit amongst busy shoppers. They are all members of the Salvation Army, an institution that has been a part of British life for more than 130 years.
Founded by William and Catherine Booth in London’s East End, the Salvation Army held its first meeting in 1865. Initially known as the East London Christian Mission, its work gradually spread throughout the country and in 1878 the Mission changed its name to the Salvation Army. Today it is an international Christian church that operates in 109 countries; is one of the largest providers of social welfare in the world; and a voracious producer and consumer of print.
Even in the late 19th century, the Salvation Army was a vast organisation; and the only way it could effectively communicate with all its members and promote its mission to the general public was through the printed word. Booth was determined that all Army literature should be produced on Army presses and in 1879 he set-up a small printing office in Fieldgate Street, behind the Salvation Army’s headquarters in Whitechapel, London. The printing office was established specifically to produce the War Cry – the Army’s newspaper – but it also printed other material such as posters announcing meetings, hymn sheets and all sorts of ephemera. Equipped with some ancient presses and a miscellaneous selection of type, William Stephenson Crow was its first pressroom manager and James Barker headed-up the composing room. Baker had worked at the Oxford University Press, and was joined at Fieldgate Street by a number of other ex-OUP compositors. In 1880, thanks to the generous donations of Army benefactors, the printing office re-equipped itself with new presses capable of 15,000 impressions per hour.
The continued expansion of Army work meant that larger premises were required, and in 1901 the Press moved out of London to St Albans where it traded as the Campfield Press, letterpress and lithographic printers and binders. In its heyday the Campfield Press employed in excess of 350 people working on the production of all the Army newspapers – the War Cry, Young Soldier, and Musician – as well as devotional literature such as Bibles, prayer books and hymnbooks. In addition to printing material for the Salvation Army the Campfield Press also took on work for outside organisations, so long as the material conformed to Army principles and carried no advertisements for either tobacco or alcohol: the Royal Navy and HMSO were both clients. Print Week reader, Mike Prior – now of Bath Midway Litho Limited – was an apprentice compositor at the Campfield Press in the 1960s and spent much of his time working on the newspapers’ ‘Promoted to Glory’ (obituary) columns. Prior recalls: ‘The Army gave us a sound training; you didn’t need to be a Salvationist to work there, in fact few of the men were Salvationists, but whilst you were on the premises you had to conform to Army principles of no drinking, no smoking and no pin-ups on the press; and we all had to attend a weekly service.’
The Campfield Press ceased trading in 1991, and the Salvation Army moved its design and print facility back to London were it now operates a small in-plant print unit run by five staff that are all employed for their print knowledge – only one is a Salvationist. The unit produces stationery, leaflets, brochures and short run manuals for the Army’s UK and International HQ, its training colleges, and all the corps and divisions. It also prints various items of ephemera for the Army trading companies, including the Salvation Army General Insurance Corporation Ltd and the Publications and Supplies Service. Much of the work is done on a 2-colour SRA3 press whilst a Xerox DC12 is used for small-format, short-run colour jobs and a Docutek 65 produces short-run monochrome manuals. The unit also has all the necessary finishing equipment —folding, creasing, wire binding and guillotining — and its design section is wholly Mac-based.
Whilst the in-plant unit handles all the short-run and small-format work, larger jobs such as hardback and paperback books; magazines and newspapers; sheet music and songbooks; published devotional, scriptural, and Christian resource material; and appeal envelopes are all subcontracted out to UK printers. Print-runs of Salvation Army material can be vast; its total number of annual appeal envelopes, for example, exceeds 10 million. Various external printers are used, but Benham Goodhead of Bicester prints all the Salvation Army’s newspapers. The Army’s most famous publication, the War Cry, sells more than any other religious newspaper in the UK with an average weekly circulation of 66,000. It has a wide readership and is sold in the pubs, clubs and street corners across the country. Kids Alive is a children’s comic paper with 33,000 copies distributed weekly; and in-house news is carried in the weekly publication, the Salvationist, which has a circulation of 21,000. Whilst Benham Goodhead print the Army newspapers, all the editorial and design processes are completed in-house up to PDF.
The Salvation Army is as critical and demanding as any other customer, and high on its list of requirements is distribution, as Mike Barnes from the Army design and print unit explains. ‘It is important that our external printers have an efficient delivery system and the ability to pack and dispatch to over 900 destinations each week in the UK – mainly to Salvation Army corps – as well as additional destinations overseas in order to fulfill subscription requests’.
Today, printing in the Salvation Army is as up-to-date as printing in any other company or organisation. The Army has a wholly contemporary attitude to its editorial direction, a 21st century approach to its design and production techniques, and it utilizes all the current technology available. Its magazines and newspapers can now be found on-line in an abridged form, and the Army is increasingly using the Internet to retail its goods and to spread its mission. However, alongside embracing all that is good and useful in 21st century print production, the Army still holds firm to the principles laid down by its founder in the 19th century and although there are few dictates, staff employed by the Salvation Army still to adhere to its principles during working hours and drinking and smoking are both strictly prohibited. Printing in the Salvation Army is a curious mixture of past and present, and it is certainly not quite like printing anywhere else.
FOOTNOTE
The UK’s biggest-selling weekly Christian newspaper is celebrating 125 years of continuous production. The War Cry has been sold on the street of Britain since 27 December 1879 and it has not missed an issue since. Although the design and vocabulary have certainly changed over the years, the purpose behind the War Cry remains unaltered – to reach as many people as possible with the Christian gospel. But whilst the earlier editions reported Salvation Army exploits using militaristic language, today’s War Cry relates the gospel through current events and topical issues, including sporting occasions, celebrity news and films. It is also often in the forefront of social and political comment, and during the run-up to the 2001 General Election, the War Cry carried exclusive interviews with the main party leaders. But the main reason for its success is its sellers’ says Nigel Bovey, editor: ‘They make the paper available in pubs, clubs, prisons and on the street; they are a part of their local communities, and they help build relationships with our readers’.
However, the first issue of the War Cry nearly failed to reach the streets as unreliable machinery and difficulties with distribution conspired against its circulation, as Major George Phippen, the papers’ first editor recorded: ‘About midnight I went with General Booth to see the first two pages cast. After several attempts the appliances at command failed, and before the casts of these pages were actually made, some of them went to “pi”. When at last the “formes” were all in form, and the great work was to begin, while the expectant staff stood waiting for the first War Cry sheets, the machine that was to have printed them hopelessly broke down!’ Only 200 readable copies were printed on the first day, but mechanics and pressmen succeeded in getting the machine to work well enough the following day for 1,400 copies per hour to be issued from the press. Once printed, fog threatened the distribution from the printing office in London’s Fieldgate Street to the main-line railway stations, and only the last-minute recruitment of some hansom cab drivers ensured all copies were placed on trains and distributed all over the UK. Packed with progress reports about the Salvation Army’s work around the country, 17,000 copies of the first issue were printed and priced at one halfpenny for 4 pages.
