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A Poorwill is what type of creature? | Alpine Marmots (Marmota marmota)
Alpine marmot
Marmots hibernate for up to eight months! They spend the four months they are awake having babies and preparing for the next hibernation. During hibernation they take only 2-3 breaths a minute and their heartbeat slows down from their normal 120 beats to 3-4 beats a minute!
Common Poorwill (Phalaenoptilus nuttallii)
Common Poorwill. Photo credit ken-ichi
It isn’t often that you hear about a bird that sleeps the bad weather away, that’s because the Common Poorwill is the only known bird species to hibernate. It picks a spot under shallow rocks or rotten logs and stays there for up to five months. Its daily energy needs drop by 93% and it can stay asleep for 100 days! Once hibernation is over, it needs seven hours to get back to its normal temperature.
Bears
Black Bear
Only four species of bear are hibernators: American Black Bear, Asiatic Black bear, Brown bear and Polar bear . These furry mammals don’t hibernate in the true sense because their body temperature only drops a little bit and they can wakeup at any moment. In fact, a pregnant mama bear will have her cubs during the hibernation period . Like true hibernators, the bear’s heartbeat will slow down and they can go for a long time without having any food. During hibernation a Black bear’s heart can drop from 40-50 to 8 beats per minute and they can last as long as 100 days without eating or drinking!
Bats
Bat
When bats are left alone, they can be some of the longest hibernators. In the wild, big brown bats have spent 64-66 days in hibernation while in captivity one lasted an incredible 344 days! These little guys don’t have to eat but they do wake up to drink. Their heart rate drops from 1000 beats per minute to only 25 and some bats only take a breath every 2 hours.
Fat-Tailed Dwarf Lemurs (Cheirogaleus medius)
fat-tailed dwarf lemur. Photo credit: Frank Vassen
Fat-Tailed Dwarf Lemurs live in Madagascar where temperatures in June and July usually stay about 30 degrees C. Now that might seem pretty warm to you, but this is actually the coldest time of the year for these lemurs. During this cold spell Fat-tailed Dwarf Lemurs pick a tree and settle there for about seven months until the rains return in November and food is available again. During their hibernation, they live off the fat in their tail (hence fat-tailed) losing close to 50% of their body weight!
Common Box Turtle (Terrapene carolina)
Box turtle
Hibernating box turtles are found in well hidden spots around Southern North America (USA and Mexico). The length of their winter sleep depends on the location and turtle subspecies: some can last as short as 77 days or as long as 154 days. Their heart beat drops to just one every 5-10 minutes and they don’t have to breathe in air at all (although they do take in oxygen through their skin). They are still very sensitive to the changing environment around them, if they wake up too early they will likely not survive.
Bumblebees
Bumblebee
When the temperature drops, males and worker bees die off but the queen survives by hibernating. She hibernates in a hole in the soil, in rotten tree stumps or under leaf litter. She will emerge 6-8 months later, warm-up and then find a nice spot to build a nest and create a whole new team of bees .
Garter snake
group garter snake
Unlike the bumblebee queen, who hibernates alone, garter snakes hibernate in groups. In Canada, where winters are exceptionally cold, there can be hundreds and sometime thousands of snakes grouped together for warmth. Once spring arrives and the snow melts, they head out of their winter homes to bask in the sun. It’s quite a sight to see!
Hedgehog
Hedgehog
Hedgehogs are some of the deepest hibernators around. Some can sleep through the whole winter! Their body temperature drops and they breathe so little that it can hardly be seen. They have special cells that release heat 20 times faster than white cells. If temperatures drop too low, their heart beat picks up to produce more heat, which wakes them up briefly before they fall asleep again.
Snail
Snail
Snails have a built in bed for their hibernation. They go into their shell, close up the hole with a skin made of chalk and slime that keeps the moisture in. During this time, they use almost no energy and don’t have to eat anything at all. In some areas where there is little rain, snails can hibernate for years!
| Bird |
The English town of Tewkesbury is in which county? | 5 Fascinating Facts About Hibernating Animals | Care2 Causes
5 Fascinating Facts About Hibernating Animals
About Catherine
Follow Catherine at @ theDirtyVegan
Most people do not give much thought to the changing of seasons. Sometimes we change our wardrobes to include seasonal clothing that is appropriate for the weather. Other times we may alter our eating styles to include seasonal products or holiday foods. Annual cold-weather related disorders are even known to plague us. However, it is rare that our entire lives are uprooted and modified for the winter.
Animals that hibernate do exactly that. Their whole system and way that they live is transformed into something completely new. Whether it be a creature that can altogether stop breathing and instead absorb oxygen in a novel way, or a critter that “hibernates” in a lighter sub-style of the process in order to recuperate only until awoken by possible danger, the concept of hibernation is simply fascinating.
While there are more than enough extraordinary facts about animals who hibernate to produce�extensive amounts of literature on the topic, here are just five remarkable facts that will blow your mind.
1. Some hibernating animals can stop breathing and be perfectly fine.
Water reptiles and amphibians can do some extreme things in order to hibernate. For instance, frogs like the hibernating bullfrog breathe air in the summer so that when�winter arrives, their bodies slow down and they can absorb oxygen through their skin without actually breathing. In fact, most of a�pond’s reptiles and amphibians are able to absorb the oxygen that they need through their skin; some turtles do this as well.
2. Some animals have adapted their hibernation style to suit their survival needs.
Animals such as bears can go into an alternate, light hibernation state called a torpor. Torpor is like hibernation, but in this condition, the bear can be woken up easily. Unlike the deeper sleep during hibernation, animals who are in a torpor can be more aware of threats, making them superior survivors. Ground squirrels are also among animals who torpor, however they shift between hibernation, torpor and being awake.
3. Animal companions can lightly hibernate and have even been mistaken for dead.
Hamsters are also animals who� torpor . Hamster parents have mistaken their beloved pals to be deceased, only to witness�their little balls of fur “come alive” again. The reason that hamsters go into light hibernation is due to the fact that there is a food and water source close by and readily available to them; they just wake up to dine, then resume their torpor. Sadly, hibernating hamsters can become tremendously startled if purposefully awoken from torpor, and some have even died of heart attacks.
4. An animal’s body can wake them during their hibernation in order to protect them.
Interestingly, the hedgehog whose heart rate drops by approximately 90 percent, can get too cold. If a hedgehog’s body temperature decreases to an unhealthy measure, it will wake up just enough so that the waking heart rate naturally warms it just right, then hibernation recommences. Hedgehogs also go into estivation during immensely warm weather, which is a hibernation that allows the animal to cool down before resuming normal activities.
5. Some animals use hibernation as if it were nature’s pause button.
The common poorwill is the�only bird that goes into true hibernation. It hibernates during extreme temperatures (when it is either too hot or too cold) and at times of food scarcity. As a built in survival technique, the animal can take a hiatus and increase chances of continuation. The common poorwill can even hibernate while they are incubating their eggs, proving as not only a true survivor, but also a riveting multitasking animal.
Looks like nature has a pretty good handle on things, doesn’t it?
Photo credit: Thinkstock
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Dr Alec Harvey and Laura Jesson are the main characters in which 1945 film? | Dr. Alec Harvey (Character) - Quotes
Dr. Alec Harvey (Character)
from Brief Encounter (1945)
The content of this page was created by users. It has not been screened or verified by IMDb staff.
Laura Jesson : [whimpers] Please don't.
Dr. Alec Harvey : I love you. I love you. You love me too. It's no use pretending it hasn't happened cause it has.
Laura Jesson : Yes it has. I don't want to pretend anything either to you or to anyone else. But from now on, I shall have to. That's what's wrong. Don't you see? That's what spoils everything. That's why we must stop, here and now, talking like this. We're neither of us free to love each other. There's too much in the way. There's still time, if we control ourselves and behave like sensible human beings. There's still time.
[She is overcome with tears]
Dr. Alec Harvey : [hearing a trio playing in the restaurant] There should be a Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Musical Instruments.
Dr. Alec Harvey : I do love you, so very much. I love you with all my heart and soul.
Laura Jesson : I want to die. If only I could die...
Dr. Alec Harvey : If you'd die, you'd forget me. I want to be remembered.
Dr. Alec Harvey : Could you really say goodbye? Never see me again?
Laura Jesson : Yes, if you'd help me.
Dr. Alec Harvey : I love you, Laura. I shall love you always until the end of my life. I can't look at you now cause I know something. I know that this is the beginning of the end. Not the end of my loving you but the end of our being together. But not quite yet, darling. Please. Not quite yet.
Laura Jesson : Very well. Not quite yet.
Dr. Alec Harvey : You know what's happened, don't you?... I've fallen in love with you.
| Brief Encounter |
Which US-based retail company has the motto ‘Save Money. Live Better’? | Brief Encounter - Memorabilia UK
Brief Encounter
Buy
Description:
1) TREVOR HOWARD autograph d1988 ; An original (circa 1950s) autograph book page, clearly signed in ballpoint by Trevor Howard.
2) CELIA JOHNSON autograph d1982. An original typed letter from The Midland Hotel Manchester (dated 9th October 1946), clearly signed in ink at the conclusion by Celia Johnson d1982 (Laura Jesson). The letter reads as follows ; "Thank you very much for your letter. I was so pleased that you enjoyed the film and it was extremely nice of you to write and say so. It is always most encouraging when one gets a letter like yours which shows that what one has tried to do has more or less succeeded. I do thank you most sincerely for your appreciation and charming letter. Yours sincerely ...."
Both items double mounted for fine display with photographs.
Certification:
CERTIFICATION ; AFTAL Dealer No13 and UACC RD Memorabilia UK COA.
Size:
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On which side of the road do motorists drive in Cyprus? | Driving in Cyprus - What Side Of The Road Do You Drive On In Cyprus
Driving In Cyprus
When it comes to driving in cyprus, the number one question we get asked is…
What Side Of The Road Of The Road Do You Drive On In Cyprus?
Like in the UK, in Cyprus, you drive on the left hand side of the right. What’s more, because of the influence of the UK in Cyprus, many of the road signs are similar, as are the traffic lights system.
This makes driving in Cyprus much easier for tourists hiring a holiday car .
Speed Limits
Speed limits are similar to the UK, but you must bear in mind, in Cyprus (like mainland Europe) measurements are in kilometres. ie.
Distances on road signs
Speed limits are in KPH – kilometers per hour.
Motorways
The motorways in Cyprus join the main towns and there is good access from the villa near Larnaca . Around 10km from the main motorway, you have easy access to Agia Napa in the East, Nicosia (signposted Lefkosia) in the centre of Cyprus, and Limassol and Paphos to the South West.
Driving In Larnaca
In Larnaca, there is a main road network but as you get into the town centre, there are many narrow roads and much of the traffic is one way. In the Turkish quarter there is a beautiful drive on a narrow road that edges onto the water (we love coming back to the villa down the road.
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| Left |
Someone born on the 1st August has which Zodiac sign? | Driving in Cyprus | RAC Drive
Driving in Cyprus
Essentials
Driving licence
Visitors riding or driving in Cyprus must have reached the minimum age required to drive/ride a vehicle of equivalent category even if they are qualified to drive at a lower age in their country of residence. You must be 18 or over to drive a private vehicle in Cyprus.
All valid national driving licences are recognised.
Important documents
Vehicles from the UK may be imported into Cyprus for up to 6 months in any period of 12 months. When driving in Cyprus the following documents should be carried:
Full, valid driving licence*
Proof of Insurance (third party or above)
Proof of ID (Passport)
Proof of ownership (V5C Certificate)
While driving in Cyprus you are required by law to carry the following items. Hefty on-the-spot fines can be issued for failing to carry specific items:
Headlamp beam deflectors (Depending on your car, you will either need deflector stickers or have to adjust the beam manually)
Warning triangle (Any motor vehicle travelling in Cyprus, regardless of country of registration, must carry two warning triangles)
Motorcyclists (Safety helmets are compulsory for drivers and passengers of mopeds and motorcycles)
Rules of the road & regulations
Rules of the road
Overtaking & passing
Drive on the left; overtake on the right. Overtake on the right, except when the vehicle to be overtaken is turning to the right.
Priority
At junctions where there are no signs, drivers must give way to vehicles coming from the right.
Warning of approach
Unnecessary use of the horn is prohibited. It is also prohibited to use a horn between 2200 hours and 0600 hours and in the vicinity of hospitals.
Towing
An inventory of the contents of a caravan or camper van is required on temporary importation.
Maximum length of car + caravan: 12m
Snow chains
The use of spiked tyres and snow chains is permitted on mountain roads in winter.
Seat belts
The use of seat belts is compulsory on the front and rear seats of cars.
Travelling with children
Children under five may not under any circumstances sit in the front passenger seat. Children from 5 to 10 years of age may occupy the front passenger seat if an appropriate child seat belt has been fitted.
Speed limits
Built-up areas
50
In certain areas certain speed limits are imposed. On motorways there is a minimum speed of 65 km/h.
Radar detectors are prohibited. If they are part of a satellite navigation system they must be de-activated.
Penalties
On-the-spot fines
The Cyprus Police are empowered to impose fines on the spot in cases of violation of traffic regulations.
Traffic fines are not paid to the officer at the roadside.
Parking
Parking regulations
Parking regulations conform to international practice.
Where a double yellow line is painted parallel to the kerb, parking and waiting are prohibited at all times. If the yellow line is single, loading and unloading is allowed but parking is prohibited at all times.
Enforcement of parking regulations
An on-the-spot fine of €85 may be levied for illegal parking. The police do not clamp or tow away illegally parked vehicles.
Disabled parking access
There are reserved parking spaces for the disabled which are sign posted. These may also be used by foreign disabled motorists provided they are in possession of the blue badge.
Traffic lights
The international three-colour system of traffic lights is used in Cyprus.
Drink/drug driving
The maximum legal level of alcohol in the blood is 0.05%.
Alcohol
The police are empowered to carry out random breath tests. Persons suspected of driving under the influence of alcohol may be subjected to a blood test.
Roads & fuel
Some petrol stations accept payment by credit card.
Useful guides and maps
Michelin Motoring Atlas: Europe
Source: All information in this document is sourced from the AIT (Alliance Internationale de Tourisme) & the FIA (Federation Internationale de l'Automobile) and, to the best of the RAC’s knowledge, is correct at the time of publication (May 2016).
Information and advice for British nationals travelling and living in Europe , following the result of the EU referendum.
There is a general threat from terrorism. See Terrorism
Around a million British nationals visit Cyprus every year. Most visits are trouble-free.
You can use ATMs, debit and credit cards as normal.
If you need to contact the emergency services call 112.
Cyprus has a strict zero tolerance towards drugs. See Local Laws and Customs
Driving standards are poor. You should drive with great care. See Road travel
Take out comprehensive travel and medical insurance before you travel.
British High Commission Nicosia
Office: British High Commission Nicosia
Street Address: Alexander Pallis Street
Postal Address : PO Box 21978
ZIP Code: 1587
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Which is the only written number in English that has all its letters in alphabetical order? | Fun With Words: Numbers
Eight is the first number alphabetically. Zero is the last.
Four is the only number that, spelled out, has as many letters.
Fifty and seventy are the only numbers divisible by ten that, when spelled out, have as many letters as ten divides into them. Therefore, fifty-four and seventy-four are equal to the numbers you get when you count the letters digit by digit. Thirty-six and forty-five have this same property in reverse, that is, the first word has the same number of letters as the second digit, and vice versa.
Forty is the only number whose letters are in alphabetical order. One is the only number whose letters are in reverse alphabetical order. First also has its letters in alphabetical order.
Eighty-eight, eleven letters long, is the longest number that is normally typed using strictly alternating hands (ignoring the hyphen).
Interchangeability is the word in the English language that contains the letters to form the most numbers. Its letters can form the words three, eight, nine, ten, thirteen, thirty, thirty-nine, eighty, eighty-nine, ninety, and ninety-eight.
Lewis Carroll, the author of
Alice In Wonderland
, once noted that "eleven plus two" and "twelve plus one" use the same letters and produce the same sum.
First Appearances of Letters
One thousand is the first number that, when spelled out, contains an a. (One hundred and one if you count the "and.")
One billion is the first number that contains a b.
One octillion is the first number that contains a c.
One hundred is the first number that contains a d.
Zero is the first number that contains an e. Starting from one, it's one.
Four is the first number that contains an f.
Eight is the first number that contains a g.
Three is the first number that contains an h.
Five is the first number that contains an i.
The letters j and k do not appear in the English spelling of any cardinal number.
Eleven is the first number that contains an l.
One million is the first number that contains an m.
One is the first number that contains an n.
Zero is the first number that contains an o. Starting from one, it's one.
One septillion is the first number that contains a p.
One quadrillion is the first number that contains a q.
Zero is the first number that contains an r. Starting from one, it's three.
Six is the first number that contains an s.
Two is the first number that contains a t.
Four is the first number that contains a u.
Five is the first number that contains a v.
Two is the first number that contains a w.
Six is the first number that contains an x.
Twenty is the first number that contains a y.
Zero is the first and only number that contains a z. (One zillion is not a real number.)
Seven is the first number not to contain any letter for the first time.
One octillion, the first number containing a c, is the largest number to contain any letter for the first time.
Back to
| forty |
The city of Cairo lies on which river? | Numerical Words
Numerical Words
There are several interesting observations that can be made about numbers,
as spelled out in English words. Here are a few:
Eight is the first number alphabetically. Zero is the last.
Four is the only number that, spelled out, has as many letters.
The only integer names with no repeated letters are zero, one, two, four, five, six, eight, ten, forty, forty-six, sixty, sixty-one, sixty-four, eighty, eighty-four and five thousand.
The shortest names for numbers are one, two, six and ten. The longest names for numbers have 758 letters each, and there are 984, 770, 902, 183, 611, 232, 881 (or 344) such numbers. the smallest of these is 373, 373, 373, 373, 373, 373, 373, 373, 373, 373, 373, 373, 373, 373, 373, 373, 373, 373, 373, 373, 373, 373 and the largest of these is 878, 878, 878, 878, 878, 878, 878, 878, 878, 878, 878, 878, 878, 878, 878, 878, 878, 878, 878, 878, 878, 878.
Forty is the only number whose letters are in alphabetical order. One is the only number whose letters are in reverse alphabetical order. First also has its letters in alphabetical order.
The smallest number whose name uses the five vowels a, e, i, o, u in order is 1084 (one thousand eighty-four)
The smallest number whose name uses the five vowels a, e, i, o, u in any order is 1005 (one thousand five).
The smallest number whose name uses the six vowels a, e, i, o, u, y in order is 1, 000, 000, 000, 008, 020 (one quadrillion eight thousand twenty)
The smallest number whose name uses the six vowels a, e, i, o, u, y (in any order) is 1025 (one thousand twenty-five)
The largest number whose name uses only one distinct vowel is seventeen (using only e)
Eighty-six, nine letters long, is the longest number that is normally typed using strictly alternating hands (ignoring the hyphen).
The word interchangeability contains the letters to form more numbers than any other word. Its letters can form the words three, eight, nine, ten, thirteen, thirty-nine, eighty, eighty-nine, ninety and ninety-eight.
Zenzizenzizenzic (eighth power of a number) has more z's than any other word in English.
One thousand is the first number that, when spelled out, contains an a. (One hundred and one if you count the 'and'.)
One billion is the first number that contains a b.
One octillion is the first number that contains a c.
One hundred is the first number that contains a d.
Zero is the first number that contains an e. Starting from one, it's one.
Four is the first number that contains an f.
Eight is the first number that contains a g.
Three is the first number that contains an h.
Five is the first number that contains an i.
The letters J and k do not appear in the spelling of any cardinal number.
Eleven is the first number that contains an l.
One million is the first number that contains an m.
One is the first number that contains an n.
Zero is the first number that contains an o. starting from one, it's one.
One septillion is the first number that contains a p.
One quadrillion is the first number that contains a q.
Zero is the first number that contains an r. Starting from one, it's three.
Six is the first number that contains an s.
Two is the first number that contains a t.
Four is the first number that contains a u.
Five is the first number that contains a v.
Two is the first number that contains a w.
Six is the first number that contains an x.
Twenty is the first number that contains a y.
Zero is the first and only number that contains a z. (One zillion is not a real number.)
Seven is the first number not to contain any letter for the first time.
One octillion, the first number containing a c, is the largest number to contain any letter for the first time.
The first Roman numeral alphabetically is C (100); the last is XXXVIII (38). The first odd Roman nemeral alphabetically is CCCI (301); the last is XXXVII (37).
MIX is the longest English word that is also a valid number in Roman numerals.
DIVIDIVI (a tropical American tree) is the longest word composed solely of Roman numeral letters. Some other such words of four or more letters are CIMICIC (a yellow oil), CIMICIC (an insect), CIVIC, CIVIL, CIXIID (one of the Cixiidae, a family of insects of the order Homoptera), DILL, DILLI (a bag or basket also called a dilly bag), DIXID (a type of midge), IDIC (pertaining to or consisting of ids), ILICIC, IMID (variant spelling of imide), IMIDIC (related to an imide), IMMI (unit of measure formerly used in Switzerland = 1.51) IMMIX, IXIL (a Mayan tribe), LIL, LIVID, MIDI, MILD, MILL, MIMI (girl's name), CLIM (dialect word, past tense of climb), MIMIC, VILI (a brother of Odin in Norse mythology), VILL, VILLI (plural of villus) and VIVID.
BACILLICIDIC (destructive to bacilli) and MILLIMILLINARY (correct within a millionth part) have the longest uninterrupted string of Roman numeral letters in a word (10).
Among words consisting only of Roman numeral letters, the words with highest total value are MIMIC (2,102) and IMMIX (2,012).
| i don't know |
Rhodesian Ridgeback is which breed of animal? | Rhodesian Ridgeback : Dog Breed Selector : Animal Planet
Watch Video
The Ridgeback loves to run, and it needs daily mental and physical exercise to keep it from becoming frustrated. It can be a good jogging or hiking companion. The Ridgeback can live outdoors in temperate or warm climates, but it is usually much happier sleeping indoors and dividing its time between the house and yard during the day. Coat care is minimal, consisting only of occasional brushing to remove dead hair.
Major concerns: dermoid sinus
Occasionally seen: deafness, elbow dysplasia
Suggested tests: breeder check for dermoid sinus, (hip)
Life span: 10 13 years
Watch Video
When European Boer settlers arrived in South Africa in the 16th and 17th centuries, they brought with them such breeds as the mastiff, Great Dane, bloodhound, pointer, staghound and greyhound, among others. These settlers needed a dog that could withstand both hot and cold temperatures, limited water and rough bush, while performing the duties of guard dog and hunting dog. By breeding their European dogs with native Hottentot tribal hunting dogs (which were distinguished by a ridge of hair growing in the opposite direction along the top of their back) they produced just such a dog. These dogs hunted by both sight and scent and were devoted protectors of the entire family. In the 1870s, several were taken to Rhodesia to hunt lions, chasing and harassing the lion until the hunter could shoot it. The "lion dogs" were so successful that they soon became popular, their distinctive ridge becoming a trademark of quality. By the 1920s, so many different types of ridged lion dogs existed in Rhodesia that a meeting was held to elucidate the most desirable points of the breed, which became the basis for the current standard. Dogs meeting the standard criteria were known as Rhodesian Ridgebacks (the dogs' former designation as lion dogs was deemed to sound too savage). The breed was introduced into England in the 1930s and America soon after. In both countries, it gained recognition in the 1950s and quickly attracted admirers. In the 1980s, the breed received recognition as a sighthound and became eligible to compete in sighthound field trials. Today it is among the more popular hounds, undoubtedly because it combines the abilities of hunter, protector and companion in a sleek handsome body.
| Dog |
In the Disney film Aladdin, what colour is the Genie? | Rhodesian Ridgeback | Other Shows | Animal Planet
Rhodesian Ridgeback
show more details show less details
The Rhodesian Ridgeback darts fast, changes direction in a blink and zeroes in on a target without hesitation. The dog is named after Rhodesian landmarks in honor of their heritage. Originally from southern Africa, they were bred to hunt big game.
Related Videos
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How many yards are in a UK mile? | Miles to Yards - How many yards in a mile?
Miles to Yards Conversion
How many yards in a mile?
Length units mile to yard conversion factor is 1760. To find out how many yards in miles, multiply by the factor or instead, use the converter below.
1 Mile = 1760 Yards
Mile is an imperial and U.S. customary unit and equals to 5280 feet. It is mostly used in united states and uk to measure the distance between two geographical locations. The abbreviation is "mi".
Yard is an imperial, U.S. customary unit. It equals to 3 feet or 36 inches. The abbreviation is "yd".
For yard to mile converter, please go to yards to miles
For other length unit conversions, please go to Length Conversion
Converter
| one thousand seven hundred and sixty |
‘That’s All Folks’ is the epitaph of which US comedian? | Miles | Define Miles at Dictionary.com
Miles
Nelson Appleton, 1839–1925, U.S. army officer.
2.
a male given name: from a Germanic word meaning “merciful.”.
mile
noun
1.
Also called statute mile . a unit of distance on land in English-speaking countries equal to 5280 feet, or 1760 yards (1.609 kilometers).
2.
a notable distance or margin:
missed the target by a mile.
Abbreviation: mi, mi.
before 1000; Middle English; Old English mīl < Latin mīlia (passuum) a thousand (paces)
Dictionary.com Unabridged
Examples from the Web for Miles
Expand
Contemporary Examples
London has controlled the islands, about 300 Miles off the Argentine coast, since 1833.
Deerbrook Harriet Martineau
The village was about six Miles above the entrance of the Illinois into the Mississippi River.
Daniel Boone John S. C. Abbott
British Dictionary definitions for Miles
Expand
noun
1.
Bernard, Baron Miles of Blackfriars. 1907–91, British actor and theatre manager. He founded the Mermaid Theatre in London, and was known as a character actor
mile
noun
1.
Also called statute mile. a unit of length used in the UK, the US, and certain other countries, equal to 1760 yards. 1 mile is equivalent to 1.609 34 kilometres
2.
See Swedish mile
4.
any of various units of length used at different times and places, esp the Roman mile, equivalent to 1620 yards
5.
(often pl) (informal) a great distance; great deal: he missed by a mile
6.
a race extending over a mile
adverb
miles, (intensifier): he likes his new job miles better
Word Origin
Old English mīl, from Latin mīlia (passuum) a thousand (paces)
Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 2012 Digital Edition
© William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd. 1979, 1986 © HarperCollins
Publishers 1998, 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2012
Word Origin and History for Miles
Expand
mile
n.
Old English mil, from West Germanic *milja (cf. Middle Dutch mile, Dutch mijl, Old High German mila, German meile), from Latin mila "thousands," plural of mille "a thousand" (neuter plural was mistaken in Germanic as a fem. singular), of unknown origin.
The Latin word also is the source of French mille, Italian miglio, Spanish milla. The Scandinavian words (Old Norse mila, etc.) are from English. An ancient Roman mile was 1,000 double paces (one step with each foot), for about 4,860 feet, but there were many local variants and a modern statute mile is about 400 feet longer. In Germany, Holland, and Scandinavia in the Middle Ages, the Latin word was applied arbitrarily to the ancient Germanic rasta, a measure of from 3.25 to 6 English miles. Mile-a-minute (adj.) "very fast" is attested from 1957.
Online Etymology Dictionary, © 2010 Douglas Harper
mile
(mīl)
A unit of length in the US Customary System, equal to 5,280 feet or 1,760 yards (about 1.61 kilometers). Also called statute mile.
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The country of Sri Lanka was formerly known by what name? | History of Sri Lanka - Originally known as Heladiva - Ceylon
History of Sri Lanka
About Mahavamsa | Mahavamsa Chapters | Mahavamsa Simplified
Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka. known as Ceylon before 1972 is an island nation in South Asia, located about 31 kilometers (18½ mi) off the southern coast of India. Originally known as Heladiva, it is home to around twenty million people.
Sri Lanka is a strategic naval link between West Asia and South East Asia and has been a centre of Buddhist religion and culture from ancient times. Today, Sri Lanka is a multi-religious and multi-ethnic nation, with a fifth of the population following faiths other than Buddhism – notably Hinduism, Christianity and Islam. The Sinhalese community forms the majority of the population (around 78%), with Tamils, who are mostly concentrated in the north and east of the island, forming the largest ethnic minority. Other communities include the Muslim Moors and Malays as well as Burghers. English is widely spoken and is studied as a compulsory secondary language in school.
Island has a pleasant tropical climate and average temperature of the low lands ranges between 25-30 degrees Celsius. Famous for the production and export of tea, coffee, rubber and coconuts, Sri Lanka boasts a progressive and modern industrial economy. The natural beauty of Sri Lanka’s tropical forests, beaches and landscape, as well as its rich cultural heritage make it a world famous tourist destination.
Sri Lanka’s Per Capita GDP is presently US$ 900 – the highest in South Asia and the Literacy rate is 92% – the highest in South Asia and second highest in Asia. According to the Economic Intelligence Unit (EIU) Forecast 1998, Sri Lanka’s Business Environment ranks 11th in the region, and 42nd in the world, ahead of India, China, Indonesia, Vietnam and Pakistan.
After over two thousand years of rule by local kingdoms, parts of Sri Lanka were colonized by Portugal and the Netherlands beginning in the 16th century, before the control of the entire country was ceded to the British Empire in 1815. During World War II Sri Lanka served as an important base for Allied forces in the fight against the Japanese Empire. A nationalist political movement arose in the country in the early 20th century, with the aim of obtaining political independence, which was eventually granted by the British after peaceful negotiations in 1948. Since then Sri Lanka has enjoyed a stable democracy and continuous economic progress, despite the ongoing conflict between the Sri Lankan government and a separatist militant group known as the Tamil Tigers in the northeastern parts of the country.
Naming of Sri Lanka
Known as Lamka, Lankadeepa, taprobane .. etc
In ancient times, Sri Lanka was known by a variety of names: ancient Greek geographers called it Taprobane and Arabs referred to it as Serendib (the origin of the word “serendipity”). Ceilão was the name given to Sri Lanka by the Portuguese when they arrived on the island in 1505, which was transliterated into English as Ceylon. In 1972, the official name of the country was changed to “Free, Sovereign and Independent Republic of Sri Lanka” whereas the island itself is referred to as lank?va, In 1978 it was changed to “Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka”.
The current name is derived from Sanskrit word lamk?, meaning “resplendent land”, which was also the name of the island as described in the ancient Indian epics Mahabharata and the Ramayana.
Brief History
Paleolithic human settlements have been discovered at excavations in several cave sites in the Western Plains region and the South-western face of the Central Hills region. Anthropologists believe that some discovered burial rites and certain decorative artifacts exhibit similarities between the first inhabitants of the island and the early inhabitants of Southern India. Recent bioanthropological studies have however dismissed these links, and have placed the origin of the people to the northern parts of India. One of the first written references to the island is found in the Indian epic Ramayana, which described the emperor Ravana as monarch of the powerful kingdom of Lanka. English historian James Emerson Tennent also theorized Galle, a southern city in Sri Lanka, was the ancient seaport of Tarshish from which King Solomon is said to have drawn ivory, peacocks and other valuables. The main written accounts of the country’s history are the Buddhist chronicles of Mahavansa and Dipavamsa.
The earliest-known inhabitants of the island now known as Sri Lanka were probably the ancestors of the Wanniyala-Aetto people, also known as Veddahs and numbering roughly 3,000. Linguistic analysis has found a correlation of the Sinhalese language with the languages of the Sindh and Gujarat, although most historians believe that the Sinhala community emerged well after the assimilation of various ethnic groups. Dravidian people may have begun migrating to the island from the pre-historic period. From the ancient period date some remarkable archaeological sites including the ruins of Sigiriya, the so-called “Fortress in the Sky”, and huge public works. Among the latter are large “tanks” or reservoirs, important for conserving water in a climate that alternates rainy seasons with dry times, and elaborate aqueducts, some with a slope as finely calibrated as one inch to the mile. Ancient Sri Lanka was also the first in the world to have established a dedicated hospital in Mihintale in the 4th century BCE. Ancient Sri Lanka was also the world’s leading exporter of cinnamon, which was exported to Egypt as early as 1400 BCE. Sri Lanka was also the first Asian nation to have a female ruler in Queen Anula (47 – 42 BC)
Since ancient times Sri Lanka was ruled by monarchs, most notably of the Sinha royal dynasty that lasted over 2000 years. The island was also infrequently invaded by South Indian kingdoms and parts of the island were ruled intermittently by the Chola dynasty, the Pandya dynasty, the Chera dynasty and the Pallava dynasty. The island was also invaded by the kingdoms of Kalinga (modern Orissa) and those from the Malay Peninsula. Buddhism arrived from India in the 3rd century BCE, brought by Bhikkhu Mahinda, who is believed to have been the son of Mauryan emperor Ashoka. Mahinda’s mission won over the Sinhalese monarch Devanampiyatissa of Mihintale, who embraced the faith and propagated it throughout the Sinhalese population. The Buddhist kingdoms of Sri Lanka would maintain a large number of Buddhist schools and monasteries, and support the propagation of Buddhism into Southeast Asia.
Sri Lanka had always been an important port and trading post in the ancient world, and was increasingly frequented by merchant ships from the Middle East, Persia, Burma, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia and other parts of Southeast Asia. The islands were known to the first European explorers of South Asia and settled by many groups of Arab and Malay merchants. A Portuguese colonial mission arrived on the island in 1505 headed by the Lourenço de Almeida the son of Francisco de Almeida. At that point the island consisted of three kingdoms, namely Kandy in the central hills, Kotte at the Western coast, and Yarlpanam (Anglicised Jaffna) in the north. The Dutch arrived in the 17th century. Although much of the island came under the domain of European powers, the interior, hilly region of the island remained independent, with its capital in Kandy. The British East India Company established control of the island in 1796, declaring it a crown colony in 1802, although the island would not be officially connected with British India. The fall of the kingdom of Kandy in 1815 unified the island under British rule.
European colonists established a series of tea, cinnamon, rubber, sugar, coffee and indigo plantations. The British also brought a large number of indentured workers from Tamil Nadu to work in the plantation economy. The city of Colombo was established as the administrative centre, and the British established modern schools, colleges, roads and churches that brought Western-style education and culture to the native people. Increasing grievances over the denial of civil rights, mistreatment and abuse of natives by colonial authorities gave rise to a struggle for independence in the 1930s, when the Youth Leagues opposed the “Ministers’ Memorandum,” which asked the colonial authority to increase the powers of the board of ministers without granting popular representation or civil freedoms. During World War II, the island served as an important Allied military base. A large segment of the British and American fleet were deployed on the island, as were tens of thousands of soldiers committed to the war against Japan in Southeast Asia.
Following the war, popular pressure for independence intensified. On February 4, 1948 the country won its independence as the Commonwealth of Ceylon. Don Stephen Senanayake became the first Prime Minister of Sri Lanka. In 1972, the country became a republic within the Commonwealth, and the name was changed to Sri Lanka. On July 21, 1960 Sirimavo Bandaranaike took office as prime minister, and became the first female head of government in post-colonial Asia and the first female prime minister in the world. The island enjoyed good relations with the United Kingdom and had the British Royal Navy stationed at Trincomalee. Since 1983, there has been on-and-off civil war, predominantly between the government and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE, also known as the Tamil Tigers), a separatist militant (Terrorist) group who fight to create an independent state named Tamil Eelam in the North and East of the island.
“History is the Best Teacher”
HISTORY
| Sri Lanka |
Which British author created the fictional character George Smiley? | Sri Lanka Country Code 94 Country Code LK
About Sri Lanka Hide
CountryCode.org is your complete guide to make a call from anywhere in the world, to anywhere in the world. This page details Sri Lanka phone code.
The Sri Lanka country code 94 will allow you to call Sri Lanka from another country. Sri Lanka telephone code 94 is dialed after the IDD. Sri Lanka international dialing 94 is followed by an area code.
The Sri Lanka area code table below shows the various city codes for Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka country codes are followed by these area codes. With the complete Sri Lanka dialing code, you can make your international call.
Sinhala (official and national language) 74%, Tamil (national language) 18%, other 8%
Electricity
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Steve Harley was the lead singer in which 1970’s band? | Steve Harley & Cockney Rebel ~ BBC Interview And Life Story ~ Come Up And See Me Make Me Smile - YouTube
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Steve Harley & Cockney Rebel ~ BBC Interview And Life Story ~ Come Up And See Me Make Me Smile
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Published on Mar 30, 2014
Steve Harley & Cockney Rebel are an English rock band from the early 1970s. Their music covers a range of styles from pop to progressive rock.
'Come up and see me -- Make Me Smile' has to be one of the best tunes of all time!
Steve Harley is the lead singer of Cockney Rebel.
Harley talks to Belfield about his life, career and new album.....
Hear 100's of Exclusive interviews with Alex Belfield @ www.celebrityradio.biz
Category
| Steve Harley & Cockney Rebel |
Brushback, Horsehide, Pearod and Wheelhouse are all terms used in which sport? | Steve Harley & Cockney Rebel - Human Menagerie - Amazon.com Music
By R. D. Waters on June 17, 2004
Format: Audio CD
Released 30 (gulp!) years ago, "The Human Menagerie" barely created a ripple on the American music scene, but in England and much of Europe it created a sensation. I was into all things Bowie, Roxy Music, and New York Dolls then, so when a friend played this for me I was hooked. It sounded fresh and rather daring in its time - it still does to some extent.
Singer Steve Harley wrote artsy, fey lyrics that worked well with the unconventional instrumentation of the early Cockney Rebel recordings. "Hideaway" kicks off the CD with a bang. The formula of drums, bass, acoustic guitar, keyboards, and violin is introduced in a tight, driving song that Harley punctuates with campy phrasing and clever lyrics. Let's just state right up front that Harley's voice was limited, but he was very good at phrasing and could deliver some memorable moments. "What Ruthy Said" and "Loretta's Tale" are the perfect follow up songs - catchy, dramatic, and original. These two songs also introduced Harley's lyrical technique of storytelling using names like Ruthy, Sebastian, Mona, and Loretta that he continued using for many years.
"Crazy Raver" is a completely over the top, well, rave if you must. It is one of the weaker songs on the CD, but not a complete loss. "Sebastian", the notorious hit single, is Harley at the height of his drama queen stance, complete with full orchestra and choir. Listening to it then and now, I could never believe it was ever played on the radio in Europe or anywhere else much less America. It is slow, long, and unconventional. It was the signature song of their concerts for many years.
"Mirror Freak", one of the best songs on this CD, was the real hook. Read more ›
By Paul Allaer TOP 100 REVIEWER VINE VOICE on November 4, 2005
Format: Audio CD
Steve Harley made a huge impact in the mid-70's, with 1975's "The Best Years of Our Life" as the exclamation point. But his band, Cockney Rebel, came on the European music scene with this album, originally released in 1973, with a "new" concept: no electric guitars, but instead a violin as the lead instrument, what a concept!
"The Human Menagerie" (12 tracks, 51 min., including 2 bonus tracks) is mostly famous for its hit single "Sebastian", a 7 min. beautiful epic, yet slow and mostly quiet song, truly an enigma that this somehow found an audience (try imagine this today: not gonna happen!). But the album offers a lot more: the opener "Hideaway" is a delicious starter that perfectly introduces the band's "revolutionary" sound. "Mirror Freak" is another stand-out track, but the closer of the original album looms larger than any other: the 10 min. epic "Death Trip", with full-blown orchestration, just beautiful. This reissue comes with 2 bonus tracks: "Judy Teen", the great hit single released after this album and before the subsequent "Psychomodo" album, and "Rock and Roll Parade", the B-side.
Cockney Rebel is often classified as a "glam" band of the mid-70's era (based on their looks--check the album cover of "The Human Menagerie"), but that is just plain wrong. Their sound is unique. "The Human Menagerie" is a good album, but to hear Cockney Rebel at their peak, check out 1974's "Psychomodo", truly a classic.
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By Morten Vindberg on January 13, 2005
Format: Audio CD
This was Steve Harley and Cockney Rebels' first album - originally released in 1973. Cockney Rebel was a glam-rock act ; somewhere between David Bowie and Doctor's of Madness. At least their first 3 albums were really great; from then Harley's songwriting seemed to be somewhat exhausted.
This album, probably their most consistent, contains their first classic single "Sebastian", which was a hit record in several countries, though never made it to the top 20 in Britain. The song may appear a little dated today ( maybe because of its 7 minutes playing time ) - but their follow up single "Judy Teen", which is included as a bonus-track, is still among my favourite Rebel songs.
The album contains many great tracks; both ballads and rockers - quite impressive considering that this was their debut-album. Songs like "Hideaway", "Loretta's Tale" and "Mirror Freak" have obvious hit-potential. "My Only Vice" and "Muriel the Actor" are simply charming tracks.
"Death Trip", like Sebastian, is an ambitious piece of work, with a lot of inspiration from classical music.
A great album!
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By Bryan on September 8, 2011
Format: Audio CD
My first experience with the Steve Harley/Cockney Rebel collaboration is definitely a unique one! My assumption that they were some forgotten blues/rock band was entirely *wrong*, haha.
Every time I try to compare Steve Harley/Cockney Rebel to some other artist (such as Paul McCartney or Roxy Music) I'm never *quite* able to do so. Why? Because the music on the Human Menagerie is a pop/rock album that falls under the category of quirky, fun and just entirely different. Perhaps if anything, a comparison to 10cc is the most logical choice but... then again, they don't resemble 10cc in the slightest. Different songwriting altogether. Brian Eno's pop period? Yes, that's probably the best comparison. Well wait just a darn minute! How about a theatrical Roxy Music? Yeah *that's* what the Human Menagerie sounds like to me.
The most remarkable aspect of Steve Harley/Cockney Rebel's sound is that it is -in my opinion at least- instantly likeable. Talk about insanely catchy vocal melodies. This album is positively *loaded* with them.
I feel that "Loretta's Tale" wouldn't be out of place on an early Roxy Music album. The vocal melody reminds me of something Bryan Ferry would have created back then, though the most interesting thing is that the most appropriate Roxy Music album for this song to make an appearance on would probably be Country Life but... that album didn't come out until a year *after* the Human Menagerie so perhaps it was Roxy Music who was listening to these guys (and not the other way around). Hmmm... Anyway, the vocal melody not only resembles Bryan Ferry but also makes me think it's a lost Paul McCartney classic. It's not however. Too darn bad. "Mirror Freak" is probably the most normal song here. Read more ›
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Which comedy duo starred in the 1942 film ‘Rio Rita’? | Rio Rita (1942) - IMDb
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Doc and Wishey run into some Nazi-agents, who want to smuggle bombs into the USA from a Mexican border hotel.
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Russ Raymond, America's number one crooner, disappears and joins the Navy under the name Tommy Halstead. Dorothy Roberts, a magazine journalist, is intent on finding out what happened to ... See full summary »
Director: Arthur Lubin
Two bumbling magicians help a Middle Eastern prince regain his rightful throne from his despotic uncle.
Director: Charles Reisner
Bud and Lou enlist in the army in order to escape being hauled off to jail, and soon find themselves in basic training. To their dismay, the company's drill instructor is none other than ... See full summary »
Director: Arthur Lubin
Two bumbling service station attendants are left as the sole beneficiaries in a gangster's will. Their trip to claim their fortune is sidetracked when they are stranded in a haunted house ... See full summary »
Director: Arthur Lubin
Abbott and Costello are two window washers who are mistaken by Nick Craig, a bookie, as the messengers that he sent to pick up $50,000. The person that he sent them to, has sent two of HIS ... See full summary »
Director: Charles Barton
When a barnstorming stunt pilot decides to join the air corps, his two goofball assistants decide to go with him. Since the two are Abbott & Costello, the air corps doesn't know what it's in for.