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What was the name of the submarine in Jules Verne's 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea | 1000+ images about 20000 Leagues Under the Sea on Pinterest | Nautilus, Leagues under the sea and Jules verne
A wonderful painting of the Nautilus by Leo Svendsen for the Walt Disney World 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea ride #nautilus #julesverne #fantasy
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What is the minimum age at which someone may fly an aircraft legally | "20,000 Leagues Under the Sea" Reviews & Ratings - IMDb
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20 out of 29 people found the following review useful:
Simply awful
from Germany
22 January 2005
It is like pissing on Jules Vernes Grave. Nemo is just a simple maniac and Michael Cain lost every talent. Pierre Arronax is some kind of bad son who never find a way out of his fathers shadow (Verne never mentioned that. I wonder). Ned Land is a psycho. His only goal is to kill a whale. *sigh* Cabe Attucks is ... not a person created by Verne. And Nemos Daughter is... hey, wait a moment. What the f*** is going on. And where the hell is the whole relationship between Arronax and Nemo? They developed a very fine friendship despite the fact, that Arronax disapproved some actions Nemo undertook.
20,000 leagues under the sea is still after more the 100 years a fantastic book with a sense of wonder. But the film is simply bullshit.
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12 out of 17 people found the following review useful:
Not again!!!!
from Denmark
20 June 2000
Why, why, why!!! Can anyone please explain to me why in gods name screen writers always think that they can write a better story than the original author??? I mean, i might accept that you throw in a love story, although the original story were completely minus women, but why rewrite the whole story? About all that was left was the title and the names of the characters, and a very thin plot outline. Why involve the story of Oedipus(ancient Greek story about a young man who kills his father and makes love to his mother)? Why involve Moby Dick? (the admiral was clearly based on Captain Ahab). Why indeed? The most annoying thing about the whole mess is that it is a great opportunity wasted. The film has the right actors, (Michael Caine is great as Nemo) the right special effects, e.t.c.- everything you needed to make a good adaptation of Jules Verne's novel. But the screen writer decided that he could write a much better story than Jules Verne, although he wanted to borrow the title. Sorry. Not good enough. You must rename this movie to something like "20,000 Leagues Under the Sea, very loosely based on the original story"
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8 out of 10 people found the following review useful:
Good grief.
30 November 2002
WHY?
Disney already made the definitive cinematic adaptation of Jules Verne's novel in 1954 (needs DVD reissue badly;) there was no reason at all for Hollywood to crank out this awful piece of television fluff. There are so many things wrong with it, one does not know where to begin. A review is hardly even necessary, a rock-bottom vote should speak plenty:
During the shameless 'creative reimagineering' process they stripped away pretty much everything from the novel save for the basic premise of a rogue skipper named Nemo who has a submarine. Oh, and Nemo is now a cyborg with a metal hand and is "portrayed" by the formerly respectable Michael Caine. A standard multi-ethnic sample of modern teenagers or twentysomethings get on board and there's much Angst and Father/Son conflict and everything goes kablooie in the end with a bunch of cheap video effects. The production design is flat and dull and totally undercooked, but things of course happens very fast. The skewed camera angles, MTV paced cuts and the aforementioned cast of bratty young people all add up to a pre-chewed microwave fluff pastry of a TV movie for the types of young people who were very happy to learn there really was a J. Dawson on board the real Titanic. ("OMG!")
rating : 1 of 10
from Finland
16 May 2002
jules verne makes imaginative books, but let's face it, the attempts to move them to the big screen are destined to fail. especially if you're lacking money. jules had such wild ideas that they cannot be produced anywhere but inside the readers mind.
this particular one has a great cast, but the mini way too long compared to the boredom it arouses. i had to use three days to watch it because i kept falling asleep.
the special effects look amateurish, and all the intensity from the book has vanished somewhere in the production. all i felt about it was a little claustrophobia.
a tip to the crew: you should have asked the champ, kevin costner, he could have probably told that it's not automatically an epic if you make it long. you need some events, too, you know.
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8 out of 10 people found the following review useful:
Second best made-for-TV version of 1997.
from The Beach
18 October 2000
1997 saw two TV versions of Jules Verne's classic and I suppose which ever a viewer saw first would forever tarnish their view of the second (Warning: I saw the other version first.) This means neither film was all that bad, neither all that great, and neither threw the Disney version off it's pedestal as being the true film classic (James Mason, Kirk Douglas, and Peter Lorre are a tough act to follow). Personally, I will watch ANYTHING remotely associated with Jules Verne so don't get too upset at my review, I did purchase it for my collection. Yet, compared to the other TV version, this version which features Michael Caine as Captain Nemo is overlong and without style. It boasts a great cast (well cast and decent performances), nice sets, and sufficient special effects, but little imagination. While it lights up like a Christmas tree in production values, it pales in making anything seem interesting. I expect remakes to show me something a little different than what I've seen or read and this whole film tries to base itself on things all too familiar. Dig deeper! Please read my review of 1997's other "20,000 Leagues Under the Sea" for that film had style and some original additions. In previous versions we were awed by James Mason behind his pipe organ like the Phantom of the Nautilus, and Ben Cross chilled us as he stood atop his submarine like a Russian commander with American gun fire bursting around him. In this version Michael Caine's bags under his eyes suggested he was quite tired and made me feel very sleepy as well. 1969's "Captain Nemo and the Underwater City" with a nothing budget and a bland cast (Robert Ryan, Chuck Conners!!!) was more interesting! But it is Jules Verne and can be proud to be the second best made-for-TV version of "20,000 Leagues Under the Sea" to be aired in 1997. I may have been a little harsh, but I think Captain Nemo would have it no other way.
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9 out of 12 people found the following review useful:
WHY?!!!
from Arizona, USA/Hull, England
3 August 2002
I was in the seventh grade when I saw this movie and going through a Jules Verne/Robert Louis Stevenson phase. I loved the original movie and when I found out the cast for the remake my face must have just lit up because my parents gave me a blank tape for when it came on. I didn't have a chance to watch it the night it was on, so I saved the movie for a rainy day. What a waste of a rainy day. It started off well, the acting was great and they were trying to hold onto the original message. Then, it kept going and going and soon I wasn't sure what the point was anymore. The ending was the worst part and I found myself taping over it a year later. Oh well, another remake that fell short of the theme.
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10 out of 14 people found the following review useful:
A new adaptation for TV with superb cast and an awesome Michael Caine as Nemo
from Santander Spain
9 January 2007
The film talks about the known story from Jules Verne novel and previously rendered in the classic by Richard Fleischer . The oceans are no longer safe , many ships have been lost , the sailors have returned to New England's fishing port with tales of vicious giant whale with long horn . A naturist , marine expert named professor Pierre Aronnax (Patrick Dempsey in the role of Paul Lukas) along with a professional whaler named Ned Land (Bryan Brown in the role of Kirk Douglas) and a helper (Adewele Agbaje) join forces in a perilous expedition that attempts to unravel the mysterious sinking ships by an unknown creature . Aboard the ship called Abrahan Lincoln , they go out to investigate the "monster" roaming the seas . They are captured and get thoroughly involved with captain Nemo (Michael Caine in the role of James Mason) and his daughter Mara (Mia Sara) who take an extraordinary adventure underseas in an advanced submarine called Nautilus .
This fantastic TV movie displays sensational adventures , noisy action , suspense , marvelous scenarios and results to be pretty enjoyable . The great novelist , Jules Verne , described this thrilling tale about a dangerous journey to the darkest depths of the sea with Captain Nemo aboard the Nautilus . Surprise-filled entertainment and with plenty of action on grand scale , including excellent special effects made by means of computer generator and some ship and submarine by maquette or scale model . However , overlong runtime is not boring but turns out to be entertaining and amusing . Memorable and superb casting with Michael Caine plays a magnificent captain Nemo , similar to immortal James Mason ; Patrick Dempsey plays a young Annorax while in Disney version was an old Paul Lukas ; attractive Mia Sara in a new role , she has an excessive romance with Dempsey ; Bryan Brown is an obstinate, stubborn Ned Land just like Kirk Douglas . Atmospheric and vivid score by Mark Snow (X-Files). The television movie was nicely directed by Rod Hardy . Other versions from the classic story for TV are directed by Michael Anderson with Ben Cross and a cartoon movie directed by Arthur Rankin . The motion picture will appeal to fantasy-adventure fans .
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5 out of 5 people found the following review useful:
Unwatchable miserable awful horrible TV
14 December 2006
*** This review may contain spoilers ***
On the level of the worst Disney and more like some 1930s action-adventure movie where, say, the guide yells "Look" and points left while the camera cuts to cheap stock footage of a lion running off to the right somewhere.
There is nothing - not one single thing - worth watching in this movie. Even Caine is bad.
The effects - one of the reasons one might watch something like this - are below anything you can imagine: a ship floats in the back on an ocean a different color from the "real" ocean in front; the octopus has one rubber tentacle that's dragged around in an aquarium.
But most - maybe 95% - of the movie is talk. Nemo shows folks around his sub for hours (or days or weeks); the hero lectures some scientists forever. it's just talk and more talk with an occasional shot of a metal sub model.
Avoid this at any cost. It's not even watchable over pizza when you're reading or doing something else; it's not even close to as good as the worst Godzilla movie; it's worse than "Plan 9" but without the camp.
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8 out of 11 people found the following review useful:
Worst film I ever watched.
from Germany
2 January 2008
I read the book years ago and I love it so much that I watched the film version made in 1954 and it was great. Yesterday, I convinced some friends to watch this version from 1997, because the acting was promising and I was expecting nicer special effects than those made in 1954. Well, I have to say that RTL2 chose the worst movie they could have ever chosen for New Years Eve. These guys trying to be original changed the original story to a really boring story, full with inconsistencies and bad acting. Save your time and angriness and don't watch this film, try better to get the version from 1954 which won 2 Oscars and is really based on the novel from Jules Verne.
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10 out of 15 people found the following review useful:
James Mason's mantle is safe around his shoulders
from Lincoln, Nebraska
20 September 2000
I have nothing against fun and fantasy. But this piece has so little to do with Verne's story that I wonder why the writers didn't just dispense with their token analogies to it and create new characters!
Yes, Caine's performance is "intense", but also utterly meaningless: his Nemo has none of the subtlety, the pensiveness, the drivenness of James Mason's; the two can no more be compared than Kevin Costner's Robin Hood can be compared to Errol Flynn's, or Marlon Brando's performance as Bligh in Mutiny on the Bounty to Charles Laughton's. The ballyhooed "intensity" of Caine's portrayal resolves itself into very little more than hypermanic nuttiness. (Maybe Caine was trying so hard to avoid being compared to Mason that he couldn't figure any other way to do the role than to toss all subtlety overboard?)
The character of Attucks, of course, is the "man of action" that the plot needs, thus totally eclipsing Ned Land and making the latter's presence gratuitous. So if the writers were so obsessed with political correctness that they needed to add a nonwhite character, why in the world not just make Ned himself nonwhite?
And haven't we had enough of upstarts trying to improve on Verne by adding a love interest? Apparently not: this version gives Nemo a daughter, who sails with him on the Nautilus and with whom Aronnax (here depicted as a young sexpot) has an affair.
Of course, the fact that this Nautilus has a multi-ethnic crew (an idea hinted at, but not developed by, Verne himself) is a nice touch, but one that doesn't take us very far because this version tells us so little about Nemo's and the crew's background. In conclusion, a lot of fine acting talent is wasted on this philosophically confused piece of work.
Verne has suffered a bewildering number of bad adaptations, but this is ridiculous.
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Which tendon joins the calf muscle to the heel bone | tendon - Dictionary Definition : Vocabulary.com
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tendon
If you feel the back of your ankle, you will find the tough, ropelike tendon that joins your calf muscle to your heel bone. That's the job of tendons throughout your body: connecting bone and muscle so you can move.
Consider that the Latin word tendere means "to stretch." That's an apt beginning for the word tendon, a tough but stretchy fibrous tissue (sinew). A tendon is made of dense bundles of fibrous collagen that form ropelike connectors that allow muscles and bones to work together. Athletes often suffer injuries to tendons, most often to the rotator cuff in the shoulder, the Achilles tendon in the leg, the patellar tendon in the knee, and the biceps muscle in the arm.
| Achilles |
Solder is an alloy of which two metals | Ruptured Ankle Tendon, Physical Therapy, New Jersey, NJ
Ruptured Ankle Tendon
Posterior Tendon Rupture
Background & Etiology (Cause)
The ankle is made up of two joints. These joints need to be strong because they support the weight of the entire body. The ankle is one of the most versatile joint complexes in the body. It is built for weight bearing, mobility, adaptability and stability. The foot and ankle allow us to walk, stand, run and jump, and serves as our connection to the ground. The ankle must be able to withstand the stress of our body weight, and also be able to adapt to, and react quickly to changes in environment and walking surface.