Directors: Arthur Lubin, Ralph Ceder
Stars: Bud Abbott, Lou Costello, Martha Raye
Jim "Lucky" Moore (Allan Jones), an insurance salesman, comes up with a novel policy for his friend, Steve (Robert Cummings): a 'love insurance policy', that will pay out $1-million if ... See full summary »
Director: A. Edward Sutherland
When two bumbling barbers act as agents for a talented but unknown singer, they stage a phony murder in order to get him a plum role.
Director: S. Sylvan Simon
Two dumb soda jerks dream of writing radio mysteries. When they try to pitch an idea at a radio station, they end up in the middle of a real murder when the station owner is killed during a broadcast.
Director: Erle C. Kenton
Two peanut vendors at a rodeo show get in trouble with their boss and hide out on a railroad train heading west. They get jobs as cowboys on a dude ranch, despite the fact that neither of ... See full summary »
Director: Arthur Lubin
Bud and Lou find themselves pursued by an Egyptian cult for a special medallion linked to a walking mummy.
Director: Charles Lamont
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 6.4/10 X
Rocky and Puddin' Head are waiting tables at an inn on Tortuga when a letter given them by Lady Jane for delivery to Martingale gets switched with a treasure map. Kidd and Bonney kidnap them to Skull Island to find said treasure.
Director: Charles Lamont
Edit
Storyline
After being fired from their jobs as clerks in a pet store, Doc and Wishey, a couple of bumpkins, hide in the trunk of a car that they think will take them to New York. Somehow, however, they end up in Texas where they help to facilitate the romance of a popular Latin singer and the owner of a resort hotel while exposing a gang of Fifth-Columnists. Written by [email protected]
THERE'S Monkey Business GOING ON! See more »
Genres:
April 1942 (USA) See more »
Filming Locations:
Mono (Western Electric Sound System)
Color:
Did You Know?
Trivia
This film was first telecast in Philadelphia Monday 18 February 1957 on WFIL (Channel 6), followed by Los Angeles Tuesday 26 March 1957 on KTTV (Channel 11); its San Francisco television premiere took place 1 January 1958 on KGO (Channel 7); in New York City its earliest documented airing took place 24 September 1959 on WCBS (Channel 2). See more »
Goofs
Lou gets thrown from the washing machine. But when he gets up from the table he landed on. His hair and clothes are completely dry. See more »
Quotes
'Wishy' : I want to be like the Rangers when I die. I want to die with my boots on.
(USA) – See all my reviews
Bud and Lou tangle with Nazi spies in Mexico. The Nazis are led by suave Tom Conway. This is a loose remake of a 1929 Wheeler and Woolsey picture. I haven't seen that and likely won't anytime soon since I don't care for Wheeler and Woolsey much. This is also the first of three movies A&C did for MGM. None of these were among their best movies and this is easily the least enjoyable of the three. Nice cast backing up the boys but far too much focus on the bland romance between Kathryn Grayson and John Carroll, a poor leading man I've never been a fan of. He uses a particularly laughable Latin accent here. Also too much singing! And it's that "opera-y" type singing, too. You know what I mean - deep bass from the guy and high soprano from the girl. Not my thing. As for the comedy, it's pretty by-the-numbers Abbott & Costello material. A few good lines and gags but nothing for the career highlight reel. The car spinning gag ("Push the button!") is probably the movie's best scene and that's in the first twenty minutes. For die-hard A&C fans or fans of Ms. Grayson's singing. Everybody else would be advised to find one of the many superior Abbott & Costello films to watch.
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| Abbott and Costello |
On the UK television game show ‘The Chase’, which chaser is known as the Dark Destroyer? | Rio Rita (Full Screen) DVD-R (1942) Starring John Carroll, Tom Conway, Bud Abbott, Lou Costello, Kathryn Grayson & Peter Whitney; Directed by S. Sylvan Simon; Starring Patricia Dane; Warner Archive Collection (MOD) | OLDIES.com
S. Sylvan Simon
Description by OLDIES.com:
It's fiesta time in Vista Del Rio, and that means much musical celebration. It's also a time of global war. So, in the updated plot of this exuberant World War II-era remake of the 1929 Wheeler and Woolsey romp, that means little Vista Del Rio is a jalape?o hotbed of Axis spies. The agents intend to use a fiesta radio show to send a coded message, a scheme that may be scrambled silly when stumblebums Doc and Wishy stumble onto it. Bud Abbott and Lou Costello play the inept duo in this musical comedy that -- from riffing on the word "pekinese" to Lou's hunger-fueled food mirage (tastes like chicken!) to his loopy spin within an oversized washing machine -- has the famed funnymen fracturing any situation into goofy glee. Enjoy!
Product Description:
Abbott and Costello are at it again as they do some matchmaking for a new friend. on their way to the big city, they wind up in a small town in Texas and are chased by Nazi spies.
Keywords:
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Arthur Balfour was British Prime Minister during the reign of which monarch? | Arthur James Balfour
InfoBritain - Travel Through History In The UK :
Arthur James Balfour
Arthur James Balfour
Prime Minister 1902 - 1906
The long dominance of certain families in British political history is one of its most remarkable aspects. The family of Arthur Balfour, prime minister 1902 - 1906, were an ancient Scottish dynasty who had long been prominent in politics. Balfours had fought with Robert the Bruce at Bannockburn . Arthur Balfour's grand father James was a direct descendent of King Robert II (1371 -90) , who was son in law of Robert the Bruce. His son James Balfour continued the tradition of family power by marrying Lady Blanche Gascoyne Cecil, a member of the Cecil family who had been prominent in politics since the reign of Elizabeth I. Following James Balfour's early death in 1856, it was the formidable Blanche who brought up her son Arthur, along with his four brothers and three sisters.
Arthur Balfour was born 25th July 1848. He was educated initially at home by his energetic and clever mother, then at Grange School in Hertfordshire, then at Eton , before going up to Trinity College, Cambridge . At Cambridge Balfour wanted to be a philosopher. But in truth he was average academically. During a responsibility free period following university, he did write a philosophical work, A Defence of Philosophical Doubt, but it had to be published at his own expense. The reviews were polite, as was thought fitting when the author was so socially distinguished. This lack of real writing talent, was combined with the advice of his mother, that his privileged position in life carried responsibilities. The result was that Balfour, charming, luxury loving and debonair, entered the hard world of politics, elected MP for Hertford in 1874. He went to work for his his mother's famous father Lord Salisbury , who was to become prime minister in 1885. Kenneth Young in The Prime Ministers writes that Balfour learnt from his uncle "never to be self deceiving whoever else had to be deceived" (Vol2 P169). Biographers might ascribe achievements to politicians - keeping Ireland on an even keel during Balfour's time as secretary of state for Ireland for example. But it is often difficult to get an exact link between what happens and the politician who is supposed to have brought events about. Politicians are often very skilled at getting themselves associated with things that work, and distancing themselves from things that don't. Perhaps Balfour kept Ireland pacified with his policies of land drainage, and his personal bravery. Maybe Ireland just happened to be relatively peaceful during Balfour's time there. Maybe when he succeeded Salisbury as prime minister in 1902 Balfour reformed the army and navy; and single handedly transformed the education system, creating free primary and secondary education, and numerous new universities. On the other hand Balfour may only have managed what was ready to happen. Long after his years as prime minister, Balfour continued to serve as a foreign minister in governments during the First World War . His time as foreign minister is often recalled in the "Balfour Convention" of 1917 which created the state of Israel. The name of the convention suggests that Balfour willed Israel into being. This isn't so. He as foreign secretary merely signed the declaration. But the appearance is one of a man who can create nations out of the desert.
Waddesdon - home of Baron Ferdinand de Rothschild, There are copies of letters on display confirming the establishment of Israel, from Balfour to Rothschild, December 1917.
These kinds of questions always crop up in history. Tolstoy in War and Peace produced a vision of history where people are swept along by forces larger than themselves. In his view the people we think lead events, actually ride along like a surfer on an historical wave. Balfour himself probably would not have agreed with this. It is true that he had his moments of humility. He said in a speech given at Glasgow that a wise man should be in "full consciousness of his feeble powers of foresight. He will be content to deal as they arise with the problems of his own generation" (quoted The Prime Ministers Vol2 P182). Balfour was also remarkably honest in his autobiographical description of himself at school: "I was neither very good nor very bad... I was not a hero among my fellows, nor the subject of hopeful speculation among my teachers. I had, indeed, no difficulty in maintaining an average position among my contemporaries" (quoted in Balfour The Last Grandee by R.J.Q Adams P13). But this humility only went so far. In his attitude to the monarch of the day, Edward VII, we see Balfour's real inclinations. At a time when the influence of monarchs was supposed to be declining, Edward annoyingly made some real contributions to the government of his country. In his polite urbane way Balfour tried to take the monarch's achievements for himself. Simon Heffer in his book Power and Place describes how in 1903, the king, on his own initiative, visited France, at that time hostile towards Britain in the wake of the Boer War. Through his charm and good humour the king brought about an improvement in relations between Britain and France, known as the entente cordiale. Balfour could not accept that he and his government were not responsible for the entente cordiale. We see the usual political trick of wanting to be associated with things that go well. In a none too subtle way, Edward was pushed away from his achievement in France. This was done mainly through an unflattering entry in the Dictionary of National Biography the writing of which seems to have been heavily influenced by Balfour. The entry claimed that Edward was merely a charming playboy, who did little for his country. Complaints were lodged about the accuracy of this entry, and Balfour made some vague excuses about not remembering his contributory interview. The entry in the Dictionary of the National Biography was never changed.
Balfour resigned as prime minister in 1905, and his Conservative Party suffered a massive defeat in the general election of January 1906. Balfour's dry wordy approach did not do well in the face of down to earth Liberal leader Henry Campbell Bannerman . Nevertheless he remained an important political figure, serving as first lord of the Admiralty, and foreign secretary, during World War One . It was as foreign secretary that he signed the Balfour Declaration, the name of which gives that comforting illusion of a politician's control of wide ranging political events. Balfour continued to serve in government until 1929, when his health began to fail. He died 19th March 1930 and was buried at Whittinghame in Scotland.
| Edward VII |
The hormone prolactin stimulates the production of what after childbirth? | Frequently Asked Questions | Britroyals
Frequently Asked Questions
When did the last British King fight in a battle?
George II was the last British King to lead his army in person, during the War of the Austrian Succession, at the Battle of Dettingen in Bavaria, 27th June, 1743. The last English King to die in battle was Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth Field in Leicestershire on 22 August 1485 defeated by Henry Tudor who became Henry VII ending the Wars of the Roses between the Houses of York and Lancaster and starting the Tudor dynasty. The last British King to die in battle was James IV of Scotland killed at the Battle of Flodden Field in Northumberland on 9 September 1513 when the Scots invaded England hoping to take advantage of Henry VIII's absence in France, but were defeated by English forces under Thomas Howard, Earl of Surrey.
How far back can the British Royal Family trace their roots? Is Queen Elizabeth II really directly descended from Alfred the Great?
She is the 32nd great granddaughter of King Alfred who 1,140 years ago was the first effective King of England. He ruled from 871 to 899.
I thought that American Independence was in 1776. Why is it quoted as 1783?
The Continental Congress of the 13 American colonies declared independence in 1776. However, the war continued and independence from Britain was not achieved until the Treaty of Paris in 1783.
Was George III really mad?
For most of his reign King George III was an astute king and politician with a strong sense of duty. Later in his reign he suffered from recurrent and eventually permanent mental illness. This baffled medical science at the time, although it is now generally thought that he suffered from the inherited blood disease porphyria. He suffered his first attack in 1788 and by 1810 was unfit to rule. In 1811 his son George, Prince of Wales, became Regent for 9 years until his father died in 1820.
Who would now be King or Queen if Edward VIII had not abdicated?
Edward VIII abdicated in 1936 less than a year after becoming King to marry Wallis Simpson. His younger brother Bertie became King George VI and was the father of the present Queen Elizabeth II . He died in 1952, and Edward who had no children died in 1972. So even if Edward had not abdicated Elizabeth would now be Queen. She would have come to the throne in 1972 instead of 1952.
Why did Edward VIII have to give up the throne to marry a divorcee but Prince Charles is still in line to the throne?
Royals who are divorced or marry divorcees do not lose their position in the line of succession. Edward VIII had a number of affairs with married women including Wallis Simpson who was already divorced and still married to her second husband. His parents King George V and Queen Mary did not approve and refused to meet her. When George V died Prime Minister Baldwin made it clear that the Government, popular opinion in the country and the oversees Dominions (now the Commonwealth nations) did not approve of his plans to marry Wallis. Social attitudes towards divorce and a women looking for a third marriage were considered scandalous at the time, and if Edward married against the advice of his Ministers it would have caused the Government to resign and a constitutional crisis. Edward chose to abdicate.
The 1772 Royal Marriages Act requires members of the Royal Family to obtain permission from the Sovereign to marry. Queen Elizabeth II gave her permission for Prince Charles to marry Camilla, and more recently for Prince William to marry Catherine Middleton.
Would Princess Diana have become Queen?
If Prince Charles had become King during their marriage then she would have been his consort with the title Queen Diana. They divorced in 1996 and she died in a car crash in Paris on 31st August 1997. Although popularly known as 'Princess Diana' this was not her title - because she became a princess by marrying Prince Charles her title was Princess Charles Philip Arthur George, Princess of Wales, or more simply Diana, Princess of Wales.
Who is Prince Henry shown as fourth in line to the Throne? What about Prince Harry?
Prince Harry's name is Henry Charles Albert David . Harry is his nickname
Is Kate Middleton the first commoner to marry an heir to the throne?
The Queen's husband Prince Philip is a direct descendant of Queen Victoria, Diana's family had titled ancestry and Camilla is the granddaughter of a baron. Prince William's wife Catherine (Kate) nee Middleton comes from a middle class background with no aristocratic or titled connections. She is not however the first commoner to marry a future king. Notably Anne Hyde first wife of King James II, and Elizabeth Woodville, who married King Edward IV in 1464 and became a key figure in the Wars of the Roses were commoners with no direct connections to nobility. Edward VIII married Wallis Simpson but had already abdicated as King.
Why are William and Harry referred to as Wales when their name is Windsor?
Members of the Royal Family who are titled His (or Her) Royal Highness do not traditionally need or use a surname. Windsor is the name of the Royal House to which they belong. Their titles are HRH Prince William of Wales and HRH Prince Henry of Wales . During their tours of duty with the Armed Forces, the Princes chose to show their surname as Wales. Members of the royal family who are not HRH (for example Prince Edward's children Louise and James) use the surname Mountbatten-Windsor.
Why are Prince Andrew's daughters princesses when Prince Edward's daughter is not? Also why do Princess Anne's children Peter and Zara not have titles?
You become a prince by being the son of a prince, or princess by being the daughter of a prince or by marrying a prince. So Prince Andrew's daughters are Princess Beatrice and Princess Eugenie. The Queen's daughter Princess Anne has the title Princess Royal, but her children Peter and Zara do not have titles. It is traditional that they would have been made a Duke and Duchess or Earl and Countess, but it is understood that Princess Anne asked the Queen not to give her children titles so they could live as private individuals. Prince Edward declined to be made a Duke on his marriage and became Earl of Wessex, so that his wife Sophie is Countess of Wessex. The Royal Family is descended directly from the Anglo-Saxon Kings of Wessex. On their marriage is was anounced that their children would not be titled Prince and Princess but as the children of an Earl, so they are Lady Louise and James Viscount Severn.
Why are Roman Catholics excluded from the Line of Succession to the British throne?
In 1534 Henry VII I broke with the Church of Rome over his divorce from Catherine of Aragon and made himself Head of the Church of England. Every King or Queen since Elizabeth 1 has held the title 'Supreme Governor of the Church of England' and 'Defender of the Faith'. As it is a Protestant Church all those in the Royal line of succession and their spouses have to be Protestants. The Act of Settlement (1701) laid down that only Protestant heirs of Princess Sophia, granddaughter of James I, may succeed to the British throne. Neither Catholics, nor those who marry a Catholic, nor those born out of wedlock, may remain in the line of succession. Prince Charles has let it be known that when he becomes King he will take the title 'Defender of Faith' instead of' 'Defender of the Faith' to include faiths other than the established Church of England.
In Aprl 2013 the Succession to the Crown Bill 2013 changed the succession laws so that a person is not disqualified from succeeding to the Crown as a result of marrying a Roman Catholic . They will however not be allowed to become a Roman Catholic as the British Monarch is head of the Protestant Church of England.
Why are younger brothers higher in the line of succession than their older sisters?
The line of succession to the British throne used until recently the system of male primogeniture whereby younger sons have precedence over their older sisters. So Prince Andrew and Prince Edward are above their older sister Princess Anne in line of succession, and Prince Edward's son James is above his sister Louise. While male precedence may now be considered to be out of line with current 'equal-rights' thinking and is proposed to be changed, it has not prevented some of the most successful and longest reigning British monarchs from being queens including Queen Elizabeth I, Queen Victoria and Queen Elizabeth II.
It does allow the succession to inherit through the female line, so the children of daughters can succeed to the throne as is the case with the current Queen. The French and German monarchies used a system of Salic law whereby females had no right to inherit and could not pass it to their offspring. The last time that the British throne passed to a son in precedence to a first born daughter was when Queen Victoria's son Edward VII inherited the throne over his older sister Princess Victoria. Had she become queen she would have been Queen Victoria II and her son Kaiser Wilhelm II would have also been King William V and ruled over a huge combined British and German Empire. This could have significantly changed 20th century European history with the 1st World War unlikely to have happened as it did but replaced with other nationalist, republican and fascist struggles leading possibly to the downfall of both monarchies and a changed map of Europe.
In Aprl 2013 the Succession to the Crown Bill 2013 changed the succession laws so that a person is able to marry a Roman Catholic and remain in the line of successsion, and the right of male primogeniture no longer applies to children born after 28 October 2011. It meant that if the Duke and Duchess of Cambridge's first child had been a girl and their second a boy, male primogenture would no longer have applied and he would not have had precedence over his older sister. However, their first child born on 22 July 2013 was a boy Prince George so it did not apply. Their second child Princess Charlotte will not lose her place even if she has a younger brother. This current line of succession is shown at Line of Succession.
King
William IV was 64 years old when he became king in 1830 and succeeded his elder brother George IV. Prince Charles the current heir to the throne became 68 on 14th November 2016 and is now the longest waiting heir to the throne. Edward VII became king after the death of his mother Queen Victoria in 1901 when he was 59 years and 2 months old. Kings & Queens by age of accession to the throne .
Could the Queen choose to pass the throne directly to Prince William?
The Queen cannot choose. Prince Charles as her eldest son and Prince of Wales is next in line to the throne and will become King as long as he is living when the Queen dies or should she abdicate. It would require a change to British constitutional law for this not to happen.
Will Charles become King George VII?
Charles can choose to rule as King Charles III or take another name. Kings often take a different regnal (ruling) name from their first given name. Charles' grandfather George VI was Prince Albert ("Bertie") before he became king, and his great great grandfather Edward VII was also Prince Albert. King Charles I was beheaded in 1649 after the English Civil War, and Charles II was popularly known as the 'merrie' monarch as he had so many mistresses. Charles Edward Stuart (Bonnie Prince Charlie) the Stuart pretender to the throne styled himself Charles III before he was defeated at Culloden in 1746. It is thought possible that Prince Charles may choose to become King George VII after his grandfather.
Will Camilla become Queen?
Prince Charles and Camilla were married on 9th April 2005. She was given the title Duchess of Cornwall because of sensitivity following the death of Diana. As the wife of the Prince of Wales her title should be Princess of Wales and, although before the marriage it was announced that she would take the title Princess consort, she is expected to become Queen consort when Charles becomes King.
Is there a royal connection between Camilla's family and the royal family?
In 1889 Camilla's great-grandmother Alice Keppel was the mistress of Edward VII when he was Prince of Wales. Edward VII was the great-great-grandfather of Prince Charles the current Prince of Wales.
Why is the Queen's husband Prince Philip not King Philip?
The husband of a queen is known as a Prince consort and does not become King. Queen Victoria's husband was Prince Albert, and Queen Elizabeth's husband is Prince Philip The Duke of Edinburgh . The wife of a king is a Queen consort and does take the title Queen although she does not rule as the monarch. The only exceptions were William III and Mary II who ruled jointly from 1689 until Mary's death in 1694.
Were Queen Elizabeth and Prince Philip related before their marriage?
The Queen and the Duke of Edinburgh are both great great grandchildren of Queen Victoria . The Queen is a direct descendant of Queen Victoria’s eldest son King Edward VII and the Duke of Edinburgh is a direct descendant of Queen Victoria’s daughter Princess Alice.
What relation is Queen Elizabeth II to King George III ?
George III was her 3rd great grandfather. If you you follow the line of succession on her grandfather's side - George VI (father), George V (grandfather), Edward VII (great grandfather), Victoria (2nd great grandmother) , Edward Duke of Kent (3rd great grandfather), George III (4th great grandfather) - then he was her 4th great grandfather. However her grandmother Queen Mary of Teck was also descended from George III - she and George V were 2nd cousins once removed. If you follow Queen Elizabeth's line through her grandmother - George VI (father), Queen Mary (grandmother), Mary Adelaide (great grandmother), Adolphus of Hanover (2nd great grandfather), George III (3rd great-grandfather) - he is more closely related as her 3rd great grandfather. You can see this on the Royal Family tree .
How rich is Queen Elizabeth?
Her estimated personal fortune is around £350 million (US $435M). The Duchy of Lancaster estate, a portfolio of land, property and assets, is held in trust for the monarch and worth around £348 million. She also owns properties privately that have never been valued, including Sandringham House, Balmoral Castle reputedly worth £160 million and the Castle of Mey. Her investment portfolio in blue-chip British companies is around £110 million, her personal art collection is worth at least £2 million, and she owns personal jewellery and a large stamp collection built up by her grandfather George V.
Buckingham Palace, Windsor Castle, the Crown Jewels and the Royal Art Collection are held in trust for the nation.
The Crown Estate, which manages on behalf of the monarch the property and land owned by the Crown, including properties in Regent Street and St James in London, offshore wind farms around Britain's coast and rural estates in Scotland, is worth around £11 billion and generates £285 million (2014/15) income a year. This income is given to the national Treasury for use in public finances, in return for a grant (£38 million in 2012) for the cost of running the monarchy. This arrangement dated from 1760 when George III gave up the right to the income from the Crown's estates in return for a Civil List paid to members of the Royal Family.
In 2013 this changed to a Sovereign Support Grant based on 15% of the income from the Crown Estate. This means that for the year from April 2016 the nation will keep £242.2 million of the Crown Estates income, and the monarchy will receive £42.7 miilion towards the cost of the Royal household, their travel, attending formal functions and repairs to buildings including Kensington Palace which is the home of Prince William, the Duchess of Cambridge and their children Prince George and Princess Charlotte.
Does the Queen pay taxes?
Yes, in 1992 The Queen offered to pay income tax and capital gains tax on a voluntary basis. Since 1993, her personal income has been taxable as for any other UK taxpayer.
Does the Queen rule or does Parliament?
The British Monarchy is a constitutional monarchy in which the King or Queen reigns as Head of State but with limits to their power, and the day-to-day government is carried out by Parliament. The political party with the most elected seats in the House of Commons elects a Prime Minister who is invited by the monarch to form a government. A new Parliament is opened by the monarch in an official ceremony, and the Prime Minister during his or her term in office regularly meets with the King or Queen to discuss political matters and events.
How many British Prime Ministers and US Presidents have there been during the Queen's reign?
Queen Elizabeth II has worked with 13 different Prime Ministers since she became Queen: Winston Churchill (1951-55), Anthony Eden (1955-59), Harold Macmillan (1959-63), Alec Douglas-Home (1963-64), Harold Wilson (1964-70 & 1974-76), Edward Heath (1970-74), James Callaghan (1976-79), Margaret Thatcher (1979-90), John Major (1990-97), Tony Blair (1997-2007), Gordon Brown (2007-2010), David Cameron (2010-2016) and Theresa May (2016 - present).
There have been 12 US Presidents during her reign: Harry Truman (1945-1953), Dwight Eisenhower (1953-61), John Kennedy (1961-63), Lyndon Johnson (1963-69), Richard Nixon (1969-74), Gerald Ford, (1974-77), James Carter (1977-81), Ronald Reagan (1981-89), George Bush (1989-93), William Clinton (1993-2001), George W Bush (2001-09), Barack Obama, (2009-present).
There have been 7 Archbishops of Canterbury and 7 Popes during her reign.
Which King or Queen reigned for the longest time?
The longest reigning British monarch is Queen Elizabeth II who including today has reigned for 64 years, 11 months, and 13 days which is the longest reign in over 1,200 years of British History. On 10th September 2015 she surpassed her great great grandmother Queen Victoria who reigned for 63 years, 7 months and 2 days from 1837-1901. See Kings and Queens by length of reign .
Which King or Queen reigned for the shortest time?
Edward VI named his cousin Lady Jane Grey as his successor and she was proclaimed queen on July 10, 1553 by her father-in-law the Duke of Northumberland. She was 16 years old. Meanwhile Edward's half sister Mary eldest daughter of Henry VIII was also proclaimed queen. The situation was resolved 9 days later on July 19 1553 when Mary arrived in London and was proclaimed as the rightful queen. Mary was crowned Queen on Oct 1, 1553. Lady Jane Grey was executed on February 12, 1554. Another who was not crowned was Edward V . His father Edward IV died on April 9, 1483, but he was usurped by his uncle Richard III who proclaimed himself king 2 months later on June 26 and crowned on July 6, 1483. The date that Edward died is unknown - he was presumed murdered with his brother in the Tower of London at sometime in September that year. The shortest reigning crowned king was Edmund II for 7 months from 25 April - 30 November 1016. Kings and Queens by length of reign .
Which King had the most illegitimate children?
Henry I is purported to have had 20-25 illegitimate children by at least six women, but few details are known. Charles II famously fathered numerous illegitimate children, of whom he acknowledged fourteen. His mistresses included Lucy Walter (2 children), Moll Davis (1) , Nell Gwyne (2), Louise de Keroualle (1), Barbara Villiers (6), Elizabeth Killigrew (1), Catherine Pegg (1), Frances Stuart (became the face of Britannia on coins), and at least five others. William IV had 10 illegitimate children born between 1794 and 1807 by his mistress actress Dorothea Bland (known as Mrs Jordan).
Is David Cameron descended from royalty? How close would he be in line to the throne?
David Cameron, the previous British Prime Minister, is the great, great, great grandson of Elizabeth Fitzclarence (Jan 17, 1801 - Jan 16, 1856) who was an illegitimate daughter of William IV and his mistress Irish actress Dorothea Bland who was known by her stage name as 'Mrs Jordan'. They lived together for 20 years when he was Duke of Clarence and had 5 sons and 5 daughters. When he became heir to the throne William married Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen but they had no surviving children so when he died having no legitimate children his niece Victoria became Queen.
David Cameron is the 5th cousin, twice removed of Queen Elizabeth II, but illegitimate lines have no claim to the throne. The Royal Marriage act of 1772, instigated by William IV's father George III, requires members of the royal family to obtain permission from the monarch to marry. So William and Dorothea would have had to get permission from his brother George IV to marry and it would also have required ratification by Parliament. She was Catholic and would have had to renounce her Catholic faith for William to remain in the line of succession to the throne. In the very unlikely event that they had been allowed to marry and had done so before their children were born then their eldest son George Augustus would have had a claim to the throne. His great grandson Geoffrey Fitzclarence, 5th Earl of Munster, was a Conservative politician in Winston Churchill's government. David Cameron's line through their 3rd daughter Elizabeth would have had only a very remote claim.
How big was Henry VIII?
When Henry VII I came to the throne in April 1509 he was 17 years old, 6ft 2in tall, and had pale skin, blue eyes and auburn hair. He was physically active and enjoyed sport, hunting and jousting. A Venetian visitor described him as 'His Majesty is the handsomest potentate I ever set eyes on, a vigorous player of tennis, rider of horses, and skilled wrestler'. However he became fatter with age and gluttony. His suits of armour show that in 1512 he had a 32 inch waist , which increased to 35 inch by 1520s, and then grew to an enormous 54 inch by 1545. He suffered increasingly of ill health, swelling of the joints and an ulcerated leg claimed to have been caused by a jousting accident. His pain added to his mood swings and unpredictable temper. In 1544 his portrait shows him puffy and bloated. By 1546 he could hardly walk and was carried around on a wooden chair . He had to be winched on to his horse and his armour cut open to accommodate his swollen legs. He is estimated to have weighed 25 stone (350 lbs or 158kg) when he died in January 1547
Why was Queen Mary I known as Bloody Mary?
Queen Mary's father Henry VIII split with Rome over his divorce from her mother Catherine of Aragon and made himself head of the Protestant Church of England. When she became queen, Mary sought to re-establish Roman Catholicism as the official religion and carried out persecution of Protestant clergy and followers. Over 200 died including Thomas Cranmer and several bishops who were burnt at the stake between 1555 and Mary's death in 1558. She was succeeded by her half sister Elizabeth I , daughter of Ann Boleyn, who re-established Protestantism as the official Church of England.
How many British monarchs have been killed while they were king or queen?
- King Edmund I was killed in 946 during a feast at Pucklechurch, Gloucestershire, by an outlawed robber.
- King Edward The Martyr was murdered by members of Aethelred's household at Corfe Castle in 978
- King Edmund II Ironside was assassinated in London in 1016
- King Harold II was killed by an arrow in his eye at the Battle of Hastings in 1066.
- King William I The Conqueror suffered a fatal internal injury in 1087 after being thrown against the pommel of his saddle near Nantes in France.
- King William II Rufus was killed in 1100 with an arrow while hunting in the New Forest. Supposedly an accident, it has been suggested that he was shot deliberately on the instructions of his brother Henry.
- Richard I The Lion Heart was killed by a crossbow bolt while besieging Châlus-Chabrol in France in 1199.
- Edward II was murdered in 1327 at Berkeley Castle on the orders of his wife, Isabella
- Richard II was starved to death in 1400 while imprisioned in Pontefract castle. He had been forced to abdicate in 1399 by his cousin Henry IV Bolingbroke.
- Henry VI was murdered in the Tower of London in 1471 during the 'Wars of the Roses' between the Lancastrians and Yorkists.
- Edward V and his younger brother were imprisoned in the Tower of London in 1483 and never seen again. Their fate remains a mystery but the two princes are believed to have been murdered on orders from their uncle Richard III.
- Richard III was killed in 1485 at the Battle of Bosworth Field.
- Henry VIII executed two of his six wives, Anne Boleyn in 1536 and Catherine Howard in 1542.
- Charles I was executed by Parliament in 1649 following the Civil War.
Scottish Kings killed include James II at Roxburgh in 1460 when a cannon exploded, James III in battle near Stirling in 1488 by supporters of his son, James IV by Henry VIII's forces at Flodden in 1513, and Mary Queen of Scots executed in 1587 on orders from her cousin Elizabeth I.
Why was Edward I not Edward IV as he followed Edward the Elder, Edward the Martyr & Edward the Confessor?
The practice of using Roman numerals to distinguish kings and queens started only after there had been several with the same name, and particularly when there was a succession of father, son, grandson like Edward I, Edward II, and Edward III. Before then it was common for chroniclers and historians to use sobriquets such as Edward the Elder, Edward the Martyr, Edward the Confessor, Edmund Ironside, Aethelred the Unready, Alfred the Great, Harold Harefoot etc before this became impractical.
It would be interesting to consider how the present Queen would be known if she were to be referred to in this way. 'Elizabeth the Great', 'Elizabeth the Steadfast ', 'Elizabeth the Dutiful', have been suggested, as well as 'Elizabeth the Diplomat' for her work and visits to so many countries, 'Elizabeth the Survivor' referring to her reign as the longest in British history,'Elizabeth the Wise', 'Elizabeth the Magnificent', 'Elizabeth the Supreme', 'Elizabeth the Faithful' for her untiring service over 60 years to her people and the Commonweatlh, 'Elizabeth the Enduring', 'Elizabeth the Correct', 'Elizabeth,the Benevolent', 'Elizabeth,the Tolerant', 'Elizabeth the Stalwart', 'Elizabeth the Beloved' and 'Elizabeth Britannia'. If you have a suggestion please contact us .
What about King Arthur of the knights of the round table and Camelot?
King Arthur is a legend and folklore of a Celtic king who fought to defend Britain from Saxon invaders in the 6th century. There is no historical evidence that he existed. Interestingly, Henry VII sought to revive the legend naming his eldest son Arthur. Unfortunately Prince Arthur died in 1502 aged 15 before he became King. His younger brother Henry followed his father instead and became Henry VIII .
Why was there no king or queen between 1649 and 1660?
The English Civil War (1642-1649) was fought between the royalist forces loyal to King Charles I and the parliamentarians led by Oliver Cromwell. The Royalist were defeated at the Battle of Naseby in 1645 and following attempts to organize a Scottish invasion, Charles was caught and executed on January 30, 1649. It was the first time a British monarch had ever been publicly executed in recorded history. After the execution of the King, a republic was declared known as the Commonwealth of England (1649-1653) and then the Protectorate (1653-1658) with rule by parliament under Cromwell. Following his death in 1658, Cromwell was succeeded briefly by his son Richard before the monarchy was restored and Charles II became king in 1660.
What is the Stone of Destiny?
The Stone of Destiny is a symbolic stone that was used in the crowning of Kings of Scotland at the Palace of Scone in Perthshire, Scotland. It is a block of sandstone which measures approximately 26 inches long x 16 wide x 11 high which rested beneath the throne. According to legend it was brought to Scotland by Fergus Mor from Ireland, where it had reached by way of Spain and Egypt from the Holy Land. It was used in the crowning of kings from Kenneth MacAlpin in 841 to John Balliol in 1292. In 1296 King Edward I of England took the stone to London where it was kept in Westminster Abbey for use in coronations. In 1950 a group of students stole the stone and took it back to Scotland in two pieces which were repaired by a Glasgow stone mason. They left it at Arbroath Abbey from where it was returned to Westminster Abbey. In 1996 the British Government decided in response to calls by Scottish nationalists to return it to Scotland. It arrived back on St Andrews Day 30 November 1996, almost exactly 700 years after it had been removed by Edward, and is now in Edinburgh Castle.
When did Wales become part of the United Kingdom?
Wales became incorporated into England under the Statute of Rhuddlan in 1284, after it had been annexed by Edward I of England in 1282. Edward dubbed his eldest son Edward Prince of Wales, since which time the eldest son of each English monarch has borne the same title. In the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542, Wales became legally part of the Kingdom of England, and subsequently part of the United Kingdom.
When did Scotland become part of the United Kingdom?
The Crowns of England and Scotland were united in 1603 when James VI King of Scotland became James I King of England. In October 1604, one year later , he decreed that the Royal Title would use the term Great Brittaine to refer to the "one Imperiall Crowne" made up of England and Scotland. However despite James' wishes political union between Scotland and England did not take place until 1707 in the reign of Queen Anne. See union of the United Kingdom .
When did Ireland become part of the United Kingdom?
Ireland became part of the United Kingdom in 1800 when the Act of Union with Ireland was passed by both the Irish and British parliaments
Why is Northern Ireland part of the United Kingdom when Southern Ireland is a different country?
Northern Ireland, predominantly Protestant, and Southern Ireland, Catholic, split in 1920 with 6 of the 9 counties of Ulster remaining within the United Kingdom, and the remaining 26 counties being given home rule under the Government of Ireland Act. In 1922 the Southern counties became the Irish Free State and then since 1949 the Republic of Ireland.
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A fugu is what type of creature? | Fugu: The fish more poisonous than cyanide - BBC News
BBC News
Fugu: The fish more poisonous than cyanide
By Roland Buerk BBC News, Tokyo
18 May 2012
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The Japanese delicacy fugu, or blowfish, is so poisonous that the smallest mistake in its preparation could be fatal. But Tokyo's city government is planning to ease restrictions that allow only highly trained and licensed chefs to serve the dish.
Kunio Miura always uses his special knives to prepare fugu - wooden-handled with blades tempered by a swordsmith to a keen edge. Before he starts work in his kitchen they are brought to him by an assistant, carefully stored in a special box.
Miura-san, as he is respectfully known, has been cutting up blowfish for 60 years but still approaches the task with caution. A single mistake could mean death for a customer.
Fugu is an expensive delicacy in Japan and the restaurants that serve it are among the finest in the country. In Miura-san's establishment a meal starts at $120 (£76) a head, but people are willing to pay for the assurance of the fugu chef licence mounted on his wall, yellowed now with age. He is one of a select guild authorised by Tokyo's city government to serve the dish.
When he begins work the process is swift, and mercifully out of sight of the surviving fugu swimming in their tank by the restaurant door.
Media captionRoland Buerk watches chef Kunio Miura prepare the fugu
First he lays the despatched fish, rather square of body with stubby fins, on its stomach and cuts open the head to removes its brain and eyes.
They are carefully placed in a metal tray marked "non-edible". Then he removes the skin, greenish and mottled on the top and sides, white underneath, and starts cutting at the guts.
"This is the most poisonous part," he says pulling out the ovaries. But the liver and intestines are potentially lethal too. "People say it is 200 times more deadly than cyanide."
Tetrodotoxin poisoning
Numbness around the mouth followed by paralysis and death by respiratory failure - the victim remaining conscious throughout
First recorded case found in the logs of Captain Cook in 1774, after crew members ate the fish
Tetrodotoxin is named after the Tetraodontiformes order of fish, which includes blowfish
It is also found in blue-ringed octopuses, some toads, newts and other animals
Twenty-three people have died in Japan after eating fugu since 2000, according to government figures. Most of the victims are anglers who rashly try to prepare their catch at home. A spokesman for the Health and Welfare Ministry struggles to think of a single fatality in a restaurant, though last year a woman was hospitalised after eating a trace of fugu liver in one of Tokyo's top restaurants - not Miura-san's.
Tetrodotoxin poisoning has been described as "rapid and violent", first a numbness around the mouth, then paralysis, finally death. The unfortunate diner remains conscious to the end. There is no antidote.
"This would be enough to kill you," Miura-san says, slicing off a tiny sliver of fugu ovary and holding it up. Then he carefully checks the poisonous organs on the tray, making sure he has accounted for every one, and tips them into a metal drum locked with a padlock. They will be taken to Tokyo's main fish-market and burned, along with the offcuts from other fugu restaurants.
Miura-san's skill is therefore highly prized. Fugu chefs consider themselves the elite of Japan's highly competitive culinary world. He started as an apprentice in a kitchen at the age of 15. Training lasts at least two years but he was not allowed to take the practical test to get a licence until he was 20, the age people become a legal adult in Japan. A third of examinees fail.
Deadly delicacies
You don't need to dine out to sup on potentially fatal fare. Did you know that these humble foods could also have deleterious effects on your health?
Peanuts can be dangerous to those with severe nut allergies .
Potatoes with a greenish tinge could contain glycoalkaloids which can be dangerous when consumed in large enough quantities.
So proposals by Tokyo's city government to relax the rules have been met with an outcry from qualified chefs. Coming into effect in October, they would allow restaurants to serve portions of fugu that they have bought ready-prepared off-site.
"We worked hard to get the licence and had to pass the most difficult exam in Tokyo," says Miura-san. "Under the new rules people will be able to sell fugu after just going to a class and listening for a day. We spent lots of time and money. To get this skill you have to practise by cutting more than a hundred fish and that costs hundreds of thousands of yen."
The authorities in Tokyo impose stricter regulations than any other Japanese city. In some, restaurants have already been able to sell pre-prepared fugu for a long time. And even in Tokyo these days, it is available over the internet and in some supermarkets - one reason why officials think the rules need updating.
In terms of cost, it is likely fugu would become available in cheaper restaurants and pubs (izakayas). But going to a proper fugu restaurant to eat good wild-caught fish, prepared on-site, is quite a luxury - because of the cost, if nothing else - and also quite an event. For many, playing the equivalent of Russian roulette at the dinner table is the attraction of the dish.
Some report a strange tingling of the lips from traces of the poison, although Miura-san thinks that is unlikely. He also scoffs at the myth that a chef would be honour-bound to commit ritual suicide with his fish knife if he killed a customer. Loss of his licence, a fine, litigation or perhaps prison would be the penalty.
Image caption The translucent fugu is carefully arranged in the form of petals
Miura-san serves fugu stew, and grilled fugu with teriyaki sauce, but today it is fugu-sashimi on the menu. He carefully slices the fish so thinly that when it is arranged like the petals of a chrysanthemum flower on a large dish the pattern beneath shows through.
Raw fugu is rather chewy and tastes mostly of the accompanying soy sauce dip. It is briefly poached in a broth set on a table-top burner - a dish known as shabu-shabu in Japan. The old journalistic cliche when eating unusual foods really does hold true - it tastes rather like chicken.
Fugu lovers, though, would say it has a distinctive taste, and, even more importantly, texture. Japanese has many words to describe texture because it is a very important aspect of the cuisine.
Another part of the fish's appeal is that it is a seasonal dish, eaten in winter, and Japanese diners attach a particular value to this. In the same way unagi, eel, is an important summer dish. But whatever you think of eel, it's not quite fugu - it lacks that extra thrill that comes with the knowledge that by eating it you are dicing with death.
| Fish |
What is the name of the scarecrow in the children’s television series ‘Bob the Builder’? | 1000+ images about Weird Ocean Creatures on Pinterest | Deep sea creatures, Lobsters and Fish
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Sailfish grow quickly, reaching 1.2–1.5 m (3 ft 11 in–4 ft 11 in) in length in a single year, and feed on the surface or at middle depths on smaller pelagic forage fish and squid. Individuals have been clocked at speeds up to 110 km/h (68 mph), which is one of the highest speeds reliably reported in any water organism. Generally, sailfish do not grow to more than 3 m (9.8 ft) in length via Ocean Defender - Hawaii FB Shawn Heinrichs Photographer.
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Theravada and Mahayana are the main branches of which religion? | The Branches of Buddhism: Theravada, Mahayana & Vajrayana - Video & Lesson Transcript | Study.com
The Branches of Buddhism: Theravada, Mahayana & Vajrayana
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Lesson Transcript
Instructor: Jessica Whittemore
Jessica has taught junior high History and college seminar courses. She has a master's degree in Education.
This lesson will explore the three main branches of Buddhism: Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana. It will also highlight Pure Land and Tantric Buddhism, as well as the belief in nirvana and the bodhisattva.
Branches of Buddhism
Most world religions have different sects or branches, each with their own school of thought. For instance, Christianity has Lutheranism and Evangelicalism, while Islam has their Sunni and Shiites. Similarly, Buddhism can be broken down into three main schools. They are Theravada Buddhism, Mahayana Buddhism, and Vajrayana Buddhism. In today's lesson, we'll explore these main branches of this faith.
Theravada
Being that it's the most conservative, or orthodox, branch of Buddhism, we'll start with Theravada Buddhism. Being a very strict, more monastic branch of Buddhism, Theravada Buddhism holds most firmly to the original teachings, or themes, of Buddha. For this reason, and to aid in remembering this one, I usually link the word 'Theravada' to the word 'themes.'
Being practiced in much of Southeast Asia and especially Sri Lanka, Theravada Buddhism holds firmly to Buddha's belief that human existence is full of suffering, that nothing on Earth is ever permanent, and that humans are just a part of this fleeting, rather insignificant whole. For this reason, Buddha taught that nothing in this world should be held tightly or even desired. Instead, he instructed his followers to stay away from evil, seek only what is good, and continually work to purify their minds.
According to Theravada Buddhism, one must live ethically, meditate, and seek wisdom. These teachings come from the sacred texts of Buddhism, known as the Tripitaka, and according to Theravada Buddhism they are to be taken literally and followed in one's daily life. In following the Tripitaka, a person will achieve the ultimate Buddhist goal of nirvana, which is enlightenment and freedom from the cycle of death and rebirth. With its focus on nirvana and its adherence to the oldest teachings of Buddha, Theravada Buddhism is often referred to as the 'Path of the Elders.'