Tendons are connective tissues that attach muscle to bone. They are strong, fibrous structures that are responsible for transferring the forces generated by the muscle to the bone, thus producing movement at the joint. When a tendon becomes irritated or inflamed it becomes painful, causing tendonitis. The tendons in the ankle region are subject to significant stress, and can rupture under extreme pressure.
Tendon Rupture
When a tendon ruptures it can be extremely painful and cause a disability of the foot that then subsequently causes damage to the ankle joints. The tendons in the ankle include: The peroneals (peroneus brevis, peroneus longus,) anterior tibialis, posterior tibialis, and Achilles tendon. Any of these structures can become ruptured, which is a serious condition that will typically require surgery to fix.
Achilles Tendon
The Achilles tendon is the largest tendon in the body. It is formed when the gastrocnemius muscle and soleus muscle of the calf join together. It runs from the calf muscles to the heel bone. The Achilles tendon plays a significant role in the ability to walk, run, and jump. Because the Achilles tendon is used for activities that can put great stress on the tendon, it one of the most often ruptured tendons in the body. Pain from Achilles tendon rupture commonly occurs along the back of the leg in the vicinity of the heel.
Posterior Tibialis Tendon
The posterior tibialis tendon is located along the inner side of the ankle. It connects the posterior tibial muscle (located at the back of the shin bone) to the foot. Problems with this tendon typically occur underneath the prominence of the medial malleolus (inner ankle bone) because the blood supply to this area can be poor. This makes it easier for overuse injuries to cause a tendon rupture. Pain with this type of injury typically occurs along the inside of the foot and ankle.
Peroneal Tendon
There are two peroneal tendons, the peroneus longus and the peroneus brevis. These tendons run along the outside of the ankle and are subject to the repetitive forces from walking and standing. Pain with this condition is typically located along the posterolateral area of the ankle.
Anterior Tibialis Tendon
The tibialis anterior is a muscle located along the front of the tibia (shin bone). It is attached to the foot by the tibialis anterior tendon. This structure is responsible for the dorsiflextion of the foot and ankle. The anterior tibialis muscle plays a large role in dorsiflextion and deceleration of the foot when walking and running. Stress from a variety of movements including walking, running, kicking, or kneeling can cause the tibialis anterior tendon to rupture. Pain with this condition is typically concentrated along the front of the ankle or foot.
Causes
Common causes of an ankle tendon rupture include:
The progression of or the final result of longstanding tendonitis of the involved tendon or an overuse injury.
An injury to the ankle or a direct blow to the tendon.
From a fall where an individual lands awkwardly or directly on the ankle
Laceration of the tendon
Weakness of the associated muscle in people with existing tendonitis places increased stress on the involved tendon.
Steroid use has been linked to tendon weakness
Certain systemic diseases have been associated with tendon weakness.
A sudden deceleration or stopping motions that cause an acute injury of the ankle.
Injection of steroids to the involved tendon or the excessive use of steroids has been known to weaken tendons and make them susceptible to rupture.
Symptoms of Ankle Tendon Ruptures
Ankle pain and swelling or feeling that the ankle has “given out” after falling or stumbling.
Possible audible pop when the ankle is injured.
Patient may have a history of prior ankle pain or tendonitis, and may be active in sports.
Swelling, tenderness and possible discoloration or ecchymosis in the ankle region.
Indentation above the injured tendon where the torn tendon may be present.
Difficulty moving around or walking.
Individual has difficulty or is unable to move their ankle with full range of motion.
MRI can confirm disruption or tear in the tendon.
Immediate pain at time of injury.
Treatment of Ankle Tendon Rupture
Early diagnosis and treatment is the key to a successful outcome for a rupture of any of the tendons in the ankle. If diagnosis or treatment is delayed the integrity of the healing tissue can be compromised as a result of scarring and decreased blood flow. Surgical repair followed by structured and aggressive physical therapy is the treatment of choice for complete ruptures. In the case of a small partial tendon tear conservative treatment without surgery is an option.
Partial (small) Tendon Tear
Immobilization of the ankle for 3-6 weeks to rest and promote healing. Individual will be placed in an immobilizer or brace and will move around with crutches to keep weight off of the leg.
Physical Therapy: following the period of immobilization your physician will decide when you are ready for physical therapy. Treatment will emphasize gradual weaning off the immobilizing device, increasing weight bearing, restoration of ankle range of motion and strengthening of the associated muscles. It is important that the physician and therapist communicate during the early stages and progress your recovery program based on the principles of healing so as not to compromise the injured tendon.
Patient will be progressed to more functional activities as normal ankle range of motion and strength is restored.
Treatment of Complete Tendon Ruptures
Immediate surgical repair of the tendon is indicated in complete tears. Delaying surgery can lead to shortening of the tendon, formation of scar tissue and decreased blood flow, which can lead to a poor outcome.
Following surgery your ankle will be put in an immobilizing device and you will be instructed to use crutches to limit weight bearing and protect the joint.
Over the next 2-4 weeks weight bearing will be increased and physical therapy will be initiated.
The surgeon will determine the physical therapy timeline and program.
Physical Therapy: treatment will emphasize gradual weaning off the immobilizing device, increasing weight bearing, restoration of ankle range of motion and strengthening of the associated muscles. It is important that the physician and therapist communicate during the early stages and progress your program based on the principles of healing so as not to compromise the involved tendon.
Patient will be progressed to more functional activities as normal ankle range of motion and strength is restored.
Physical therapy for a tendon rupture must remain conservative at the onset in order to protect the repair. Emphasis will be on rest, tendon protection, reducing the inflammation and increasing the blood circulation for healing. Following the surgeon’s timeline and protocol, a program of progressive weight bearing, stretching and strengthening will be initiated.
Physical Therapy Interventions
Common Physical Therapy interventions in the treatment of Ankle Tendon Rupture include:
Manual Therapeutic Technique (MTT): hands on care including soft tissue massage, stretching and joint mobilization of the ankle by a physical therapist to improve joint mobility and range of motion of the ankle. Use of mobilization techniques also helps to modulate pain.
Therapeutic Exercises (TE) including stretching and strengthening exercises to regain range of motion and strengthen the muscles of the ankle and lower extremity.
Neuromuscular Reeducation (NMR) to restore stability, retrain the lower extremity and improve movement techniques and mechanics (for example, running, kneeling, squatting and jumping) of the involved lower extremity to reduce stress on the tendons in daily activities. Taping, strapping or bracing may be indicated to rest the tendon and promote healing.
Modalities including the use of ultrasound, electrical stimulation, ice, cold, laser and others to decrease pain and inflammation of the involved tendon and bursa.
Prognosis
If repair and treatment are initiated immediately, individuals with a rupture or tear of any of the tendons in the ankle generally do well. Delay can result in the formation of scar tissue and retraction of the tendons. Other factors that can affect recovery are:
Age: Older individuals are generally weaker and take longer to heal affecting the functional outcome.
Strength: Individuals who are strong and in good condition prior to the injury generally do better following surgical repair.
Tissue: Tissue quality prior to the surgical repair will effect healing and recovery following surgery. Poor circulation and presence of scar tissue will interfere with the healing process.
The healing time for a tendon repair will take up to 8-12 weeks but restoration of function and ability to accept full activity, load and stress can take up to one year.
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What are people from Hamburg called | Why is it called a hamburger although it contains no ham?
Home » food » Why is it called a hamburger although it contains no ham?
Why is it called a hamburger although it contains no ham?
During a trip to Asia in the early 1800s, a German merchant – it is said – noticed that the nomadic Tartars softened their meat by keeping it under their saddles. The motion of the horse pounded the meat to bits. The Tartars would then scrape it together and season it for eating. The idea of pounded beef found its way back to the merchant’s home town of Hamburg where cooks broiled the meat and referred to it as it as Hamburg meat.
German immigrants introduced the recipe to the US. The term “hamburger” is believed to have appeared in 1834 on the menu from Delmonico’s restaurant in New York but there is no surviving recipe for the meal. The first mention in print of “Hamburg steak” was made in 1884 in the Boston Evening Journal.
The honor of producing the first proper hamburger goes to Charlie Nagreen of Seymour, Wisconsin, USA. In 1885 Nagreen introduced the American hamburger at the Outgamie County Fair in Seymour. (Seymour is recognized as the hamburger capital of the world.)
However, there is another claim to that throne. There is an account of Frank and Charles Menches who, also in 1885, went to the Hamburg, New York county fair to prepare their famous pork sausage sandwiches. But since the local meat market was out of pork sausage, they used ground beef instead. Alas, another hamburger.
The first account of serving ground meat patties on buns – taking on the look of the hamburger as we know it today – took place in 1904 at the St. Louis World Fair. But it was many years later, in 1921, that an enterprising cook from Wichita, Kansas, Walt Anderson, introduced the concept of the hamburger restaurant. He convinced financier Billy Ingram to invest $700 to create The White Castle hamburger chain. It was an instant success. The rest of the history, we might say, belongs to McDonald’s.
And, no, a hamburger does not have any ham in it. Well, it’s not supposed to. Hamburger meat usually is made of 70-80% beef and fat and spices.
Why is a hotdog called a hotdog?
In 1987, Frankfurt, Germany celebrated the 500th birthday of the frankfurter, the hot dog sausage. Although, the people of Vienna (Wien), Austria will point out that their wiener sausages are proof of origin for the hot dog. (By the way, ham, being pork meat, is found in hotdogs.) In “ Every wonder why? ” Douglas B. Smith explains that the hotdog was given its name by a cartoonist.
A butcher from Frankfurt who owned a dachshund named the long frankfurter sausage a “dachshund sausage,” the dachshund being a slim dog with a long body. (“Dachshund” is German for “badger dog.” They were originally bred for hunting badgers.) German immigrants introduced the dachshund sausage (and Hamburg meat) to the United States. In 1871, German butcher Charles Feltman opened the first “hotdog” stand in Coney Island, selling 3,684 dachshund sausages, most wrapped in a milk bread roll, during his first year in business.
In the meantime, frankfurters – and wieners – were sold as hot food by sausage sellers. In 1901, New York Times cartoonist T.A. Dargan noticed that one sausage seller used bread buns to handle the hot sausages after he burnt his fingers and decided to illustrate the incident. He wasn’t sure of the spelling of dachshund and simply called it “hot dog.”
Burgers and sausage
Recipes for placing meat between slices of bread date back to Roman times. However, that was for steak, not minced meat. Thus, the steak burger is older than the hamburger!
Sausage is one of the oldest forms of processed food, having been mentioned in Homer’s Odyssey in the 9th century BC.
Tasting it
The tongue is a muscle with glands, sensory cells, and fatty tissue that helps to moisten food with saliva. You cannot taste food unless it is mixed with saliva . For instance, if salt is placed on a dry tongue, the taste buds will not be able to identify it. As soon as saliva is added, the salt dissolves and the taste sensation takes place.
There are 4 basic tastes plus umami. The salt and sweet taste buds are at the tip of the tongue, bitter at the base, sour along the sides, and umami along the center of the tongue.
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What rank in the British Amy is the equivalent to Hauptsturmfuhrer in the S.S. | Overview of all bars, clubs and pubs in Hamburg
20 Flight Rock
Category: Pubs
"The No. 1 Rawkin' Bar" is the slogan of 20 Flight Rock. Anyone visiting should not be surprised at the sight of women in petticoat dresses and men with pomade in their hair... more
20up
Category: Bars
An example of the "new St. Pauli" (in planning for years) can be found just a stone's throw from the once hotly contested houses on Hafenstrasse. The Riverside Empire, regarded with scepticism by those against gentrification... more
28 Grad Strandbad Wedel
Category:
On the Elbe beach in Hamburg Wedel you can enjoy the South Seas feeling in a chilled out beach atmosphere. more
3Zimmerwohnung
Category: Bars
3Zimmerwohnung is not a bar in the traditional sense, but rather a... well... 3 bedroom flat. Structured like a cosy private flat with kitchenette, bedroom, spacious living room and table football corner... more
Ahoi Strandkiosk
Category:
Enjoy a cold beer or a glass of wine at the beach! The AHOI beach kiosk is the perfect place to watch the sunset and relax. more
Amanda66
Category: Bars, Pubs
Only a stone`s throw away, but sheltered from the hustle and bustle of the Schanzenviertel you can find one of the nicest bars in Hamburg: The Amanda 66. more
Amphore
Category: Bars
Even the location of Amphore is worth a visit. The café bar nestles in the bend at the far end of St. Pauli Hafenstrasse, bordering Pinnasberg. From here the view of the harbour is still virtually unspoilt. more
Astra-Stube
Category: Pubs, Dance Club
This bar was called Astra-Stube when our granddads were going there. At the end of the 1990s, a live music venue was opened at the same location, however. The new owners kept the old name... more
Austerbar
Category: Bars
The Auster Bar is in the center of Eimsbüttel and surrounded by good restaurants. Get a drink and make yourself comfortable in one of the the big leather chairs! It won`t get any better than this. more
Bambi Galore
Category: Live Club
Bambi Galore is the music club of the Kulturpalast in Billstedt that has shaped the cultural life in east Hamburg for the last 30 years. At Bambi Galore (not to be confused with the bar Bambi in St. Pauli) there is at least one concert every week... more
Baalsaal
Category: Dance Club
One of the hottest dance clubs in Hamburg can be found on the Reeperbahn. House and techno dominate the sounds at Baalsaal... more
Bambi
Category: Bars
A decent table football table, several varieties of schnapps at reasonable prices and great music from the turntable - what more could you want from a local neighbourhood bar? The bar staff certainly contribute to the popularity of Bambi on Hamburger Berg... more
Bar 227
Category: Live Club
And another night spot located directly on the Sternbrücke. Bar 227 is the newest live music venue at this busy intersection. Behind the stage, the bar sports a giant airbrushed portrait of Jimi Hendrix... more
439
Category: Pubs
An institution among the bars and pubs between Schanze and Eimsbuettel. Since the 1980s, 439 has been regarded as a calm meeting place for musicians, artists and people from the neighbourhood... more
Barbarabar
Category: Bars
In the cosy bar with orange wallpaper, plastic chandeliers, kitsch floor lamps and disco balls, you feel right at home... more
Bar du Nord
Category: Bars
Two cafés belong to the "du Nord" group, a dance club and a bar in Hamburg. The latter is located at the Dorotheenstrasse/Poelchaukamp crossroads... more
Bar Hamburg
Category: Bars
Comfortable leather seats, fine wooden tables, 70 different whiskies and a cocktail menu with over 250 varieties - you can have a great time if you bring enough cash... more
Biergarten der Factory
Category: Pubs
The 300 square metre beer garden right outside Hasselbrooker railway station in warmer temperatures invites you for a home-brewed pilsner or a refreshing...