Loosely translated by the West as freedom from reincarnation, the word nirvana actually means 'to extinguish.' This connotes the Buddhist belief that nirvana is sort of the snuffing out of all Earthly desires, passions, and attachments, and in Theravada Buddhism, a person who achieves nirvana is known as an arhat. Again, since this branch holds most firmly to the original teachings, or themes, of Buddha, it helps me to remember it by linking the word 'Theravada' to the word 'themes.'
Mahayana
Next is Mahayana Buddhism. Differing from the Theravada branch, Mahayana Buddhism has made alterations to Buddha's original teachings. Open to many, Mahayana Buddhism believes enlightenment is universally accessible to everyone.
In fact, Pure Land Buddhism, which is sort of a sub-sect of Mahayana Buddhism practiced in both China and Japan, believe its followers can be reborn into a Western paradise before attaining true nirvana. Going with this whole vehicle motif, and as a sort of absurd way to remember, we could say this sort of Western paradise acts like a pit stop on the way to nirvana and that Mahayana Buddhism acts like a mini-van that brings many to enlightenment. Yes, that's a whole lot of 'm's' being used, but it helps me to remember.
Mahayana Buddhism also holds to the belief that its followers should not merely seek enlightenment for themselves. On the contrary, they believe a person should seek to become a bodhisattva, or one who can attain nirvana but delays it in order to help others find their way. Again, using the vehicle idea as a rather silly memory aid, bodhisattvas want to fit as many people into their Mahayana mini-van as possible.
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| Buddhism |
In Greek mythology, which king of Phrygia was given the gift to turn everything he touched into gold? | Buddhists | Pew Research Center
The Global Religious Landscape
Buddhists
There are about 488 million Buddhists worldwide, representing 7% of the world’s total population as of 2010. The three major branches of Buddhism in the modern world are Mahayana Buddhism, Theravada Buddhism and Vajrayana (sometimes described as Tibetan) Buddhism. 12 While affiliation with particular branches of Buddhism is not measured in most censuses and surveys, Mahayana Buddhism is widely believed to be the largest, because it is prevalent in several countries with very large Buddhist populations, particularly China, Japan, South Korea and Vietnam. Theravada Buddhism, the second-largest branch, is concentrated in such countries as Thailand, Burma (Myanmar), Sri Lanka, Laos and Cambodia. Vajrayana Buddhism, the smallest of the three major branches, is concentrated in Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan and Mongolia. The Buddhist population figures in this study also include members of other groups that identify as Buddhist, such as Soka Gakkai and Hoa Hao.
Buddhism began in Asia, and the vast majority of all Buddhists (nearly 99%) still live in the Asia- Pacific region. Only two other regions – North America (3.9 million) and Europe (1.3 million) – have more than 1 million Buddhists.
Although the majority of Buddhists live in Asia and the Pacific, only about one-in-eight people (12%) in that region are Buddhists. About 1% of North Americans are Buddhists. In each of the other four regions, Buddhists make up less than 1% of the population.
All 10 countries with the largest Buddhist populations are in the Asia-Pacific region, and these countries collectively are home to the lion’s share (95%) of all Buddhists. Half (50%) of the world’s Buddhists live in one country, China. The largest Buddhist populations outside China are in Thailand (13%), Japan (9%), Burma (Myanmar) (8%), Sri Lanka (3%), Vietnam (3%), Cambodia (3%), South Korea (2%), India (2%) and Malaysia (1%).
Seven countries have Buddhist majorities: Cambodia, Thailand, Burma (Myanmar), Bhutan, Sri Lanka, Laos and Mongolia.
Median Age
Globally, Buddhists are older (median age of 34) than the overall population (median age of 28). Of the three regions for which data are available, sub-Saharan Africa has the youngest Buddhist population (median age of 29), followed by North America (33). The Asia-Pacific region has the oldest Buddhist population, with a median age of 34.
Buddhists are older than the general population in two of the three major regions for which data are available: sub-Saharan Africa (where Buddhists have a median age of 29 and the general population has a median age of 18) and Asia and the Pacific (34 vs. 29). In North America, the median age of Buddhists is 33, four years younger than the general population (37).
Footnotes:
12 Alternatively, some scholars consider there to be two main Buddhist branches – Mahayana and Theravada – and classify Vajrayana as part of the Mahayana branch. Other schools within the Mahayana tradition include Zen, Nichiren and Pure Land. See, for example, Williams, Paul. 2008. “Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations.” Routledge. (return to text)
Pagination
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Disc jockey John Ravenscroft was better known by what name? | John Peel - Disc Jockey - Biography.com
Disc Jockey
Radio disc jockey and presenter John Peel fueled the British independent music scene by debuting such performers as David Bowie, Joy Division and the Smiths.
IN THESE GROUPS
Famous British People
Synopsis
John Peel was born August 30, 1939 in Heswall, England. in 1959 he went to America and became a disc jockey for Radio WRR in Dallas. He returned to England in 1967 and joined pirate radio station Radio London, presenting a late night show. Later that year he began a long career with Radio 1, hosting a number of shows including Top Gear. 1998–2004 he presented Radio 4's popular Home Truths.
Profile
Radio disc jockey and presenter who fueled the independent music scene in England by debuting such performers as David Bowie, Joy Division, and the Smiths. John Peel was born on August 30, 1939 in Heswall, Merseyside, NW England, United Kingdom. He was educated at Shrewsbury School, and after completing his national service (1957–9) he went to America and became a disc jockey for Radio WRR in Dallas. He returned to England in 1967 and joined pirate radio station Radio London for a time, presenting a late night show The Perfumed Garden where he championed British underground bands such as Pink Floyd.
Later that year John Peel began a long career with Radio 1, hosting a number of shows including Top Gear. He was one of the only BBC disc jockeys to have complete creative control over his playlists, and bands flooded his mailbox with demo tapes and requested to be featured on his legendary "Peel Sessions" live sets. From 1998 to 2004 he presented Radio 4's popular Home Truths, which won four Sony Radio awards in 1999. His many other awards include Melody Maker's DJ of the Year on 11 occasions and the honorary gold Sony radio award in 2002. At the time of his death on October 25, 2004, while on holiday in Peru, he was working on his autobiography. The book, John Peel: Margrave of the Marshes, was completed by his wife and family and published in 2005. In October that year, John Peel Day marked the first anniversary of his death with over 300 concerts taking place around the world in his honor. He was posthumously made an honorary member of the UK Music Hall of Fame in 2004. His son, Tom Ravenscroft, a music journalist, began hosting his own internet music show on BBC Channel 4 Radio in 2006.
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Citation Information
| John Peel |
Dipsomania is an uncontrollable craving for what? | John Peel biography | birthday, trivia | British Radio Personality | Who2
Name at birth: John Ravenscroft
John Peel was a disc jockey on BBC’s Radio 1 whose 37 years of broadcasting out-of-the-mainstream acts helped popularize reggae, punk and hip-hop in Britain. Peel got his radio start in the United States in the early 1960s, working in Texas, Oklahoma and California. In 1967 he returned to the United Kingdom and began a late-night program, The Perfumed Garden, on a pirate radio station called Radio London. Later that year he was hired by Radio 1 and began a show called Top Gear. Peel’s genuine interest in a wide variety of musical styles and his low-key on-air personality helped make him one of the most popular and influential broadcasters in the U.K. In 1986 he began what were called The Peel Sessions, studio recordings of little-known bands that were then packaged and sold as EPs and LPs. In addition to his show on Radio 1, Peel hosted a radio magazine, Home Truths, on Radio 4, which first aired in 1998. He is credited with helping the careers of dozens of bands and artists, from Captain Beefheart, Frank Zappa and David Bowie to The Ramones , Joy Division and The White Stripes . In 2003 he agreed to write his autobiography, but in 2004 he died suddenly of a heart attack while on vacation in Peru.
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Lillehammer, the host of the 1994 Winter Olympic Games, is in which country? | Lillehammer 1994: Winter Olympic Host City
Home > Events > Olympics > Winter > Hosts > Lillehammer
Host City: Lillehammer 1994
The 17th Winter Olympic Games were held in Lillehammer, Norway, in 1994, between Feb 12-27. This was two years after the previous Winter Games in Albertville , and thus ended the four-year Olympic cycle of staging both Winter and Summer Games in the same year, and began a new schedule of the Winter and Summer Games to alternate every two years. In Lillehammer, 67 Nations with 1739 participants competed in 61 events.
Trivia
Swiss Vreni Schneider, whose herniated disk had kept her from winning anything at the previous Games in 1992, won medals in all three alpine skiing events, bringing her total to five.
The figure-skating competition was dominated by the events of Tonya and Nancy. Nancy Kerrigan won the silver behind Ukraine's Oksana Baiul, after her knee had been smashed in by one of fellow American Tonya Harding's henchmen.
In speed skating, Norway's Johann Olav Koss won three gold medals, setting a world record in each event.
Bonnie Blair of the USA won two speed skating gold medals, which made her America's most successful Olympic woman with five gold medals from three Games.
Lyubov Yegorova of Russia won three cross-country skiing gold medals to match the Soviet speed skater Lydia Skoblikova's Olympic record of six gold medals (All of Skoblikova's golds were from individual events while two of Yegorova's golds were from relays).
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| Norway |
Kirk Douglas played the title role in which 1960 film about Roman slaves? | 1994 Olympics
1994 Olympics
Speed Skating
For better or worse, the Lillehammer games may be best evoked in most people's memories by two names. Tonya and Nancy. It was an ugly attack before the U.S. Figure Skating Championships on skater Nancy Kerrigan by cohorts of teammate and rival Tonya Harding that set up the most anticipated moment of the Games. Harding's goons were arrested following the Kerrigan clubbing and charged in a plot to improve Harding's chances of medaling by removing Kerrigan from competition. The plan failed and Kerrigan did compete, finishing with the silver medal. She actually tied 16-year-old Ukrainian orphan Oksana Baiul but missed the gold on the artistic merit tiebreaker. Harding, who had to threaten a lawsuit to avoid being barred from the Games by the USOC, ended up in eighth. The broadcast of the women's skating final was the sixth highest-rated program of any sort in U.S. television history.
There are so many more names symbolic of these games, however. Norway's Johann Olav Koss set three world records and won three golds in the men's 1500-, 5000- and 10,000-meter speed skating events. American speed skaters had success as well. Dan Jansen finally caught that elusive medal, winning the 1000-meter gold with a world record in his final event. Bonnie Blair won two golds in the women's 500- and 1000-meter races. And those were just the speed skaters.
The games were the most environmentally friendly Olympics in history as well. Norway's recycling and energy-saving techniques were so successful that the IOC revised its procedure for choosing host cities as a result.
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In human anatomy, what is the first part of the intestine, located immediately beyond the stomach? | The Intestines (Human Anatomy): Picture, Function, Location, Parts, Definition, and Conditions
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The intestines are a long, continuous tube running from the stomach to the anus. Most absorption of nutrients and water happen in the intestines. The intestines include the small intestine, large intestine, and rectum.
The small intestine (small bowel) is about 20 feet long and about an inch in diameter. Its job is to absorb most of the nutrients from what we eat and drink. Velvety tissue lines the small intestine, which is divided into the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum.
The large intestine (colon or large bowel) is about 5 feet long and about 3 inches in diameter. The colon absorbs water from wastes, creating stool. As stool enters the rectum, nerves there create the urge to defecate.
Intestine Conditions
Stomach flu (enteritis): Inflammation of the small intestine. Infections (from viruses, bacteria, or parasites) are the common cause.
Small intestine cancer : Rarely, cancer may affect the small intestine. There are multiple types of small intestine cancer, causing about 1,100 deaths each year.
Celiac disease : An "allergy" to gluten (a protein in most breads) causes the small intestine not to absorb nutrients properly. Abdominal pain and weight loss are usual symptoms.
Carcinoid tumor : A benign or malignant growth in the small intestine. Diarrhea and skin flushing are the most common symptoms.
Intestinal obstruction : A section of either the small or large bowel can become blocked or twisted or just stop working. Belly distension, pain, constipation, and vomiting are symptoms.
Colitis : Inflammation of the colon. Inflammatory bowel disease or infections are the most common causes.
Diverticulosis : Small weak areas in the colon's muscular wall allow the colon's lining to protrude through, forming tiny pouches called diverticuli. Diverticuli usually cause no problems, but can bleed or become inflamed.
Diverticulitis : When diverticuli become inflamed or infected, diverticulitis results. Abdominal pain and constipation are common symptoms.
Colon bleeding (hemorrhage): Multiple potential colon problems can cause bleeding. Rapid bleeding is visible in the stool, but very slow bleeding might not be.
Inflammatory bowel disease : A name for either Crohn's disease or ulcerative colitis. Both conditions can cause colon inflammation (colitis).
Crohn's disease : An inflammatory condition that usually affects the colon and intestines. Abdominal pain and diarrhea (which may be bloody) are symptoms.
Ulcerative colitis : An inflammatory condition that usually affects the colon and rectum. Like Crohn's disease, bloody diarrhea is a common symptom of ulcerative colitis.
Diarrhea : Stools that are frequent, loose, or watery are commonly called diarrhea. Most diarrhea is due to self-limited, mild infections of the colon or small intestine.
Salmonellosis : Salmonella bacteria can contaminate food and infect the intestine. Salmonella causes diarrhea and stomach cramps, which usually resolve without treatment.
Shigellosis : Shigella bacteria can contaminate food and infect the intestine. Symptoms include fever, stomach cramps, and diarrhea, which may be bloody.
Traveler's diarrhea : Many different bacteria commonly contaminate water or food in developing countries. Loose stools, sometimes with nausea and fever, are symptoms.
Colon polyps : Polyps are growths inside the colon. Colon cancer can often develop in these tumors after many years.
Colon cancer : Cancer of the colon affects more than 100,000 Americans each year. Most colon cancer is preventable through regular screening.
Rectal cancer : Colon and rectal cancer are similar in prognosis and treatment. Doctors often consider them together as colorectal cancer.
Constipation : When bowel movements are infrequent or difficult.
Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS): Irritable bowel syndrome, also known as IBS, is an intestinal disorder that causes irritable abdominal pain or discomfort, cramping or bloating, and diarrhea or constipation.
Rectal prolapse : Part or all of the wall of the rectum can move out of position, sometimes coming out of the anus, when straining during a bowel movement.
Intussusception : Occurring mostly in children, the small intestine can collapse into itself like a telescope. It can become life-threatening if not treated.
Continued
Intestine Tests
Capsule endoscopy : A person swallows a capsule that contains a camera. The camera takes pictures of possible problems in the small intestine, sending the images to a receiver worn on the persons belt
Upper endoscopy , EGD (esophagogastroduodenoscopy): A flexible tube with a camera on its end (endoscope) is inserted through the mouth. The endoscope allows examination of the duodenum, stomach, and esophagus.
Colonoscopy : An endoscope is inserted into the rectum and advanced through the colon. A doctor can examine the entire colon with a colonoscope.
Virtual colonoscopy : A test in which an X-ray machine and a computer create images of the inside of the colon. If problems are found, a traditional colonoscopy is usually needed.
Fecal occult blood testing : A test for blood in the stool. If blood is found in the stool, a colonoscopy may be needed to look for the source.
Sigmoidoscopy : An endoscope is inserted into the rectum and advanced through the left side of the colon. Sigmoidoscopy cannot be used to view the middle and right sides of the colon.
Colon biopsy : During a colonoscopy, a small piece of colon tissue may be removed for testing. A colon biopsy can help diagnose cancer, infection, or inflammation.
Intestine Treatments
Antidiarrheal agents : Various medicines can slow down diarrhea, reducing discomfort. Reducing diarrhea does not slow down recovery for most diarrheal illnesses.
Stool softeners : Over-the-counter and prescription medicines can soften the stool and reduce constipation.
Laxatives : Medicines can relieve constipation by a variety of methods including stimulating the bowel muscles, and bringing in more water.
Enema: A term for pushing liquid into the colon through the anus. Enemas can deliver medicines to treat constipation or other colon conditions.
Colonoscopy : Using tools passed through an endoscope, a doctor can treat certain colon conditions. Bleeding, polyps, or cancer might be treated by colonoscopy.
Polypectomy : During colonoscopy, removal of a colon polyp is called polypectomy.
Colon surgery : Using open or laparoscopic surgery, part or all of the colon may be removed (colectomy). This may be done for severe bleeding, cancer, or ulcerative colitis.
WebMD Image Collection Reviewed by Varnada Karriem-Norwood, MD on November 15, 2014
Sources
SOURCES
http://books.google.com/books?id=sOrK6q5ith4C&pg=PA5&lpg=PA5&dq=diameter+of+the+lumen+of+the+intestines&source=bl&ots=-UcZRv0XvX&sig=VhBWzNv9XI8bKKl0pjn0QZo-VH0&hl=en&ei=uvZLSo-DNeDJtgep7vWqDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4
Herliner, H., Maglinte, D., Birnbaum, B., and Balthazar, E. Clinical Imaging of the Small Intestine, Springer, Nov. 30, 2001.
The Physics Factbook web site: "Length of a Human Intestine."
Dummies.com: "Running Through the Human Digestive System."
National Cancer Institute: "Small Intestine Cancer," "Colon and Rectal Cancer."
National Digestive Diseases Information Clearinghouse: "Celiac Disease," "Colonoscopy," "Flexible Sigmoidoscopy," "Diverticulosis and Diverticulitis."
Medscape: "Obstruction, Small Bowel."
| Duodenum |
Pseudocarp relates to which type of crop? | Stomach and Duodenum | Organs | MUSC Digestive Disease Center
Map/Directions
Stomach and Duodenum
The stomach is a J-shaped sac connecting the esophagus above and the small intestine below. The first part of the small intestine is known as the duodenum. The stomach varies considerably in size, shape and position but lies in the upper central part of the abdomen behind the lower ribs. Although it is a single organ, several different parts of the stomach exist: the fundus, body, antrum and pylorus. Food passes through the pylorus and into the duodenum where further digestion occurs.
An internal image of a healthy stomach.
The stomach wall is composed of four layers. The inner lining (mucosa) consists of millions of microscopic glands which secrete gastric juices. Beneath this is a supporting layer (submucosa) and beneath this is the muscle layer. This is responsible for stomach contractions and emptying. Finally there is a thin outer covering known as the serosa.
The stomach and duodenum have a rich blood supply, derived from the aorta (the main artery in the body) and are also supplied by nerves from the spinal cord.
An iillustration of the stomach and its layers.
Function and Control
The stomach carries out several different functions. It acts as the major store for food during a meal and can hold up to 1.5 litres of food and fluid. Special cells (parietal cells) in the glands of the inner lining of the stomach secrete powerful hydrochloric acid that help break down food in the stomach. Other special cells release protein-digesting enzymes (pepsinogens) which become active in the acid environment and begin digesting protein. The stomach secretes a number of other important substances including hormones to regulate the functions of the stomach, mucus to protect the gastric lining from damage by acid, and a substance (intrinsic factor) which is necessary for the body to absorb vitamin B12 from the diet.
An internal image of a healthy duodenum.
Coordinated contractions of the stomach are important for grinding and mixing ingested food with the gastric secretions. This ensures good mixing of stomach contents and also helps to filter out partially digested food to prevent large pieces from entering the duodenum. Lastly, partially digested food and liquids are carefully emptied from the stomach, through the pylorus, into the duodenum. These processes of secreting gastric juices, mixing food and gastric emptying are normally carefully regulated and involve the coordinated action of hormones, nerves, and muscles.
Once food enters the duodenum, its acidity is neutralized by mixing with alkaline juices from the pancreas and bile in preparation for further digestion and absorption lower down the small intestine.
Dysfunction
Disorders of the stomach and the duodenum are extremely common and a considerable source of suffering in the population. Upper abdominal pain , indigestion and heartburn may affect up to 25% of the population each year and these symptoms cause suffering, fear about serious disease, time off work and reduced quality of life.
Problems may arise from a number of different mechanisms and lead to a variety of symptoms. The integrity of the inner lining (mucosa) of the stomach depends on a careful balance between the "aggressive" factors (such as acid) which tend to damage the lining and "defensive" factors (such as mucus) which help to protect the delicate surface lining. Disruption of this balance caused by too much acid (or weakened defense) can result in erosions or ulcers with symptoms including upper abdominal pain, indigestion or heartburn, nausea and/or vomiting.
In other patients, symptoms may result from problems with stomach emptying. This can either be the result of a physical blockage (i.e. scarring from an ulcer or a malignant tumor at the pylorus) or else it can result from abnormal control of stomach emptying (known as gastroparesis ). Symptoms include abdominal pain, bloating , nausea, vomiting after meals, lack of appetite and early satiety (inability to eat a full meal or feeling full after only a small amount of food).
Erosions, ulcers and tumors may cause bleeding. If the bleeding is brisk and of sufficient quantity it may result in vomiting of bright red blood ( hematemesis ). Blood which has been in the stomach for any length of time undergoes partial digestion and turns black in color. This leads to vomiting of black fluid ("coffee grounds") or the passage of sticky black stools (melena) as the blood passes down through the digestive tract. A small percentage of ulcers and other abnormalities in the stomach bleed very slowly over a long time and the patient is unaware of the bleeding. Eventually the body's iron stores run out and anemia develops. Gastrointestinal bleeding is discussed further below.
Ulcers, tumors and other stomach problems may all produce very similar symptoms and it is not possible to determine the cause from symptoms alone. Patients with persistent or worrying symptoms require investigation, usually by endoscopy , to make a diagnosis and select appropriate treatment.
Health Maintenance
Diet
Diet is believed to be important in the development of upper abdominal symptoms but there is little scientific evidence to incriminate individual foods or dietary components in causing particular symptoms. There is no specific diet which is known either to predispose to (or protect against) the development of peptic ulcers . In general, a sensible, balanced and healthy diet is recommended but people should avoid foods which they feel clearly upset their stomachs or provoke symptoms. Regular, unhurried meals are also important.
Smoking
Smoking is an important factor in causing disorders of the stomach and duodenum. Tobacco contains compounds which increases acid production, impair production of protective mucus and damage the lining of the stomach, thereby predisposing to erosion and ulcers.
Excess alcohol intake, especially spirits or hard liquor, irritates the gastric lining and may also play a role in causing gastritis , ulcers, and gastric cancer .
A variety of medications may cause problems in the stomach and duodenum. Aspirin and other anti-inflammatory drugs (non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, NSAID's) used to treat muscular and arthritic pain, commonly damage the stomach lining and cause erosions, ulcers and bleeding from the stomach and duodenum. Other medications interfere with gastric emptying and cause nausea, bloating or vomiting. If you suffer from problems with your stomach, you should always consult your doctor before taking any new medications.
The role of psychological stress in the development of symptoms of indigestion and peptic ulcer disease is not clear. Periods of stress can make most medical conditions worse but whether stress specifically predisposes people to the development of peptic ulcers is not clear at present.
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What is the US state capital of Maryland? | Maryland Capital - Annapolis
ANNAPOLIS
Annapolis is the State capital of Maryland. Toward the end of the Revolutionary War, the city also served as capital to the newly forming American nation when the Continental Congress met in Annapolis from November 26, 1783 to June 3, 1784. Here too, on January 14, 1784, the Treaty of Paris , ending the Revolutionary War, was ratified by Congress.
State House (from Francis St.), Annapolis, Maryland, February 2014. Photo by Diane F. Evartt.
In September 1786, the Annapolis Convention met to discuss revisions to the Articles of Confederation. The Convention's call for a further meeting led to the assembling of delegates at Philadelphia the following year to draft the U.S. Constitution.
In modern times, Annapolis continues to host important meetings. On November 27, 2007, the Middle East Peace Conference was held at the U.S. Naval Academy in Annapolis. From June 17-18, 2008, the U.S. Naval Academy again hosted an international conference, the U.S. - China Strategic Economic Dialogue (SED) IV.
City Dock, Annapolis, Maryland, September 2008. Photo by Diane F. Evartt.
Located on the Severn River in Anne Arundel County , Annapolis is not only the center of Maryland government but also home to the U.S. Naval Academy , and St. John's College whose curriculum is based upon the study of the classics.
McDowell Hall, St. John's College, Annapolis, Maryland, April 2005. Photo by Diane F. Evartt.
From the founding of Maryland in 1634, however, St. Mary's City was the first seat of Maryland's colonial government, not Annapolis. (In southern Maryland, Historic St. Mary's City can be visited today in St. Mary's County. ) As the population of Maryland grew, St. Mary's City, near the southernmost tip of St. Mary's County, proved too distant for most of the colony's inhabitants. Consequently, in 1694, the General Assembly designated Anne Arundel Town, midway up Chesapeake Bay, as the new capital and, in February 1694/5, the government moved there.
U.S. Naval Academy grounds, Annapolis, Maryland, May 2000. Photo by Diane F. Evartt.
After Queen Mary's death in December 1694, Anne Arundel Town was renamed Annapolis for her sister, the heiress apparent, Princess Anne. As Queen Anne (1665-1714) of England, Scotland, and Ireland, Anne ascended the throne in 1702. In 1707, she became Queen of Great Britain and Ireland, which she ruled until her death.
In the name of Queen Anne, Royal Governor John Seymour granted to the City of Annapolis a municipal charter on November 22, 1708. Annapolis celebrated its three centuries of history in 2008.
Centered in Maryland on the Western Shore, Annapolis lies 25 miles south of Baltimore and 30 miles east of Washington, DC.
Sailboats, Back Creek, Annapolis, Maryland, October 2008. Photo by Diane F. Evartt.
| Annapolis, Maryland |
What is a young pilchard called? | Washington, D.C. | national capital, United States | Britannica.com
national capital, United States
Alternative Titles: D.C., District of Columbia
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Washington, D.C., D.C. in full District of Columbia, city and capital of the United States of America. It is coextensive with the District of Columbia (the city is often referred to as simply D.C.) and is located on the northern shore of the Potomac River , at the river’s navigation head—that is, the transshipment point between waterway and land transport. The state of Maryland borders the District of Columbia to the north, east, and west, and the state of Virginia borders the District on the southern shore of the Potomac River.
Washington, D.C.
The White House, Washington, D.C.
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In 1790 the U.S. Congress established a 100-square-mile (260-square-km) territory to serve as the permanent seat of the federal government. (The territory was later named the District of Columbia, within which the city of Washington was built.) The location for the new territory was centralized among the Eastern Seaboard states and was about 90 miles (145 km) inland from the Atlantic Ocean on land ceded by Maryland and Virginia. In the mid-19th century the land south of the Potomac River that had been ceded by Virginia was returned to the state, reducing the District to its present-day size.
After the American Civil War (1861–65), the city of Washington expanded beyond its originally planned boundaries and became legally indistinguishable from the District of Columbia . Washington, D.C., remains a territory, not a state, and since 1974 it has been governed by a locally elected mayor and city council over which Congress retains the power of veto. The Washington metropolitan area covers nearly 4,000 square miles (10,360 square km) and encompasses 10 counties, 5 in Maryland ( Montgomery , Prince George’s , Frederick , Charles , and Calvert ) and 5 in Virginia ( Arlington , Fairfax, Loudoun, Stafford, and Prince William). Area District, 68 square miles (176 square km). Pop. (2000) 572,059; Washington-Arlington-Alexandria Metro Division, 3,727,565; Washington-Arlington-Alexandria Metro Area, 4,796,183; (2010) 601,723; Washington-Arlington-Alexandria Metro Division, 4,377,088; Washington-Arlington-Alexandria Metro Area, 5,582,170.
Character of the city
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Washington is an extraordinary city, one with multiple personalities: a working federal city, an international metropolis, a picturesque tourist destination, an unmatched treasury of the country’s history and artifacts , and a cosmopolitan centre that retains a neighbourly small-town ambience . The role Washington plays as the capital of the United States often overshadows its lively local history and its complex political, economic, and social issues. About half the land in Washington is owned by the U.S. government, which pays no taxes on it. Several hundred thousand people in the D.C. metropolitan area work for the federal government.
The Capitol, Washington, D.C.
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During the last half of the 20th century, “suburban flight” of the middle class contributed to the city’s loss of more than one-fourth of its population. As new jobs, especially those in the high-technology industries, were created in Maryland and Virginia, the population of the suburbs increased as much as 50 percent per decade. By the first decade of the 21st century, however, Washington’s population began to increase as younger workers moved into revitalized city neighbourhoods. Despite these shifts in population, the economies of the District and those of nearby Maryland and Virginia remain interdependent.
Landscape
City site
The city of Washington was built on a gently undulating, low, wide peninsula of land bounded by the Potomac River and its tributary, the Anacostia, in the belief that the location would develop into an important commercial port. (Potomac is an Algonquian word meaning “trading place,” and Anacostia is derived from the name of a local people, the Nacostines, who traded on that river.) Encircling the city are a series of terraces that in certain areas rise to about 400 feet (120 metres) above sea level, where Washington’s neighbourhoods were gradually built. Part of a shallow, long ravine—what is now Rock Creek Park —separated Washington from the old port city of Georgetown ; development to the north and west of this ravine was slow until the end of the 19th century, when the ravine was bridged and public transportation was made available.
Washington, D.C., metropolitan area.
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Washington has a temperate climate with high humidity levels. Precipitation throughout the year is evenly distributed, averaging between 3 and 4 inches (75 and 100 mm) per month. Winters are damp, and extremes in temperature and heavy snowfalls are not typical. The infrequent wet, light snow often melts quickly, as average winter daytime temperatures are in the mid-30s F (about 2 °C); however, freezing temperatures at night can quickly change the melted snow to ice. In the summer brief periods of high temperatures are common, often accompanied by dense humidity. The average summer daytime temperatures are in the mid-70s F (about 24 °C), but highs above 100 °F (about 39 °C) can occur. Spring and autumn are pleasantly mild and tend to be longer than summer and winter.
City layout
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City plan
Washington’s visionary planner was Pierre-Charles L’Enfant , a French army engineer who fought in the American Revolution . Two factors strongly influenced L’Enfant’s imagination as he planned the capital city: his understanding of 18th-century Baroque landscape architecture and his familiarity with the city of Paris and the grounds of Versailles . L’Enfant adapted the city’s formal plan to the area’s natural topography , carefully selecting important sites for principal buildings on the basis of the order of their importance, beginning with the U.S. Capitol building, which he placed on a high ridge. He then symbolically linked it, by way of Pennsylvania Avenue , to the presidential palace (the White House ), on a slightly lower ridge.
West front of the U.S. Capitol, Washington, D.C.
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Placing the Capitol at the centre of the street plan, L’Enfant drew surveyors’ lines through the building to the points of the compass, thereby separating the city into four sections: Northwest (the largest quadrant), Northeast, Southeast, and Southwest . Three of the four surveyors’ lines became streets: North Capitol, East Capitol, and South Capitol streets. The fourth dividing line stretches west from the Capitol along the middle of the Mall to the Potomac River.
Central area of Washington, D.C.
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Washington’s streets are organized in a scheme of broad diagonal avenues overlain on a grid of wide north-south- and east-west-trending streets. Thus, an orderly web of wide tree-lined avenues creates great vistas and leads both to powerful focal points and open public spaces. The intersections of two or three diagonal avenues are punctuated with landscaped circles and squares, while their intersections with grid streets create triangular and trapezoidal lots and parks, resulting in interesting streetscapes.
Streets running north-south are numbered, and streets running east-west are lettered. There are two sets of numbered streets and two sets of lettered streets. One set of numbered streets commences to the east of the Capitol, and the other starts to the west. The two corresponding sets of lettered streets begin to the north and to the south of the Capitol. Each street’s name is followed by the abbreviation of the quadrant in which it is located (e.g., 1st Street NW or A Street SE). There are no J, X, Y, or Z streets, and the two B Streets were renamed Constitution Avenue and Independence Avenue. A number of diagonal avenues are named for U.S. states.
L’Enfant’s city plan was reconsidered in 1900 during the city’s centennial celebration (Congress first convened in Washington in 1800). The Senate Park Commission, headed by Sen. James McMillan of Michigan , enlisted the country’s foremost architects, artists, and landscape planners to review and refine L’Enfant’s plan for the 20th century. Ultimately, many new monuments, federal buildings, parks, and museums were created.
A new 100-year “Extending the Legacy” scheme was released in 1997 to protect the L’Enfant plan and restore those features of it that had been neglected. The scheme, prepared by the National Capital Planning Commission, aims to encourage local government, international organizations, and private developers to relocate to some of the city’s more neglected neighbourhoods, to stimulate the local economy, to revitalize Washington’s expansive waterfront properties, and to improve public transportation within the city and in the surrounding region.
Architecture
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Three factors have radically influenced the style of Washington’s architecture : restrictions on the height of structures, Classicism , and conservatism . Yet, in the mid-20th century, Modernism began to have a noticeable effect.
Height restrictions for buildings in Washington were enacted by Congress as early as 1899 because of concerns over the fire safety and aesthetics of tall buildings, and the Height of Buildings Act of 1910 assured the city’s horizontal landscape. According to the act, no building in Washington may be taller than 130 feet (40 metres), though along certain portions of Pennsylvania Avenue certain structures are allowed to extend an additional 30 feet (9 metres). Office buildings may be no wider than the street on which they are built plus 20 feet (6 metres), and most of them are about 120 feet (37 metres) wide. Thus, D.C. lacks the characteristic skyscrapers found in other large U.S. cities. Moreover, as the city has expanded, it has spread out rather than up, with residential and low-rise commercial areas having been replaced by rows of homogeneous boxlike office buildings.
Since 1800 the architecture and design of many of Washington’s buildings have been inspired by Classicism (a style known for rationality, beauty, order, and balance). Classical architecture in Washington has evolved through several stages, successively coming under the influence of 18th-century Georgian and Palladian styles; 19th-century Greek Revival and Second Empire styles; early 20th-century Art Deco -influenced Neoclassical style; mid-20th-century Modernism; and ultimately late 20th- and early 21st-century postmodernism.
The White House (18th-century Palladian style) and the Capitol (19th-century Greek Revival) are examples of some of the early Classical structures. The Capitol was designed by William Thornton in 1792. (Its two huge marble wings—one for the Senate and one for the House of Representatives—and Renaissance-style cast-iron dome were later additions.) The White House , designed by James Hoban (1792), was inspired by Leinster House in Dublin, Ireland, and is considered one of the world’s finest residences for a head of state. The 19th-century Treasury Department and the 20th-century Supreme Court buildings further reflect Washington’s tradition of Classical architecture. The Federal Triangle office buildings, built after World War I (1914–18) in response to the government’s need for additional office space, are examples of the more modern and Art Deco-influenced Neoclassical styles. They include the Department of Commerce, the Postal Service, the Internal Revenue Service , the Department of Justice , the National Archives , and the Federal Trade Commission buildings. The Ronald Reagan Building and International Trade Center (dedicated in 1998 as a late addition to the Federal Triangle buildings) is modern inside with a soaring atrium, but it has a Classical exterior reflecting those of its older neighbours.
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A tradition of conservatism also is evident in the architectural design of many of Washington’s private and government buildings. New architectural styles are rarely employed in Washington until years after the styles have become accepted in other areas of the country. Two exceptions to this rule were the usage of the Second Empire style of the1850s, particularly in the building that once held the Corcoran art collection (now called the Renwick Gallery), and the postmodern style of the early 1980s, seen in many commercial buildings on Connecticut Avenue near Dupont Circle and on Pennsylvania Avenue in the east end of Georgetown.
Despite the city’s currents of Classicism and architectural conservatism, most of Washington’s early buildings were displaced by the structures of the Modernist movement of the 20th century, which encouraged an architectural style that was devoid of decoration. Few early 19th-century buildings remain in Downtown Washington, with the exception of three houses at 637–641 Indiana Avenue, in Northwest D.C., that were built in the 1820s. At the end of the 20th century, historic-preservation movements began successfully saving the facades of many other older structures, incorporating them within the framework of new commercial buildings, as in Red Lion Row on the 2000 block of Pennsylvania Avenue in Northwest D.C.
Housing in Washington reflects the changing needs and tastes of the various segments of the population. Residential areas of the mid-19th century are filled with block after block of attached row houses, varying only slightly in size, height, style, and building material. Later 19th-century neighbourhoods that developed beyond the original city boundaries offered larger lots, and many architecturally diverse single-family homes were designed for the upwardly mobile middle class. In the 1870s elegantly designed multiroom mansions were constructed of limestone or decorative brick with terra-cotta trim, most notably in the Dupont Circle and Kalorama neighbourhoods of Northwest D.C. Beginning in the 1930s, many of these mansions were converted into embassies, private clubs, and office buildings. During and immediately after World War I, and again after World War II (1939–45), apartment buildings were erected to accommodate the growing number of government workers. At the same time, grand apartment-hotels were popular with high-ranking government officials, military officers, and ambassadors . By the end of the 20th century, new mixed-use apartments, condominium complexes (residential buildings that include commercial space), and luxury hotels were built in some of Washington’s previously neglected neighbourhoods.
Rowhouses in a residential block of Washington, D.C.
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Monuments and memorials
Much of the attractiveness of Washington can be attributed to the hundreds of outdoor sculptures and monuments that adorn the parks, gardens, buildings, avenues, and cemeteries of the city. L’Enfant suggested the use of outdoor sculpture as a way to honour the new country’s heroes. The first outdoor sculpture situated in Washington was the Tripoli Memorial, commemorating the heroes of the Tripolitan War (1801–05). It stood first in the Navy Yard in Southeast Washington and was later moved to the Capitol grounds before being relocated to the Naval Academy in Annapolis , Maryland.
Washington Monument, Washington, D.C.
© Stanford Apseloff
In the 1840s Congress commissioned the first statue of George Washington , a white marble Romanesque rendering of the first president. It was exhibited outside on the eastern front plaza of the Capitol for years before being placed in storage. In the 1960s the statue was given a permanent home in the National Museum of American History. An equestrian statue of Washington was also part of L’Enfant’s design for the city; it was to have been located at a crossing point west of the Capitol and south of the White House. In 1885, nearly 100 years after the plan was first promulgated , the Washington Monument , a 555-foot (169-metre) unadorned obelisk, much grander than the modest statue L’Enfant envisioned , was dedicated on the Mall , near the original site. Meanwhile, in 1860 an equestrian statue of George Washington had been placed in Washington Circle, northwest of the White House.
The Washington Monument and other memorials honouring U.S. presidents are some of the most-visited landmarks in Washington. The Lincoln Memorial lies west of the Washington Monument, on land reclaimed from the Potomac River at the far western end of the Mall ’s Reflecting Pool. Designed in the Greek Revival style and modeled after the Parthenon in Athens , the monument often has been the site of civil rights gatherings, demonstrations, and speeches—perhaps most notably the “I Have a Dream” speech given by Martin Luther King, Jr. , in 1963. The Jefferson Memorial is located south of the Mall on the southern rim of the Tidal Basin in East Potomac Park. Inside the white marble temple, which was inspired by the Pantheon in Rome , are inscribed quotes from Jefferson’s writings, including the Declaration of Independence and the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom. Another striking memorial is the Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial , located on the southwestern edge of the Tidal Basin within a 7.5-acre (3-hectare) park. The memorial is divided into four outdoor chambers, one for each of Roosevelt ’s presidential terms.
The Jefferson Memorial and the Tidal Basin, Washington, D.C.
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Statue of Franklin D. Roosevelt with his dog, Fala, at the Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial, …
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North of the Roosevelt Memorial, also on the western bank of the Tidal Basin, two towering mounds of pink granite (“The Mountain of Despair”) form the entrance to the Martin Luther King, Jr. National Memorial . Farther into the memorial’s plaza, emerging from a large granite slab (“The Stone of Hope”), a 30-foot (9-metre) sculpture of King looks across the Tidal Basin at the Jefferson Memorial. Inscribed on the stone are the words “Out of the mountain of despair, a stone of hope,” from King’s “I Have a Dream” speech.
The Vietnam War Veterans Memorial , a chevron-shaped black granite wall north of the western end of the Reflecting Pool, lists more than 58,000 names of those who were killed or identified as missing during the Vietnam War . South of the western end of the Reflecting Pool is the Korean War Veterans Memorial , featuring 19 unpolished stainless-steel statues of soldiers. Their images are reflected in a black granite wall onto which have been etched images taken from more than 2,500 Korean War -era photographs. At the eastern end of the Reflecting Pool is the National World War II Memorial , an oval plaza with a large pool and fountains. It is bounded by two large pavilions, representing the Atlantic and the Pacific theatres of the war, and surrounded by 56 pillars (for each of the 48 states and the 8 territories that were part of the United States at the time of the war).
Korean War Veterans Memorial, Washington, D.C.
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More equestrian statues have been erected in Washington than in any other city in the United States. The first of these, honouring Andrew Jackson , was erected in 1853 in Lafayette Square opposite the White House. The Jackson statue (cast from cannons captured during the War of 1812 ) was also the first bronze equestrian statue made in the United States, and it was so highly acclaimed that two replicas were cast and sent to New Orleans and Nashville . The statue’s designer, Clark Mills, immediately received a second commission from Congress, for the equestrian statue of George Washington that was dedicated at Washington Circle in 1860.
Andrew Jackson statue based on his appearance after the Battle of New Orleans, Washington, D.C.
Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. (digital. id. ppmsca 18037)
The four years of the American Civil War (1861–65) so profoundly affected the conscience of the country that more memorials in Washington are dedicated to it than to any other period in United States history. Nearly 40 works of outdoor sculpture honouring heroes of the Union (and one Confederate, Gen. Albert Pike, whose statue was erected in 1901 by Freemasons ) dot the city, embellish buildings, and adorn parks and cemeteries. One prominent memorial dedicated in 1863, though it was planned years earlier, is the Statue of Freedom on top of the Capitol. The majority of Washington’s circles and squares were renamed for and display statues of Civil War heroes, including Adm. David Farragut and generals Ulysses S. Grant , Winfield Scott Hancock , John A. Logan , George B. McClellan , James B. McPherson , George G. Meade , John A. Rawlins, Winfield Scott , Philip H. Sheridan , William Tecumseh Sherman , and George H. Thomas . A fountain was dedicated to Samuel Francis du Pont, a Union naval officer, when his statue was removed in the early 20th century. A frieze that consists of six Civil War scenes depicting seamen, infantry, cavalry, artillerymen, and members of the Medical and Quartermaster Corps decorates the exterior of the Old Pension Building (now the National Building Museum) in Downtown Washington. Other Civil War memorials include the Peace Monument to commemorate naval deaths, located in the circle to the west of the Capitol; a monument to the Nuns of the Battlefield near St. Matthew’s Catholic Church; and the African American Civil War Memorial, near the U Street subway station. After the assassination of Abraham Lincoln , two outdoor statues were quickly erected to honour the slain president. The first stands in front of the old City Hall in Downtown Washington, and the second, on Capitol Hill in Lincoln Park, was paid for by donations solely from former slaves. (The more familiar Lincoln Memorial was not dedicated until 1922.)
Rock Creek Cemetery has some remarkable sculpture, perhaps the most striking being the Adams Memorial (1886–91), with a shrouded bronze figure designed by Augustus Saint-Gaudens and commissioned by historian Henry Adams (the great-grandson of John Adams ), in memory of his wife, Marian. Saint-Gaudens called the sculpture The Mystery of the Hereafter, but it is often mistakenly called “Grief.” The same cemetery contains the Kauffmann Memorial by William Ordway Partridge, entitled A Garland of Memories, and the Ffoulke Memorial by Gutzon Borglum , entitled Rabboni.