Birdland
Category: Live Club
The Birdland Jazz club - musically sophisticated and special since 1985, new born in 2014. The club is offering free jam and vocal sessions on a regular basis and of course, concerts.
Boilerman Bar
Category: Bars
Stirred, not shaken. The Boilerman Bar specializes in highballs. This kind of drink contains some spirit like whisky or gin and gets combined with a filler. more
Buddy's
Category: Pubs, Bars, Dance Club
With music from disco classics, 70s and 80s, house, electro and pop even wallflowers are transformed into dancefloor royalty. Admission is free. more
Cascadas
Category: Bars, Live Club
Many can offer a bar but live music every evening that is something that is not found on every street corner, even in Hamburg, but here it is right in the city centre. Musical accompaniment in Soul, Jazz, Latin, Blues and more is offered in the Cascadas every evening. more
Campari Lounge
Category: Bars
Drink with style and enjoy the view! The High End Bar is famous for its 118m high terrace and the stunning sight. more
Central Park Hamburg
Category:
At Central Park there is a relaxed mood that leaves the hustle and bustle of everyday life outside its doors. Enjoy the chilled atmosphere of the beach club located in the trendy district of Schanze. more
Christiansen's
Category: Bars
The award-winning star bartender Uwe Christiansen regularly creates new cocktails at his bar, including those with curious names such as "Apple Strudel" or "Virgin Mint Colada"... more
Chug Club
Category: Bars
The Chug Club is a mix between cosy club and sophisticated bar culture. You will find there a relaxed atmosphere and joy in drinks you may have never drank before. more
Clouds & heavens`s nest
Category: Bars
The elegantly furnished 235 m² open air bar „heavens nest“ is set on the roof of the „clouds restaurant“ at the beginning of the famous Reeperbahn.
COAST by east Hamburg
Category: Bars
You can`t decide if you are in the mood for Asian, Oriental or German food? Or you want to skip the meal and enjoy a cold drink instead? Then the COAST by east Hamburg might be the right place for you. Indulge in international cuisine and a panoramic view on the Elbphilharmonie! more
Cotton Club
Category: Live Club
After several moves, the oldest jazz club in Hamburg made its home on Grossneumarkt in 1971. Since then it has treated its guests to live music from national and international artists... more
Cuba Mia
Category: Bars
Hamburg's little Cuba is located in the middle of the Grindel district. Anyone who appreciates a decent selection of good rums and rustic Caribbean cuisine is in good hands... more
Daniela Bar
Category: Pubs
Among the countless pubs and bars on Schulterblatt, Daniela Bar is a tower of strength. The unpretentious one-room bar is simple but nicely decorated and one of the stalwarts of the Schanze district scene... more
Docks
Category: Live Club, Dance Club
Formerly a cinema, at the end of the 1980s / beginning of the 1990s the hall on Spielbudenplatz developed first as "Knopf's Music Hall" then as Docks into an established presence on the Hamburg pop music scene... more
Dollhouse
Category: Bars
Hamburg's hottest address for stag parties and similar activities is located at the beginning of Grosse Freiheit. The nationwide popularity of the Dollhouse is down to... more
Downtown Blues Club
Category: Live Club
Downtown Blues Club is located in Landhaus Walter, which in turn is located in the Stadtpark between the lake and planetarium. At Downtown everything revolves around blues and old time rock 'n' roll... more
Edelfettwerk
Category: Dance Club
The former factory for precious fats now serves as the focal point for Hamburg party-goers. In the fabulous 6,000 square metre venue, two dance floors... more
Elbe 76
Category: Bars
After St. Pauli, St. Georg and Altona, Eimsbuettel used to be the district of Hamburg with probably the greatest concentration of bars. But those days are long gone... more
Fabrik
Category: Cultural Centre/All-Rounder, Dance Club
"Culture for everyone" was the motto that the Fabrik founders wrote on the banners at the beginning of the 1970s. They have adhered to this slogan to this day... more
Factory Hasselbrook
Category: Pubs
Visitors to the old Hasselbrooker station are no longer motivated by the travel bug to visit the building and the accompanying beer garden, but by thirst and hunger - even if nostalgia is partly the reason... more
Frau Hedis Tanzkaffee
Category: Dance Club, Live Club
Tour boats set sail from the jetties every evening with a cultural or party programme on board. Tuesdays and Thursdays... more
Freundlich + Kompetent
Category: Live Club
Apart from a few exceptions in St. Georg, the city parts east of the Outer Alster are never really suitable for going out. With Freundlich + Kompetent, the sweet Gertigstrasse in Winterhude at least has gained a place that nicely animates the area... more
Fundbureau
Category: Live Club, Dance Club
At end of the 1990s in a former lost property office (Fundbüro) under the Sternbrücke, a club and live music venue opened with the same name but with French spelling - and thus contributed significantly to making this junction an intersection for Hamburg's nightlife... more
Glanz und Gloria
Category: Bars
Chandeliers, red velvet and a bar with large mirrored counter provide the glamour and glory for a stylish ambience... more
Golem
Category: Bars, Dance Club
This bar close to the Fish Market sees itself as a "place of refined drinking and serious conversation". If neither of these appeals to you, you should drop in anyway... more
Goldfischglas
Category: Bars
With its long bar and mini-disco, Goldfischglas has developed in recent years into a popular meeting place in the middle of the Schanze district... more
Gretel & Alfons
Category: Pubs
Rustic bar in the Kiez, reminiscent of when for a few years St. Pauli was the musical centre of the world. The Beatles and Jimi Hendrix frequented... more
Grosse Freiheit 36
Category: Live Club, Dance Club
Grosse Freiheit 36 is actually made up of three locations: The big concerts and parties take place in the main room. In the Kaiserkeller, legendary because of the Beatles' performances in the 1960s... more
Grüner Jäger
Category: Live Club, Dance Club
Located right on Neuer Pferdemarkt, Grüne Jäger is something of a border post between the Kiez and Schanze. It's not just pop and rock concerts from smaller bands here... more
Gruenspan
Category: Live Club, Dance Club
Between high red walls and stucco columns, this club has been rocking since 1968. Initially notorious as a drug den where the audience lay around lazily and sheepishly on mattresses... more