Several influential international figures have had statues erected in Washington in their honour, including English jurist Sir William Blackstone , British statesman Edmund Burke , Italian scholar Dante , Swedish-American inventor John Ericsson , Irish patriot Robert Emmet , Lebanese-American poet Khalil Gibran , German physician Samuel Hahnemann , French heroine Joan of Arc , Spanish queen Isabella I , German theologian Martin Luther , Italian inventor Guglielmo Marconi , Polish general Kazimierz Pulaski , and Ukrainian poet Taras Shevchenko . Even the Aztec god of flowers, Xochipilli, is represented in the capital. A statue of a foreign hero of the American Revolution is placed at each corner of Lafayette Square , north of the White House: Tadeusz Kościuszko , Frederick William Von Steuben , the comte de Rochambeau , and the marquis de Lafayette . Four Latin American independence leaders— Simón Bolivar , José de San Martín , José Gervasio Artigas, and Benito Juárez —along with Bernardo de Gálvez, a Spaniard who played a key role in the American Revolution, are honoured with statues on Virginia Avenue in Northwest D.C., between the Organization of American States building and the Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts. Private citizens have also sponsored memorials to a range of other organizations, causes, and events, including the Boy Scout Memorial, the Founders Memorial, and the Temperance Memorial.
José Gervasio Artigas, statue in Washington, D.C.
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Neighbourhoods
The District
Whether the capital city’s neighbourhoods have survived by design or luck, they all seem to have evolved somewhat haphazardly and not at all according to the plans of L’Enfant . Several factors have influenced the growth and development of Washington’s neighbourhoods since the latter half of the 20th century: the uninterrupted proliferation of federal buildings, the influx of immigrant populations, the expansion of public transportation, suburban flight, urban renewal , and, in the early 21st century, revived interest in city living.
When fair-housing laws were enacted in the 1950 and ’60s, many middle-class European Americans moved to the suburbs, while middle-class African Americans moved to areas formerly closed to them. Certain neighbourhoods, especially Capitol Hill and Brookland, were occupied by blacks and whites who attempted to work together to build integrated communities . Other areas became largely homogeneous strongholds for certain groups—for example, wealthy European Americans in the upper Northwest, wealthy African Americans in the “Gold Coast” on upper 16th Street, and poorer African Americans in Anacostia.
Northwest
The largest of the four quadrants of the District is Northwest, which contains most of the city’s federal buildings, tourist destinations, and wealthier neighbourhoods. It encompasses the areas known as Downtown, Lafayette Square, Foggy Bottom, Georgetown, Dupont Circle, and Adams-Morgan, among others.
Main building of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.; designed by James Renwick.
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Downtown
The area referred to as Downtown Washington describes the business district located between the Capitol, the White House, and Georgetown. It includes Chinatown, the Metro Center, the Federal Triangle area, and the K Street office corridor.
Downtown Washington served as both a workplace and a residential area for a substantial population of Washingtonians throughout the 19th century, making it the most important section of the early city. Downtown residents included shopkeepers, office workers, labourers, craftspeople, politicians, lobbyists, and those who worked in the hospitality sector. The area also was home to many Chinese, Greek, Italian, German Jewish, and German Catholic immigrants. Center Market, the city’s main farmers’ market with hundreds of indoor stalls, was located on Pennsylvania Avenue near 7th Street until 1931. Many of the neighbourhood’s 19th-century buildings were uniform three-story brick structures, often with shops on the first floor and residences above. Boarding houses were common in Downtown Washington; one of the most famous was owned by Mary Surratt during the Civil War years. (Surratt was later tried, convicted, and hanged for her part in a conspiracy to abduct Pres. Abraham Lincoln, who was later assassinated by fellow conspirator John Wilkes Booth .) Her home still stands in what is now Chinatown; it is one of the area’s few pre-Civil War buildings.
Beginning in the mid-20th century, the popularity of Downtown Washington diminished, and many buildings deteriorated. The development of Washington’s suburbs, combined with the Downtown race riots that broke out in 1968, kept people away from the area, hampering its vitality for 30 years. In the early 21st century, however, much of Downtown was revitalized. The addition of a sports arena, hotels, restaurants, a major convention centre, and new museums attracted both new residents and visitors. Many historic properties have been restored; condominium buildings have been constructed; and older commercial buildings have been converted into luxury apartment buildings and hotels.
Lafayette Square
The Lafayette Square neighbourhood lies directly north of the White House on H Street between 15th and 17th streets. It was once a showplace of wealth and influence. Throughout the 19th century some of the most distinguished Washingtonians and important national and world leaders were entertained in Lafayette Square homes. The first home in the neighbourhood was Col. John Tayloe III’s Octagon House, built in 1800, which is now owned by the American Architectural Foundation. In 1816 St. John’s Church was built across the square facing the White House and became known as the “Church of the Presidents.” The neighbourhood was filled with elegant mansions owned by cabinet officials, foreign diplomats, vice presidents, socialites, philanthropists, and others, including former first lady Dolley Madison after her time in the White House, politicians Daniel Webster and Francis Preston Blair , and military commanders Stephen Decatur and John Rodgers. Historian Henry Adams once wrote, “Lafayette Square is society.”
At the turn of the 20th century, the character of the neighbourhood changed. Many homes just off the square were replaced with grand marble or granite Neoclassical or Second Empire-style bank and office buildings (the Treasury Annex, the U.S. Chamber of Commerce, and the headquarters for the Organization of American States, the Daughters of the American Revolution , and the American Red Cross). Private developers also bought several of the Lafayette Square homes, razed them, and built eight- and nine-story office buildings in their place. By 1962 the federal government had purchased all the Lafayette Square properties, with plans to replace them with government office buildings. At that time, however, first lady Jacqueline Kennedy brought attention to the importance of historic preservation and worked behind the scenes on a design to protect the neighbourhood’s remaining historic homes. Under the terms of a compromise agreement, new office structures were built behind, but connected to, the historic homes. Blair House remained in use as the president’s guesthouse and was connected to three adjoining homes; Decatur House was saved after being transferred to the National Trust for Historic Preservation; and St. John’s Church has remained intact.
Foggy Bottom
West of Downtown, between the White House and Georgetown, is Foggy Bottom—roughly bounded by Pennsylvania Avenue to the north, by 17th Street to the east, by Constitution Avenue to the south, and by the Potomac and Rock Creek to the west. Its name derives from its origin as a neighbourhood of wharves, warehouses, brickyards, breweries, gas works, and an early 19th-century glassblowing factory: a combination of industrial smoke and humidity occasionally produced a blanket of fog. The first U.S. Naval Observatory was built on the western edge of Foggy Bottom, on the rocky abutment above the Potomac River, in 1844. During the Civil War, Union troops encamped in the area’s low-lying open fields. After the war, the creation of light industrial jobs in Foggy Bottom attracted many German immigrants, who settled into modest brick row houses. When the industries closed in the early 20th century, many residents moved out, and the area slowly transformed into a low-income neighbourhood with substandard housing, where the majority of the dwellings became rental properties.
Throughout the 20th century, George Washington University invested in the inexpensive Foggy Bottom real estate and eventually became the principal landowner. Row houses were replaced by modern buildings that were used for classrooms, dormitories, and administrative functions. One by one, whole blocks of the old neighbourhood disappeared.
In the 1930s several magnificent buildings were erected on the southern edge of Foggy Bottom, most notably the Department of the Interior, the Federal Reserve Board, and the National Academy of Science buildings. During World War II the War Department relocated to Foggy Bottom, and after the war the State Department took over that site.
The neighbourhood again became a popular place to live after the opening of the enormous Watergate office and condominium complex in the late 1960s and of the Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts a few years later. (Watergate was the site of the break-in to the offices of the Democratic National Committee in 1972 that led to the Watergate Scandal , which eventually resulted in the resignation of Pres. Richard Nixon.) A few blocks of historic and quaint 19th-century row houses remain, standing bravely in the shadow of many mid-rise, high-density hotels, apartments, and offices, as well as George Washington University Hospital.
Georgetown
Georgetown , the oldest neighbourhood in the District of Columbia, was originally a trading village called Tohoga by the local Native Americans before the arrival of Europeans in the 1600s. By 1751 this area on the Potomac River was well established as a colonial tobacco port and named for King George II of England. Forty years later the port town was included in the parcel of land transferred by Maryland to become part of the District of Columbia. In 1789 Georgetown University was established as the first Roman Catholic academic institution in the country. Construction of the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal in the 19th century brought new jobs to the old port city. Mills, foundries, and lime kilns began to line Georgetown’s waterfront. Its population was ethnically and economically diverse and consisted mainly of merchants, labourers, and government employees.
Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, Georgetown, Washington, D.C.
Robin Taylor
Maintaining its own elected government, economy, and identity, Georgetown remained independent of Washington until 1871, when it was absorbed into the expanding city. For a time, newspapers referred to the port as West Washington, but ultimately the old name prevailed. By the end of the 19th century, however, Georgetown was no longer considered a fashionable place to live. Only a few wealthy residents remained in their dignified old mansions, which stood next to brick and wooden row houses occupied by lower- and middle-class labourers.
In the 1930s educated, idealistic, high-ranking New Deal government workers rediscovered the charm of Georgetown and started the renewal of the neighbourhood through the preservation and restoration of its older homes. Less-affluent residents sold their homes at attractive prices, starting an upward spiral of artificially high real-estate prices that have come to be expected in present-day Georgetown. In 1951 Congress designated most of Georgetown a historic district, and, by the end of the 20th century, several historic Georgetown homes had been opened to the public, including the Old Stone House, Tudor Place, Dumbarton House, and Dumbarton Oaks Estate and gardens. In the early 21st century, Georgetown residents included a mix of university students, government and private sector workers, and upper-middle-class families. The neighbourhood has a variety of unique shops, restaurants, and nightclubs.
Dupont Circle
The Dupont Circle neighbourhood is situated northeast of Georgetown and surrounds Dupont Circle, a park centred at the intersection of five streets: Connecticut , New Hampshire , and Massachusetts avenues and 19th and P streets. The area had been a neglected marshland until after the Civil War, when it was drained and graded for development. With the advent of the Gilded Age , a materialistic period during the 1870s, wealthy businessmen and investors began to shun the formerly stylish neighbourhoods of Georgetown, Capitol Hill, and Lafayette Square in favour of creating an opulent new community of fashionable addresses. During this time a few grand mansions, including an ornate Second Empire -style structure that served as the British minister’s residence and diplomatic headquarters, were erected near Dupont Circle, greatly increasing the prestige of the neighbourhood. (The British moved to a new embassy building in 1931, and this grand structure was razed and replaced with a Modernist office building for the International Association of Machinists.) Large homes and row houses filled in the blocks near the grand mansions. Wealthier Americans and businesspeople with political connections began to spend winters in the neighbourhood, which increased its popularity and bolstered Washington’s reputation at home and abroad as a sophisticated, significant city. This image began to change, however, during the Great Depression of the 1930s, when residents were forced to sell their Dupont Circle homes, many of which were converted into boarding houses, offices, private clubs, and embassies; other homes eventually were torn down and replaced with mid-rise apartment, commercial, and office buildings.
By the 1960s Dupont Circle not only had lost its air of exclusivity but also had become a haven for students, hippies, and anti-Vietnam War protesters. In 1978 part of the neighbourhood was designated a historic district, and real-estate prices escalated. Notable mansions were preserved; row houses were renovated; and shops, bookstores, and restaurants opened, creating one of the liveliest, most cosmopolitan neighbourhoods in the city.
Adams-Morgan and beyond
Adams-Morgan, situated just north and west of Dupont Circle, is one of Washington’s most ethnically and economically diverse communities, having originally served as a wealthy enclave for prominent Washington scientists and high-ranking government and military personnel. Once known as Lanier Heights, the neighbourhood gained the name Adams-Morgan after the area’s two segregated public elementary schools—Adams, a white school, and Morgan, a black school—were voluntarily integrated in the 1950s.
The extension of streetcar service to what is now Adams-Morgan in 1891 encouraged the construction of luxury apartment buildings, which dramatically increased the area’s population. The need for housing for military personnel stationed in Washington during World Wars I and II had transformed large townhouses and grand apartments into low-priced rooming houses, which in the 1950s and 1960s were rented to a large Hispanic population and other newly arrived immigrants. During the last two decades of the 20th century, the conversion of apartments into condominiums and cooperatives, the renovation of old row houses, and increasing gentrification added greatly to the diversity of the neighbourhood, whose motto is “Unity in diversity.” Its restaurants, music venues , and unique shops have made Adams-Morgan one of D.C.’s most popular and eclectic neighbourhoods.
North and west of Adams-Morgan are some of the District’s wealthier neighbourhoods. These include Kalorama, where the Woodrow Wilson House, the Textile Museum, and many ambassadorial residences are located; Cleveland Park and Woodley Park, which surround the Washington National Cathedral ; Mt. Pleasant, Tenleytown, and Chevy Chase , which developed as streetcar suburbs; and American University Park, where American University and several ambassadorial residences are located.
Washington National Cathedral, Washington, D.C.
Saul Loeb—AFP/Getty Images
East of Adams-Morgan are the Shaw and U Street neighbourhoods, once known as “Black Broadway” and where Duke Ellington grew up and first played jazz. Farther east, LeDroit Park is the home of Howard University . LeDroit Park developed as a wealthy all-white enclave enclosed by a fence that was torn down by African American university students in 1888 in protest of segregation. The area became the centre of Washington’s African American elite by the turn of the 20th century. The race riots of 1968 devastated the area, but the beginning of the 21st century brought a complete renewal. Sometimes called “The New U,” the area saw its old commercial buildings converted into loft apartments and condominiums. Jazz clubs were revived, the Lincoln Theatre (1921) was restored, and the African American Civil War Memorial (The Spirit of Freedom) was dedicated in 1997. The African American Civil War Museum (1999) is located two blocks from the memorial.
Northeast
The Northeast section of Washington features residential neighbourhoods that were established in the 19th century. Brookland, named after the estate of Col. Jehiel Brooks that formerly occupied the site, was developed between 1887 and 1901. Located in Brookland are the Shrine of the Immaculate Conception (dedicated in 1959), the Franciscan Monastery (dedicated in 1899), and the Catholic University of America (founded in 1887). The neighbourhood of Deanwood was established in Northeast in 1888 as a semirural, self-sufficient, racially mixed community. By the mid-20th century it had become a predominately African American neighbourhood.
The area just northeast of the Capitol was once known as Swampoodle for its swampy conditions, a result of flooding. It was home to mainly working-class Irish immigrants who had fled the Irish Potato Famine (1845–49). The name Swampoodle disappeared after 1965, and in the 1980s the area became known as NoMa (“North of Massachusetts Avenue”). Old row houses were demolished, a railroad trestle was removed, and two streets that were originally part of L’Enfant’s street plan were rebuilt. Union Station (1907), the city’s magnificent train depot located on the southern edge of NoMa, was renovated, revitalized, and reopened during this time. In 1993 the old Post Office building (1914), which abuts Union Station on the west, became the home of the National Postal Museum . NoMa experienced further development in the early 21st century: condominium buildings were erected, a subway station was opened, and the headquarters of some federal agencies were relocated there as well.
Southeast
The Southeast quadrant of Washington is dominated by Capitol Hill. The Anacostia neighbourhood is also located in this section of the city.
Capitol Hill
The Capitol Hill neighbourhood, in Southeast D.C., is the oldest residential community in the original city of Washington. In 1805 several boarding houses and taverns were erected near the Capitol to cater to members of Congress. Low-rise row houses, interspersed with shops and businesses, quickly filled nearby lots and replaced old farms. Eastern Market, completed in 1873, is a farmers’ market located about seven blocks from the Capitol. Having begun operations in 1802, the market has always been the heart of the neighbourhood. The South Hall of the market was destroyed in a fire in April 2007, and restoration efforts began the following year.
From 1880 to 1980, whole blocks of low-rise row houses, churches, and businesses were razed in the vicinity of the Capitol. They were replaced by three Library of Congress buildings (1897, 1939, and 1982), the Supreme Court (1935), and six congressional office buildings (1908–82). Several brick townhouses on East Capitol Street were razed in the early 1930s to build the Folger Shakespeare Library . Named for the benefactor Henry Clay Folger , the library is a marble Art Deco building that is decorated with relief panels depicting scenes from plays of William Shakespeare .
Supreme Court building, Washington, D.C.
Franz Jantzen/Supreme Court of the United States
The Washington Navy Yard, established in 1799 on the Anacostia River, was an important force in the development of the southeastern section of Capitol Hill. Its purpose was the defense of the capital and the construction of warships, and it served as the principal employer in Washington for 150 years, providing job opportunities mainly to skilled African Americans and European immigrants. Many of these early labourers, who walked to work at the yard, built their own small, two-story brick and wooden row houses nearby. In the 20th century, the Navy Yard became one of the world’s largest centres for ordnance production and engineering research.
The post-Civil War period brought an influx of middle-class government workers to Capitol Hill, and with them came developers who built row after row of two- and three-story attached brick homes. By the 1920s these residences, along with a great number of churches, had nearly filled the Capitol Hill neighbourhood. Within a few decades, the neighbourhood was densely settled within a five-block area northeast and southeast of the Capitol. The community remained stable until World War II, when many of the row houses were converted into rooming houses and rental properties. The area’s population swelled with workers during the war, but in the 1950s, flight to the suburbs by both the African American and European American middle class caused many of the Capitol Hill homes to be converted into boarding houses for displaced low-income residents, most of whom were African American. Public housing facilities were built in certain sections of the neighbourhood as well. By the end of the decade, the area was called “blighted and obsolete” by the media and members of Congress.
Nonetheless, the Capitol Hill houses had charm, and they were gradually gentrified—slowly displacing many lower-income residents in the process. Throughout the last quarter of the 20th century, young families and single professionals invested in the properties closer to the Capitol and supported the construction of modern townhome projects (some designed for lower-income residents) that replaced much of the public housing. The present-day population of Capitol Hill is a mix of senators and representatives, government workers, professionals, labourers, artists, journalists, and students.
Anacostia
Anacostia, which lies southeast of the Anacostia River, is a mostly lower-income neighbourhood with a predominantly African American population. Part of the area was first subdivided and developed in 1854, and the 11th Street Bridge across the Anacostia River was built in 1874 to connect the neighbourhood to Capitol Hill. (A bridge expansion project was begun in the early 21st century.) After the Civil War it was home mostly to former slaves, but it had become an ethnically and economically mixed neighbourhood by the end of the 19th century. Housing for workers in war-related industries was established in the area during World War II. Most European American families left the neighbourhood either after school desegregation in the late 1950s or during the race riots in 1968, and they have not returned.
The Frederick Douglass (a former Anacostia resident) National Historic Site and the Anacostia Community Museum are located in the neighbourhood. The Anacostia waterfront across from the Navy Yard (which lies on the northwestern side of the river) has undergone residential and commercial development in the early 21st century, especially with the establishment of the Washington Nationals baseball stadium there in 2008.
Cedar Hill, Frederick Douglass’s home in the Anacostia neighbourhood of Washington, D.C.
National Park Service (A Britannica Publishing Partner)
The reconstructed Growlery, a small outbuilding at Cedar Hill, Frederick Douglass’s estate in the …
National Park Service (A Britannica Publishing Partner)
Frederick Douglass’s desk in his library at Cedar Hill, his home in Washington, D.C.
National Park Service (A Britannica Publishing Partner)
Southwest
Southwest Washington, like Foggy Bottom, was planned as a prosperous commercial and residential waterfront neighbourhood. L’Enfant had included a military defense site in his original plan, and in 1791 a military reservation was established near the confluence of the Anacostia and Potomac rivers. An army arsenal was built there in 1794 (today it is called Fort Lesley J. McNair). It is one of the oldest forts in the country; it has served as the headquarters of the U.S. Army Washington Military District since 1966 and has been the main campus of National Defense University since 1977.
Before the Civil War, Washington’s black residents, both free and slave, coexisted in Southwest’s large black community. The Southwest 6th Street wharf was used as a stop on the Underground Railroad , which helped fugitive slaves escape to the North. After the Civil War, thousands of newly free blacks, along with newly arrived European immigrants, settled in Southwest, where hundreds of small row houses were built. Tiny alley dwellings filled the interiors of the blocks, creating hidden impoverished alley communities. In the 1880s German and eastern European Jewish immigrants established tailor shops, bakeries, butcher shops, groceries, and dry-goods stores in Southwest. One famous Southwest resident was the entertainer Al Jolson , whose father was a cantor and rabbi.
In the early 1900s many blocks of Southwest homes were replaced with the huge federal buildings of the Department of Agriculture and the Bureau of Engraving and Printing. Warehouses and freight yards lined the waterfront, and railroad tracks crisscrossed the area. By the 1930s, the quadrant had become predominately African American , poor, and crime-ridden. In 1946 Congress chartered the Redevelopment Land Agency, which targeted the Southwest neighbourhood. In 1954 several thousand buildings were razed, and low-income residents were displaced and relocated, many to Anacostia. An increasing number of new government departments and agencies created a demand for new office space, resulting in the construction of clusters of modern, homogeneous buildings in gray concrete or pink granite, or with white marble facades, which hide any trace of the former neighbourhood. In complete disregard of L’Enfant’s street plan, modern apartment buildings and townhouses also filled the new superblocks. Some public housing was added as well. Amenities in Southwest include the waterfront, which boasts a lively seafood market and a marina filled with small yachts and houseboats, several restaurants, and the Arena Stage theatre. Yet, despite Southwest’s waterfront location, its neighbourhood remains stark and quiet.
Virginia
Arlington county , Virginia, was a part of the District of Columbia until 1846. In the 19th century Arlington consisted of mostly farmland that was devastated during the Civil War. Recovery took more than 30 years. George Washington’s step-grandson, George Washington Parke Custis, had owned a 1,100-acre (450-hectare) plantation in the county that was seized by the U.S. government during the Civil War; it was converted into a military stronghold and later into a cemetery (now Arlington National Cemetery ).
Arlington National Cemetery.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
Throughout the first half of the 20th century, Arlington’s small farms were rapidly replaced with communities of modest homes and garden apartment complexes built for the influx of government workers during the two world wars. The county quickly became a popular bedroom community for Washington because of its proximity to the city centre. The present-day population of the county is ethnically and economically diverse.
The Marine Corps War Memorial (Iwo Jima), located near Arlington National Cemetery, is considered to be the largest cast bronze statuary group in the world; it was inspired by a famous World War II photograph taken by Joe Rosenthal of six men (five Marines and a navy hospital corpsman) raising an American flag on the Pacific island of Iwo Jima . The U.S. Air Force Memorial, dedicated in 2006, rises above the cemetery, with three skyward-reaching, stainless-steel curved spires reminiscent of the Air Force Thunderbird Jet contrails. The Pentagon , also located near the cemetery, was constructed during World War II to consolidate the military branches and to provide offices for the joint chiefs of staff and the secretary of defense.
Old Town Alexandria , just south of Arlington county, was the rival port to Georgetown during the 18th century. From 1791 to 1846 Alexandria was part of the District of Columbia, but because the port city was neglected and its development arrested during the first half of the 19th century, residents requested that Congress return the land to Virginia. During the Civil War, Alexandria was a city with Confederate sympathies, but it was occupied by federal troops. For the 100 years following the Civil War, the city’s economy continued to decline, and its warehouses, wharves, and townhouses deteriorated. The historic value of Old Town was finally recognized as a result of the celebration of the country’s bicentennial in 1976. The 18th-century Gadsby’s hotel and tavern were restored as a museum, as was the Carlyle House (built in 1752) and the Stabler-Leadbeater Apothecary (opened in 1792). Alexandria already enjoyed a convenient location on the Potomac River, near Washington and the Pentagon , and after subway stations were opened in Alexandria in 1983, the area became more accessible, and shops, restaurants, and local festivals also attracted new residents and visitors. New townhouse construction, along with the restoration of blocks of tiny 19th-century row houses, added to the upward-spiraling values of the real estate in the quaint seaport city.
Aerial view of the Pentagon, Arlington, Va.
Hisham F. Ibrahim/Getty Images
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In UK pre-decimal coinage, how many farthings were in one penny? | Coins of the UK - Farthings
Farthings
Pictures of Farthings
Silver Farthings
The silver farthing was a very small coin, and is rarely found as metal detectors cannot usually detect tiny metal items. For many years they were thought to have been minted for the first time in the reign of Edward I (1272-1307) but about two examples of this denomination from the reign of Henry III (1216-1272) have been found. No documentary evidence of this coin exists.
Before this farthings were created by cutting a penny into four, thus the name farthing (from fourthing)
The silver farthing was last produced in the reign of Edward VI (1547-1553), having gradually reduced in size until its use became impractical.
This led to a shortage of a denomination which the wealthy producers (the government) did not really need but which the general population did.
Copper Farthings
Due to a shortage of small coins, James I authorised John Harrington to issue tin coated bronze farthings in 1613, after a number of other proposals had been considered. The initial small issue (12.25 mm diameter), showing two sceptres through a crown on the obverse and a crowned harp on the reverse, was soon superseded by a slightly larger token (15mm diameter) without the tin wash.
Lord Harrington died in 1614, and the title to the patent eventually passed to the Duke of Lennox. The next issues became known as Lennox farthings. They can be distinguished from the Harrington farthings by the fact that in the legend IACO starts at the top (or in one case bottom) rather that just before. Their diameter remained at about 15 mm, although the last issue was oval in shape.
The Duke of Lennox became the Duke of Richmond, but died around 1624. His widow continued to hold the patent, and the first issues of Charles I became known as Richmond farthings. A second patent was issued to Lord Maltravers and others. Maltravers farthings have an inner circle on both sides.
These coins were produced by the interesting technique of rolling a strip of copper between two rollers with the designs set into them, and at the Fitzwilliam Museum in Cambridge there is a strip of several of these coins which had not been cut out of the strip.
The problem was that these coins were easy to forge, and before long the public lost trust in them. A new design was introduced with a rose instead of a harp on the reverse, and with a brass plug in the copper which was very difficult to forge. This is known as a Rose farthing.
During the period of the Commonwealth in 1644 issue of these coins was discontinued, and instead this denomination was effected by a large variety of tokens issued by traders or towns.
In the mid-1660's the Royal Mint began to investigate the manufacture of a larger copper farthing - a pattern is known dated 1665 with similarities to the issued coins.
The official copper farthing appeared in 1672 , despite difficulties partly overcome by importing blanks from Sweden. It was produced annually until 1675 and again in 1679 .
Tin Farthings
In 1684 the farthing was issued in tin with a copper plug in the centre. This plug is clearly visible in the image of a 1684 Charles II tin farthing . This coin appears not to have a date, but this is because it was inscribed on the edge.
These are scarce coins in as good condition as that illustrated because of tin disease. This is caused by the fact that below 13.2°C the metallic form or allotrope of tin tends to turn into the non-metallic form which appears as a grey powder. Also, tin is soft and wears readily. Tin was chosen to bolster the tin mining industry, and the bimetallic form was intended to discourage forgery (but failed in its purpose as lead copies were made).
Charles II tin farthings dated 1685 are very rare, as the King died on February 6th 1684 (old style) and the new year followed six weeks later.
An illustration of a William and Mary 1690 tin farthing is available. These coins had the date on the edge as well as the reverse, and scarce varieties exist with the two dates differing.
Tin remained in use until 1692, after which copper was used again.
Copper Farthings (again)
William & Mary reverted to issuing copper farthings for circulation in 1694, although about four 1693 dated coins are known with the old tin farthing obverse. The reason for the change back to copper was that corrosion of the tin was becoming very evident, and they had also proved easy to counterfeit despite the central copper plug.
William III struck farthings up until 1700, but Queen Anne only struck them in the year of her death, 1714. They did not circulate widely, to the extent that rumours started saying that they were of great rarity. Indeed Peck states that they were never officially issued. The 'issued' coins had the reverse in 'coin' orientation, where it is inverted relative to the front, but proofs in 'medal' orientation are known (image courtesy of Spink).
George I struck farthings in 1717 (on a small flan the so-called Dump issue) and annually on a larger flan from 1719 to 1724. A range of varieties exist, and examples of 1719 and 1720 are illustrated, courtesy of Spink. The style of the date numerals can be unfamiliar, and result in an apparently unknown date. Both large and small obverse lettering is known for 1719, 1720 and 1722.
George II struck farthings in most years from 1730 to 1750, and also in 1754. The latter coin continued to be struck until 1763. A young head design was used until 1739, after which an older portrait was used. In 1741 and 1744 GEORGIUS was used rather than GEORGIVS.
Farthings issued from this period up to 1936 all have Britannia on the reverse, although the style varied significantly from time to time. The denomination does not appear until the bronze issues of 1860, and for these early copper coins their face value can only be inferred from their size.
George III
George III came to the throne in 1760. Farthings were struck again in 1771 and 1773-5. Then in 1799 Boulton minted a new design which showed the denomination for the first time for a British coin. Another design, without the denomination, was issued for 1806 and 1807.
A pattern of 1798 is known in 'cartwheel' style.
In 1816 the great British Recoinage started, and initially production was only of gold and silver. In 1821 the farthing was issued once more, and continued every year except 1824, 1832 and 1833 until Victoria came to the throne in 1837. From 1821 until 1860 farthings had a diameter of 22 mm and a weight of 72.9 grains (4.72g)
Farthing Trade Tokens
During the period 1787 to 1797, and again between 1811 and 1812, many private trade tokens were manufactured to fill the gap left by the absence of official small change.
A discussion of these pieces is beyond the scope of this web site, but worn tokens are so common that they have little value.
The following references may be of help if readers wish to pursue the interest further:
The Provincial Token-Coinage of the Eighteenth Century, by Dalton & Hamer
British Tokens and Their Values, Seaby
The Nineteenth Century Token Coinage by W.J.Davis
Silver Token-Coinage 1811-1812 by R.Dalton
George IV
The farthings of George IV have two types of obverse differing in the markings on the three lower leaves on the wreath on the bust. Type 1 has single raised lines for the leaf mid-ribs, while Type 2 has incuse midribs. The former is found for issues of 1821, 1822, 1825 and 1826, while the latter was used in 1822, 1823 and 1825. Peck lists the 1825 Type 2 as very scarce. The illustrated 1823 coin has a scarce Roman I rather than a numeral 1, which is actually a 1 over an inverted 1.
During 1826 a new design by William Wyon was introduced, with the date under the King's head. At the same time the orientation of the reverse changed from 'coin' orientation to 'medal' orientation, and all future farthings, other than some proofs, conform to this new arrangement.
William IV
The farthings of William IV have two types of reverse differing in the markings on the arms of the saltire. Type A has an incuse line down the arms (1831-1835), while Type B has a thin raised line (1834-1837). Both reverses are found for 1834 and 1835.
Victoria
Victorian copper farthings were produced every year from 1838 to 1860.
All have the following design:
2: W.W. raised. Forehead & top of head closer to RIA DEI, hairknot closer to GR (1850 to 1853 and 1855)
3: W.Wuse (1853 to 1860)
Types 2 and 3 both occur in 1853 (Type 3 rare) and 1855. An interesting variety is found in 1851, with the D of DEI over a sideways D. Another in 1856 has the R of VICTORIA over E. There are few overdates, presumably because the obverse dies match those of the sovereign, and it is certain that the obverse dies were switched to farthing production when they started to wear.
In 1860 a switch was made to bronze. Copper farthings dated 1860 are rare, but can easily be distinguished from the much more common bronze farthings of that date as the former have no denomination and the date under the portrait on the obverse rather than below Britannia on the reverse.
Copper farthings were demonetised on 31 December 1869, but could be handed in for exchange until July 30th 1873.
Bronze Farthings
Victoria
In 1860 the metal was changed to bronze and the size reduced from 22 mm to 20 mm diameter, along with a reduction in thickness. The weight was reduced to 43.75 grains (0.1 oz or 2.83g). These dimensions remained the same up to the last issue dated 1956.
Young Head Type
1883 to 1888: 5F only
1890 to 1895: 5F only
The above information is given as a guide only. For more detailed information, along with illustrations, consult a copy of Peck.
Most years are available, the exceptions being 1870, 1871 and 1889. 1877 was only issued as a Proof coin and was struck after that date.
In 1874 to 1876, 1881 and 1882 farthings were also minted at the Heaton Mint in Birmingham, and can be distinguished by a small H below the date. Of these years, the Royal Mint only produced H-less farthings in 1875 and 1881. None were minted in London in 1876 due to a breakdown in the Mint's machinery.
Old Head Type
Reverse: Britannia seated facing right, FARTHING around, date below .
Starting in 1897 it became the practice to darken farthings artificially as they were possible to confuse with the half-sovereign if they had a full fresh bronze lustre. This practice ceased during 1918. A consequence is that it is occasionally possible to pick up almost uncirculated coins of this period at a price associated with a worn coin, as they look like other worn farthings at a casual glance.
Also in 1897 the farthing comes in two versions, with the sea level higher than usual on one, and the same as in other years on the other. The high sea level version is marginally more common. Both exist with bright and darkened finishes.
Edward VII
Issued from 1902 to 1910, all have the following basic design:
Obverse : Head right, EDWARDVS DEI GRA BRITT OMN REX FID DEF IND IMP around.
Reverse : Britannia seated facing right, FARTHING around, date below, as for Victoria Old Head design.
The reverse of the 1903 farthing differs from those for other years of Edward VII's reign in that it has a low-tide style matching the Victorian old-head farthings.
George V
Issued from 1911 to 1936, all have the following basic design:
Obverse : Head left, GEORGIVS V DEI GRA BRITT OMN REX FID DEF IND IMP around.
Reverse : Britannia seated facing right, FARTHING around, date below, initially as for Edward VII.
1911 farthings are known both with a hollow down the back of the neck, and flat there.
A change in the obverse of George V farthings took place in 1914, with the words GRA BRITT closer together and the T's further apart. Both varieties are available for 1914, and equally common. The earlier obverse is also known for 1915, but is extremely rare.
During 1918 the practice of darkening farthings ceased as gold coins went out of use, so that date is known both darkened (rare) and bright.
For 1953 only the obverse inscription was ELIZABETH II DEI GRA: BRITT: OMN: REGINA F: D: . However, from 1954 it was changed to ELIZABETH II DEI GRATIA REGINA F: D:
There are four varieties of the 1953 farthing, with two obverses and two reverses.
Obv.1: Upper arm of cross points at a border bead. M.G. indistinct.
Obv.2: Upper arm of cross points between two border beads. M.G. distinct.
Rev.A: F and I point between two border beads.
Rev.B: F and I point at a border bead.
The combination 2+B is the most common. 1+A examples come from the 1953 plastic set, which sometimes has 1+B. 2+A is rare.
In its later years the farthing became increasingly little used. At one time the main use was in the purchase of bread, where the price of bread was determined by law after the Second World War. The pound loaf cost an amount involving an odd halfpenny, so the half pound loaf required an amount with an odd farthing!
The last farthing was minted in 1956 , and the coin was finally demonetized at the end of 1960.
Acknowledgements
See my Main Coins Index page for acknowledgements.
My thanks to Pete Day for the images of the George IV 1821 proof farthing and the two tin farthings.
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Who plays Wilhelmina Slater in the US television series ‘Ugly Betty’? | Cash in on your coins - Telegraph
Cash in on your coins
The 40th anniversary of "D-Day" – Decimal Day – is this Tuesday.
'Mules' - currency with mismatched sides, such as this 20p coin struck in 2009 without a date - can be worth a small fortune
7:00AM GMT 11 Feb 2011
Comments
It marks the date when we emptied our pockets of shillings, florins, tanners, old pennies and farthings one last time before filling them up with shiny new pence.
But collectors rummaging around for the very first blue-wallet decimal sets from 1971 should not get too excited about cashing in on the anniversary. They are typically worth little more than face value, because so many sets were produced.
However, stumble across a decimal coin ''mule’’ – currency with mismatched sides – and your loose change could suddenly be worth a small fortune. The most recent mule – in reference to the unlikely offspring of a horse and donkey – was struck in 2009 when the Royal Mint forgot to check a batch of an estimated 100,000 20p coins without any date .
These pieces typically now change hands for £100 each. However, experts believe they could be worth up to three times this amount in a decade, due to rarity as private collectors snap them up. The 20p mistake occurred when the date stamp was moved from ''tails’’ to ''heads’’ and the Royal Mint let the first batch through, forgetting that the new coins still mistakenly had their old heads.
Mules are incredibly rare and such anomalies make them highly sought after among coin collectors, known as numismatists.
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The previous decimal mule was in 1983 when a small batch of 2p coins was minted with the words ''new pence’’ instead of ''two pence’’. These 2p pieces can now sell for between £500 and £700 each, depending on condition.
The biggest money-spinners come from the pre-decimal era. Less than a dozen one-penny coins were produced in 1933 as special pieces to be buried under church foundations. Find one in your pocket and it could be worth £30,000. Only one penny was struck in 1954 and it sold for £24,000 more than 15 years ago. Few were minted in 1950 and 1951 and these sell for up to £50 each.
The most valuable British coin is the gold double leopard minted during the reign of Edward III in 1344. Only three are known to exist and one sold in 2006 for £460,000. This is still small change compared to the 1933 American double eagle ($20) that sold for £4.8m in 2002 – it should have been melted down when America quit the gold standard.
The record for a coin was broken last year when a 1794 flowing hair silver dollar went for £4.9m. It is believed to be the first one made by the United States Mint.
A coin collector should not be confused with an investor, who focuses only on top-quality examples that are extremely rare. Investors have seen the value of their coins grow an average of 10pc a year over the past 15 years.
The most sought-after pieces are uncirculated mint state known as ''fleur de coin’’. A scarce but used old penny from 1869 might fetch £5, but if it never circulated it could go for £500. Numismatists and investors like to see the original toning – authentic old pieces that are not always nice and shiny. It is therefore important not to polish investment-quality coins as it can halve their value.
The cartwheel twopence of 1797 is an impressive-sized coin for new collectors and can fetch £300 in top condition – but £20 if badly looked after. These 1.5in diameter coins were minted to show off new steam-driven coin presses and weigh an ounce.
The Queen Anne farthing of 1714 is one of the most attractive and a finely minted specimen typically changes hands for at least £500.
The most historic coin in Britain is a ninth-century gold piece depicting Coenwulf, the ruler of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Mercia. It was discovered by a treasure hunter near Bedford in 2001 and the British Museum paid £357,832 for it.
In the 16th century, coins started to be milled rather than hammered. Earlier ancient coins were often tampered with and bits chipped off to melt down and make other money. The later milled examples often have the important motto Decus Et Tutamen – Ornament and Safeguard – stamped on them and are less susceptible to forgeries.
Unfortunately, the coins market is susceptible to fakes and it is important to trade through a reputable dealer who is a member of the British Numismatic Trade Association. However, those with an interest in ancient history can still pick up authentic but battered ancient Roman coins for as little as £5 – although the most impressive pieces fetch many thousands.
So-called limited or special-edition coins – such as sets produced for D-Day – are of interest to collectors but not purchased for investment value.
Contact: the Coin Dealers Directory, www.numis.co.uk ; the British Numismatic Trade Association, www.bnta.net ; industry magazine Coin News
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‘There shall be no more cakes and ale’ is a line from which Shakespeare play? | No Fear Shakespeare: Twelfth Night: Act 2, Scene 3, Page 6
No Fear Shakespeare
Home → No Fear Shakespeare → Twelfth Night → Act 2, Scene 3, Page 6
Twelfth Night
(sings) Shall I bid him go?
SIR TOBY BELCH
(singing) Should I tell him to go?
FOOL
(sings) What an if you do?
FOOL
(singing) What if y,ou do?
SIR TOBY BELCH
(sings) Shall I bid him go, and spare not?
SIR TOBY BELCH
(singing) Should I tell him to go, and be harsh with him?
FOOL
(sings) O no, no, no, no, you dare not.
FOOL
(singing) Oh no, no, no, no, don’t you dare.
SIR TOBY BELCH
Out o' tune, sir. You lie. Art any more than a steward? Dost thou think, because thou art virtuous, there shall be no more cakes and ale?
SIR TOBY BELCH
That’s out of tune, sir. You lie. (to MALVOLIO) You’re nothing more than a servant here. Do you think that just because you’re a goody two shoes, no one else can enjoy himself?
FOOL
Yes, by Saint Anne, and ginger shall be hot i' the mouth too.
FOOL
They certainly will. They’ll have double helpings, too.
SIR TOBY BELCH
Thou'rt i' the right. Go, sir, rub your chain with crumbs. A stoup of wine, Maria!
SIR TOBY BELCH
You’re right. (to MALVOLIO) Go polish your steward’s chain, sir. Maria, bring us some wine!
110
MALVOLIO
Mistress Mary, if you prized my lady’s favor at anything more than contempt, you would not give means for this uncivil rule. She shall know of it, by this hand.
MALVOLIO
Miss Mary, if you cared what Lady Olivia thinks about you at all, you wouldn’t contribute to this rude behavior. I assure you, she’ll find out about this.
Exit
Go and wiggle your ears!
SIR ANDREW
'Twere as good a deed as to drink when a man’s a-hungry, to challenge him the field and then to break promise with him and make a fool of him.
SIR ANDREW
There’s nothing I’d love more than to make a fool out of that guy somehow. I could challenge him to a duel and then not show up. That would do the trick.
SIR TOBY BELCH
Do ’t, knight. I’ll write thee a challenge. Or I’ll deliver thy indignation to him by word of mouth.
SIR TOBY BELCH
Do that. I’ll write a letter challenging him to a duel on your behalf. Or I’ll deliver your insults to his face.
| Twelfth Night |
In the human body, a set of well-developed abdominal muscles is known as a ‘What’…pack’? | Shakespeare » British Humanist Association
Hamlet speaks of death as:
“The undiscovered country, from whose bourn
No traveller returns.”
Prospero, at the end of The Tempest, Shakespeares’s last play, says:
“We are such stuff
As dreams are made on, and our little life
Is rounded by a sleep.”
But this is not the consistent view of all his characters, and some, like Claudius in Hamlet, agonise over their likely punishment after death.
Some overtly religious characters, like the ironically named Angelo in Measure for Measure, who sentences Claudio to death for “fornication” (something that the more humane characters in the play see as “a fault alone”), are seen as hypocritically harsh on others, and misguided. The nun-like Isabella, who in the same play chooses to preserve her chastity rather than her brother’s life, is not shown as an entirely likeable character. The Puritan Malvolio in Twelfth Night is mocked by the more hedonistic characters: “Dost thou think that, because thou art virtuous, there shall be no more cakes and ale?” The “Christians” in The Merchant of Venice are portrayed as cruel in their treatment of the Jewish Shylock. Although Shylock is a spiteful villain, he is portrayed compassionately and is given a famous plea for understanding: “…Hath not a Jew hands organs, dimensions, senses, passions… If you prick us, do we not bleed…” His daughter, Jessica, is sympathetically drawn, and Shakespeare may not have shared the anti-semitism common in his era.
The Christian view of suicide, that it was a sin, is seen in Hamlet when Ophelia’s funeral ceremony is very perfunctory (“maimed rites” Laertes calls them) and she is only permitted burial in consecrated ground, grudgingly, because of her high connections. But Shakespeare does not condemn Ophelia, or the many of his other protagonists who die by their own hands: Othello, Antony and Cleopatra, Romeo and Juliet, Brutus. Instead, the plays often show pity for the problems that have driven them to suicide, and some approval of their courage. The portrayals of Shakepeare’s villains do not draw on the Christian concepts of “original sin” or “divine grace”. Some of his characters are robustly sceptical about the supernatural: when the egotistical, verbose Glendower claims, in Henry IV, Part 1 , that he can “call spirits from the vasty deep”, the pragmatic Hotspur replies:
“Why so can I, or so can any man;
But will they come when you do call for them?”
And perhaps Shakespeare is expressing his own views about human free will, as opposed to fatalism or a belief in divine predestination, when Edmund remarks in King Lear:
“This is the excellent foppery of the world, that, when we are sick in fortune – often the surfeit of our own behaviour – we make guilty of our disasters the sun, the moon, the stars… as if we were fools by heavenly compulsion…and all that we were evil in, by a divine thrusting on.”
There is certainly little feeling in the plays that the stars or gods are responsible for human failings, or that the characters lack free will.
In his sonnets, which can more fairly be taken as expressing his personal viewpoint, Shakespeare’s main themes are love, death and immortality. But immortality is not seen as something metaphysical – it can be achieved by having children or by being immortalised in poetry:
“… But were some child of yours alive in that time,
You would live twice, in it and in my rhyme.”
(Sonnet 17)
“And nothing gainst Time’s scythe can make defence
Save breed, to brave him when he takes thee hence.”
(Sonnet 12)
Present day humanists share this belief that you can only live on after death in the memories of those that knew you, or in the work or children you leave behind.
Critics have frequently noted Shakespeare’s broadly humanistic view of life:
Dominic Dromgoole, then Artistic Director of Oxford Stage Company, future Artistic Director of The Globe Theatre, wrote in The Guardian (13/07/05):
“ …. Each age re-imagines Shakespeare to suit the pressure of its own moment. He suits now as well as ever. Yet he does not only match this age, in which religion has mumbo-jumboed its way back into muscular authority. He also offers a desperately needed alternative. For many he is now a non-religious icon, a secular saint. The Complete Works comprises an imagined world of stories, insights, rituals and beauties, more varied, more complex and more true to the nuttiness of our present world, than the streamlining or simplifications of any religious texts. It is governed not by the reductions of moral certainty, nor by the delusions of spiritual redemption, but by a sensibility that is confused, yet full of mischief and kindness. A sensibility that is happy to be human rather than straining to be better than human.
…He celebrated all the world, not the section he favoured. We keep going back to him – now more than ever – because we know that his spirit of inclusion, his love for everything, is our last best hope.”
The Rev J R Green, a distinguished 19th century historian, wrote:
“On the deeper grounds of religious faith his silence is significant.”
J M Robertson (1856-1933) wrote in Elizabethan Literature:
“Shakespeare, and Shakespeare alone, after Marlowe, is persistently non-religious in his handling of life.”
Algernon Swinburne, Victorian poet:
“Shakespeare was in the genuine sense – that is, in the best and highest and widest meaning of the word, a Freethinker.”
Ivor Brown (1891-1974), drama critic, said in Shakespeare:
“In so far as his view of death can be discovered from the plays, it shows remarkably little belief in any Christian heaven or hell… The conception of death and the after-life in Hamlet provides us with some glorious poetry, but not with any clear intimation that Shakespeare himself held clear opinions. ‘To die, to sleep’ is not the Christian attitude… When his imagination was working upon death with full intensity, he showed in his plays, a view of ‘the invisible event’ which is more pagan than Christian.”
Corliss Lamont in The Philosophy of Humanism:
“Shakespeare himself indicated little interest in or support of religious supernaturalism. As George Santanaya points out in his penetrating essay The Absence of Religion in Shakespeare, England’s greatest poet ‘chose to leave his heroes and himself in the presence of life and death with no other philosophy than that which the profane world can suggest and understand’, namely a species of Humanism.”
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Who was appointed Creative Director of Paris fashion house Chloe in 1997? | London Fashion Week - Stella McCartney
Stella McCartney
Showrooms
Stella McCartney
Born and raised in London and the English countryside, Stella McCartney graduated from Central St Martins in 1995. A signature style of sharp tailoring, natural confidence and sexy femininity was apparent in her first collection.
A lifelong vegetarian, Stella McCartney does not use any leather or fur in her designs, and she supports PETA. But Stella does use wool, silk, and other animal-derived fabrics in her designs.
In March 1997 McCartney was appointed Creative Director of Paris fashion house Chloé, following in the footsteps of Karl Lagerfeld. Lagerfeld was less than impressed with the house's choice, stating, "Chloé should have taken a big name. They did, but in music, not fashion. Let's hope she's as gifted as her father."
Despite initial scepticism, McCartney's designs have enjoyed considerable commercial and critical success. She was accompanied to Chloé by her assistant and friend Phoebe Philo, who later replaced her as design director.
In 2001, Stella McCartney launched her own fashion house under her name in a joint venture with Gucci Group (now Kering) and showed her first collection in Paris. Her collections are now distributed in over 50 countries through 600 wholesale accounts including specialty shops and department stores.
In 2003, Stella McCartney launched her first perfume, Stella. In January 2007, McCartney launched a skincare line, CARE. She launched a new lingerie line in 2008, and in 2010, the Stella McCartney Kids collection was launched for newborns and children up to age 12.
Contact details
| Stella McCartney |
Morado is Spanish for which colour? | Stella McCartney Biography, Facts & Quotes | British Vogue
By Bibby Sowray
Friday 20 January 2012
Stella McCartney is a British fashion designer best known for her eponymous label. Born in September 1971 to former Beatle Paul McCartney and musician, photographer and animal rights activist Linda McCartney, she spent her formative years travelling the world with her parents who, at the time, were both in the band Wings.
Her interest in fashion started at an early age and by 13 she had begun to make her own clothes. Three years later she undertook an internship with Christian Lacroix, after which she completed an art foundation at Ravensbourne College and then a degree in fashion design at Central Saints Martins. After graduating, she shadowed Savile Row tailor Edward Sexton to learn more about the craft.
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She is renowned for her sharp, simple tailoring with a feminine edge and considerate approach to wearable design. "It's not about what it looks like in the studio or on the runway," she once told WWD. "It's what it looks like on a real person that matters. That isn't easy, but it's what's fun." Following in the footsteps of her mother Linda, she is a staunch supporter of animal rights and a strict vegetarian - she refuses to use leather or fur in any of her designs. Instead, her shoes are made of vinyl or plastic and all belts and bags are made from raffia and fabric.
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As of 2012, Stella McCartney operates 23 freestanding stores in locations including Manhattan's SoHo, London's Mayfair, LA's West Hollywood, Paris' Palais Royal and Milan.
She lives between Notting Hill, London and Worcestershire with her husband Alasdhair Willis, a creative consultant, and their four children - Miller, Bailey, Beckett and Reiley.
McCartney graduated from Central Saint Martins in 1995, with her friends Kate Moss, Yasmin Le Bon and Naomi Campbell modelling for her final year show. The entire collection was purchased by London boutique Tokio and also stocked in Browns, Joseph, Bergdorf Goodman and Neiman Marcus.
In 1997 she was appointed creative director of Parisian fashion house Chloe, succeeding Karl Lagerfeld in the role. She was assisted by Phoebe Philo, who later replaced her when she left the house.
In April 2001 it was confirmed that the Gucci Group (now the PPR Luxury Group) had teamed up with Stella McCartney to develop her own label as a global luxury brand. "In Gucci Group, I have found a partner with the skills necessary to make this business a success. I have always wanted to start my own label and I feel ready for the challenge," said Stella in a statement. She showed her debut collection at Paris Fashion Week in October of the same year with Jude Law, Sadie Frost, Damien Hirst, Chrissie Hynde and her father, Sir Paul McCartney in the audience. The collection included the now famous T-shirt with "Bristols" emblazoned across the breasts.
McCartney was presented with an honorary degree by the University of Dundee in March 2003. "We have a very strong school of art and design and we felt it was appropriate to honour Stella for her immense contribution to fashion," said a spokeswoman for the university. "We picked her over any other young British designer because so many of our students feel an affiliation with her. She is young and outgoing and has really made a mark on fashion. While her clothes are classy and attractive, they are still bold and she has a style all her own."
In August 2003, McCartney married Alasdhair Willis on the Isleof Bute wearing a self-designed dress inspired by the one hermother had worn to her own wedding in 1969. In the same year shelaunched her first perfume, entitled Stella.
In 2004, she designed clothes for Madonna'sRe-Invention tour, Annie Lennox's summer tour,and Gwyneth Paltrow and Jude Law's costumes for thefilm Sky Captain and the World of Tomorrow.
She launched a joint-venture line with Adidas, establishing a long-term partnership with the corporation, in September 2004. The collection, called simply Adidas by Stella McCartney, has since grown to include a wide range of different sportswear including yoga, tennis, winter sports and golf.
It was announced in May 2005 that McCartney would design a range for high street fashion giant H&M. The 40-piece collection was launched the following November and sold out immediately. "We are thrilled to collaborate with Stella McCartney," H&M's head of design, Margareta van den Bosch, said at the time. "Her designs are modern and cool yet classic and wearable. We have long admired her sense of tailoring and femininity."
In 2007 she undertook another high street collaboration, thistime with Australian budget store Target. She cited her late motherLinda as her inspiration for the collection: "Mum was a big styleicon for me, her natural sexiness and natural confidence," she toldSydney's Daily Telegraph. "I wanted the collection forTarget to reinterpret all the must-haves of Stella McCartney forwinter and to make my designs more accessible to a wider audiencein Australia."
She has been open about the advantages of having famousparents, despite the fact it has garnered her some criticism. "Thegreatest luxury of having the parents I had was that it has enabledme not to have to compromise," she told the Guardian."In the back of my mind, I always knew - if this all goes horriblywrong, I'll be alright. That's an option that most people justdon't have, financially."
She was awarded the title of Designer of the Year at theBritish Style Awards in November 2007."My team really deservethis," she said upon her acceptance. "I couldn't possibly managewith three children under the age of three without them." Otherawards she has received include being named Glamour'sWoman of the Year in 2009 and the British Fashion Council's RedCarpet Award in 2011. She was also named in the TIME 100 -a list of the 100 most influential people in the world.
In January 2007, McCartney launched a 100% organic skincare line called CARE. The following year she launched a successful lingerie line.
She has spoken many times about her support of animal rights."People in fashion just don't want to hear the messages," she toldthe Guardian in 2009. "I find it astounding, becausefashion is supposed to be all about change - I mean, we're supposedto be at the cutting edge! I can only think that they don't care asmuch as people in other industries. So, yes, I think people infashion are pretty heartless."
In October 2009, McCartney launched her first childrenswear collection for Gap Kids. "I think this collection has a mix of the playful and practical," McCartney told us. "It's a reflection of my brand, there are pieces that are classic and very sort of timeless and hopefully very chic, and then there are pieces that are the kind you chuck in the washing machine and they get better with time and, you know, they are funny and hopefully a little bit cool." She launched her second collection for Gap Kids in February 2011.
She has stated that films have been a huge inspiration to her."I loved all those Doris Day visuals of her being a tomboy and thenchanging into this gorgeous girl in a ballgown," she told theObserver in 2010.
As a result of her long-running relationship with Adidas, McCartney was appointed creative director of the sportswear brand's 2012 Olympic Team GB ranges in July 2010, tasked with the job of creating the label's athlete kit for both the national Olympic and Paralympic teams. "As a British fashion designer it is an amazing, once-in-a-lifetime opportunity to be creative director of Team GB as the hosting nation of the London 2012 Olympic Games," McCartney said. The appointment was the first time a high-end designer had designed sportswear for the Olympic Games.
She was included in the Telegraph's list of the most powerfulwomen in Britain in 2011, alongside fellow contemporaries PhoebePhilo, Anya Hindmarch and Vivienne Westwood and BritishVogue editor Alexandra Shulman.
It was announced in November 2011 that McCartney would showcase a one-off collection at a presentation on February 18 2012 as part of London Fashion Week. It will be the first time she has shown in London since her graduate collection. She will, however, still show her mainline autumn/winter 2012-13 collection in Paris in March.
In an interview with Vogue in the February 2012, shespoke about her personal and professional life. "I suppose what I'mtrying to do with my work is to make [the women who buy my clothes]feel just as important as they think... famous people are. Becausethey are!" she said.
#SuzyPFW: Stella McCartney – Primarily Women
By Suzy Menkes
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Heathrow Airport is on which London underground line? | Underground | London Tube to Heathrow | Heathrow
Due to escalator work, Holborn station will be exit-only, with no interchange from the Central Line, between 07:30 and 10:00 on weekdays. [More details]
London Underground's Piccadilly Line provides the most cost-effective rail route between Heathrow and the capital.
Journey time by Tube is under an hour and you shouldn't have to wait longer than ten minutes for a train, even off-peak.
Where to catch trains
Heathrow has three London Underground stations – one for Terminals 2 and 3 and one each at Terminal 4 and Terminal 5 .
Heathrow Terminals 2 and 3 station is between the terminals, which are a few minutes' walk away via pedestrian subway. Heathrow Terminal 4 and Heathrow Terminal 5 underground stations are in the basements of the terminal buildings.
All stations are in Travelcard Zone 6.
Fares and tickets
Underground tickets are available at all stations. The single cash fare to central London (Zone 1) is £6.00. A one-day Travelcard, giving unlimited travel in Zones 1-6, costs £17.20 (Anytime) or £12.10 (off-peak). For more information visit tfl.gov.uk/fares-and-payments or visit the Travel Information Centre at Heathrow Terminals 2 and 3 underground station.
Oyster pay-as-you-go fares are £5.10 (Mon - Fri, 06:30 - 09:30) and £3.10 (all other times). You'll need an Oyster card – for details see oyster.tfl.gov.uk – or a contactless payment card .
Train times
The first and last trains to and from Heathrow are shown below. Train times and fares are subject to change – please confirm using the Transport for London website or call +44 (0)343 22 1234 before travelling.
Night Tube
On Fridays and Saturdays the Piccadilly Line now operates a 24-hour service, with night trains to and from Terminals 2, 3 and 5 on average every 10 minutes. There is no service on the Terminal 4 loop.
First and last trains to central London
Station
| Piccadilly line |
Joe Buck and Rico Rizzo are characters in which 1965 novel by James Leo Herlihy? | London Heathrow Airport by Train | Airwise
London Heathrow Airport by Train
London Heathrow Airport by Train
Heathrow has three rail services to/from central London. The Heathrow Express, Heathrow Connect, and the London Underground ("the Tube").
Heathrow Express
The Heathrow Express provides a high speed non-stop service between London Paddington Station and Heathrow Airport.
There are two Heathrow Express stations at the airport -- Heathrow Central (for Terminals 2, & 3), and Heathrow Terminal 5. Passengers for Terminal 4 should change to the free transfer train service at Heathrow Central Station. Train transfer between terminals is free.
Trains run every 15 minutes throughout the day. Journey time to Heathrow Terminals 2 & 3 is 15 minutes, to Terminal 5 is 21 minutes.
The first Heathrow Express train leaves Paddington at 05:10, the last 23:25 (11.25 pm). The first train leaves Heathrow Terminal 5 at 05:07, the last 23:42 (11.42 pm).
Heathrow Express trains leave from platform 6 or 7 at Paddington station.
Fare: One way £18.00, return/round trip £32.00.
First class: £26.00, return/round trip £50.00.
Tickets can be purchased at Paddington and Heathrow stations or on board the train with cash or credit card.
Online ticket bookings, saver fares and further information at Heathrow Express .
Heathrow Connect
The Heathrow Connect train also serves London Paddington Station. It stops at five stations - Hayes & Harlington, Southall, Hanwell, West Ealing and Ealing Broadway - en route to/from Paddington.
Trains call at Heathrow Central (for Terminals 2 & 3), and Heathrow Terminal 4. For Terminal 5 use the free transfer train service at Heathrow Central Station.
Trains operate every 30 minutes, with a journey time between Paddington and Heathrow of about 25 minutes.
The first train leaves Paddington at 04:42, the last 23:03 (11.03 pm). On Sundays the first departure is 06:12.
The first train leaves Heathrow Terminal 4 at 05:23, the last 00:01 (12.01 am). On Sundays the first departure from Terminal 4 is 06:07.
The fare between Paddington and Heathrow is £8.50 one-way, £16.50 return/round trip.
Tickets can be purchased at Paddington and Heathrow stations or online.
Online ticket purchase and further information at Heathrow Connect .
National Rail
More information on all UK rail services including Heathrow Airport trains is available at National Rail .
London Underground
The London Underground Piccadilly Line provides a regular service to all Terminals at Heathrow Airport.
There are three Underground stations at Heathrow - Terminal 4, Terminal 5, and a single station serving Terminals 2 & 3.
The first train from central London leaves Piccadilly Circus at 05:47, the last at 00:21 (12.21 am).
The first train from Heathrow leaves Terminal 4 at 05:02, the last at 23:35 (11.35 pm).
Trains run every 3-7 minutes depending on time of day. Average journey time is 45-60 minutes.
Fare to/from central London (Zone 1) is £5 one-way.
For more information on the London Underground.
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Which religious figure wears the Ring of the Fisherman? | CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Rings
Home > Catholic Encyclopedia > R > Rings
Rings
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Although the surviving ancient rings, proved by their devices, provenance, etc., to be of Christian origin, are fairly numerous (See Fortnum in "Arch. Journ.", XXVI, 141, and XXVIII, 275), we cannot in most cases identify them with any liturgical use. Christians no doubt , just like other people, wore rings in accordance with their station in life, for rings are mentioned without reprobation in the New Testament ( Luke 15:22 , and James 2:2 ). Moreover, St. Clement of Alexandria ( The Pedagogue III.11 ) says that a man might lawfully wear a ring on his little finger, and that it should bear some religious emblem--a dove, or a fish, or an anchor though, on the other hand, Tertullian , St. Cyprian , and the Apostolic Constitutions (I, iii) protest against the ostentation of Christians in decking themselves with rings and gems. In any case the Acts of Sts. Perpetua and Felicitas (c. xxi), about the beginning of the third century, inform us of how the martyr Saturus took a ring from the finger of Pudens, a soldier who was looking on, and gave it back to him as a keepsake, covered with his own blood.
Knowing, as we do, that in the pagan days of Rome every flamen Dialis (i.e., a priest specially consecrated to the worship of Jupiter) had, like the senators, the privilege of wearing a gold ring, it would not be surprising to find evidence in the fourth century that rings were worn by Christian bishops . But the various passages that have been appealed to, to prove this, are either not authentic or else are inconclusive. St. Augustine indeed speaks of his sealing a letter with a ring (Ep. ccxvii, in P.L., XXXIII, 227), but on the other hand his contemporary Possidius expressly states that Augustine himself wore no ring (P.L., XXXII, 53), whence we are led to conclude that the possession of a signet does not prove the use of a ring as part of the episcopal insignia. However, in a Decree of Pope Boniface IV (A.D. 610) we hear of monks raised to the episcopal dignity as anulo pontificali subarrhatis, while at the Fourth Council of Toledo, in 633, we are told that if a bishop has been deposed from his office, and is afterwards reinstated, he is to receive back stole, ring, and crosier (orarium, anulum et baculum). St. Isidore of Seville at about the same period couples the ring with the crosier and declares that the former is conferred as "an emblem of the pontifical dignity or of the sealing of secrets" (P.L., LXXXIII, 783). From this time forth it may be assumed that the ring was strictly speaking an episcopal ornament conferred in the rite of consecration , and that it was commonly regarded as emblematic of the betrothal of the bishop to his Church. In the eighth and ninth centuries in manuscripts of the Gregorian Sacramentary and in a few early Pontificals (e.g., that attributed to Archbishop Egbert of York ) we meet with various formulae for the delivery of the ring. The Gregorian form, which survives in substance to the present day, runs in these terms: "Receive the ring, that is to say the seal of faith , whereby thou, being thyself adorned with spotless faith , mayst keep unsullied the troth which thou hast pledged to the spouse of God , His holy Church."
These two ideas --namely of the seal, indicative of discretion, and of conjugal fidelity--dominate the symbolism attaching to the ring in nearly all its liturgical uses. The latter idea was pressed so far in the case of bishops that we find ecclesiastical decrees enacting that "a bishop deserting the Church to which he was consecrated and transferring himself to another is to be held guilty of adultery and is to be visited with the same penalties as a man who, forsaking his own wife, goes to live with another woman " (Du Saussay, "Panoplia episcopalis", 250). It was perhaps this idea of espousals which helped to establish the rule, of which we hear already in the ninth century, that the episcopal ring was to be placed on the fourth finger (i.e., that next the little finger) of the right hand. As the pontifical ring had to be worn on occasion over the glove, it is a common thing to find medieval specimens large in size and proportionately heavy in execution. The inconvenience of the looseness thus resulting was often met by placing another smaller ring just above it as a keeper (see Lacy, "Exeter Pontifical", 3). As the pictures of the medieval and Renaissance periods show, it was formerly quite usual for bishops to wear other rings along with the episcopal ring; indeed the existing "Caeremoniale episcoporum" (Bk. II, viii, nn. 10-11) assumes that this is still likely to be the case. Custom prescribes that a layman or a cleric of inferior grade on being presented to a bishop should kiss his hand, that is to say his episcopal ring, but it is a popular misapprehension to suppose that any indulgence is attached to the act. Episcopal rings, both at an earlier and later period, were sometimes used as receptacles for relics . St. Hugh of Lincoln had such a ring which must have been of considerable capacity. (On investiture by ring and staff see Investitures, Conflict of.)
Besides bishops , many other ecclesiastics are privileged to wear rings. The pope of course is the first of bishops , but he does not habitually wear the signet ring distinctive of the papacy and known as "the Ring of the Fisherman" (see below in this article), but usually a simple cameo, while his more magnificent pontifical rings are reserved for solemn ecclesiastical functions. Cardinals also wear rings independently of their grade in the ecclesiastical hierarchy . The ring belonging to the cardinalitial dignity is conferred by the pope himself in the consistory in which the new cardinal is named to a particular "title". It is of small value and is set with a sapphire, while it bears on the inner side of the bezel the arms of the pope conferring it. In practice the cardinal is not required to wear habitually the ring thus presented, and he commonly prefers to use one of his own. The privilege of wearing a ring has belonged to cardinal-priests since the time of Innocent III or earlier (see Sägmüller, "Thatigkeit und Stellung der Cardinale", 163). Abbots in the earlier Middle Ages were permitted to wear rings only by special privilege. A letter of Peter of Blois in the twelfth century (P.L., CCVII, 283) shows that at that date the wearing of a ring by an abbot was apt to be looked upon as a piece of ostentation, out in the later Pontificals the blessing and delivery of a ring formed part of the ordinary ritual for the consecration of an abbot , and this is still the case at the present day. On the other hand: there is no such ceremony indicated in the blessing of an abbess , though certain abbesses have received, or assumed, the privilege of wearing a ring of office. The ring is also regularly worn by certain other minor prelates , for example prothonotaries, but the privilege cannot be said to belong to canons as such (B. de Montault, "Le costume, etc.", I, 170) without special indult . In any case such rings cannot ordinarily be worn by these minor prelates during the celebration of Mass. The same restriction, it need hardly be said, applies to the ring which is conferred as part of the insignia of the doctorate either of theology or of canon law.
The plain rings worn by certain orders of nuns and conferred upon them in the course of their solemn profession, according to the ritual provided in the Roman Pontifical appear to find some justification in ancient tradition. St. Ambrose (P.L., XVII, 701, 735) speaks as though it were a received custom for virgins consecrated to God to wear a ring in memory of their betrothal to their heavenly Spouse. This delivery of a ring to professed nuns is also mentioned by several medieval Pontificals, from the twelfth century onwards. Wedding rings, or more strictly, rings given in the betrothal ceremony , seem to have been tolerated among Christians under the Roman Empire from a quite early period. The use of such rings was of course of older date than Christianity , and there is not much to suggest that the giving of the ring was at first incorporated in any ritual or invested with any precise religious significance. But it is highly probable that, if the acceptance and the wearing of a betrothal ring was tolerated among Christians , such rings would have been adorned with Christian emblems. Certain extant specimens, more particularly a gold ring found near Arles, belonging apparently to the fourth or fifth century, and bearing the inscription, Tecla vivat Deo cum marito seo [suo], may almost certainly be assumed to be Christian espousal rings. In the coronation ceremony , also, it has long been the custom to deliver both to the sovereign and to the queen consort a ring previously blessed. Perhaps the earliest example of the use of such a ring is in the case of Judith, the step-mother of Alfred the Great . It is however in this instance a little difficult to determine whether the ring was bestowed upon the queen in virtue of her dignity as queen consort or of her nuptials to Ethelwulf.
Rings have also occasionally been used for other religious purposes. At an early date the small keys which contained filings from the chains of St. Peter seem to have been welded to a band of metal and worn upon the finger as reliquaries . In more modern times rings have been constructed with ten small knobs or protuberances, and used for saying the rosary .
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Who was Britain’s last Liberal Prime Minister? | The Shoes of the Fisherman (1968) - IMDb
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Ukrainian Archbishop Kiril Lakota is set free after two decades as a political prisoner in Siberia. He is brought to Rome by Fr. David Telemond, a troubled young priest who befriends him. ... See full summary »
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Nominated for 2 Oscars. Another 4 wins & 3 nominations. See more awards »
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Storyline
Ukrainian Archbishop Kiril Lakota is set free after two decades as a political prisoner in Siberia. He is brought to Rome by Fr. David Telemond, a troubled young priest who befriends him. Once at the Vatican, he is immediately given an audience with the Pope, who elevates him to Cardinal Priest. The world is on the brink of war due to a Chinese-Soviet feud made worse by a famine caused by trade restrictions brought against China by the U.S. When the Pontiff suddenly dies, Lakota's genuine character and unique life experience move the College of Cardinals to elect him as the new Pope. But Pope Kiril I must now deal with his own self-doubt, the struggle of his friend Fr. Telemond who is under scrutiny for his beliefs, and find a solution to the crisis in China. Written by Anonymous
A modern-day story of faith, courage and intrigue! See more »
Genres:
14 November 1968 (USA) See more »
Also Known As:
As Sandálias do Pescador See more »
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Did You Know?
Trivia
In the scene where Pope Kiril prays over the body of the Jewish man, he recites the Shema. However, rather than say "Adonai", he says, "Hashem." This is because "Adonai" is traditionally only said when one is actually at prayer, and not simply reciting a prayer in a secular context, as in during a performance (specifically, in a movie). See more »
Goofs
A map of Indo-China labelled in Cyrillic, which can be seen in the movie's trailer, appears to have the word Kambodzha, the Russian for Cambodia, written over the country of Laos. See more »
Quotes
Piotr Ilyich Kamenev : Every day we ask ourselves what can we do about it before the nightmare turns itself into a mushroom cloud blotting out the sun.
Movie must be understood in the context of 1968
13 November 2003 | by Mark-Rhoads2
(Washington, DC) – See all my reviews
With respect to those viewers who evaluate this film as entertainment, to fully appreciate and understand the many sub-plots, a viewer would have to understand something about Roman Catholic theology, the currents of 1968, and the popular philosophy of the French Jesuit Pierre Teilhard de Chardin with some people such as the author of the book, Morris L. West. The Oskar Werner character of Father David Telemond is a good surrogate and advocate for Chardin but he is not Chardin. Chardin is mentioned by Werner during the inquiry of the Papal Commission into Father Telemond's writings. The real Chardin believed in what Telemond calls "The Cosmic Christ" "the point to which all of human evolution is advancing." Telemond and Chardin would explain that a good God still allows man to use free will to chose the wrong things, to commit crimes, even mass crimes such as war, because those things are part of the natural breakage that always happens in any production process. But they would also argue that faith would ultimately bring mankind closer to God on a very long but not infinite timetable. Pope Kiril thinks there is beauty and power in Telemond's writings but cannot understand Telemond's views on theology. "There is little of the Catholic faith as I know it in your writing." The Pope tells him that faith alone saved him from insanity in the Gulag of Siberia in the USSR. In his background, fundamental toughness, and simple faith, the fictional Pope Kiril (1968) is an amazing precursor to the real Pope John Paul II (1978). Tellemond protests, "God is there but by a different name." Telemond is finally accused by Cardinal Leone of heresy because he says that if his faith were taken away he would still believe in the world and its goodness--an idealistic but still secular world view. Pope Kiril is willing to sell off the wealth of the Church to help starving Chinese people because he understands that is the only way to prove to Chairman Peng and the world that the church believes in what it preaches. The loneliness of his decision is framed by terror when Cardinal Leone tells him, "This is Calvary, Holiness, and you have just begun to climb." That is the most profound line of a great many profound lines in the movie. One does not have to be an intellectual to appreciate the film which succeeds on its own terms as entertainment. But people who think it is boring just have no concept of what the film is really about. For acting and content, this is one of the best films of the last 50 years.
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In the game of golf, a ‘Condor’ is how many strokes under par for a hole? | Golf Today's A to Z of Golf: The 'Condor' - four under par for a hole
A-Z of Golf
The 'Condor' - four under par for a hole
Scoring a condor is the rarest event in golf. This is normally a hole in one at a par five (a two at a par six would also count, but this has never been done).
Only four condors have ever been recorded:
The first occurred in 1962, when Larry Bruce drove into the hole over a stand of trees on the 480-yard dogleg right par-5 fifth hole at Hope Country Club in Arkansas, USA.
Another condor was achieved by "cutting the corner" of a dogleg par-5 by Shaun Lynch at Teign Valley Golf Club in Christow, England, in 1995, on the 496-yard 17th. Lynch aimed straight at the green with a 3-iron, clearing a 20-foot-high hedge and hitting a downslope on the other side, which allowed his ball to roll down to the green and into the hole.
A condor was scored without cutting over a dogleg by Mike Crean at Green Valley Ranch Golf Club in Denver, Colorado, in 2002, when he holed his drive at the 517 yard par-5 9th. This is longest hole in one on record, although it was of course aided by the altitude and thin air of 'mile-high' Denver.
The most recent condor was achieved in Australia by 16 year old Jack Bartlett on the 467 metre par-5 17th at Royal Wentworth Falls Country Club, NSW, Australia, on November 3, 2007.
None of the above Condor's were made during an official tour and neither were they played on a professionally accredited course, not that their feats are devalued in anyway shape or form. You don't have to be a mathematical genius to understand that a Condor is a rare occurrence.
To give you an idea of odds, it has been estimated a hole-in-one can reach up to 1 in 12,500 for an amateur player, while a double eagle has been assigned odds that have ranged between 1 in 1 million, and 1 in 16 million. The odds of scoring a Condor have not been officially worked out but you can imagine they are significantly higher than the double-eagle. A select number of online bookmakers , have in the past offered odds on double-eagles during championship events, not condors however. Clearly if you choose to place a condor bet with any bookmaker, make sure to get odds of at least above 1 million to one!
A condor is also known as a triple-eagle or a double-albatross, although these terms are, of course, mathematically incorrect.
There is no other explanation for the name 'condor' apart from its continuation of the 'bird' theme in naming under-par scores, and the size of the bird becoming bigger as the score gets lower (birdie - eagle - albatross - condor).
October 2008
| 4 |
Which animal is known as the Ship of the Desert? | How Is Golf Scored?
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How Is Golf Scored?
When you’re new to golf, it may not even occur to you that there is more to the game than just trying to get the ball in the hole in as few hits as possible. There is actually a scoring system to help you know how you’re doing against the people you are playing with, but also how you’re doing on that specific course. So let’s dive in – how is golf scored?
Unlike the scoring of most other sports, in golf, the lower the score the better. Your goal should be to end up with as low of a score as possible. Every time you take a swing at the ball, you’re adding another stroke or point to your score. At the end of each hole, you simply add up how many strokes you took from the tee off shot to the one that sunk the ball. That number of strokes is your score for that particular hole.
Par
When playing a round of golf, you’ll constantly be comparing the number of strokes you have taken to another number – par. Par is a number that represents the number of strokes it should take a skilled golfer to finish the hole from start to finish. Par will vary from one hole to the next based on how far the hole is from the tee and the level of difficulty. While par for one hole may be 4, for example, it might be 3 for the very next hole.
Score is kept as you compare the number of strokes you took for a specific hole and that hole’s par. So if it took you 5 strokes to get the ball into the hole on a Par 4, your score will be “1 over Par.”
It is safe to say that most golfers will never see anything over a par 5.
Birdies, Eagles and Bogeys
As you improve your game, you may get to a point where you will complete a hole with less strokes than par. Don’t feel bad if it takes a while to get to this point as even many experts who have been playing for many years still struggle to hit under par. But when they do manage to do so, there are special terms in the game of golf that describe a golfer’s performance in relation to the hole’s par. These terms include:
Birdie – 1 under par
Eagle – 2 under par
Double Bogey – 2 over par
Double Eagle – 3 under par (This is very rare and is sometimes referred to as an “albatross”)
Triple Bogey – 3 over par
Of course, the best possible score anyone can get on a single hole is the self-describing “Hole-in-One” shot, where the ball reaches its goal with one precise shot.
Penalty Strokes
In addition to the number of strokes you take as you play a specific hole, you may have to add penalty strokes along the way. Penalty strokes include extra swings at a ball and are added for rule infractions. When a ball is hit out of bounds or is lost, a penalty stroke is added to the players score. Other incidents that require a penalty stroke include taking a swing at the wrong ball or when equipment or the removal of loose impediment cause the ball to move.
As a beginner, focus on keeping your score as low as possible. You’ll begin to understand the more specific rules and scoring terms as you return to the course often. You’ll find that others will be willing to help you learn as you go. The friendly staff and course attendants at SunRidge Canyon are always happy to help.
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What was the name of the supertanker that ran aground between Land’s End and the Scilly Isles in March 1967? | Location | National Coastwatch Institution
Stations Telephone List
Location
At Gwennap Head we watch over one of the most dangerous stretches of water in the UK. With Wolf Rock Lighthouse and the infamous Runnel Stone Reef close by, this treacherous coastline has seen many shipwrecks and lives lost. On good days we can see as far as the Isles of Scilly, or the peaks of the legendary Lyonesse.This far South West coast of Cornwall from Land's End around to Porthcurno is a wind swept rocky place which bears the brunt of the Atlantic storms as they crash against the towering granite cliffs. It is an area littered with shipwrecks and tales of smugglers and witchcraft.
A Traffic Seperation Scheme exists around the Scillies to control the navigation of vessels in this congested area. Together with Cape Cornwall NCI, we are able to provide visual, radar and AIS coverage of this very busy zone. As well as the large commercial vessels we identify and log the many fishing boats, pleasure craft, kayaks and dive boats in the waters around our station. There are three Traffic Seperation Schemes (TSS) off the Scillies - to the east (between the Isles of Scilly and Land's End) to the south, and to the west; these control the navigation of all vessels joining, transiting, crossing and leaving the schemes. In the area between each TSS and the adjacent land there is an inshore Traffic Zone, from which all traffic is prohibited. Traffic is relatively dense in the east TSS, but the tidal stream generally runs parallel to the coast, whereas the south and west TSS's are more exposed to westerly swell, and the tidal stream generally run perpendicular to the Isles Of Scilly.
Just below the watchtower, a pile of granite, The Chair Ladder, is considered to be the finest mass of stone in the county; it appears as if built up from large cubical blocks. Numerous caverns and isolated rocks can be found along the shores of these cliffs. The granite of Tol Pedn, Penwith is very porphyritic, and most of it contains pinite. This is intersected by veins of a different kind of granite; in most of these veins the feldspar is red. This, and the surrounding cliffs are a magnet for climbers from all over the world particularly in the summer months. Another thing for the NCI to keep an eye on. We watch out for these climbers and also the many walkers and bird watchers on the coastal path.The lands End Cliff Rescue Team use the cliffs as a training centre.
In Porthgwarra, (`-the higher cove`, this is generally now considered a corruption of the original name Porthgorwithou 1302 meaning cove by wooded slopes), a pretty little fishing cove nearby to Gwennap Head, there are tunnels cut through the rock to give access to the beach.Some say these were used to help with the 'freetrade' or smuggling in olden days. The following paragraphs are taken from 'Porthgwarra' by Christine Gendall.
Cornwall has a historic reputation fo smuggling. I find it hard to accept that fishermen and farmers would lure ships ashore by false use of lights. Though I do believe that they may have been involved in some illicit trading in spirits and tobacco. If there was a wreck, they did their utmost to help the crew get ashore..... but were then swift to assist in the salvage!
I have spoken to Jean Hey (nee Rawlings) and David Williams, both of whom played as children at Porthgwarra. They remember playing in a smugglers' cache, a hiding place on the cliff top, inland from Hella Point some distance behind the marker cones. In recent years they have independently searched to try and find the top entrance of this rock covered cave, but have been unsuccessful due to profusion of the undergrowth.
The Runnel Stone
Until recently a moaning sound could often be heard over the area of Gwennap head. This emanated from the buoy which Marks the Runnel Stone (previously called Rundle) - a hazardous rock pinnacle about a mile offshore between Hella Point and Gwennap Head The buoy is now topped with a flashing light and a bell, which peals with the movement of the waves. The moaning came from a whistle set in a tube which sounded when there was swell running. This was recently removed from the buoy by Trinity House.
Today the Runnel Stone draws divers from all over the globe who come to explore the many wrecks which have come to grief at this dangerous spot.
Near the NCI station on the cliff top and in line with the buoy, there are two cone shaped markers. Despite local stories, these are not rockets or our last line of defence. They are day markers warning vessels of the hazard of the Runnel Stone. The cone to the seaward side is painted red and the inland one is black and white. When at sea the black and white one should always be in sight..... but if it is completely obliterated by the red cone, the vessel would be on top of the Runnel Stone! A plaque on the black and white marker cone reads.......
THIS BEACON WAS ERECTED BY THE COPORATION OF TRINITY HOUSE OF DEPTFORD, IN STROUD 1821.
Wolf Rock
7.5 miles off Gwennap Head, this rock was a constant danger to shipping. A number of attempts to put a beacon on the rock were made between 1795 and 1850, finally a lighthouse was built on it between 1862 and 1870. The rock is particularly dangerous, as there is deep water virtually all around it. A swell surged over the rock in good weather, so the construction was very difficult. The stone blocks were cut, shaped and fitted in Penzance. Just over 1000 tons of rock was needed for the base, and 3300 tons of granite used for the tower.
The first 39 feet of the tower is solid,there, a 7ft 9inch wall starts then tapers to 2ft 3inches by the time it reaches the top of the tower, some 116 feet above the rock. The final stone was put in place in July 1869, and the light first shone in January 1870. The oil powered light was replaced by a generator powered electric light in 1955. With a range of 23 miles, the signal is one white flash every 15 seconds, and there is a fog signal belting out every 30 seconds. Today the light is unmanned.
Seven Stones Lighship
The Seven Stones Lightship marks the notorious Seven Stones rocks off the northern end of the Isle of Scilly.The Seven Stones Reef is most famous in recent times for the Torrey Canyon disaster in March 1967.
Longships Lighthouse.
Off Lands End is the Longships Lighthouse. The channel between the Longships and the mainland is a hazardous area: a combination of submerged reefs, strong currents and tides. Two of the reefs - The Kettles Bottom and the Shark's Fin can be seen at low tide.
Samual Wyatt, a Trinity House architect, achieved the remarkable engineering feat of getting light on Carn Bras (Big Rock), the biggest of the Longships rocks. He built the lighthouse at Sennen where each stone was methodically marked and then moved out to the rock between 1794 and 1795.
Lands End
The Lands End peninsula and the Isles of Scilly have almost certainly been Britain's first landfall for more generations of homecoming mariners than any other part of the British coast. Variously known as the Western Approaches or, to the old seamen, 'Chops of the Channel', this area has more recently been christened 'The Celtic Sea' - and maybe this modern title rings truest of all, for it was on this land, bordering these tempestuous waters, that Celts made their last stand against the invaders.
Generations of coastal dwellers have laboured on these waters, their origins rooted deeply in the creeks and inlets. The atmosphere of the long ago lives on along the granite of the coastline. Today the modern Land's End has a visitors centre with many attractions but it is still the draw of Land's End itself, which brings the many visitors every year.
Dangerous Waters
Gwennap Head has always been a prime position for watching over this rugged part of the Cornish coastline. The convergence of tides between St George's and the English Channels make this one of the most dangerous stretches of water in the UK. With the Wolf Rock Lighthouse and the infamous Runnel Stone reef close by, this dangerous coastline has seen many shipwrecks and many lives lost. The Runnel Stone has always been particularly treacherous for shipping.
The number of ships which have come to grief on the Runnel Stone reef and the rocks around Gwennap Head are legion, Below are just a few of the many instances
1854- in fog 3 ships were wrecked on the Runnel Stone - one after the other!
1905 - whilst the coastguard houses were being built the sailing boat Khyber hit the rocks with the loss of 23 crew, there were only 3 survivors
During WW1 a British minesweeper ran aground on the Runnel Stone.
In 1923 the steamer City of Westminster hit the Runnel Stone reef in fog. The Sennen and Penlee lifeboats rescued the crew and passengers.
In the 1920's the people of the nearby village of Porthgwarra rescued several Greek sailors.
During WW2 a German U-boat ran aground on the Wolf Rock
1960's the engine of a cargo ship failed ingale force conditions. The ship put its anchor out and it snagged on the Runnel buoy. The ship and buoy were taken to Penzance for repair and the buoy returned to its position a few days later.
22 August 1977 the schooner Esperanca sailing from Brazil to Copenhagen crashed into Portgwarra cove due to the tiredness of the helmsman. There was extensive damage and the local people helped to repair the ship and get it to Penzance where full repairs were carried out and the Esperanca went on its way in April 1978.
For more see section on SHIPWRECKS.
On a clear day you can see for miles, from Lizard Point, to the Isle of Scilly, to Land`s End peninsula - a spectacular panorama. When the mist creeps in from the sea and you hear the sound of the Runnel Stone buoy you are reminded of smugglers, wreckers, witches and the dark tales associated with them. Whatever the weather, we believe Gwennap Head is situated at one of the best spots in Cornwall.
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| SS Torrey Canyon |
In September 1968, Marcelo Caetano became Prime Minister of which European country? | On This Day. | Forces Reunited
Silver Surfer • 27 February 2009 07:29
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On This Day 27th Feb
2002: Hindus die in train fire A fire on a train in India results in the deaths of 57 Hindu pilgrims returning from the disputed holy site of Ayodhya. Victorian house where bomb-making equipment was found 1975: PC murder linked to IRA bomb factory Scotland Yard says the man who shot dead a police officer in London yesterday had been staying in a flat used as a "bomb factory" by the IRA. Van 1963: Argoud charged over de Gaulle plot Antoine Argoud, President De Gaulles arch enemy and a former colonel in the French Army, is charged with an assassination attempt. Former military ruler Olusegun Obasanjo - 1997 1999: Nigerians vote to break with military Voters flock to polling stations in Nigeria to elect a civilian president and end military rule that has lasted 15 years. 1953: Spelling bill passes second reading A proposal to simplify English spelling has cleared its second hurdle in parliament.
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Terry Self • 27 February 2009 07:40
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1683 Inventer of the thermometer,Rene Antoine De Reaumer,was born.
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Silver Surfer • 1 March 2009 04:07
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On this Day 1st March
1950: Communist spy jailed for 14 years Nuclear scientist Klaus Fuchs is sentenced to 14 years imprisonment for espionage. The first h-bomb explodes at Enewatek Atoll on 1 November 1952 1954: US tests hydrogen bomb in Bikini The biggest explosion ever made by man is witnessed in the Pacific when US scientists explode their second H-bomb at Bikini Atoll. Fred West 1994: West charged as death toll mounts Fred West is charged with two further murders following the discovery of more human remains in the garden of his Gloucester home. Gunman from Palestinian group Black September in Saudi embassy in Khartoum 1973: Palestinian gunmen hold diplomats in Sudan The armed Palestinian group Black September has seized the Saudi Arabian embassy in Khartoum. Miners march on Parliament in 1972 1971: Workers down tools over union rights Hundreds of thousands of workers across Britain take part in an unofficial day of protest against the governments new industrial relations Bill.
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Terry Self • 1 March 2009 15:16
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1968 Concord made its first test flight in Toulouse.