Hadley’s Café Bar
Category: Bars
You can't really call Hadley's a typical place: The place where coffee and beer is served today was until recently a hospital emergency room dating from the turn of the century... more
Hafenbahnhof
Category: Live Club
A stone's throw from the River Elbe and just before Övelgönne / Neumühlen is Hafenbahnhof. In the summer due to its beautiful location this is a real place to be... more
Hafenklang
Category: Live Club, Dance Club
Formerly a recording studio (among others Einstürzende Neubauten recorded their first albums here), in the course of the 1990s Hafenklang developed into an indispensable music club for people who like something more substantial or unusual... more
Halo
Category: Dance Club
Here they party like crazy. With constantly changing DJs of international renown playing house, R&B and electronica, Halo lures party-goers four times a week for exuberant dancing on Grosse Freiheit... more
Hamburg del mar
Category:
Smooth grooves, cool drinks, fresh salads, grilled delicacies and gorgeous white sand guarantee a summer feeling on the pier. more
Hard Rock Café Hamburg
Category: Bars
Ein perfekter Blick auf das Treiben im Hafen bietet sich von der Dachterrasse des Hard Rock Cafes an den Landungsbrücken. Coole Cocktails, heiße Musik und die amerikanisch geprägte Speisekarte machen das internationale Flair perfekt. more
Headcrash
Category: Dance Club, Live Club
Hamburger Berg is the little Rock 'n' Roll mile in the Kiez. Nowhere is this spirit (tattoos, piercings etc.) more concentrated at weekends than in the side streets of Reeperbahn... more
Category: Bars
The enthusiasm of Hamburg bar owners for interiors that breathe a certain Sixties and Seventies spirit... more
Honigfabrik
Category: Cultural Centre/All-Rounder, Dance Club
Wilhelmsburg still has a community centre and in 2013 is getting a garden show and building exhibition, but we still don't know whether this will be good or bad for the Elbe island... more
Hotelbar Kogge
Category: Pubs
This used to be a seafarers' haunt. Today it is musicians and bands who head for Hotel Kogge. Consequently it can be an interesting visit... more
Indra
Category: Live Club, Dance Club
"Where the Beatles played first" is the slogan of Indra at the end of Grosse Freiheit. The fact that the first Hamburg performances of the Fab Four took place here gives the club to this day a cult-like aura... more
Jazzclub Bergedorf
Category: Live Club
In the far east of Hamburg a small but beautiful club has flown the flag for jazz fans for many years. Jazzclub Bergedorf offers live music on Fridays and Sundays from Dixieland and hot jazz to swing. more
Kir
Category: Dance Club, Live Club
Once located in the remote Poppenbuettel quarter, Kir moved to the Max-Brauer-Allee in the 1980s, where many legendary indie concerts took place... more
Klimperkiste
Category: Pubs
Yes, and this is also a constant in Hamburg nightlife, only free of the glam, hipness and trendiness, which are always associated with the term "nightlife"... more
Komet
Category: Pubs
This well run bar is a real nightlife oasis in St. Pauli. It has a decent table football table used not by annoying semi-pros but ordinary drinkers... more
Knust
Category: Live Club
Formerly a small basement club in the Old Town, Knust massively upsized with its move to an old slaughterhouse in 2003. The current premises are perfect for medium-sized concerts with a capacity of up to 600 people... more
Knuth
Category: Pubs
Knuth is big. And always full. Especially on sunny days, the many tables and benches by the door will be taken. The interior is pleasantly subtle and stylish and makes for a feeling of cosy togetherness in the evenings under dimmed lights... more
Kulturhaus 73
Category: Cultural Centre/All-Rounder, Live Club
Kulturhaus 73 offers a lively cultural programme in various rooms spread over several floors, consisting of gigs, dances, jam sessions, theatre performances, film screenings, "Tatort" screenings, table football tournaments and more... more
Le Fonque
Category: Bars
Since 1995, it has been all about funk and soul, seven days a week. The daily changing resident DJs like The Soul Professor, kookykitchen and Mr. Smith have always provided a casual sound... more
Le Lion
Category: Bars
High end drinking culture meets a very special atmosphere: The „Le Lion“ bar, which is close to the Hamburg Rathaus, is reminiscent of a David Lynch film set. more
Logo
Category: Live Club
"Rock 'n' Roll since 1974" is the slogan of this small live venue at the beginning of Grindelallee. Logo is one of the oldest concert venues in the city. Hard to believe that legendary bands such as Oasis, Rammstein... more
Lola
Category: Cultural Centre/All-Rounder, Dance Club
In Bergedorf a police station was moved in 1992. What remained was an old building, whose further use was up for discussion. Dedicated people with a healthy sense of community turned it into a cultural centre that has enriched the life of the district to this day... more
Lunacy
Category: Pubs
Like every other place on Hamburger Berg, Lunacy is always very busy at weekends. You'll have to push your way through the crowds to get to the table football... more
Mandalay
Category: Dance Club
The transition from bar to club is barely noticeable. During the week from 8pm you can sink into one of the comfy leather chairs here, listen to swing music and... more
Markthalle
Category: Live Club
The "Markthalle" ("Market Hall") has now been an established part of Hamburg music culture for 35 years. Not only because of its central location and artists such as AC/DC, The Police, Beastie Boys or The Clash, who have already performed on stage at the traditional club. more
Mojo Club
Category: Dance Club, Live Club
When the Mojo Club was opened in the early 1990s, it was the place to be because it definitively enshrined club culture in Hamburg. The hip hop and dancefloor jazz evenings were... more
Molotow
Category: Live Club, Dance Club
The Molotow has had some hard times. Opening in the early 1990s, this basement club in the Kiez nearly closed down a few years ago due to financial difficulties... more
Moondoo
Category: Dance Club
Nothing going on in Moondoo? Not possible! Every Saturday clubbers make the pilgrimage to this dance venue, inspired by legendary New York nightclubs like the Roxy or Save The Robots... more
Music Club Live
Category: Live Club
Live music is played here - and mainly by musicians from the genres of rock, folk, country, blues and jazz. Occasionally hip-hop jams and comedy performances complement the programme... more