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Silver Surfer • 1 March 2009 22:32
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On This Day 2nd March
1991: Sri Lankan hardliner among 19 killed in blast The Tamil Tigers are being blamed for the assassination of Sri Lankas Deputy Defence Minister, Ranjan Wijeratne. Ian Smith 1970: Ian Smith declares Rhodesia a republic Prime Minister of Rhodesia Ian Smith declares his country a republic, cutting its last link with the British Crown. Concorde on maiden flight 1969: Concorde flies for the first time The supersonic airliner Concorde makes a "faultless" maiden flight. General Pinochet 2000: Pinochet escapes torture trial charges Former Chilean dictator General Augusto Pinochet heads home after being told the UK would not extradite him on torture charges. King Hussein during shooting practice with the Jordanian Army 1956: King of Jordan sacks British general King Hussein of Jordan sacks the British commander of the Arab Legion in an effort to strengthen his own position within the Arab world.
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Terry Self • 2 March 2009 07:35
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1956 Morocco became independent from France.
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On this Day 3rd March
1974: Turkish jet crashes killing 345 A Turkish Airlines DC10 crashes near Paris, en route to London, killing all 345 people on board. NUM leader Arthur Scargill 1985: Miners call off year-long strike Miners leaders vote to end the longest-running industrial dispute in Britain without any peace deal over pit closures. The new multi-million pound Barbican Arts Centre 1982: Queen opens Barbican Centre The Queen opens the new £153m Barbican Arts Centre in the City of London. Hunt members 1995: MPs move to outlaw hunting A bill which would ban hunting with hounds in England and Wales has become the first such proposal to get a second reading in parliament. Children watching black and white TV 1966: BBC tunes in to colour The BBC announces plans to begin broadcasting television programmes in colour from next year. 2005: Fossett sets solo flight record US millionaire Steve Fossett becomes the first person to fly solo, non-stop around the globe without refuelling.
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Terry Self • 3 March 2009 07:42
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1875 French composer Georges Bizets opera.CARMAN had its debut in Paris.
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On this Day 4th March
1976: Guilty verdict for Maguire Seven A 40-year-old Irish born mother-of-four and six others are jailed for possessing explosives. Their convictions are later quashed. Coaches lie on an embankment 1989: Six die in Purley rail crash Six people die and 80 are injured, some of them seriously, in a train crash at Purley in Surrey. Ronnie and Reggie Kray 1969: Kray twins guilty of McVitie murder The Kray twins, Ronald and Reginald, face life sentences after being found guilty of murder at the Central Criminal Court. Robert Mugabe 1980: Mugabe to lead independent Zimbabwe Nationalist leader Robert Mugabe wins a sweeping election victory to become the countrys first black prime minister. Charlie Chaplin 1975: Comic genius Chaplin is knighted Silent film legend Charlie Chaplin has become Sir Charles after a ceremony at Buckingham Palace.
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Terry Self • 4 March 2009 07:30
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1991 The Queen needed stitches in her finger after being bitten by a corgi.
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On this Day 5th March
1966: Passenger jet crashes into Mount Fuji A BOAC Boeing 707 crashes into Mount Fuji in Japan killing all 124 people on board, just 25 minutes after take-off. Joseph Stalin 1953: Soviet leader on brink of death Rumours are circulating in Moscow that Joseph Stalin, the long-time leader of the Soviet Union, is near death. The wreckage of the DC-9 1973: Mid-air collision kills 68 Sixty-eight passengers and crew die when two Spanish aircraft collide in mid-air over France. Rosa Parks being fingerprinted in Montgomery, Alabama for violating segregation laws (22/02/1956) - her refusal to move to the back of a bus sparked a bus boycott 1956: US court victory for black students The United States Supreme Court upholds a ban on racial segregation in state schools, colleges and universities. Ben Johnson 1993: Johnson gets life ban from athletics Disgraced Olympic sprinter Ben Johnson is banned from athletics for life after failing a drugs test for a second time.
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1882 Britains first electric trams ran in East London.
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ON THIS DAY 6TH MARCH
1987: Hundreds trapped as car ferry capsizes Forty-nine people are confirmed dead and dozens are missing as a car ferry capsizes just outside the Belgian port of Zeebrugge. Unita troops 1993: Angolans die in battle for Huambo Hundreds of people are reported to have died in clashes between the rebel Unita movement and Angolan government forces in the central town of Huambo. Pithead at Barnsley 1974: Miners strike comes to an end UK coal workers bring an end to a 16 week dispute following a pay increase of over 30%. George Formby 1961: Ukulele king Formby dies One of Britains most popular entertainers, George Formby, has died after suffering a heart attack. Dr Kwame Nkrumah 1957: Ghana celebrates independence The people of Ghana celebrate the end of colonial rule and the dawn of their independence. 1970: Rabies ban on British pet imports The British Government announces an indefinite ban on the importation of domestic pets.
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1934 Former blue Peter presenter John Noakes was born.
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ON THIS DAY 8TH MARCH
1985: Beirut car bomb kills dozens At least 45 people die and 175 are injured in a car bomb explosion in Beirut, Lebanon. TWA aircraft 1972: TWA jet explodes at Las Vegas airport Bomb explodes in the cockpit of a Trans World Airlines Boeing 707 at Las Vegas airport. Postmen with sacks over their shoulders 1971: Post strike ends with pay deal British postal workers go back to work after seven weeks on strike. View of steering wheel and dashboard 1950: Gas turbine car gets road test Car manufacturers Rover unveil the first car powered with a gas turbine engine. Donald Campbell in Bluebird 2001: Donald Campbells speedboat recovered Divers raise the wreck of Donald Campbells boat, Bluebird, from the bottom of Coniston Water in Cumbria.
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Terry Self • 8 March 2009 11:25
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1817 The New York sock exchange was founded.
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ON THIS DAY 9TH MARCH
1967: Stalins daughter defects to the West Svetlana Stalin, daughter of the Soviet dictator, requests asylum at the United States Embassy in India. Two boys hold referendum posters in 1998 1973: Northern Ireland votes for union The people of Northern Ireland vote overwhelmingly to remain within the United Kingdom. Archbishop Makarios 1956: Britain deports Cyprus Archbishop The British authorities order the deportation of the Greek Cypriot leader, Archbishop Makarios, in the hope of restoring law and order to the island. The Queen 1995: Queen marks peace in Belfast The Queen and Duke of Edinburgh pay a symbolic visit to Northern Ireland - their first since the IRA and Loyalist ceasefires came into effect last year. Wreckage of cable car 1976: Scores die in cable car tragedy A line supporting a cable car snaps killing 42 people, including children, in the Dolomite mountains in northern Italy. 1981: M5 rapist jailed for life A man who for three-and-a-half years terrorised women in the south west of England is sentenced to life behind bars.
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Terry Self • 9 March 2009 07:45
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1796 The marriage of Napoleon Bonaparte to Josephine de Beauharnais.
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ON THIS DAY 10TH MARCH
1969: Martin Luther Kings killer gets life James Earl Ray is jailed for 99 years by a court in Memphis, Tennessee, after admitting the murder of the American civil rights leader. Prince Charles in Klosters 1988: Avalanche hits royal ski party The Prince of Wales narrowly avoids death on the ski slopes of Switzerland in an avalanche which kills one of his closest friends. Farzad Bazoft 1990: Observer spy sentenced to die A court in the Iraqi capital, Baghdad, imposes the death sentence on The Observer journalist Farzad Bazoft. Flag at half-mast on British governors residence 1973: British officials shot dead in Bermuda The British governor and his assistant have been assassinated in Bermuda, a British-dependent territory in the North Atlantic. Archbishop Makarios 1956: Riots erupt in Cyprus over Archbishop Greek Cypriots demonstrate and strike after Britain arrests and deports Archbishop Makarios.
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Terry Self • 10 March 2009 07:45
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1801 The first census took place in Great Britain.
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ON THIS DAY 11TH MARCH
2004: Many die as bombs destroy Madrid trains At least 170 people are killed after powerful explosions tear through three Madrid train stations during the morning rush-hour. Head shot of Gorbachev 1985: Gorbachev becomes Soviet leader There is a new man in charge at the Kremlin - Mikhail Gorbachev takes over following the death of Konstantin Chernenko. Alexander Fleming 1955: Farewell to scientist who discovered penicillin Sir Alexander Fleming - the man who first discovered the life-saving drug penicillin - dies of a heart attack. Roman Polanski 1977: Roman Polanski charged with rape French film director Roman Polanski is charged with raping a 13-year- old girl in Hollywood. Mountjoy Prison, Dublin 1974: Anti-IRA spies break out of jail Two self-proclaimed British Government spies have escaped from a top-security prison in Ireland where they were serving sentences for armed robbery. 2001: Big rise in new cases of foot-and-mouth It is the worst day for new foot-and-mouth cases since the disease was first diagnosed two weeks ago
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Terry Self • 11 March 2009 07:45
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1985 Mikhail Gorbachev became soviet leader.
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ON THIS DAY 12TH MARCH
1993: Bombay hit by devastating bombs At least 200 people are killed when a series of devastating bombs explode in Indias financial capital. Silhouette of miners against pithead at Mid Glamorgan 1984: Miners strike over threatened pit closures Tens of thousands of Britains miners are stopping work in what looks like becoming a long battle against job losses. James Hoffa, union leader 1964: Hoffa faces eight years behind bars The president of the powerful American Teamsters union is sentenced to eight years on bribery charges. 1969: Paul McCartney weds Linda Eastman Paul McCartney and Linda Eastman are married in a civil ceremony at Marylebone Register Office in London. Close up of Menuhin playing the violin 1999: Violinist Yehudi Menuhin dies One of the 20th centurys finest musicians Yehudi Menuhin dies, aged 82.
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Terry Self • 12 March 2009 09:46
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1946 Liza Minnelli was born.
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OnThis Day 13th March
1996: Massacre in Dunblane school gym A lone gunman goes on a shooting spree at a school in Dunblane, Scotland, killing 16 children and their teacher. Helen and Peter smiling and waving in back of van 1961: Five Britons accused of spying for Moscow Three men and two women go on trial at the Old Bailey charged with plotting to pass secrets to the Russians. Head shot of Joshua Nkomo 1983: Nkomo flees Zimbabwe death threats The Zimbabwe opposition leader flies into London as his country appears to be on the brink of civil war. Sir Eric Gairy speaking into microphone 1979: Grenada leader ousted by coup A coup in the Caribbean island of Grenada has toppled the countrys controversial Prime Minister, Sir Eric Gairy. An 18-year old girl emerges from a polling station at Bridgewater 1970: Conservative victory in first teen election Tom King trebles the Tory majority in the first by-election in which 18-year-olds can vote. 1967: Protest over student suspensions Hundreds of students at the London School of Economics are staging a sit-in over disciplinary action taken against two union officials.
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OnThis Day 13th March
1996: Massacre in Dunblane school gym A lone gunman goes on a shooting spree at a school in Dunblane, Scotland, killing 16 children and their teacher. Helen and Peter smiling and waving in back of van 1961: Five Britons accused of spying for Moscow Three men and two women go on trial at the Old Bailey charged with plotting to pass secrets to the Russians. Head shot of Joshua Nkomo 1983: Nkomo flees Zimbabwe death threats The Zimbabwe opposition leader flies into London as his country appears to be on the brink of civil war. Sir Eric Gairy speaking into microphone 1979: Grenada leader ousted by coup A coup in the Caribbean island of Grenada has toppled the countrys controversial Prime Minister, Sir Eric Gairy. An 18-year old girl emerges from a polling station at Bridgewater 1970: Conservative victory in first teen election Tom King trebles the Tory majority in the first by-election in which 18-year-olds can vote. 1967: Protest over student suspensions Hundreds of students at the London School of Economics are staging a sit-in over disciplinary action taken against two union officials.
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Terry Self • 13 March 2009 10:29
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2006 Six men were hospitalised during a drugs trial in london.
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1990: Observer journalist executed in Iraq Iraqi authorities execute The Observer journalist Farzad Bazoft in Baghdad bringing strong condemnation from Britain. The damaged tube 1976: Tube driver shot dead The driver of a London Underground train is shot dead as he chases a gunman after a bomb exploded on his train. Prisoners coming down steps waving 1981: Pakistani jet hostages released The passengers and crew of a Pakistan Airways plane held hostage for nearly two weeks have been released in Syria. John Poulson 1974: Architect jailed over corruption Architect John Poulson has been jailed for five years for bribing public figures to win contracts. Eric Lubbock after his victory 1962: Liberals seize Orpington The Liberals get their first by-election victory for four years, seizing Orpington from the government.
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1971 Heavyweight boxing champion Henry Cooper retired.
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On this day 16th march
1988: Three shot dead at Milltown Cemetery A gunman kills three mourners and injures at least 50 people attending a funeral for IRA members shot dead in Gibraltar. Bodies of Iranian soldiers 1988: Thousands die in Halabja gas attack Thousands of people die in a poison gas attack in the northern Iraqi town of Halabja. Aldo Moro 1978: Aldo Moro snatched at gunpoint Former Italian premier Aldo Moro is kidnapped at gunpoint in Rome by a gang believed to be from the Red Brigade. Prime Minister Harold Wilson makes shock resignation 1976: Prime Minister Harold Wilson resigns Harold Wilson, Labour leader for 13 years and Prime Minister for almost eight, announces his resignation to a shocked nation. The Duke of Edinburgh and Marshall Tito shake hands 1953: Marshal Tito makes historic visit to London Marshal Josef Tito of Yugoslavia has arrived in Britain, the first Communist head of state to visit the country. 2001: Teenage woman guilty of rape An 18-year-old woman is convicted of rape after a horrific sex attack.
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Terry Self • 16 March 2009 07:34
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1973 Queen Elizabeth 11 opened the new London Bridge.
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On this day 17th march
1978: Civilians flee southern Lebanon Thousands of Palestinian civilians flee a third day of Israeli attacks. Viscount aircraft 1957: BEA withdraws Viscount aircraft British European Airways withdraws 25 Viscount 701s in the wake of the fatal Manchester aircrash. Ronnie Kray 1995: Killer Ronnie Kray dies Notorious gangland killer Ronnie Kray dies in hospital two days after he collapses in his ward at Broadmoor. Tariq Ali and Vanessa Redgrave 1968: Anti-Vietnam demo turns violent More than 200 people are arrested after thousands clash in an anti-Vietnam war protest outside the United States embassy in London. Broken end of the Cambridge boat 1984: Boat race halted before starting The 130th Boat Race is postponed less than an hour before it is due to start after the Cambridge vessel is involved in a collision.
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Terry Self • 17 March 2009 07:41
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1845 The rubber band was patented by british inventor,Stephen Perry.
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ON THIS DAY 18TH MARCH
1967: Supertanker Torrey Canyon hits rocks The supertanker Torrey Canyon has run aground between Lands End and the Scilly Isles, leaking oil into the sea. Golborne colliery 1979: Three die in Golborne mine blast Three die and eight are seriously injured in an explosion at a colliery in Lancashire. Golan Heights 1974: Violent border clashes at Golan Heights Two Israeli soldiers are killed and three others injured along the Golan Heights. South Africa votes overwhelmingly against Apartheid 1992: South Africa votes for change White South Africans back an overwhelming mandate for political reforms to end apartheid. Protester waving banner with "non" 1950: Government falls as Belgians vote for king The Belgian government collapses over a referendum on the return from exile of King Leopold III. 1982: Judge halts obscenity trial Charges of gross indecency brought by Mary Whitehouse against a National Theatre director end today after intervention by the Attorney-General.
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Terry Self • 18 March 2009 07:41
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1965 Soviet cosmonaut Alexei Leonov completed the first space walk.
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On this day 19th march
1982: Argentine flag hoisted on S Georgia A group of Argentines land at the British colony of the Falkland Islands in the south Atlantic and plant their nations flag. Princess Margaret and Lord Snowdon on their wedding day, 1960 1976: Princess Margaret and Lord Snowdon to split Buckingham Palace announces that Princess Margaret will separate from Lord Snowdon after 16 years of marriage. East German flag before reunification 1970: Willi and Willy meet in East Germany Crowds of East Germans cheer West Germanys Chancellor Willy Brandt as he meets East Germanys leader Willi Stoph for the first time since the two countries were divided. The Duke and Duchess of York on their wedding day 1992: Fergie and Andrew split Buckingham Palace announces the Duke and Duchess of York are to separate due to irreconcilable differences. Sir Keith Joseph 1964: Ambitious plans for south east Three new cities are proposed for south east England as part of the largest regional expansion plan in Britain as the population is expected to boom by three million.
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Terry Self • 19 March 2009 08:05
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1976 Britain,s Princess Margaret announced her seperation from husband,Lord Snowden.
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ON THIS DAY 20TH MARCH
2003: US launches missiles against Saddam American missiles hit the Iraqi capital, Baghdad, signalling the start of the US-led campaign to topple Saddam Hussein. The litter bin one of the bombs was planted in 1993: Child killed in Warrington bomb attack One boy is dead and more than 50 people are injured as two bombs explode in the centre of Warrington. A soldier guards the roadblock set up at the scene of the murders 1989: Senior RUC men die in gun attack Two senior RUC officers negotiating cross-border security co-operation in south Armagh are ambushed and shot dead by the IRA. Princess Anne 1974: Kidnap attempt on Princess Anne Princess Anne and her husband Captain Mark Phillips escape an apparent kidnap attempt. Detail from Jules Rimet Cup 1966: Footballs World Cup stolen The football World Cup is stolen while on exhibition in London.
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Terry Self • 20 March 2009 07:39
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1981 Britain reintroduced the £50 note.
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ON THIS DAY 21 MARCH
1960: Scores die in Sharpeville shoot-out More than 50 Africans die and 169 are injured as police open fire in the South African township of Sharpeville. Michael Heseltine 1991: Heseltine unveils new property tax The government has revealed plans for a new property tax in place of the controversial poll tax. Ernie Wise 1999: Comedy genius Ernie Wise dies One of Britains most loved and most successful comedians, Ernie Wise, dies aged 73. Margaret Thatcher and John Gummer 1984: EEC summit collapses over rebate row Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher comes under attack for the breakdown of negotiations at the European Economic Community common market summit in Brussels. New train 1963: Train drives itself The first automatic train on the London underground could be hurtling into stations in three weeks, the government has revealed.
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Terry Self • 21 March 2009 10:15
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1980 Pirate radio carolines ship Mi Amigo sank in a storm.
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On this day 22nd march
1956: King convicted for bus boycott Civil rights leader, the Reverend Martin Luther King, has been convicted of organising an illegal boycott by black passengers of buses in the US state of Alabama. Police investigate the scene of the shooting 1979: British ambassador assassinated in Holland British ambassador in Holland Sir Richard Sykes is shot dead outside his Dutch home. John Profumo 1963: Profumo denies affair with model The Secretary of State for War, John Profumo, denies any impropriety with Christine Keeler. Annabel Schild after her release 1980: Schild family reunited with daughter Teenager Annabel Schild is reunited with her mother after being released from seven months in captivity in Sardinia. Dame Elizabeth Butler-Sloss 2002: Woman granted right to die A woman paralysed from the neck down wins the legal right to die by having her treatment withdrawn.
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Terry Self • 22 March 2009 09:22
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1982 Donny Osmonds little jonny jones musical closed after only one night.
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ON THIS DAY 23RD MARCH
1987: 30 hurt as car bomb hits Army base More than 30 people are injured in a car bomb explosion at the UK Army headquarters in Rheindahlen, West Germany. Ronald Reagan 1983: Reagan launches Cold War into space President Reagan has unveiled plans to combat nuclear war in space. 1981: New measures to contain farm disease The government bans all animal transport to contain an outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease. James Callaghan 1977: Government wins no confidence vote The Labour government survives a vote of "no confidence" in the House of Commons thanks to support from the Liberals. 1991: Tories launch citizen charter Failing public service providers will be forced to offer customers cash refunds or face government budget cuts, the Prime Minister announces.
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Terry Self • 23 March 2009 07:44
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1956 Pakistan became a republic.
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ON THIS DAY 24TH MARCH
1989: Exxon Valdez creates oil slick disaster An oil tanker, the Exxon Valdez, has run aground off the Alaskan coast, releasing crude oil into the sea. The clean-up operation 1978: Tanker Amoco Cadiz splits in two Violent seas split the wreck of the super tanker destroying any hopes of salvaging any remaining oil. Queen Mary 1953: Queen Mary dies peacefully after illness Her Majesty Queen Mary, the Queens grandmother, dies in her sleep after a lengthy illness. Ronnie Biggs 1981: Biggs rescued after kidnapping Great Train Robber Ronnie Biggs is rescued by Barbados police following his kidnapping. View of Moon from Ranger 9 (picture courtesy Nasa) 1965: Millions watch space probe crash into Moon Ranger 9 beams live pictures of the Moon to ordinary Americans as it hurtles down to crash on the surface. 1992: Punch ends 150 years of satire Punch, Britains oldest satirical magazine, is to close after suffering crippling losses of £1.5m a year.
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Which book by Harper Lee won the 1961 Pulitzer Prize for Fiction? | What did Pulitzer jurors think of Harper Lee's To Kill a Mockingbird? | OregonLive.com
What did Pulitzer jurors think of Harper Lee's To Kill a Mockingbird?
OregonLive.com By OregonLive.com The Oregonian
on February 20, 2016 at 8:15 AM, updated February 20, 2016 at 8:58 AM
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Legendary author Harper Lee won the Pulitzer Prize for fiction writing in 1961 for her first novel To Kill a Mockingbird.
She was the only author at the time to have won the Pulitzer for her first published book. Lee died in her native Alabama on Friday .
On Facebook, the author Roy T. Harris, author of "Pulitzer's Gold" published the actual jury report submitted to the board in 1961.
Harris wrote on his Facebook page: "Taking a break from postings on journalism Pulitzers to pass along the original jury report in the 1961 Novel category: Why jurors recommended a new book called 'To Kill a Mockingbird.' Enjoy."
The jury report called 1960 a "disappointing" year for established writers.
"Fortunately, however, the stream of new talent which constantly revitalizes American fiction produced at least two new novels of unusual distinction. The first and most ambitious of the two was 'To Kill a Mocking Bird,' by Harper Lee," the jury report signed by Irita Van Doren and John Barkham noted. Van Doren was the long-time editor of the New York Herald Tribune, and a native of Alabama where Lee's classic was set. Barkham was a noted book critic who wrote often for the New York Times.
"Her achievement, it seems to us, may be gauged by the fact that, although her story embraces virtually all of the cliches of the Southern novel, they are nevertheless made to appear here as fresh and original," the jurors wrote."This is our choice for the Prize."
Harris has chronicled the history of the Pulitzers, which are commemorating its 100th year, in 2016.
Check out the actual 2 1/2 page Pulitzer jury report here .
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| To Kill a Mockingbird |
In 1964, what was The Supremes first number one hit single in the US? | Awards and Praise - To Kill A Mockingbird
To Kill A Mockingbird
Awards and Praise
Awards and Praise for To Kill A Mockingbird
These are just some various awards given to the book by Harper Lee. This page was copied directly from http://www.ehow.com/info_8124655_book-awards-kill-mockingbird.html
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Pulitzer Prize
In 1961, Harper Lee's "To Kill a Mockingbird" won the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction after being on the bestseller list for more than 40 weeks. The name of this book award was changed from its original title, Pulitzer Prize for Novel, in 1947, and it has been given for exceptional works of fiction written by American authors since 1918. Recipients of the Pulitzer Prize for fiction often focus on themes in American life, and the honest, if sometimes uncomfortable, account of life in the South reported in "To Kill a Mockingbird" certainly meets this criteria.
Brotherhood Award of the National Conference of Christians and Jews
"To Kill a Mockingbird" also won the Brotherhood Award of the National Conference of Christians and Jews in 1961. The National Conference of Christians and Jews, renamed the National Conference for Community and Justice, aims to promote harmony among members of all faiths, ethnic backgrounds and beliefs. The manner in which Atticus Finch maintains his moral fortitude in the face of prejudice and racism is a testament to what this organization's Brotherhood Award is meant to represent and honor.
Paperback of the Year
Harper Lee's first and only book was awarded the Paperback of the Year award from "Bestsellers" magazine in 1962. "To Kill a Mockingbird" gained fame quickly among literary critics, educators and young readers alike, and the demand for this book helped it land the Paperback of the Year award in only its second year of print.
Alabama Library Association Award
"To Kill a Mockingbird" won the Alabama Library Association Award in 1961. The Alabama Library Association is a non-profit organization established to ensure the welfare of the state's libraries and librarians. It is fitting that Alabama's Library Association, which is the state in which Harper Lee grew up and served as the setting for her novel, would honor "To Kill a Mockingbird" with such an award.
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Which country hosted the 1962 FIFA World Cup? | Chile, 1962: World Cup Football Host
Chile, 1962
Tournament
The Brazilian managers of 1954 (Zeze) and that of 1962 (Aimore Moreira) were the only brothers to have managed the same nation in World Cup finals.
When Chilean player Eladio Rojas scored a goal in the 1962 quarter-final against Russia, the first person he hugged was the Russian goalkeeper. Rojas was so excited because the goalkeeper he had beaten was the 'unbeatable' Lev Yashin.
Goal difference first used to determine group team rankings in finals in 1962. Before 1962, teams tied in points in a group were solved by a play-off match. In 1962, England became the first team to benefit from the new system and Argentina the first team to suffer.
The Brazil-England game at the 1962 World Cup was interrupted when a dog ran onto the pitch and Jimmy Greaves went down on all fours to catch him.
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Who assassinated US Senator Robert F Kennedy in June 1968? | 1962 FIFA World Cup - YouTube
1962 FIFA World Cup
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Published on Jul 11, 2014
The 1962 FIFA World Cup was the 7th FIFA World Cup. It was held from 30 May to 17 June 1962 in Chile. Teams representing 57 national football associations from all six populated continents entered the competition, with its qualification process beginning in August 1960. Fourteen teams qualified from this process, along with host nation Chile and defending champion Brazil, for the finals tournament.
The tournament was won by champions Brazil, who claimed their second World Cup title by defeating Czechoslovakia 3--1 in the final, becoming the second team, after Italy in 1938, to successfully defend the world title. Hosts Chile beat Yugoslavia 1--0 to finish third. The 1962 FIFA World Cup was the first World Cup that used goal average as a means of separating teams with the same amount of points.
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Which aircraft made its first trans-US flight from Seattle to New York in 1969? | Section II: Guidelines for Evaluating and Documenting Historic Aviation Properties, National Register of Historic Places Bulletin
U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service
II. AVIATION IN AMERICAN HISTORY
Aviation in America began in the late eighteenth century with balloons. In 1783 John Quincy Adams and Benjamin Franklin watched a balloon flight in Paris. Soon thereafter, Americans imported the balloon. In the United States the 1830s opened a "golden age" of ballooning that continued into the 1860s. During the Civil War, Union and Confederate forces used balloons to fly reconnaissance and thereby began military aviation in this country. Balloons are the main lighter-than-air craft operating in aviation today; they are used for sport, show, and scientific research.
EARLY EXPERIMENTS IN AERONAUTICS
A few Americans, notably the engineer Octave Chanute and the scientist Samuel Pierpont Langley, conducted experiments in aeronautics in the late nineteenth century. Langley, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, designed a steam-powered model that made the first sustained flight of a heavier-than-air machine in May of 1896. His work continued into the early 20th century with a full-sized flying machine, which Langley named "Aerodrome A." It crashed into the Potomac River nine days before the Wright brothers' first successful flights on December 17, 1903. Flights by Wilbur and Orville were manned, powered, controlled, and sustained, and culminated their years of theoretical and experimental research. The Wright brothers developed the airplane as a practical flying machine, and they built the world's first military airplane in 1908 for the United States Army Signal Corps.
In late 1909 the Wright brothers incorporated a manufacturing company, the Wright Company. Earlier that year Glenn Curtiss had undertaken the design and manufacture of airplanes at his G.H. Curtiss Manufacturing Company in Hammondsport, New York. These companies represent the origin of the aviation industry in the United States. Aviation in this country, however, progressed slowly from the experimental and demonstration activities of the early twentieth century to civil, commercial, and military operations.
WORLD WAR I AVIATION
Though the first to fly, the United States fell behind other nations, especially France. When this country entered the First World War in April 1917, the Aviation Section of the Army Signal Corps (the military's air arm, which eventually became the U.S. Air Force) had only a small number of airplanes. Most of these were already obsolete or out of commission. The Naval Flying Corps had only 54 aircraft. Furthermore, the nation had only the rudiments of an aviation industry, few airplane factories, few aeronautical engineers, few workers skilled in producing and maintaining aircraft, almost no commercial aviation, and only a handful of airfields.
World War I was a major impetus for the development of American aviation. The wartime Aircraft Production Board initially concentrated its efforts on getting one airplane, a De Havilland design, and one aviation engine, the Liberty, into production and service. The Army Signal Corps organized logging and mill operations in the Pacific Northwest, the principal source of the spruce essential for the construction of airplane frames. These efforts enabled the nation to build aviation equipment for the war, and the United States produced more than 24,000 Liberty engines by the Armistice (November 11, 1918). The number of airplanes, airfields, and pilots increased considerably during the war.
During the war, the United States expanded the number of aircraft designs. Glenn L. Martin, an aviator, actor, and aircraft manufacturer who established one of the first airplane factories in the U.S. (in 1909 in Santa Ana, California) merged his company with newly formed Wright Aircraft Company in 1916. The Wright-Martin company produced the Hispano-Suiza aircraft engine. The H in the designation of the Curtiss JN-4H trainer (the Jenny,) stood for the Hispano engine made by Wright. The Army, Navy, and Marines used the Jenny as a primary trainer. The Army Engineering Division developed the USD-9A day bomber. During the war the Navy acquired flying boats, like the Curtiss N-9 primary trainer, and dirigibles, like the Goodyear
B-ships.
Relatively few American-made aviation products reached the European battleground before the war ended. Yet, even so, the design and production achievements of World War I laid the foundation for the postwar aviation industry. When air mail service began in 1918, Liberty and Curtiss engines powered the air mail planes. Also, pilots were able to buy affordable war-surplus equipment to barnstorm for recreation and entertainment. Barnstorming, air shows, and air races popularized aviation.
POST-WAR DEVELOPMENTS
American aviation suffered after the war ended. The surplus of aircraft and equipment limited the market for new products and designs and assured that the wood-fabric-wire construction of aircraft continued well into the 1920s. Army airfield construction around the country came to an immediate halt and some airfields were abandoned. The postwar period was one of instability and uncertainty for the (now) Army Air Service as its development was repeatedly scaled down over the next several years. America's retreat into isolationism led to limited funding for national defense, continued reliance on seapower for the country's primary defense, and diminishing support for the young air arm as the importance of airpower was debated. Shortages of men, equipment, and money were critical and the deteriorated condition of buildings and flying fields became a widely discussed issue.
In spite of the government's fiscal conservatism, interest in military aviation was maintained. In 1921, the Navy established its Bureau of Aeronautics to pursue naval air interests, and in 1922 the Navy completed conversion of one of its ships (a collier) into the first aircraft carrier, the USS Langley. The Army Air Service's first peacetime work after the Great War was the mapping and routing of "aerial roads," which were a primary need for development of aerial commerce and also served a military purpose. In 1921, the Air Service established a model airway as an example for a nationwide system of airways and landing fields. Scheduled flights began over the airway in 1922.
AERONAUTICAL RESEARCH
The National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) began important aeronautical research during this period. NACA was established in 1915 "to supervise and direct the scientific study of the problems of flight, with a view to their practical solution." Its first aeronautical laboratory, at Langley Field in Hampton, Virginia, was dedicated in June 1920. This was the Federal government's only civilian aeronautical laboratory until World War II. The scope of its research programs encompassed the design, construction, and operation of airplanes, but the laboratory's emphasis was on aerodynamics research. By the late 1920s it was recognized as the premier aeronautical engineering laboratory in the world.
The elite Aero Club of America, founded in 1905, promoted private flying for sport and recreation. It issued flying licenses, awarded the prestigious Robert J. Collier Trophy for "greatest achievement in aviation in America" for the preceding year, and represented the Fédération Aeronautique Internationale in this country. Transformed in 1922 into the more egalitarian National Aeronautic Association, this organization verified national and international flying records like those set at the National Air Races of the 1920s and 1930s.
AIR MAIL SERVICE
The United States Post Office inaugurated air mail service in 1918 to serve the needs of national commerce. This was the first serious commercial use of aviation, and its purpose was to improve mail delivery and reduce costs. The Post Office planned air mail routes, including the first Transcontinental Air Route from New York to San Francisco.
Airports developed along Air Mail Service routes until the fall of 1925. The Kelly Air Mail Act of 1925 authorized the Post Office to contract with private operators to fly the mail. After 1927, the development of entirely new routes produced a boom period in airport construction.
The Air Commerce Act of 1926 was the first Federal legislation to regulate civil aeronautics. The Department of Commerce established an Aeronautics Branch that became responsible for air safety, development of a system of airways, and the promotion of aviation and airports. The airway routes were equipped with navigation aids like radio range beacons and lights, and control towers in congested airways. The Air Commerce Act prohibited the Department of Commerce from directly subsidizing airport construction, but relief funds were used for airport development during the Great Depression. In 1934, the Aeronautics Branch was replaced with the Bureau of Air Commerce.
The Kelly Air Mail Act and the Air Commerce Act encouraged private investment in aviation, as did the 1926 establishment of the Daniel Guggenheim Fund for the promotion of Aeronautics. One way that the Guggenheim Fund promoted aviation was by sponsoring aeronautical programs in American universities, including the California Institute of Technology, the Mass-Institute Institute of Technology, and Stanford University.
GENERAL AVIATION
In May of 1927, the world's perception of aviation was impacted dramatically by Charles A. Lindbergh, Jr.'s flight. Lindbergh made the first solo nonstop transatlantic flight (from New York to Paris) in a small Ryan monoplane. This daring feat illustrated aviation's potential to the public and convinced American businessmen to invest in aviation. Lindbergh became a tireless advocate of aviation, and his status as a public hero assured press attention.
General aviation became increasingly popular and accessible as manufacturers began to construct airplanes specifically for private and sports pilots. In 1927, Clyde V. Cessna organized the Cessna Aircraft Company in Kansas and built the prototype of the cantilever monoplane series for which his company became famous. That same year Taylor Brothers Aircraft Corporation was organized; a decade later and with a different company C.G. Taylor introduced the Taylorcraft line of aircraft. In 1937, William T. Piper acquired Taylor Brothers and changed the company's name to Piper. The Aeronautical Corporation of America-better known as Aeronca-began production of its C-2 light plane in 1929. Walter Beech formed the Beech Aircraft Company in 1932.
ROCKETRY
The science of rocketry was also being developed in this period. Robert H. Goddard, a physicist, and the "father of the modern rocket," developed a general theory of rocket action in 1912. Goddard undertook research during World War I that led to the development of a solid-propellant, which was used in World War II as the bazooka. Goddard's writings predicted the use of rockets for lunar, interplanetary, and intergalactic exploration. In 1926 he successfully launched the world's first liquid-fuel rocket at Auburn, Massachusetts, an event known as the "Kitty Hawk" of rocketry, and in 1930, at Roswell, New Mexico, he fired an 11-foot rocket to the height of 2,000 feet at a speed of 500 mph. In 1935 one of his liquid-propelled rockets exceeded the speed of sound.
COMMERCIAL AVIATION
Three large conglomerates emerged in the commercial aviation industry to produce and fly aircraft. Their manufacturing plants were scattered throughout the country, with concentrations on both coasts. One large conglomerate was United Aircraft and Transport Corporation. Its chairman was William E. Boeing in Seattle, Washington, and the president was Frederick B. Rentschler in Hartford, Connecticut. In 1933 this one holding company manufactured Boeing airplanes in Seattle; Hamilton Standard propellers, Pratt & Whitney aircraft engines, and Chance Vought military aircraft in East Hartford, Connecticut; Pratt & Whitney aircraft engines in Longueuil, Quebec, Canada; Sikorsky flying boats in Stratford, Connecticut; and Stearman aircraft in Wichita, Kansas. In addition, it operated airlines-United Airlines, Boeing Air Transport, National Air Transport, Pacific Air Transport, and Varney Air Lines, and other concerns, including the Boeing School of Aeronautics in California, United Aircraft Exports in Connecticut, United Airports Company in California, and United Airports of Connecticut.
A second giant in the industry was North American Aviation, organized by Clement M. Keys. North American included the large National Air Transport airline. The third large conglomerate was Aviation Corporation of the Americas (AVCO) that involved Juan Trippe of Pan American Airways, airplane designer and manufacturer Sherman Fairchild, and others. Some companies, like Leroy R. Grumman's Grumman Aircraft, remained competitive outside of the consolidated concerns. Lockheed, founded by Allan and Malcolm Loughead, became a division of the Detroit Aircraft Corporation and later the Southern California Aviation Corporation. Donald Douglas's aircraft company had financial and stock ties to Transcontinental and Western Air and North American Aviation. With few though notable exceptions, like the Naval Aircraft Factory in Philadelphia, the aircraft industry manufactured military aircraft under contract with the services and according to military specifications. These military contracts spurred the growth of the industry.
A national airmail scandal in 1934 led to cancellation of airmail contracts due to fraud and brought on a reorganization in the aviation industry. A new law for private carriers with airmail contracts required the separation of equipment makers (manufacturers), from equipment operators (airlines). This resulted in the forced break-up of United Aircraft and Transport Corp. (William Boeing's giant conglomerate). Three companies emerged from the dissolution; Boeing Airplane Company built airplanes; United Aircraft Corporation made aircraft engines and propellers, as well as Sikorsky flying boats and Chance Vought fighter planes; and United Airlines flew the commercial equipment.
The airmail scandal affected the military when the Army Air Corps was ordered to carry the mail during what amounted to a national emergency. The Air Corps was not equipped or trained for this job, and the consequences were tragic-66 crashes and 11 deaths in 3 months. Army aviation subsequently underwent a major reorganization, directly attributed to the airmail fiasco, which Eddie Rickenbacker had called "legalized murder."
By the early 1930s, research at NACA's laboratory at Langley Field, Virginia, led to a new concept for aircraft design which featured a low-wing monoplane of all metal construction, with two or four air-cooled engines, retractable landing gear, and variable-pitch propellers. Some aircraft manufacturers, notably Boeing, Martin, and Douglas, adopted the new concept immediately and revolutionized air transport and military bombers. The Boeing 247 transport, the first truly modern airliner, followed NACA's new design concept. Next was the Douglas DC-3, which became the world's most successful airliner prior to the jet age. Boeing also used the same principles in designing its B-17 in 1935 for the Army Air Corps. The B-17 was the forerunner of all modern subsonic bombers, and it gave the military its first real American air power.
The Department of Commerce's Bureau of Air Commerce was replaced by an independent agency called the Civil Aeronautics Authority in 1938. Its independence was short-lived. In 1940 control of civil aviation was vested in the Civil Aeronautics Administration within the Department of Commerce. Congress transformed that organization into the Federal Aviation Agency, an independent regulatory agency, in 1958. That agency in turn became the Federal Aviation Administration within the Department of Transportation in 1967. These federal agencies administered civil aviation, though under heavy military influence during World War II and the first decade of the Cold War.
WORLD WAR II AVIATION
The start of World War II in Europe prompted large, direct federal funding of airports through the Development of Landing Areas for National Defense, or DLAND program, administered by the Civil Aeronautics Administration. Also for defense purposes, the Civil Aeronautics Administration assumed operation of airport traffic control and extended air traffic control to all airways. Airport construction, airport traffic control, and airway traffic control-all wartime measures-became permanent operations of the federal agency for civil aviation. The military reserved specified airspace for its use and developed its own navigation systems. The Federal Aviation Act of 1958 assigned domestic airspace to the new Federal Aviation Agency and thereby reduced tension between civil and military aviation.
The aerial attack on Pearl Harbor demonstrated that the use of air power had become decisive. World War II brought military aviation to the forefront of the industry and greatly increased industry's production. The magnitude of the wartime demand prompted manufacturing companies to convert from peacetime job shop methods to wartime line production techniques. This changed the nature, as well as the magnitude, of production. Industry expanded production of military equipment capable of operating from land, from water, and from aircraft carriers. Military aviation operations expanded greatly from the World War I and peacetime missions. The missions included training, coastal patrol, observation and reconnaissance, scouting, convoy protection and other escort services, logistical support in the form of transport and cargo operations, as well as all types of air combat (pursuit, attack, bombardment, and observation).
The war prompted advances in aircraft technology and the design of new aircraft. Range, load, speed, maneuverability, and armament were improved as new designs came into production. Fighter planes illustrate the variety of military aircraft. The streamlined Bell P-39 Airacobra, versatile Curtiss P-40 fighter, heavy Republic P-47 Thunderbolt, long-range North American P-51 Mustang, night-flying Northrop P-61 Black Widow, multi-purpose Vultee P-66 Vanguard, and jet Lockheed P-80A Shooting Star are a few examples. The Army's Air Transport Command developed international air routes flown by military and commercial carriers and prompted the development of aircraft designed specifically for transport purposes. In the name of air transport, war-time military contracts with commercial airlines greatly increased the number of domestic airlines with international experience.
New gas turbine and rocket technology yielded products introduced into combat in World War II, like the German V-2 liquid-fuelled rocket-propelled missile. The advent of jet-powered fighter aircraft during the war presaged revolutionary changes to come in aircraft design and military tactics. These wartime developments influenced postwar research, development, and production. The helicopter also entered production during the war. Sikorsky, Bell, Piasecki, and Hiller produced helicopters in quantity by the late 1940s.
These new technologies-helicopters, jets, and rockets-came to the fore during the Cold War that followed after World War II. Although jet aircraft served in World War II, they did not battle each other until the Korean Conflict, when North American F-86 Sabre fighters fought Russian MiG-15s in dogfights. Any fighter plane without jet power was soon obsolete. Jets powered the Lockheed U-2 spy plane and the Boeing 707 commercial airliner of the 1950s and most military and large commercial aircraft that entered service thereafter. On October 14, 1947, the first flight faster than the speed of sound was made by Capt. Charles "Chuck" Yeager flying the XS-1 (later renamed the X-1). Supersonic fighter planes replaced jet fighters just five years after jets replaced piston-engine aircraft.
The structure of the American aeronautical community was greatly changed by World War II. The aircraft industry had become the largest in the country. Following World War II general aviation increased dramatically in this country. The GI Bill made it possible for veterans to take flying lessons inexpensively. Airplanes were relatively affordable and large numbers of people learned to fly. Cessna and many other companies responded to this growing enthusiasm for general aviation, and produced large numbers of aircraft for the public and business. New general aviation airfields were constructed, and existing fields were upgraded. The spread of general aviation impacted many small communities around the nation not easily served by major airfields in metropolitan areas.
CHANGES IN THE AERONAUTICAL COMMUNITY
A major reorganization of the U.S. defense establishment occurred with the National Security Act (July 17, 1947) which created the Department of Defense, as well as the National Military Establishment which included three separate departments, the Army, the Navy, and the Air Force. The United States Air Force became a separate service on September 18, 1947, with equal status to the two other forces, after 40 years in the Army. Three major combat commands provided the Air Force's fundamental framework: Strategic Air Command, Tactical Air Command, and Air Defense Command.
Research and development of rocket technology led to the intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM). This rocket-powered, long-range weapon, included the Atlas model of the 1950s, the Titan (a second generation ICBM developed in the 1950s), and the Minuteman in the 1960s. The U.S. and the U.S.S.R. announced that they would launch satellites as part of the International Geophysical Year of 1957-1958. On October 4, 1957, the Soviets launched Sputnik, the world's first man-made satellite. The United States was shocked by the Soviet Union's achievement, and Sputnik led directly to the establishment of the U.S. space program. The National Aeronautics and Space Act in July 1958 established the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) with a broad charter for aeronautical and space research. The National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) was abolished, but its laboratories and personnel provided the nucleus of NASA.