Mutter
Category: Pubs
"Like at mum's" does not apply here. This is no eatery, but a fantastic trendy bar - and there is not much for mum and dad to see here... more
Nord
Category: Pubs
It's amazing how many places in Hamburg on Sunday evenings have the TV tuned into crime drama "Tatort". However, there are better reasons... more
Nachtasyl
Category: Live Club
At the top of the Thalia theatre is a space that has been one of the finest concert venues in the city for several years... more
Neidklub
Category: Dance Club
Behind the amusing play on words and unassuming façade lies a pretty cool venue. High quality acts in the form of internationally renowned DJs alongside regional favourites (Jan Delay) take over the mixer controls... more
Park Café Schöne Aussichten
Category: Bars, Dance Club
An absolute classic in Hamburg's nightlife is the Park Café Schöne Aussichten. The beautiful wooden cottage on the edge of the Planten un Blomen park has a large garden... more
Pony Bar
Category: Live Club
Since 2004, the Pony Bar has been a popular meeting place for Hamburg students. By day you make yourself comfortable here with a latte macchiato... more
Prinzenbar
Category: Live Club, Dance Club
Churning out electro parties, indie evenings and great concerts - this is how Prinzenbar has always attracted its guests to Kastanienallee. People have flocked here to see artists such as Maximo Park and David Bowie... more
Queen Calavera
Category: Bars
The Queen Calavera Bar can take a lot of credit for the current renaissance in burlesque dancing. All it has in common with an ordinary strip bar or something like the Dollhouse... more
Rote Flora
Category: Cultural Centre/All-Rounder, Dance Club, Live Club
100 years ago, this was a concert hall and theatre. In the 1960s the then popular discount group "1000 Töpfe" moved into the building - the bright yellow paint that is still visible today dates from this time... more
Rehbar
Category: Bars
Beautiful bar in the narrow maze-like streets of Ottensen. Rehbar is tastefully and minimally decorated. Deep green walls and dark wood dominate the interior. Appropriately, small pictures of deer, elk and other forest dwellers hang from the walls... more
Rilano Beachbar
Category:
Entspannen, schlemmen und die Sonne genießen. Die Rilano Beachbar liegt direkt an der Elbe und bietet einen fantastischen Panoramablick auf vorbeiziehende Schiffe. more
Saal II
Category: Bars
Saal II has escaped unscathed from the Schanze hype. The fully tiled room, especially when full, has a resounding acoustic, which makes intimate conversations difficult... more
Sausalitos
Category: Bars
Sausalito is a multicultural neighbourhood in San Francisco and the name of a local chain whose offshoots can be found in almost every German city. In Hamburg, Sausalito resides in the venerable Chilehaus... more
Schachcafé
Category: Bars
No one is going to force you to pick up a chess board and play. You can also just come here to enjoy the snacks in the cosy atmosphere... more
Stage Club
Category: Live Club, Dance Club
The Stage Club is located in the building complex of the Neue Flora musical theatre. Every month these stylish settings host rock, pop, soul, funk and jazz concerts... more
Stellwerk
Category: Live Club
Jazz club Stellwerk, at the old Harburg station, has made it its mission to feature jazz in all its modern forms. And it has done quite well... more
Sorgenbrecher
Category: Pubs
The little bar on Hamburger Berg has been one of the most popular hang-outs for musicians, artists, bohemians and wannabes for 20 years. To get into... more
Souledge
Category: Live Club, Dance Club
With numerous clubs and pubs, the Max-Brauer-Allee/Stresemannstrasse intersection is one of the hottest spots in the city. Souledge brings the funk in this corner... more
Category:
The yearning comes to an end... Summer, sun, StrandPauli at last - Hamburg's island in the city! more
Strandperle
Category:
Whether for snacks or the trendy bar, Strandperle has become a prime location on the beach at Övelgönne... more
Terrace Hill
Category: Bars, Dance Club
On the 5th floor of the Hochbunker on Feldstrasse, Terrace Hill invites you to relax and hang out with its with laid-back music... more
The Room
Category: Bars, Dance Club
The Room befindet sich im Radisson Blu Hotel in der Nähe des Dammtor-Bahnhofs und lädt seine Gäste ein, eisgekühlte Drinks in exklusiver Atmosphäre zu genießen und die Nacht zum Tag zu machen. more
Turtur Wilhelmsburg
Category: Cultural Centre/All-Rounder
Pizzeria and Club with a diverse program. DJs and much more from October to May and delicious pizza from May to October for fair prices! more
Towerbar
Category: Bars
The 62 meters high Tower Bar is located in the Hotel Hafen Hamburg, directly above the Landungsbrücken. Visitors can watch the harbour with its many ships from there while enjoying a drink.
Turmbar
Category: Bars
A spiral staircase leads up to Turmbar, which is 20 metres high. Anyone who braves the climb will be rewarded with an atmospherically lit bar with a view of Dammtor station and delicious mojitos or caipirinhas... more
Uebel & Gefährlich
Category: Live Club, Dance Club
The imposing overground bunker on Feldstrasse was for many years a hardly used, dirty dark stone block on the outskirts of Heiligengeistfeld. It was gradually revived by various companies (Dunz Wolff, Just Music etc.)... more
Wunderbar
Category: Bars
The cult gay bar on Talstrasse started life in the 1990s and has been an institution in the Kiez ever since. Daily from 10pm the venue lures with its glittery red interior equipped with disco balls... more
Waagenbau
Category: Dance Club, Live Club
Together with the Fundbureau and the Astra Stube, Waagenbau has been an integral part of the party delta at Sternbrücke for years. Various events regularly serve lovers of hip hop, soul, reggae, electronica or techno... more
Yoko Mono
Category: Bars
A solid, reliable venue within the Karolinen district is the Yoko Mono. The interior take you back to past decades. During the day the restaurant is a great place for a good cup of coffee in the afternoon... more
Zur Ritze
Category: Pubs
Legendary Kiez bar with distinctively shaped entrance door. Once you've gone through the spread legs of the "receptionist", one of the most original of all original places in the Kiez opens up... more
Zum Silbersack
Category: Pubs
Here the old St. Pauli still shines through. Silbersack was a local Kiez tavern, where things were down to earth, charming, but sometimes quite boisterous... more
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