THE SPACE RACE
In a dramatic "space race" with the Soviet Union, the U.S. was the first to put man on the moon. U.S. achievements included America's first man in space, Alan B. Shepard, Jr., on May 5, 1961, and John H. Glenn, Jr.'s first manned orbital flight on February 20, 1962. Apollo 11 astronauts Neil A. Armstrong and Edwin A. Aldrin, Jr., were the first men on the moon. Armstrong's first step on the moon, in the Sea of Tranquility, was made on July 20, 1969, a mere 66 years after Orville Wright's first flight in an airplane.
The Space Shuttle was the U.S. space program's next generation. Key aspects of the Shuttle's design and performance were based on a rocket-powered space plane, the X-15, the world's first transatmospheric vehicle. The Space Shuttle provided a new method of space flight, taking off like a rocket and landing like an airplane. The Space Shuttle Columbia, the first reusable manned spaceship, initiated the Space Shuttle flight program in April 1981, and a new era for the U.S. space program.
IMPORTANT DATES
1784 Americans in the newly independent United States made tethered flights in balloons.
1785 An American, John Jeffries, and a Frenchman, Jean Pierre Blanchard, flew across the English Channel in a hydrogen balloon.
1793 Jean Pierre Blanchard made the first manned, untethered balloon ascent in the United States, in Philadelphia.
1830 Charles Ferson Durant, after studying ballooning in France, made his American flying debut in a balloon and began his career as "The American Aeronaut."
1835 Immigrant and aeronaut Richard Clayton set a world distance record for free balloons by flying from Cincinnati, Ohio to Monroe County, Virginia (since 1863, West Virginia).
1844 Author Edgar Allan Poe foisted the hoax of a manned balloon crossing the Atlantic Ocean on the New York Sun and the American public.
1852 A Mr. Kelley made the first balloon ascension west of the Rocky Mountains, in Oakland, California.
1859 Three aeronauts-John Wise, O. Gager, and John La Mountain-flew from St. Louis, Missouri, to Henderson, New York, and set a world distance record.
1861 American military aviation began with Union and Confederate balloonists flying reconnaissance in the American Civil War; in 1861 a Balloon Corps was organized and the coal barge G.W. Parke Custis was converted into the world's first operational aircraft carrier (carrying balloons).
1873 John Wise failed in the first attempted transatlantic crossing by balloon. (The first successful transatlantic balloon voyage was in 1978.)
1883 John J. Montgomery made a glider flight near San Diego, California, apparently the first glider flight in the United States.
1884 The journal Science published a survey of the field of aeronautics, written by engineer Robert H. Thurston of Cornell University.
1894 Octave Chanute, the French-born American engineer, published Progress in Flying Machines.
1896 Octave Chanute began constructing gliders and eventually produced the constant-chord biplane configuration.
1896 Samuel Pierpont Langley of the Smithsonian Institution flew an unmanned, steam-powered aerodrome, a large, heavier-than-air flying machine.
1903 On the coast of North Carolina, on December 17th, Orville Wright flew the first manned, powered, controlled, and sustained flight in an airplane.
1905 The Aero Club of America was organized.
1907 The U.S. Army Signal Corps organized an Aeronautical Division.
1907 Alexander Graham Bell, Glenn Curtiss, and others organized the Aerial Experiment Association.
1908 The Army Signal Corps let a contract for the construction of a Wright Model A biplane, its (and the world's) first military aircraft, which was delivered in 1909 The airplane could fly 40 mph.
1908 The Army received delivery from Thomas Baldwin of its first dirigible.
1909 Glenn Curtiss undertook the design and manufacture of airplanes at his G.H. Curtiss Manufacturing Company in Hammondsport, New York. The Curtiss No. 1 plane was called the Golden Flyer and sold for $5,000.
1909 Wilbur and Orville Wright incorporated the Wright Company in New York State; this company manufactured airplanes at a factory in Dayton, Ohio.
1910 The Navy created the position of Director of Naval Aeronautics, a position filled by Captain W.I. Chambers during three formative years of naval aviation.
1910 Eugene Ely, in a Curtiss biplane, took off from a launch platform aboard the U.S. scout cruiser Birmingham-the first airplane ascension from a floating base.
1911 The Collier Trophy established to be awarded by the Aero Club for the greatest achievement in aviation in America. Glenn L. Curtiss developed the seaplane, initially called a hydroaeroplane, and took off, and landed on water; Curtiss won the first Collier Trophy "for the successful development of the hydroaeroplane."
1911 The Navy acquired its first airplanes; the very first was the Curtiss A-1 Triad, a seaplane that the Navy also operated as a landplane and an amphibian.
1911 Flying a Burgess-Wright biplane named the Vin Fiz after the sponsoring soft drink company, Calbraith P. Rodgers flew from Sheepshead Bay, New York, to Pasadena, California, in the first transcontinental flight across the United States.
1911 The Army Signal Corps' first flying school established in Maryland, and then moved to its permanent location in San Diego in 1912.
1912 The U.S. Marine Corps for the first time sent officers to flight training in Annapolis and thereby qualified the first Marine pilots.
1914 The Signal Corps organized an Aviation Section which included the Aeronautical Division.
1915 Congress passed legislation that established the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA), an independent Federal agency, to supervise and direct the scientific study of the problems of flight, with a view to their practical solution.
1916 Congress and President Woodrow Wilson authorized an Aerial Coastal Patrol as an auxiliary of the Coast Guard.
1916 William A. Boeing made his first airplane, designated the B&W after Boeing and his then-partner Conrad Westervelt, a commander in the Navy; later in the year Boeing organized his own company, the Pacific Aero Products Company which evolved into the Boeing Airplane Company; all of these ventures were based in Seattle, Washington.
1916 Malcolm and Allan Loughead (pronounced "Lock-heed" according to early advertisements) organized their second aviation venture and the first of several companies to bear their name-the Loughead Aircraft Manufacturing Company, in Santa Barbara, California.
1916 For the first time the Federal government purchases land for aviation purposes (in Hampton, Virginia), which becomes the Army Signal Corps' Langley Field. A portion of the field was allocated to NACA to build the Federal government's first aeronautical laboratory.
1917 The U.S. enters World War I (April 6,1917). The office of the Chief Signal Officer was responsible for planning the massive expansion of aviation necessitated by war, including producing airplanes and equipment.
1918 The Army removes aviation from the Signal Corps and creates an Army Air Service with two agencies, a Dept. of Military Aeronautics (responsible for training and operations of the air arm) and a Bureau of Aircraft Production (production of aircraft, aircraft engines, and equipment).
1918 The Naval Aircraft Factory at the Philadelphia Navy Yard entered production; the first production aircraft was the Curtiss H-16 flying boat.
1918 The Post Office inaugurated airmail service by flying mail between New York and Washington; initially in cooperation with the Army, the Post Office soon assumed full responsibility for flying airmail.
1919 The Army Air Service begins operations to locate and report fires to the Forest Service. Experimental patrols begin in California and expand to Oregon in 1919.
1919 The first transcontinental airway was established when the Post Office opened a transcontinental route for airmail from New York to San Francisco, using 15 air fields.
1919 The NC-4, a Navy-Curtiss flying boat, became the first airplane to fly across the Atlantic Ocean.
1920 The National Air Races begin. This small race grows in subsequent years to become a major aviation event and encouraged the development of high-speed airplanes.
1920 A pioneer in aerial photography, Sherman M. Fairchild, organized the Fairchild Aerial Camera Corporation which manufactured automatic aerial cameras in New York.
1920 Donald Wills Douglas incorporates his Davis-Douglas Company to design and build airplanes. He begins operations in a rented blimp-hangar in Los Angeles.
1920 Dedication of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics' (NACA) first aeronautical laboratory, the Langley Memorial Aeronautical Laboratory, and wind tunnel at Langley Field, Virginia.
1921 Based out of Langley Field, Virginia, Brig. Gen. William (Billy) Mitchell conducted landmark bombing tests on battleships in the Atlantic Ocean, demonstrating their vulnerability to air attack.
1921 The Navy organized a Bureau of Aeronautics, BuAer.
1921 The Navy's first air station for airships became operational at Lakehurst, New Jersey, where the Navy explored lighter-than-air aeronautics until termination of the program in 1961.
1922 The National Aeronautic Association organized by combining the Aero Club of America and the National Air Association. Until 1926 the Aero Club and later the National Aeronautic Association issued pilot licenses in the United States.
1922 G.M. Bellanca introduced his high-speed C.F. monoplane with an enclosed passenger cabin and an open cockpit; the initial aircraft was built by hand in Omaha, Nebraska.
1923 Reuben Hollis Fleet founded the Consolidated Aircraft Corporation, which leased facilities in Greenwich, Rhode Island.
1923 The U.S. Navy wins the Schneider Trophy (established in 1913 to promote the development of high-speed seaplanes) against international competition in Cowes, England. The Navy aircraft won first and second places in the Schneider Cup race and established a new world record for seaplanes with a speed of 169.89 mph for 200 kilometers.
1924 Four Army Air Service pilots completed the first flight around the world. Starting and finishing at Sand Point near Seattle, Washington, they accomplished the circumnavigation in open-cockpit, single-engine airplanes made by the Douglas company. The flight took 175 days and was then the longest air journey in history. They are awarded the Collier Trophy "for having accomplished the first flight around the world."
1925 The Air Mail Act of 1925, also known as the Kelly Act after Congressman Clyde Kelly of Pennsylvania, becomes law. The act authorized the Post Office Department to contract for the carriage of mail (airmail) with commercial air transport companies.
1925 Lt. James (Jimmy) H. Doolittle, a U.S. Air Service pilot, won the Schneider Cup Race flying the Curtiss-R3 C-2 seaplane Racer, and broke the speed record for seaplanes by attaining 245.7 mph, at Baltimore, Maryland.
1925 Commander John Rodgers flew a Navy PN-9 flying boat, a patrol plane built by the Naval Aircraft Factory, 1,730 nautical miles from California to a Pacific island northeast of Hawaii. This flight set a record for nonstop distance, but failed in the attempt to cross the Pacific Ocean.
1926 The Air Commerce Act of 1926 assigned the Department of Commerce responsibility for overseeing development and safe operation of the national air transportation system. The Department established an Aeronautics Branch to regulate and promote aviation.
1926 The Army Air Corps Act establishes the Army Air Corps, with status equal to the infantry, cavalry, and artillery.
1926 Ford introduced the 4-AT trimotor, an all-metal, open-cockpit, enclosed-cabin, eight-passenger transport plane, developed after trimotor designs of Fokker and Stout.
1927 Charles A. Lindbergh, flying the Ryan monoplane Spirit of St. Louis, completed the first solo non-stop crossing of the Atlantic Ocean (New York to Paris). Lindbergh's achievement and personality generated great popular enthusiasm for aviation.
1927 Sherman Fairchild entered aircraft production in Farmingdale, New York, with the FC-2, a five-seat, high-wing, cabin monoplane with folding wings.
1927 The first Lockheed Vega, the S-1, was assembled and flown in southern California; a total of 128 single-engine and high-speed Vegas were produced, built by hand, over several years.
1927 Pan American Airways began its first regular international service, with an exclusive airmail contract on the Miami-Havana route.
1927 The Cessna Aircraft Company organized and began making the cantilever monoplane series of private planes in Wichita, Kansas.
1927 Lieutenants Lester J. Maitland and Albert F. Hegenberger made the first flight from California to Hawaii, in an Army Fokker C-2.
1928 The Aeronautics Branch of the Department of Commerce awarded the Collier Trophy for the development of airways and air navigation facilities.
1929 Lieutenant James Doolittle, flying blind by instrument in the hooded cockpit of a Consolidated NY-2, demonstrated and tested the developing equipment for flying in all weather and all visibility conditions.
1929 The Aeronautical Corporation of America, known by the trade name Aeronca, organized and entered production of the C-2 light plane, an affordable personal airplane.
1929 The Grumman Aircraft Engineer Corporation was incorporated.
1929 The Goodyear-Zeppelin Corporation constructed an airdock in Akron, Ohio, to support the development of a commercial airship industry in the United States.
1930 Taylor Aircraft, under the leadership of William T. Piper, introduced the E-2 Cub, a two-seat light plane with enclosed cockpit, which became popular with flight schools and private pilots.
1930 Western Air Express and Transcontinental Air Transport merged into the new Transcontinental and Western Air, (TWA; renamed Trans World Airlines in 1950).
1930 The U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey issued its first sectional map made specifically for aeronautical use. The 87th and final section appeared in 1936 and completed the chart of the entire country.
1932 Walter Beech organized the Beech Aircraft Company in Wichita, Kansas, and flight-tested his streamlined model 17-R, a biplane with negatively staggered wings.
1933 The Commerce Department's Aeronautics Branch and the federal Civil Works Administration initiated a nationwide program of airport development, a relief program aimed at employing people during the Great Depression.
1934 Senator Hugo Black of Alabama led a Congressional investigation of the national scandal of fraud in airmail contacts; President Franklin D. Roosevelt canceled airmail contracts; the Army Air Corps flew the mail for several months; commercial carriers of airmail reorganized; and the Post Office awarded new airmail contracts.
1934 The Department of Commerce reorganized its aviation activities and changed the name of its Aeronautics Branch to Bureau of Air Commerce.
1935 Amelia Earhart became the first pilot to fly solo between the mainland and Hawaii.
1935 Flying a Martin clipper ship, Pan American inaugurated scheduled airmail service across the Pacific Ocean; in 1936 the airline began scheduled passenger service on the same route.
1935 Boeing introduced and completed the first flights of the four-engine Model 299 bomber, prototype of the B-17.
1936 The Douglas Sleeper Transport (known as the DST) for transcontinental service, and the day transport version, the DC-3 (without sleeping berths), entered service with American Airlines. They offered greater speed and comfort than other airlines. The DC-3 became the world's most successful airliner until the jet age.
1937 After a flight from Frankfurt, Germany, and during landing operations at Lakehurst, New Jersey, the airship Hindenburg exploded; thirty-six people died, and commercial transport by airship lost public confidence.
1937 Based in Pennsylvania, William T. Piper changed the name of Taylor Aircraft to Piper.
1937 Amelia Earhart, flying a Lockheed Electra, disappeared on the New Guinea to Howland Island segment of an intended round-the-world flight.
1937 The Army Air Corps' first B-17 was delivered to Langley Field for service testing.
1938 The Civil Aeronautics Act of 1938 replaced the Commerce Department's Bureau of Air Commerce with an independent Civil Aeronautics Authority, and recognized airlines as common carriers.
1939 Flying a Boeing 314 flying boat, Pan American inaugurated scheduled transatlantic service.
1939 The Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association was founded.
1939 The Civil Aeronautics Authority began a Civilian Pilot Training Program that provided training to over 400,000 pilots by the close of the program in 1944 (by which time it was called the War Training Service).
1939 The Army Air Corps undergoes an unprecedented expansion due to the war in Europe.
1940 Boeing's pressurized Model 307 entered commercial service, but the war interrupted the spread of pressurized commercial aircraft.
1940 The Civil Aeronautics Authority, an independent agency, became the Civil Aeronautics Administration, a part of the Department of Commerce.
1940 Congress approved the Development of Landing Areas for National Defense, or DLAND program, the first airport construction project directly administered by the federal agency for civil aviation, a program that funded construction at 535 airports during the World War II.
1941 The Civil Aeronautics Administration assumed operation of airport traffic control.
1941 The War Department created the Army Air Forces in June; the predecessor Army Air Corps was discontinued in March 1942.
1941 In June, the Civil Aeronautics Administration changed the system for numbering runways to the method of indicating-with the addition of a zero-the compass heading of a runway during takeoff or landing.
1941 Within the Office of Civil Defense, the Civil Air Patrol was established in December.
1941 On December 7, Japanese carrier-based airplanes attack American military installations in Hawaii and the Philippines, leading to America's entry in World War II.
1941 The United States and its air forces fought in World War II. During the war the United States produced 300,000 airplanes, 700,000 propellers, and 800,000 aircraft engines. Military contracts with commercial airlines provided domestic airlines, in addition to Pan American, with international air transport experience. Domestically, the Army accounted for 85% of all activity on the nation's airways. Military aircraft and avionics were rapidly developed.
1942 The Civilian Pilot Training Program became the War Training Service.
1942 Grumman produced and flew the first production F6F Hellcat fighter planes, which entered combat action in 1943, and thereafter destroyed more enemy aircraft than any other airplane of the war.
1943 The Civil Air Patrol transferred from the Office of Civil Defense to the War Department.
1944 The Boeing B-29 bomber entered combat service on raids against Bangkok and Japan in June; this Superfortress was a long-range bomber, pressurized, with remote-controlled gun turrets, with wing loading in excess of previous experience, and the world's heaviest production airplane.
1945 On August 6, at 8:15 A.M. (Japanese time) an American B-29, the Enola Gay, dropped an atomic bomb on the Japanese city and military base of Hiroshima. The bomb, with an explosive force of 20,000 tons of TNT, destroyed over four square miles of the city and killed or injured over 160,000 people. Three days later, an atomic bomb was dropped on the Japanese city and naval base of Nagasaki. On August 14th, the Japanese accepted the Allies terms of surrender.
1945 Luis W. Alvarez of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology won the Collier Trophy for his role in developing ground controlled approach, a ground-based radar and controller system for landing aircraft.
1946 The Army Air Forces established the Strategic Air Command and the Tactical Air Command.
1947 The United States created the Department of the Air Force as a military branch equal to the departments of the Army and Navy, all under the Department of Defense.
1947 While flying the rocket-powered Bell XS-1 research plane out of Muroc Army Airfield (later renamed Edwards Air Force Base) in California, Capt. Charles "Chuck" Yeager exceeded the speed of sound in level flight (670 MPH or Mach 1.06).
1947 The Collier Trophy awarded to John Stack, NACA research scientist, for pioneering research to determine the physical laws affecting supersonic flight and for his conception of transonic research airplanes; to Lawrence D. Bell, President of Bell Aircraft Corp., for the design and construction of the research airplane X-1; and the Capt. Charles E. Yeager, who with that airplane, first achieved human flight faster than sound.
1947 Braniff became the first airline to use the instrument landing system adopted as the primary landing aid of the Civil Aeronautics Administration.
1947 The journals Aviation, begun in 1938, and Aviation News, founded in 1943, merged to create Aviation Week.
1948 The Radio Technical Commission for Aeronautics issued a report recommending a common civil-military navigation system consisting of very-high-frequency omniranges (VORs) and distance measuring equipment (DMEs), as well as airborne transponders, ground-based radar for airport surveillance (ASR) and precision approach (PAR), and instrument landing system (ILS).
1948 Albert W. Mooney organized the Mooney Aircraft Corporation; based in Wichita, Kansas, this company's first product was the M-18 single-seat, low-wing monoplane with retractable tricycle gear.
1950 The first very-high-frequency omnirange (VOR) airways, called Victor airways, became operational.
1950 United States military forces engaged in the Korean Conflict (1950-1953). The first jet-to-jet air combat occurred.
1952 Boeing began production of the four-engine, jet-powered B-52 Stratofortress bomber. After production ceased in 1962, post-production modifications improved the structural and electronic features of the B-52 and extended its operational usefulness.
1952 Airport surface detection equipment went into a successful trial operation in an effort to curb congestion on the ground at airports.
1952 The International Civil Aviation Organization adopted a standardized, English-based, international phonetic alphabet.
1953 The American Medical Association recognized aviation medicine as a specialty and certification of qualified physicians in the specialty.
1954 Military aviation missions during the Vietnam Conflict included reconnaissance, transport, support and rescue, as well as offensive and carrier operations.
1955 Lockheed began flight testing its new U-2 spy plane, an high-altitude, intelligence-gathering, jet-powered airplane, given the U for utility designation to mask its real purpose.
1957 Both the Soviet Union and the United States had satellite projects as parts of their national programs for the International Geophysical Year, and the Soviets successful launch of the first artificial satellite-Sputnik-into orbit around the Earth spurs America to increase dramatically its space program.
1958 Congress created the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) as a military space program, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) as the civilian space agency exercising control over aeronautical and space activities, and the National Aeronautics and Space Council (an advisory body of all agencies concerned with space) reporting to the President.
1958 Congress reorganized the federal administration of civil aviation with the abolishment of the Civil Aeronautics Administration and the creation of the independent Federal Aviation Agency (FAA).
1958 The Boeing 707 jet liner (America's first commercial jet) introduced; Pan American Airways initiated transatlantic passenger jet service; the 707 entered the jet transport market already served by the British Comet.
1958 The Federal Aviation Agency (FAA) created to regulate all commercial and military aviation in the U.S.
1959 The Douglas DC-8 jet liner received federal certification; Douglas produced 556 DC-8s before ending production of that model in 1972.
1959 The X-15 research plane made its first powered flight, eventually attaining records for altitude and speed for winged aircraft that were unbroken until the space shuttle Columbia's first orbital flight in 1981.
1960 NASA launched its first meteorological satellites, Tiros I in April and Tiros II in November.
1960 The Glenn L. Martin company delivered its last airplane and shifted its business to the space and missile fields; Glenn Martin had built airplanes in California starting in 1908, in Ohio starting in 1918, and Maryland starting in 1929.
1961 The Air Force continued flight testing the experimental X-15A airplane, including one flight to an altitude of 169,600 feet and another flight attaining the speed of 4,093 miles per hour.
1961 Alan B. Shepard, in May, aboard a Mercury capsule, became the first American in space-twenty three days after Yuri Gagarin of the Soviet Union became the first man in space.
1962 John H. Glenn orbited the Earth three times in a Mercury capsule and became the first American to orbit Earth.
1962 The Cuban Missile Crisis prompted the United States to speed the installation and operational status of Minuteman missiles.
1963 The prototype of the Boeing 727 jet transport was flown and tested.
1963 William J. Lear's prototype Model 23 Lear Jet made its initial flights near the Wichita, Kansas, base of his new operations. Out of the Model 23 evolved the production Model 24 and Model 25 business jets.
1964 American pilots Jerrie Mock and Joan Merriam became the first and second, respectively, women to fly solo around the world.
1964 A sailplane piloted by A.H. Parker set a distance record of 1,040 kilometers (646 miles), the first sailplane distance record over 1,000 kilometers.
1965 The United States launched Gemini spacecraft numbers 3 through 7, each with a two-man crew, into orbit.
1966 NASA's Surveyor I lunar probe made a controlled, soft landing on the Moon. 1966 The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) was organized as an independent safety board with accident investigation responsibility.
1967 In a tragic accident, the crew of Apollo 1, U.S. astronauts Virgil I. Grissom, Edward H. White, and Roger Chaffee, were killed when a flash fire swept their craft on the launch pad at Cape Kennedy (January 27, 1967).
1967 The McDonnell Company and the Douglas Aircraft Company merged to form the McDonnell Douglas Corporation.
1967 The Federal Aviation Agency, an independent agency, became the Federal Aviation Administration, part of the Department of Transportation.
1968 Boeing and General Electric worked to develop the airplane and engines, respectively, for an American SST, supersonic transport.
1968 Lockheed introduced its new C-5A Galaxy, capable of airlifting heavy military equipment and powered by the world's first high-bypass-ratio turbofan engine in service.
1969 NASA's Apollo 11 mission reached the Moon, and astronaut Neil Armstrong became the first man to walk on the Moon.
1970 The Boeing 747 Jumbo Jet entered commercial service; normal loading and unloading techniques had been modified for this large-capacity, wide-bodied aircraft.
1970 The Airport and Airway Development Act expanded federal aid to airport and airway development and changed the method of funding such development to aviation-user taxes.
1971 The McDonnell Douglas DC-10 entered commercial service; like the Boeing 747, the DC-10 was a commercial outgrowth of the military C-5 cargo competition won by Lockheed.
1971 Congress terminated the SST, supersonic transport, program. (The British SST, called the Concorde, continued in development and entered commercial service in 1976.)
1972 After several years of tension between the Federal Aviation Administration and controllers organized (since 1968) in the Professional Air Traffic Controller Organization, Congress passed the Air Traffic Controller Career Act.
1972 The Lockheed 1011 TriStar entered commercial service, one year after Congress provided financial relief in the form of a government loan to the troubled company.
1973 General Dynamics introduced two prototype YF-16 lightweight fighter planes.
1974 The National Space and Aeronautics Administration awarded the development contract for a Spacelab orbiting laboratory to a nine-nation consortium.
1976 Two Air Force pilots fly a Lockheed SR-71A reconnaissance aircraft to a new world speed record of 3,529.56 kilometers per hour (2,193.17 miles per hour).
1976 The Concorde, a supersonic transport developed by a British-French consortium, began to fly routes between Europe and the United States (Washington, D.C., and New York City), and demonstrated the strength of foreign competition in the aviation industry.
1978 Eastern Airlines placed an order for A-300 transports made by the European consortium Airbus and thereby highlighted the increasing foreign competition faced by manufacturers in the United States.
1978 The Federal Government began deregulating commercial airline operations.
1979 General Dynamics lightweight F-16 entered Air Force service; commonality of engine and armament with the McDonnell Douglas F-15 promised economies to the Air Force.
1981 The Space Shuttle Columbia, the first reusable manned spaceship, initiated the Space Shuttle flight program, and begins a new era for the U.S. space program.
1981 Air traffic controllers went on strike and the Federal Aviation Administration dismissed striking controllers; disruption of air traffic control operations continued until replacements acquired training and experience.
1982 Amidst an airline recession, Braniff International terminated operations; it emerged briefly from bankruptcy in 1984.
1986 The Space Shuttle Challenger exploded after lift-off, killing the seven crew members.
1988 The National Space and Aeronautics Administration resumed Space Shuttle missions.
1989 The Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk, a stealth fighter-bomber, made its combat debut when the United States invaded Panama.
1990 The United States employed fighters, bombers, tankers, helicopters, transports, and missiles during Desert Storm, the war to liberate Kuwait from an Iraqi invasion.
1991 Pan American ceased operations.
1994 The General Aviation Revitalization Act limited the liability of general aviation manufacturers to 18 years. The Act enables Cessna to renter single-engine aircraft production and helped the renamed New Piper Aircraft company to emerge from bankruptcy.
1995 The Lockheed and Martin Marietta corporations merged into a new Lockheed Martin Corporation.
| Concorde |
Which fashion designer created the miniskirt in 1964? | BAC Concorde | BAE Systems | International
International
BAC Concorde - Luxury at twice as fast as the speed of sound
British Airways Concorde (G-BOAG) in flight
Concorde's name reflects the development agreement between the United Kingdom and France. Although 20 airframes were built, in the UK any or all of them are unusually known simply as ‘The Concorde’ as if only one existed.
The origins of the project date back to the early 1950’s when Sir Arnold Hall, Director of the Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE), asked noted Welsh Aeronautical Engineer Morien Morgan to form a committee to study the potential of supersonic transport (SST). The group met for the first time in February 1954 and delivered their first report in April of the following year.
Their recommendation outlined a configuration that looked very similar to an enlarged Avro 730 although the report also concluded that a 'short wingspan produced very little lift at low speeds and this would result in extremely long takeoff runs, frighteningly high landing speeds and would require enormous engine power to lift off from existing runways'. Based on this rather disheartening outcome, the group reported that in their opinion the concept of an SST was totally unfeasible.
Soon after however, scientists at the Royal Aircraft Establishment at Farnborough published a series of new reports on a revolutionary 'wing planform', known in the UK as the 'slender-delta concept'. These reports changed almost overnight the entire nature and outlook of supersonic design. Although the 'delta' had already been used on aircraft prior to this point, these designs used planforms that were not remarkably different from the swept wing aircraft of the same wingspan, considered by the earlier committee.
On 1st October 1956, the Ministry of Supply asked Morgan to form a new study group, the Supersonic Transport Advisory Committee (STAC) with the explicit goal of developing a practical SST design and finding industry partners to build it.
In 1959, a study contract was awarded to Hawker Siddeley Aviation and Bristol Aeroplane Company for preliminary designs based on the slender delta concept. These were initially developed as the HSA1000 and the Bristol 198. Meanwhile, Armstrong Whitworth also responded with their own internal design (based on the M-Wing) and specifically targeted at the lower-speed shorter-range category.
Even at this early time, both the STAC group and the government were looking for major partners to develop the designs. In September 1959 Hawker Siddeley approached Lockheed in the USA whilst following the creation of the British Aircraft Corporation in 1960, the Bristol team immediately started talks with US giants Boeing, General Dynamics and Douglas Aircraft as well as Sud Aviation in France.
Political and economic concerns in France had led to their own SST design contest which had been won by the Sud Aviation Super-Caravelle. In April 1960, Sud’s Technical Director was sent to discuss a partnership with BAC Design Team who were surprised to find that Sud had designed a very similar aircraft to their initial plans. During the months that followed both sets of engineers found that they had much to agree on... For instance, the French had admitted that they had no modern large jet engines available to they had already decided they would buy a British design anyway.
After much political and economic posturing, the Development Committee negotiated an 'International Treaty' between the 2 countries rather than relying on any form of agreement between 2 commercial companies and on 29th November 1962, a draft treaty was signed.
Neither company had any real experience in airframes required to travel at Mach 2 so it was soon agreed that the choice of an ogee-shaped wing was going to be the right one. In fact, the only real design disagreements were over the size and range and whilst the UK Team still focused on a 150-passenger design for use on transatlantic routes, the French were deliberately avoiding this specification entirely as it was considered economically unviable.
Nevertheless, this proved not to be the barrier it might seem as many common components could be used in both designs and cost estimates gradually became agreed. The teams continued to meet through 1961 and it soon became clear that the two aircraft would be considerably more similar in spite of different range and seating arrangements of each. Eventually, a single design emerged that differed primarily in just fuel load although the chosen Bristol Siddeley Olympus engines (developed for use in the TSR-2) allowed either design to be powered by just four engines.
Initially, the aircraft were named Concord (without an 'e') in the UK and Concorde (with an 'e') in France although this led to uproar when Minister for Technology Tony Benn announced that he would order the spelling back to Concorde - Things calmed down a little when he added that the Government considered that the suffixed 'e' represented "Excellence, England, Europe and Entente (Cordiale)."
In February 1965 construction of two prototypes finally began with Concorde 001 being built by Aerospatiale (formerley SUD Aviation) at Toulouse and Concorde 002 was built by BAC at Filton.
Concorde 001 made its first test flight from Toulouse on 2nd March 1969, piloted by André Turcat and subsequently went supersonic on 1st October of the same year.
| i don't know |
Which golfer won the Masters Tournament and the British Open in 1966? | Jack Nicklaus British Open wins: 1966, 1970, 1978 | Golf.com
Photo: Peter Robinson
Jack Nicklaus won three British Opens in his career.
1966 British Open: Kilt-high grass lined the fairways and the sun baked the greens, but canny Jack Nicklaus persevered to win the 106th British Open
By Alfred Wright
When Jack Nicklaus approached the 18th green at Muirfield last Saturday afternoon the largest crowd in Scotland's long golfing history let go a roar of acclaim. Instead of responding like the certain winner he seemed to be, Nicklaus gave the appreciative gallery a tentative wave of the hand and a momentary smile, and then lapsed back into a deep frown of concentration. He had only to two-putt from 22 feet to win the 106th British Open, but the 75-year-old Muirfield course had made its impression. All week long it had seemed to submit to one or another of the game's best players, and then had used its knee-high rough and glass-slick greens to nullify their accomplishments. Cautiously, Nicklaus stroked his first putt to within six inches of the hole. He marked his ball—partly as a courtesy to Phil Rodgers, who putted out, and partly out of real concern about this last shot. When the moment arrived, Nicklaus bent over his minuscule putt, and the only sound to be heard was the far-off atonal argument of sea gulls. He tapped it in, of course, for a two-under-par 282 that defeated Doug Sanders and Dave Thomas by a stroke. Then, and only then, did he let himself believe he had finally won the last major golf title to have eluded him. As the applause soared, his smile grew wider and wider, and he kept raising his arms from his sides, like a sleepy man reluctantly doing his morning exercises. But the fearful concentration that Muirfield had exacted from him was going to take a long time to wear off, for once again an historic British golf course had proved to be an historic test of skill. Complete article
1970 British Open: Despite a putting touch that abandoned him at times, Jack Nicklaus hung on to win his second British Open title last week, conquering Doug Sanders in a playoff and St. Andrews' Old Course in a breeze
By Dan Jenkins
Amid the gloomy and yet intoxicating old ruins of the town called St. Andrews and on the golf course that held the first cleat, history and tradition were caned and flogged all last week in a musty thing called the British Open by a cast of modern hustlers and legends. It was as if the Wimpy and the Whippy had come to the Royal and Ancient, along with black-eyed peas and corn bread: as if, for a while, the oldest course were only a stroll through Carnaby Street. While Tony Jacklin shot the heather off the land, Lee Trevino shot down a prime minister. And then while Jack Nicklaus played himself into the immortality of the record books, the lord of night life, Sir Douglas Sanders, played himself back from nowhere and into the hearts of those who savor the three-piece, phone-booth golf swing. It was one of the most thrilling major championships that had been staged in years, one that suffocated in all kinds of atmosphere. It had overtones of America against the world, elements of the best and worst of shotmaking, ghastly pressure, enormous crowds, a buffet of seaside weather, the purity of British humor, the suspense of overtime — all of these things — until it was mercifully concluded by Jack Nicklaus' rendezvous with history. Complete article
1978 British Open: Jack Nicklaus won his third British Open at what has come to be his native heath, Scotland's Royal and Ancient
By Dan Jenkins
As long as a man has to go for a walk on a golf course, there is hardly a better place than straight up the last fairway at St. Andrews, where one is surrounded by 500 years of history and embraced by the buildings of the old town itself. It is especially wonderful if you do it the way Jack Nicklaus does. Nicklaus made the walk again last week with 30,000 warmly sentimental Scots creating enough noise to have drowned out the roar of a squall howling in off the North Sea. The scene, in fact, would have made a nice Christmas card for Jack to send out this year. After all of the crazy things that had gone on for four rounds, involving golfers from a grand assortment of nations, it came down to Nicklaus winning another British Open, another major championship. For those who are counting, it was his third British Open and major victory No. 17, which can now be filed away with the others: the five Masters, the four National PGAs, the three U.S. Opens and the two U.S. Amateurs. Complete article
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| Jack Nicklaus |
Which English politician made his ‘Rivers of Blood’ Speech in April 1968? | Jack Nicklaus - Golf Topics - ESPN
Jack Nicklaus
Personal
Jack Nicklaus is a retired American professional golfer and one of the sport's most prolific champions of all-time. Nicknamed "The Golden Bear," Nicklaus has won more major championships than any golfer in history (18), and is 2nd all-time in PGA TOUR victories with 73. Only Sam Snead (82) has more in the history of the PGA TOUR. Nicklaus is widely regarded as the best golfer of his era, and one of the greatest golfers of all-time.
Nicklaus' 18 career major championships is the most heralded record in golf. Nicklaus won the Masters 6 times (most all-time), the U.S. Open 4 times (tied for most all-time), the Open Championship 3 times, and the PGA Championship 5 times (tied for most all-time). Nicklaus' Nicklaus and Tiger Woods are the only 2 men in history to have won each of golf's 4 major championships 3 times each.
Nicklaus has been named "Golfer of the Century" or "Golfer of the Millennium" by almost every major golf publication in the world. He was also named Individual Male Athlete of the Century by Sports Illustrated, and one of the 10 Greatest Athletes of the Century by ESPN. Nicklaus has also been honored with the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the highest honor given to any civilian.
Nicklaus is a five-time winner of the PGA Player of the Year Award, has been the PGA Tour's leading money-winner eight times and runner-up six times. He has played on six Ryder Cup teams, captained two other Ryder Cup teams, and served as U.S. captain for the 1998, 2003, 2005, and 2007 Presidents Cup teams. He is also one of the pre-eminent golf course designers in the world.
The son of a pharmacist, Jack William Nicklaus was born January 21, 1940 in Columbus, Ohio. He was raised in the suburb of Upper Arlington, and went to Upper Arlington High School. At age 10, Nicklaus carded a 51 in the first nine holes he played. That year, he also won the Scioto Club Juvenile Trophy. He would win it a second time the following year.
At age 12, he won the Ohio State Junior Championship, launching a streak of 5 straight wins from 1952 through 1956. When Nicklaus was 13, he played in his first national tournament, the U.S.G.A. Junior Championship for ages 17 and under, winning his first 3 matches before being eliminated. That year, he also won the Columbus Junior Match-Play Championship.
At 14, Nicklaus won the Columbus Junior Championship in both the stroke play and match play competitions. He would win that again the following year, as well as qualifying for the U.S. Amateur for the first time. He was defeated in the first round, 1-down. At 16, he won the Ohio State Open - easily the victor with a 2-round final day posting of 64 and 72. That year, he won his 5th straight Ohio State Junior title, and the Ohio Jaycees, but lost the U.S. National Jaycees Championship in a playoff.
Amateur Career
When Nicklaus was 17, he won his first national title, capturing the U.S. National Jaycees Championship. He also qualified for his first U.S. Open, missing the cut. At 18, Nicklaus won the Trans-Mississippi Championship, and qualified for the U.S. Open again. This time, Jack made the cut and finished tied for 41st place. Nicklaus also played in his first PGA TOUR event, the Rubber City Open at Firestone in Akron, Ohio. Jack was 1 shot back of the lead after 36 holes after opening rounds of 67 and 66. He finished tied for 15th in the event.
Nicklaus won his first career U.S. Amateur at age 19, defeating Charles Coe, 1-up, in the 36-hole final at Broadmoor in Colorado Springs. He also played on the winning Walker Cup team against Britain in Muirfield, Scotland, and won the North-South and Trans-Mississippi championships. Nicklaus also reached the quarterfinal at the British Amateur that year.
Nicklaus' biggest early breakthrough in his young career came at the 1960 U.S. Open at Cherry Hills, where he established an amateur record by shooting a 282. Jack finished as the runner-up to Arnold Palmer by 2 strokes. He also emerged as the individual winner in the World Amateur Team Championship by 13 strokes with 269, eclipsing Ben Hogan's record by 18 shots.
In his final year as an amateur, Jack won the U.S. Amateur for the 2nd time, defeating Dudley Wysong, 8 and 6, at Pebble Beach. He was also a member of the winning Walker Cup team, the Western Amateur Champion, an NCAA and Big Ten Champion, and finished tied for 4th at the 1961 U.S. Open.
In 8 major championship appearances as an amateur, Nicklaus made the cut 5 times, including each of his last 4 starts. He was merely warming up for the epic display he put on throughout his legendary career.
PGA Tour Career
Jack Nicklaus joined the PGA Tour as a regular in 1962. His first professional event was the Los Angeles Open, where he finished tied for 50th and won $33.33. That year, he also won his first PGA Tour event, defeating Arnold Palmer in a Monday playoff at Oakmont for the 1962 U.S. Open. This sparked the beginning of the Palmer-Nicklaus rivalry, which would grow into one of the best rivalries in American sports history. Nicklaus won 3 times in all his rookie year (also in Seattle and Portland), and was named PGA Tour rookie of the year. Nicklaus finished 3rd on the money list as a rookie.
The next year, Nicklaus won his first of 6 Masters titles, as well as his first PGA Championship. He won 5 times in all that year, posted 17 top-10's in 24 starts, and finished 2nd on the money list. In 1964, Nicklaus finished 1st in money and scoring average on Tour, and finished runner-up or tied for 2nd in 3 of the 4 majors (U.S. Open - T-23rd). In '65, his five victories included his 2nd Masters win, where he shot a record number of 271, breaking Ben Hogan's mark by 3 strokes. That number stood until Tiger Woods shot a 270 in 1997. He led the PGA Tour in both money and scoring average for the 2nd straight year.
In 1966, Nicklaus became the first ever consecutive Masters champion. That year, he also won his first British Open title, which was the only major he had yet to win at that point. At the time, that made him the youngest player (age 26) to win all four major championships (since bested by Tiger Woods, who was 24 when he completed it). Nicklaus became the 4th golfer all-time to complete the career "Grand Slam", joining Gene Sarazen, Ben Hogan and Gary Player .
In 1967, Nicklaus won his 2nd U.S. Open, besting Palmer by 4 shots. The two were tied for 2nd, one shot off the lead entering the final round. Nicklaus did not win another major until the 1970 British Open, which he did so shortly after his father Charlie Nicklaus died. One of the most memorable images of Nicklaus is him throwing his putter into the air in elation after sinking the winning putt on the final green at St. Andrews.
With his victory at the 1971 PGA Championship, Nicklaus became the first player to ever win all four major championships twice in a career. The following year, Nicklaus' 4th green jacket and 3rd U.S. Open title generated buzz as the possibility of a season grand slam arose. Nicklaus would finish runner-up to Lee Trevino at the British that year, though, and Gary Player went on to win the PGA Championship. Nicklaus' U.S. Open win was his 13th as a professional, tying Bobby Jones for most major titles all-time (though a different set of Tournaments were considered majors during Jones' era). He went on to win the PGA Player of the Year award for a 2nd time that year, and also took over the all-time Tour earnings lead.
In 1973, Nicklaus made golf history by capturing his 14th major championship, winning the PGA for the 4th time. He won 7 times that year, and finished in the top-10 16 times in 18 events. He also did not finish worse than tied for 4th in any of the majors, and posted the lowest scoring average of his professional career (69.81). He also became the first player to win $300K in consecutive years, and the first player to ever pass the $2M mark in career earnings.
Nicklaus continued to add to his legacy for the remainder of the decade. In 1974, he was one of the inaugural inductees into the World Golf Hall of Fame. In 1975, he won 2 majors in 1 year for the 4th time in his career, taking the Masters and PGA Championship. In 1976, he picked up his 5th PGA Player of the Year award, breaking Ben Hogan's record of 4. The next year, he passed the $3M mark in earnings for his career, further extending his record. He also won his 63rd career Tour event, passing Ben Hogan to take 2nd place all-time behind only Sam Snead .
In 1977, he went without a major, but his performance in the British Open that year made headlines around the world. In a one-on-one battle dubbed the "Duel in the Sun," Nicklaus shot 65-66 in the final 2 rounds, only to be outdone by Tom Watson , who fired a pair of 65's.
He was named Sports Illustrated's Sportsman of the Year in 1978, winning his 3rd career British Open. For his incredible run in the 1970's, he was then named "Athlete of the Decade" in a poll of 432 sports journalists. He added 2 more majors in 1980: the U.S. Open and PGA Championship, giving him an astonishing 17 for his career.
From 1981-85, Nicklaus would win just twice on the Tour, and went without a major victory. In 1986 though, Nicklaus woke up the echoes at Augusta with one of the most remarkable performances in sports history. The Golden Bear posted a 30 on the back-9 to shoot a 7-under 65 for his round. He then watched the leaders falter, and won his record 6th green jacket by 1 stroke. At age 46, he still holds the record as the oldest player to ever win a the Masters. The victory was to be his last on the PGA Tour.
Champions Tour
In early 1990, Nicklaus became eligible for the Senior PGA Tour (since renamed the Champions Tour). He won his first event on the Tour, The Tradition, which was also a major championship. Nicklaus would go on to win The Tradition 4 times. Nicklaus won 10 Champions Tour events overall, including 5 of the 9 events he started in '90 and '91. His final victory on the Senior Tour came at the 1996 Tradition.
Nicklaus continued to play on the Champions Tour into the 2000s while also making infrequent appearances on the PGA Tour, primarily at majors and the Memorial. He retired from competitive golf in 2005.
Nicklaus is one of the world's most prominent course designers, and has developed an immense course-building business. Nicklaus has been involved in the design of close to 270 courses open for play worldwide, and his thriving business, Nicklaus Design, has more than 335 courses open for play around the world. Nicklaus Design courses are represented in 32 countries, 39 states, and at least 87 have hosted a combined total more than 600 professional tournaments or significant national amateur championships. At least 60 Nicklaus Design courses have appeared in various national and international Top-100 lists. The firm currently has projects under construction or under development in 45 different countries - 25 in which Nicklaus Design has never been involved.
Jack Nicklaus was born on Jan. 21, 1940 in Columbus, Ohio. He married his wife, Barbara, before turning pro. They have five children - Jack Jr., Steven, Nancy, Gary and Michael. Gary Nicklaus played on the PGA Tour from 1992-2004. Nicklaus also has 21 grandchildren, including Nick O'Leary, a top high school football recruit.
In addition to his work with his course design company, Nicklaus and his wife Barbara are involved in multiple charitable causes, including the Nicklaus Children's Heath Care Foundation and The First Tee program.
In 1999, Nicklaus underwent a hip replacement surgery, but returned to the course less than four months later. In 2010, he was hospitalized for an intestinal infection stemming from a case of diverticulitis. Nicklaus did not need surgery, but was forced to miss a charity event.
JACK NICKLAUS QUICK FACTS
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In 1964, murderers Gwynne Owen Evans and Peter Anthony Allen were the last people to be hanged in which UK country? | Abolition of capital punishment in the UK
until the passing of the
Northern Ireland
(Emergency Powers) Act 1973. Nobody was executed there after 1961, however.
Capital punishment has now been totally abolished for all civil crimes, having remained on the statute book for high treason and piracy. (There had been no executions for either of these crimes since 1946, when two men were hanged for treason.)
In October 1998, the government introduced an amendment to the Human Rights Bill that abolished the death penalty as a possible punishment for military offences under the Armed Forces Acts. There were five military wartime capital offences: serious misconduct in action, communicating with the enemy, aiding the enemy or furnishing supplies, obstructing operations or giving false air signals, mutiny to incitement to mutiny or failure to suppress a mutiny. The last execution under military law was in 1942.
On the 10th of December 1999, International Human Rights Day, the government ratified Second Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights thus totally abolishing capital punishment in
Britain
.
Historical background.
Capital punishment had first been abolished in the 11th century by William the Conqueror but was reinstated by his son William Rufus. Efforts to have the death penalty abolished had been going on since the late 1700's. In 1770, Sir William Meredith suggested that Parliament consider "more proportionate punishments." His proposal was rejected but it opened up the debate. With over a thousand people a year being sentenced to death (although only a small proportion actually executed), it was clearly a debate that was needed. Sir Samuel Romilly, 1757-1818, attempted to get parliament to de-capitalise minor crimes. On
the 17th of January 1813
, he introduced a Bill in the House of Commons "to repeal so much of the Act of King William as punishes with death the offence of stealing privately in a shop, warehouse or stable, goods of the value of 5s" (25p). This is what we call shoplifting now. This Bill was thrown out by the House of Lords.
After Romilly's death in 1818, Sir James Mackintosh, who supported Romilly's proposals for reducing the severity of the criminal law, took up the abolitionist's cause. On
the 2nd of March 1819
, he carried a motion against the government for a committee to consider capital punishment, by a majority of 19. In 1820, he introduced 6 bills embodying the recommendations of the committee, only three of which became law. Lord Eldon - the Lord Chancellor secured an amendment to keep the death penalty for stealing to the value of more than �10. On
the 21st of May 1823
, Mackintosh put forward a further 9 proposals to parliament for abolishing the punishment of death for less serious offences. He wanted to make forgery a non capital crime but this was opposed by Sir Robert Peel. However, it was declassified as a capital crime in 1832. This was important because a conviction for forgery generally did result in the execution of the culprit.
Over the first 68 years of the 19th century, other individuals and pressure groups were to lend their voices to the argument in favour of abolition with some success. Several, including author Charles Dickens and the Quaker movement campaigned for ending of public executions, which occurred in 1868. The public enjoyed these far more than was thought good for them. The Establishment has never been happy about the ordinary people enjoying overtly morbid pastimes such as watching a criminal struggling on the end of a rope! There is no doubt that public did enjoy a "good hanging" - there was general disappointment expressed if the criminal died too quickly, as happened with the hanging of William Palmer outside Stafford prison in 1856. Charles Dickens, writing in the Times, attacked the behaviour of the crowds at the execution of Frederick and Maria Manning in 1849. Progressively attitudes to public hanging had changed between 1800 and 1868. At the beginning of the century, hangings were attended by all classes of society and were considered an excellent day out. The rich would pay handsomely to get a good view of the event. By the end of the period, it is claimed that it was mostly the lower classes who were attending them.
In 1810, there were no less than 222 individually defined capital crimes and this was steadily reduced between 1813 and 1861. By 1861, it was reduced to just four by the Criminal Law Consolidation Act of that year. In effect from here on there was really only one capital crime - murder - for which people would continue to be put to death in peacetime. In the period 1832-1834, Sir Robert Peel's government introduced various Bills to reduce the number of capital crimes. See Timeline of Capital punishment for dates and details of these reforms.
The Penal Servitude Act of 1853 introduced the modern concept of prison as a punishment in itself rather than merely as a place to hold people awaiting trial, execution or transportation. New prisons had been built all over the country to house people who would have previously been transported or hanged.
In 1908, the minimum age for execution was raised to 16 and to 18 in 1933. It should be noted that the last person under the age of 18 to be executed was 17 year old Charles Dobel who was executed at
Maidstone
along with 18 year old William Gower on
the 2nd of January 1889
, for the murder of B C Lawrence. All other under 18�s had been reprieved.
The Infanticide Act of 1922 made the killing of a baby by its mother no longer a capital crime. This was extended in 1938 to include the killing of a child of under one year. The Sentence of Death (Expectant Mothers) Act 1931 excepted pregnant women who were no longer to be hanged after giving birth. In reality, no woman had been hanged for the crime of killing her new born baby for since 1849. In 1925 The National Campaign for the Abolition of Capital Punishment formed and this continued to campaign for abolition up to the end. Several then well known Left wing politicians were members of this, including prime minister to be, Harold Wilson.�
It would be wrong to leave out mention of one of the most tireless campaigners against capital punishment in the period from 1935 to 1960.� This was Violet Van der Elst (1882-1966) who was also known as �Sweet Violet� and less flatteringly as �VD Elsie�.� Although she came from a humble background she became very wealthy and would arrive outside prisons on the eve of an execution in her Rolls Royce.� Here she would play hymns through loudspeakers and distribute leaflets to the crowd.� She was considered as an annoyance by the authorities and an object of amusement and derision by the public.� It was not at all unusual for her to be fined for causing an obstruction or for some other minor public order offence.� Her first major demonstration took place outside Wandsworth on
the 2nd of April 1935
at the hanging of Leonard Bristock.� As usual it was both a spectacular and futile gesture.� She got a hostile response from the crowd outside Strangeways just over a year later at the execution of Dr. Buck Ruxton.��� She wrote a book entitled �On the Gallows� in 1937 which was an apologia for some recently hanged criminals both in
Britain
and in the
USA
.� It is unclear whether her campaigning really had any effect.� The public could tell the difference between cases such as Buck Ruxton and Neville Heath compared to Charlotte Bryant, for instance and were much more sympathetic to the latter.
The final move towards abolition.
Attitudes in
Britain
had been changed by World War II, class barriers came down and people felt sickened by the holocaust of Nazi Germany. In 1948, the United Nations issued the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and this and the original European Convention on Human Rights was adopted by
Britain
in 1950. In April 1948, the House of Commons voted in favour of a Bill introduced by Sidney Silverman to suspend the death penalty for five years. �The Labour Home Secretary, Lord James Chuter-Ede, announced that he would reprieve all murderers until the future of the Bill was resolved. This resulted in 26 reprieves and no executions between March and October 1948, giving a total for the year of just eight. The House of Lords rejected the Bill in late 1948, but it was decided to set up a Royal Commission under the chairmanship of Sir Ernest Gowers to examine all aspects of capital punishment. Their report was published in 1953 and led to some slight modifications to various aspects of the system. Some of these concerned improvements to the condemned cell and the prisoner�s regime in it. One major recommendation was the compulsory psychiatric examination and electro-encephalograph of the brain of all persons accused and convicted of murder. The Report also recommended improvements to the actual execution process. Prisoners were to be removed from the rope once certified dead and no longer left hanging for an hour. In November 1955, Sidney Silverman introduced the Death Penalty (Abolition) Bill to the House of Commons and it was passed by the House of Commons in February, 1956. Once again, the Home Secretary, now Major Gwilym Lloyd George (later Lord Tenby), took it upon himself to reprieve all those condemned. Forty nine people escaped the gallows and there were no executions between
the 10th of August 1955
and
the 23rd of July 1957
when John Vickers became the first person to hang under the provisions of the Homicide Act 1957. (See Reprieve for a detailed examination of this Act and its consequences.)
The Press stimulated public interest in murder trials and the eventual fate of those convicted and sentenced to death, who became far less de-humanised as a result. Virtually every word of the more interesting murder trials used to be reported in the popular press in the 1940�s and 50�s whereas now hardly any detail of most trials is actually reported. As the execution date drew near, there would be much speculation as to whether a particular prisoner would be reprieved or not and in many cases petitions for a reprieve were got up.
Compared to now, the post war years were a time of relatively little serious crime and yet a surprisingly large number of murderers were hanged in the first 10 years after the 2nd World War, 151, including five women. There were also three cases in particular that caused great public concern.
Timothy Evans was hanged on
the 9th March, 1950
for the murder of his daughter (he was also charged with murdering his wife but was not actually tried for it) in what seemed at the time like a simple case of domestic murder to which he had made an apparently voluntary confession.
Two years later the bodies of more women were discovered in the same house,
No.10 Rillington Place
. They had all been murdered by Evan's landlord, John Reginald Halliday Christie (who had given evidence against Evans at his trial). This case raised serious doubts as to whether an innocent man had been hanged.
In January 1953, 19 year old Derek Bentley ( Click here for details of his case ) went to the gallows in
London
's Wandsworth prison having been convicted of the murder of a policeman the previous year. The conviction may have been technically correct but it was seen as totally unjust by most people that a person should be hanged for a crime that even the police at the scene said he neither did nor could have committed as he was effectively under arrest at the time. The lad who fired the fatal shot, Christopher Craig, was under 18 at the time and therefore could not be hanged and actually served just 10 years in prison. This execution did more than any other to sway public opinion against capital punishment, one can only wonder what possessed the Home Secretary to take such a palpably stupid and unjust decision. One is left wondering if certain Home Office officials had a hidden agenda to end capital punishment and advised the Home Secretary to take this incredible decision knowing the likely outcome but also knowing that they would remain shielded from the consequences behind the Official Secrets Act.
The whole issue of capital punishment was raised again, two years later, when Ruth Ellis was sentenced to hang for murdering her boyfriend, David Blakely, in a fit of jealous rage when he would not see her.
As the law stood in 1955, she was quite correctly convicted of murder as her crime was decidedly pre-meditated, even if it was a "crime of passion." However, she was an attractive 28 year old, blonde mother of two, who through her demeanour in court and because of the violence she had suffered at the hands of Blakely attracted enormous public sympathy (even though she almost certainly did not want to be reprieved). Ruth Ellis had the glamour that sells newspapers and they had a field day with her case, making the Home Secretary (Gwilym Lloyd George) out to be an unfeeling monster and furthering the cause of abolition. She went to the gallows in Holloway prison on
July 13th 1955
, the last woman to be hanged in this country. ( See Ruth Ellis for a full description of this famous case).
Each of these cases was decided in secret by the Home Office without any apparent regard to prevailing public opinion and served only to raise the level of debate about the whole issue of capital punishment.
Did society have the right to take life at all?
Was it necessary with a relatively low murder rate to put people to death?
Were innocent people being hanged?
Was hanging really the deterrent it had always been made out to be?
Was hanging, carried out in complete secrecy, as humane as the Government would have had us believe?
Was the whole reprieve system just a lottery that was incapable of distinguishing between degrees of wickedness?
Why were so few people hanged and so many reprieved? Were those people who were hanged guilty of much worse crimes than those who were reprieved?
Was the Home Secretary the right person to hold the power of life or death over capital cases?
It was difficult to find many satisfactory answers to these questions at that time.
Taking on board a little of the public's concern the Government introduced the Homicide Act 1957 which tried to distinguish between different categories of murder.
This act limited the death penalty to five categories of murder, viz.
Murder committed in the course or furtherance of theft.
Murder by shooting or causing explosions.
Murder in the course of or for the purpose of resisting, avoiding or preventing lawful arrest or effecting or assisting an escape from lawful custody.
Murder of a police officer in the execution of his duty or of a person assisting him.
Murder by a prisoner of a prison officer in the execution of his duty or of a person assisting him.
Additionally, it allowed for the execution of a person who committed a second separate murder on a different occasion from the first.
Regrettably, the Act probably made matters worse. (This has been shown to be true in secret Government papers released in 1995. The then Prime Minister commented to the Home Secretary that the law was unworkable and would inevitably lead to abolition). For instance, if you killed someone by hitting them on the head with a rock, you could not be executed but if you shot them, you could be. It also invented the idea of diminished responsibility where if you had a good enough lawyer you could get off with murder and be found guilty of manslaughter instead.
Successive governments had made executions and the decisions leading to them matters of complete secrecy, thus totally excluding the public. This has the tendency to make people wonder what the authorities have to hide and allows the Press to print any sensational story, however inaccurate, about condemned prisoners and their execution. The government can't of course challenge any story without having to say what really happened. One wonders if the public would have been much less concerned if they had been told the truth instead of lurid imaginary details by the papers. It also has the effect of focusing attention on the criminal rather than the crime.
Inevitably, criminals have a "human face" that the Press exploited as they were excluded from all other aspects of the case. These human interest stories, equally inevitably, attracted public sympathy, especially where the prisoner was young or attractive or both. Interviews with prisoner's families, who often understandably maintained that their loved ones were innocent, made good press as most people like human interest stories and tend to believe what they read in the papers.
It was argued by opponents of capital punishment, that hanging, when carried out at the rate of 11 or so a year on average, over the first 65 years of the 20th century, served no useful purpose as a deterrent to the most serious crimes, but was rather simply an act of cruelty inflicted on a few people, often for no particularly obvious reason in the minds of the general public.
Prior to the assent of Queen
Victoria
to the throne in 1837, only the monarch had the power to decide whether a death sentence passed by their judges should be carried out, as all the people were, of course the subjects of the Monarch. Respective Kings and
Queens
were assisted in this decision process by the Privy Council and would grant reprieves where there were perceived to be mitigating circumstances, as recommended by the trial judge in his report.
Victoria
was just 19 when she became Queen and it was not considered "proper" for a teenage girl to have to make such decisions so the Home Office promptly appropriated the power and began to exercise the Royal prerogative of mercy on her behalf.
Under successive Home Secretaries, the system had become a seeming lottery where reprieves were granted for such reasons as the prisoner having only one leg or having earlier attempted suicide by cutting his throat, with the possibility of that wound might open up and cause an unpleasant mess, etc.
There seemed to be a general willingness on the part of the Home Office to reprieve murderers, who had been properly convicted and received the mandatory death sentence, on any possible grounds and only to allow the sentence to be carried out if absolutely no grounds for reprieve could be found. This led to about half of all death sentences being commuted to "life imprisonment" which usually meant a relatively short term in jail (10 to 12 years being normal). In this situation it is not difficult to understand why, in most cases, the relatives and friends of a condemned person campaigned so hard for a reprieve when they saw so many other people "getting away with murder." This also led to the perception of injustice by the public as it was impossible to tell why this person was reprieved and served a few years in prison whilst that person had to die, for an apparently similar crime.
Then there was the question of sanity. From 1843 the M'Naughten rules prohibited the execution of prisoners who were genuinely insane and did not understand the nature of their act or if they did, did not realise it was wrong. This sensible definition of insanity was progressively stretched by the courts and by the Home Office. From 1884 the Criminal Lunatics Act allowed for every condemned prisoner to be examined by prison psychiatrists where there were doubts as to their sanity. The psychiatrists reported secretly, to the Home Secretary and if the prisoner was found to be not wholly sane, they were normally reprieved irrespective of the nature of the crime or their sanity at the time of committing it! Bear in mind that all of those reprieved on this basis, and there were many, had either not pleaded insanity at their trial or else had not had their plea accepted by the court. One is left to draw one's own conclusions.
Executions had become decidedly unpopular with the Governors and staff of the prisons in which they took place. This is hardly surprising as they had become a very rare event in most prisons and tended to upset the normal running of the whole place. Many county prisons had less than 10 executions in 65 years. Only Pentonville and Wandsworth in
London
Durham
had relatively frequent hangings.
By the 1950's and early 60's, a new breed of prison governor had emerged. No longer the retired army officer who believed in harsh punishment and firm discipline but prison service professionals who believed in rehabilitation of offenders and found the supervising of condemned prisoners and their subsequent execution, a great strain and totally against their beliefs and training. It must have put great emotional stress on the officers who formed the death watch and had to stay with the prisoner for the whole of their 8 hour shift each day. No doubt they saw a completely different side of that person to the one portrayed in the press. And at the end could come the execution - how many of us would really like to stand in a small room just a few feet from a person we had spoken to every day for the last two or three months and watch them be hanged by the neck until dead?
The effects of abolition on the murder rate.
According to the Home Office Report (Murder 1957-1968) the murder rate in England and Wales steadily increased after the passing of the 1957 Act and further accelerated after suspension (effective abolition) of capital punishment in 1965. The graph below, produced from that report, shows the rates for murders that would have been classed as capital and non capital under the 1957 Act. It continued to increase and in the 21st century has reached over 900 a year by 2004.
Two cases in 1966 were to quickly re-ignite the debate over abolition and lead to a public demand for re-instatement.
On
the 27th of April 1966
, Myra Hindley and Ian Brady came to trial at Chester Assizes for the infamous "Moors murders." They escaped the death penalty as it had effectively been abolished just four weeks before their arrest. On
the 6th of May 1966
, they were both jailed for life, having been convicted of the murders of Lesley Ann Downey, aged 10, in 1964, and Edward Evans, aged 17, in 1965. Brady was also convicted of the murder of 12 year old John Kilbride. Hindley was found guilty of being an accessory to this. These murders were committed while capital punishment was still on the statute books. The second case, which shocked the nation, occurred on
Friday the 12th August 1966
when three career criminals, Harry Roberts, John Witney and John Duddy brutally murdered three police officers who were trying to question them at the roadside in
Braybrook Street
London
. They were all convicted and given life sentences.
In conclusion, it might be said that actual or perceived mal-administration of the reprieve system by the Home Office, a changing attitude in society and a concerted campaign by the media and liberal pressure groups were the principal reasons for the abolition of the death penalty in
Britain
. It is interesting to note that there was never a referendum held to give the public a democratic say on the matter!
| England |
In 1964, Terence Conran opened his first of which chain of shops in Fulham Road, London? | The English hangmen 1850 - 1964
in Staffordshire (1805-1874).
Period in office � 1840-1872.
George Smith was born in Rowley Regis in Staffordshire in 1805 and was a prisoner himself at Stafford Gaol when he entered the �trade� as an assistant to Calcraft. His first job was assisting at the double hanging of James Owen and George Thomas outside Stafford Gaol on
the 11th of April 1840
. Smith was known as the "Dudley Higgler", higgler being a local slang term for a hangman.� His first execution as principal being that of Charles Higginson at
Stafford
the 26th of August 1843
. He is thought to have hanged Betty Eccles at
Liverpool
�s Kirkdale Gaol on
the 6th of May 1843
for the murder of her stepson and Mary Gallop at
Chester
on
the 28th of December 1844
for killing her father.� Smith�s most famous solo execution was that of the Rugeley poisoner, Dr William Palmer for the murder of John Parsons Cook, before a large crowd at
Stafford
on the 14th of June 1856. On
the 7th of August 1866
, Smith failed to secure the rope adequately to the beam and William Collier fell to the ground when the trap doors were released and he had to be hanged again a few minutes later.� This was Staffordshire�s last public hanging. Smith was to hang 20 men and one woman, Sarah Westwood, at Stafford, plus a further three men at Chester, one woman at Kirkdale, two men at Shrewsbury, six men at Warwick and one man at Worcester.� George Smith carried out 33 public hangings and just one private one, this was on
the 13th of August 1872
, when he hanged 34 year old Christopher Edwards at
Stafford
for the murder of his wife. In addition, he assisted Calcraft at the first two private hangings in
England
, of Thomas Wells and Alexander Mackay in 1868.
Smith was renowned for his long white coat and top hat which he wore at public hangings. Smith's son, also George, may have assisted at the three executions outside
Stafford
prison in 1866. Initially, it is said that Smith was hired by the Under Sheriff of Staffordshire to save the cost of bringing Calcraft up from
London
. George Incher took over the post of Staffordshire�s hangman after Smith�s death on
the 4th of April 1874
.
William Calcraft - Little Baddow, near Chelmsford, Essex (1800- 1879).
Period in office - 1829-1874.
Calcraft was the longest serving executioner of all. It is not known precisely how many executions he carried out but it is between 430 and 450, including those of 34 women, of which at least 388 were public and 41 in private. In some provincial executions in the 1830�s it is unclear who the hangman actually was.
Calcraft was a cobbler by trade and also sold pies outside Newgate on hanging days.� Here he became acquainted with the then hangman for
London
and Middlesex, James Foxen and through this was recruited to flog juvenile prisoners in Newgate.� His first experience as an executioner was the hanging of housebreaker Thomas Lister at
Lincoln
and highwayman George Wingfield at
Lincoln
�s Beastmarket on the 27th of March 1829. The latter was a
Lincoln
City
execution.� James Foxen died on the 14th of February 1829 and it was announced in the Morning Post of the 18th of March that Calcraft would succeed him as hangman for
London
and Middlesex on the 4th of April of that year. His first job in
London
was to execute the murderess, Ester Hibner, at Newgate on the 13th of that month. 1829 was a busy year for him with no fewer than 31 executions. He was assisted by Thomas Cheshire in some of these.
On
the 20th of April 1849
, Calcraft, assisted by George Smith, hanged 17 year old Sarah Thomas in public at
Bristol
for the murder of her mistress who had maltreated her. This was one job which greatly affected him on account of her youth and good looks. It is thought that George Smith assisted at this execution as he had become Calcraft�s preferred assistant on the few occasions when he required one.
Frederick George Manning and his wife Maria were hanged side by side on
the 13th of November 1849
on the roof of Horsemonger Lane Goal. The Mannings had murdered Patrick O'Connor - Maria's erstwhile lover for money. A husband and wife being executed together was very unusual and drew the largest crowd ever recorded at a Surrey hanging - estimated at between 30,000 and 50,000.
Dr Edward William Pritchard drew an even bigger crowd, estimated at around 100,000, when he was hanged in
Jail Square
the 28th of July 1865
for the murders of his wife and mother-in-law.
Catherine Wilson was a serial poisoner whom Calcraft executed in front of the Debtor�s Door at Newgate on
the 20th of October 1862
, witnessed by a crowd estimated at 20,000. She maintained her innocence to the end and met her fate with great composure. She reportedly died without a struggle. Hers was the last public execution of a woman at Newgate.
1867 brought the hanging of three Fenians who had murdered a policeman in
Manchester
. William O'Meara Allen, Michael Larkin and Michael O'Brien (alias Gould) suffered together on
the 23rd of November 1867
outside Salford Prison. Afterwards, they became known as the Manchester Martyrs and a monument was erected to them in
Ireland
which can still be seen today. Calcraft received the princely sum of �30.00 for this job.
He officiated at the last public hangings in
Britain
- those of Francis Kidder (the last woman) at
Maidstone
the 2nd of April 1868
for the drowning of her stepdaughter and Michael Barrett at Newgate prison on
the 26th of May 1868
.� Barrett was a Fenian (what we would now call an IRA terrorist) who was executed for his part in the Clerkenwell prison explosion which killed 12 people and injured over 100.� At the time of his execution it was known that this would be the last public hanging in
England
.
The Government passed The Capital Punishment (Amendment) Act of 1868, three days after Barrett�s execution which transferred all executions inside prison walls. The press and witnesses could still be permitted to attend, although executions were no longer the great public spectacles that they had been.
The first hanging within prison was that of 18 year old Thomas Wells at
Maidstone
on the 13th of August 1868. Wells was a railway worker who had murdered his boss, the Station Master at
Dover
. Although the execution was "private," there were reporters and invited witnesses present and the short drop was used so that they would have been treated to the sight of Wells taking some two minutes to die. As the official hangman for
London
and Middlesex, Calcraft also carried out floggings at Newgate. He received one guinea (�1.05) a week retainer and a further guinea for each hanging at Newgate and half a crown (12.5p) for a flogging. His earnings were greatly enhanced by executions at other prisons where he could charge higher fees, typically �10, plus expenses.
He also held the post of executioner at Horsemonger Lane Goal in the
County
of
Surrey
and received similar fees to Newgate. Here he hanged 24 men and two women between April 1829 and October 1870. He was the exclusive executioner at
Maidstone
prison, carrying out all 37 hangings there between 1830 and 1872. In addition to these earnings, he was also allowed to keep the clothes and personal effects of the condemned which he could sell afterwards to such as Madame Tussauds for dressing the latest waxwork in the Chamber of Horrors. The rope which had been used at a hanging of a particularly notable criminal could also be sold for good money - up to 5 shillings or 25p an inch. (Hence the expression �money for old rope�.)
Calcraft claims to have invented the leather waist belt with wrist straps for pinioning the prisoners arms and one of the nooses he used is still on display at
Lancaster
Castle
. It is a very short piece of 3/4" rope with a loop worked into one end with the free end of the rope passed through it and terminating in a hook with which it was attached to the chain fixed to the gallows beam. This particular noose was used for the execution of Richard Pedder on
the 29th of August 1857
.
He was a regular visitor to
Durham
where he was to hang
Britain
's greatest mass murderess, Mary Ann Cotton on
the 24th of March 1873
, assisted by Robert Anderson.
Most of Calcraft's early work came from
London
and the Southeast, as the
Midlands
had George Smith and Thomas Askern operated in
Yorkshire
and the North. With the advent of the railway system in the mid 19th century, Calcraft was soon able to operate all over
Britain
and apparently loved travelling. There was 6,000 miles of railway by 1850 which meant that he could effectively and conveniently work nationwide. He managed two trips to
Scotland
, one on
the 28th of July 1865
to hang Dr. Edward William Pritchard who had poisoned his wife and the other to hang George Chalmers at Perth on the 4th of October 1870 in what was Scotland�s first private hanging.
His last
hanging was that of John Godwin at Newgate on
the 25th of May 1874
, his final execution in the provinces was that of John McDonald at
Exeter
the 10th of August 1874
.
Calcraft retired on a pension of 25 shillings - �1.25) per week provided by the City of
London
in 1874 and died on
the 13th of December 1879
.
It is often stated that William Calcraft bungled his hangings because he used the "short drop" method, causing most of his victims to strangle to death.� However this is neither true, nor fair to Calcraft.� He could not be expected to know about something that hadn�t been invented (the long drop) and just carried on doing what his predecessors had done.� It wasn�t until near the end of Calcraft�s career that the concept of using a longer drop began to take shape.� Although at this time
Ireland
His first job was the hanging of 28 year old William Dove at
York
for the murder of his wife on
the 9th of August 1856
. He hanged a total of eight prisoners at
York
, the last being William Jackson on
the 18th of August 1874
.
He also officiated at Armley prison,
Leeds
where he carried out the only public executions there.� These took place on
the 10th of September 1864
, when Joseph Myers and James Sargisson, were hanged side by side for separate murders. Askern was responsible for two more private executions at Armley. As with Calcraft, the availability of a good rail network enabled Askern to work further a field and allowed him to travel to
Durham
where he carried out all five public hangings between 1859 and 1865.� The last of these was of Matthew Atkinson on
the 16th of March 1865
.� The rope broke and Atkinson had to be hanged again. Askern was not selected again by the Sheriff of Co. Durham and was replaced by Calcraft.
Askern carried out the last public hanging at
Lincoln
Castle
on the 5th of August 1859 when William Pickett and Henry Carey were hanged side by side for the murder of one William Stevenson.� George Bryce, the �Ratho murderer� was the last person to hang in public in
Edinburgh
, on the 21st of June 1864, for the murder of Jane Seaton.� Askern also officiated at the last public hanging in
Scotland
, that of 19 year old Robert Smith on
the 12th of May 1868
at
, for the murder of a young girl.
Askern carried out
�s first private female hanging, that of Priscilla Biggadyke at
Lincoln
in 1868. She was later found to have been innocent and was pardoned. Askern got two jobs in
Ireland
, executing Thomas Montgomery at Omagh on
the 26th of August 1873
and John Daly at
the 26th of April 1876
.� He hanged James Dalgleish at
Carlisle
on
the 19th of December 1876
. His final act as hangman was at the execution of 37 year old John Henry Johnson at Armley on
Wednesday the 3rd of April 1877
for the murder of Amos Waite.� Once again the rope broke and Johnson had to be recovered from the pit and was hanged again 10 minutes later.� The Yorkshire Post newspaper reported that Johnson struggled for 4 minutes. After this fiasco he was not hired again in
Yorkshire
Askern died in Maltby, at the age of 62, on
the 6th of December 1878
.� In all he carried out 21 public and eight private hangings.
William Marwood of Horncastle Lincolnshire (1820-1883).
Period in office - 1872-1883.
William Marwood was born at Goulceby, near Horncastle in
Lincolnshire
and was a cobbler by trade who had, over the years, taken a great interest in the "art" of hanging and felt that it could be improved. He had never hanged anyone or even assisted at an execution but at the age of 54 persuaded the authorities at
Lincoln
prison to let him carry out the hanging of William Frederick Horry on
the 1st of April 1872
. The execution went off without a hitch and impressed the governor of that prison.
He introduced the "long drop" method of hanging to
England
, which had been developed by surgeons in
Ireland
. He realised that if the prisoner was to be given a drop of 6 to 10, feet depending upon his weight and with the noose correctly positioned, death would be "nearly instantaneous" due to the neck being broken. The long drop removed all the gruesome struggling and convulsing from the proceedings and was, undoubtedly far less cruel to the prisoner and far less trying to the governor and staff of the prison who, since the abolition of public hangings, had to witness the spectacle at close quarters.
Marwood was duly appointed as official hangman by the Sheriffs of London and Middlesex in 1874, replacing Calcraft, and received a retainer of �20.00 per annum plus �10.00 for each execution, but unlike Calcraft got no actual salary. He also was able to keep the condemned person�s clothes and received travelling expenses. His first execution at Newgate took place on
the 29th of June 1874
when he hanged Frances Stewart.
The rail system was so advanced by this time that he could travel anywhere in the country with ease thus making it possible for him to carry out most of the executions within
England
and one on
Jersey
. There were 14 double executions, three triples and one quadruple (at Newgate). He worked without an assistant for most executions but one assumes that if needed, the warders would help out.
Marwood also made improvements to the noose and pinioning straps and requested improvements to the gallows, especially the removal of steps up to the platform.� He found it far easier for all concerned to have the trap door level with the floor or ground.
His last execution was that of James Burton on
the 6th of August 1883
at
.�
Burton
�s pinioned arm caught up in the free rope hanging down his back and the poor man had to be hanged twice (See Durham prison ). Less than four weeks later, on the 4th of September 1883, William Marwood died of "inflammation of the lungs".
Four of Marwood's most notable cases were :
Charles Peace was a burglar and murderer whom Marwood hanged on
the 25th of February 1879
at Armley Goal in
Leeds
. Peace was the archetypal Victorian criminal who struck fear into the hearts of everyone at the time.
Kate Webster , an Irish servant girl, who murdered her mistress and cut up her body was executed on
the 29th of July 1879
at Wandsworth Prison, the only woman to be hanged there.
Percy Lefroy Mapleton murdered Isaac Fredrick Gold on a train on the Brighton Line so that he could steal Gold's watch and some coins. He was arrested almost immediately but managed to escape from custody before being arrested again, convicted and finally hanged at Lewes prison on
the 29th of November 1881
.
Marwood travelled to
Ireland
from time to time and had the job of executing Joe Brady and four other members of the "Invincibles" gang for the murders in Phoenix Park Dublin of Lord Frederick Cavendish and Thomas Harry Burke the Permanent Under Secretary for
Ireland
. These hangings took place on
the 14th of May 1883
at Kilmainham jail in
Dublin
.
Marwood worked with George Incher on the occasions that needed two executioners, i.e. doubles, until 1881 and then used Bartholomew Binns as an assistant until 1883 when Binns took over as No. 1.
Robert Anderson (Evans) - from
Robert Anderson was born Robert Evans and later changed his name to
Anderson
. He was a lawyer�s son who had trained as a doctor but had not practiced as such.� He was a man of private means who did not need to work or need the small income derived from executions and in fact gave his fee to William Calcraft for the privilege of assisting him. This he did on at least three occasions, notably at the hanging of serial poisoner Mary Ann Cotton at Durham on the 24th of March 1873 and at Calcraft�s last execution at Newgate, that of John Godwin in 1874. (see Calcraft above).
"Evans the hangman" as he was known, acted as principal executioner on seven occasions in
England
in 1874 and 1875. His first job as executioner was the hanging of Thomas Corrigan at
Liverpool
on
the 5th of January 1874
for the murder of his mother.� He hanged John M�Crave and Michael Mullen, two members of
Liverpool
�s notorious Corner Men gang at Kirkdale Gaol on
the 4th of January 1875
, together with William Worthington who had murdered his wife.� He also carried out a treble hanging in the open courtyard of
Gloucester
prison on
the 12th of January 1874
, when 31 year old Mary Ann Barry and her common law husband, Edwin Bailey, were executed for the murder of his illegitimate child, together with Edward Butt who had shot his girlfriend. His last recorded execution was in
Ireland
, that of Joseph Poole at
Richmond
the 18th of December 1883
.�
applied to succeed William Marwood but was not appointed. He lived to 85, dying on
the 26th of August 1901
.
George Incher or Insher� of Dudley (1831 � 1897).
Period in office -1875-1881.
Incher a cted as executioner at
Stafford
on three occasions, between 1875 and 1881 for the hangings of John Stanton, Henry Rogers and James Williams.
Dudley
was in Staffordshire at this time.
He also assisted William Marwood at the multiple execution of the four Lennie Mutineers at Newgate in May 1876. His last execution was that of 24 year old James Williams at
Stafford
on
the 22nd of February 1881
, for the murder of his girlfriend.� He was given a drop of four feet and reportedly died without a struggle.
Bartholomew Binns from Dewsbury in Yorkshire (1839 - 1911).
Period in office � 1883-1884.
When William Marwood died an amazing 1400 applications were received to replace him.� Two men were seriously considered for the post, Bartholomew Binns and James Berry.� Binns was born in
Wakefield
in 1839.� In September 1883 the Sheriffs of
London
and Middlesex interviewed 20 men to replace Marwood.� They short listed James Berry and a Mr. Taylor who had assisted Marwood at
Lincoln
, but decided against employing either and sent a telegram to Binns.� He was appointed at Newgate on the 28th of September 1883, possibly because he was a single man.� His first "solo" execution was that of Henry Powell on
the 6th of November 1883
at Wandsworth Prison.
On the 17th of December 1883 Binns officiated at Newgate for the hanging of Patrick O'Donnell, an Irish Republican, who murdered the chief witness in the
Phoenix
Park
murder case (see Marwood above). He carried out the double hanging of Catherine Flannagan and Margaret Higgins at Kirkdale Gaol on
the 5th of March 1884
, assisted by Samuel Heath.� The execution of Henry Dutton at Kirkdale on
the 3rd of December 1883
was botched by Binns.� The twenty two year old was to die for the murder of Hannah Henshaw, his wife�s grandmother at their home in Athol Street Liverpool.� Dutton weighed just 128 lbs and was given a drop of 7� 6� using an over thick rope with the eyelet positioned at the back of his neck.� Death resulted from strangulation and his heart continued to beat for 8 minutes after the drop.� Dr. James Barr, the prison doctor, was dissatisfied with the way Binns had conducted the hanging and again there was a strong suspicion that he had been drinking beforehand. His last job was the hanging of 18 year old Michael McLean at the same prison, on the 10th of March 1884.� He was seen to be in a drunken state and the execution was not entirely satisfactory � it took 13 minutes for McLean�s heart to stop. After the formal complaint about this and his drunken behaviour, The Court of Aldermen decided to no longer retain his services in September 1884. However, he later assisted Tommy Scott on several occasions in 1900/01.� Binns was perhaps one of the least successful British hangman, only holding the job as principal for a year, during which time he carried out ten executions in
England
and one, Peter Wade, in
Dublin
James Berry of Heckmondwike Yorkshire (1852-1913).
Period on Home Office List - 1884-1891.
James Berry was born on
the 8th of February 1852
.� He carried out a total of 130 hangings, including those of five women plus that of John Lee (see below). He was the first British executioner to write his memoirs, "My Experiences as an Executioner" which is still available in libraries and also on line at https://ia800300.us.archive.org/19/items/MyExperiencesAsAnExecutioner/Berry.pdf
He was, like Marwood, proud of his calling and both had their own waxworks in Madame Tussauds.
Berry
had previously been a policeman in
Bradford
and had met Marwood and became acquainted with his methods.� He worked in
England
, but strangely not in his native
Yorkshire
, where James Billington always got the job.
His seven years in office were not without event.
His first commission was the double hanging of William Innes and Robert Vickers at
Edinburgh
�s Calton prison on
the 31st of March 1884
. Innes and Vickers were two poachers who had shot and killed two gamekeepers. Mary Lefley was to be his first English execution, on the 26th of May at
Lincoln
County
jail. Lefley, aged 44, poisoned her husband with arsenic and had to be dragged to the gallows screaming "Murder, Murder" and struggling with the warders. In both of these executions
Berry
was assisted by �Richard Chester�, not his real name which he kept concealed. He assisted
Berry
on a few other occasions when required, although
Berry
normally worked alone.
One of his most famous (non) jobs was the strange case of John Lee - "The man they could not hang" on
the 23rd of February 1885
at
Exeter
prison. Twenty year old John Lee was convicted of the murder of his elderly employer Emma Keyse, for whom he worked as a footman.� All the normal preparations were made on the gallows, set up in the coach house at
Exeter
operated the lever, nothing happened.
Berry
stomped on the trap but to no avail, and Lee was then taken back to his cell whilst the trap release mechanism was tested. It worked perfectly.� The process was now repeated but with the same result and yet again the trap worked perfectly after Lee was removed. After the third unsuccessful attempt, the governor stayed the hanging whilst he obtained directions from the Home Office. Lee was later reprieved.
Various theories abounded as to why the trap would not open with Lee on it, ranging from divine intervention through the wood swelling in the damp weather to the more unbelievable one of the prisoners who had helped to erect it placing a wedge between the leaves of the trap which he removed again as soon as Lee was taken off and reinserted at each new attempt.� The reality was much more prosaic.� When the trap had been erected in the coach house at
Exeter
, having been previously used at a different location for the hanging of Annie Tooke in 1879, the metal work was not installed correctly and one of the long hinges fouled on the side of the pit when there was weight on the trapdoors but not when there wasn�t.
On
the 7th of October 1885
, the Home Office wrote to the Prison Commission advising them that the hangman should be required to lodge within the prison on the night before an execution to avoid their getting drunk and entertaining the locals in hotels and pubs with stories of their executions.� This was advisory rather than mandatory as the Home Office recognised that it was the sheriff who appointed the hangman and oversaw the execution.� In
Berry
�s case drunkenness was not an issue at this time as he was a teetotaller.
Another unfortunate experience concerned the execution of Robert Goodale at
Norwich
on
the 30th of November 1885
. Goodale who weighed 15 stone (95 Kg.) but was in poor physical condition, was decapitated by the force of the drop, the only recorded instance of this in Britain, although two other of Berry's victims, Moses Shrimpton at Worcester and John Conway at Kirkdale were nearly decapitated by the drop.
Berry
blamed the prison doctor, Dr. Barr, for interfering with his calculations in the
Conway
The opposite problem occurred in at least three of
Berry
's other hangings when the condemned clearly strangled to death due to the length of drop being insufficient. These were David Roberts, hanged at
Cardiff
the 2nd of March 1886
, Henry Delvin, executed on
the 23rd of September 1890
in
prison for murdering his wife, and Edward Hewitt who was executed at
Gloucester
in June of 1886.
The government were concerned about these incidents, especially as they resulted in bad publicity and were raising questions over the continuing use of hanging as the form of capital punishment. So in 1886, the Conservative Home Secretary, Sir Richard Assheton Cross, commissioned a former Liberal Home Secretary, Lord Aberdare, to chair a committee with a brief to inquire into and report to the Home Secretary upon �the existing practice as to carrying out the sentence of death and the causes which in several recent cases have led either to the failure or to unseemly occurrences and to consider and report what arrangements may be adopted (without altering the existing law) to ensure that all executions may be carried out in a becoming manner without risk of failure or miscarriage in any respect�.� The Committee issued its report in June 1888, none of its recommendations required any legislation to allow them to be implemented. The Capital Sentences Committee, to give it its full title, took evidence from James Berry in June 1877 which included a discussion of the elasticity of the ropes supplied by the Prison Commission, known as �government ropes�.� The elasticity issue was very important because if the rope stretched significantly the condemned got a greater drop and therefore an increased chance of decapitation. �There was also discussion of the correct position for the eyelet or thimble of the noose,
Berry
was of the view that it should be placed behind the left ear, the sub-aural position.� It can be equally well positioned under the right ear if the hangman is left handed.� Up until now there had been no official table of drops, Marwood and
Berry
had devised their own.� Click here for further details of the report the Capital Sentences Committee. A number of other recommendations were made by the Committee.� Executioners were no longer to be paid a salary as Calcraft had been, but rather hired by the individual county sheriffs on a by the job basis.� Properly trained assistants were to be used of who would be able to take over if the hangman became ill or fainted and would also be available to carry out an execution if the �No.1� was busy with one elsewhere. This particular recommendation did not totally take effect until after James Berry resigned in 1892.� The sheriffs were then able to choose from a list of hangmen and assistants approved by the Prison Commissioners. The suggestion that the hangman and assistant should stay in the prison from
4 o�clock
in the afternoon prior to an execution was endorsed by the Committee and became standard practice.
On
had an unusual assistant for a triple hanging at
Carlisle
.� Sir Claude de Crespigney was a magistrate who was expecting to be the next Sheriff for the
County
of
Essex
and wanted to assist at a hanging in case he had to organise one.� He allegedly gave
Berry
�10 for being allowed to help hang James Baker, James Martin and Anthony Rudge. A question was asked in Parliament over the participation of a Knight of the Realm at an execution.
By a strange coincidence, Mr.
Berry
was called upon to hang Mrs. Berry who had poisoned her 11 year old daughter for �10 life insurance. The execution took place on
the 14th of March 1887
at Walton prison
Liverpool
(the first in that prison). Not only did the executioner and the prisoner have the same surname, and although not related, they actually knew each other, having danced together at a police ball in
Manchester
some years previously. He was to hang Mary Ann Britland at Strangeways prison in Manchester on the 9th of August 1886 and Mary Eleanor Wheeler (who�s father had also been hanged 10 years earlier) at Newgate prison on the 23rd of December 1890. His final execution was carried out at
Greenock
on the 11th of January 1892 when he hanged Frederick Storey. James Berry was not popular with the Home Office because of his holding 'court' in local pubs after executions, which had led to questions being asked in Parliament, and his behaviour at the hanging of John Conway within Liverpool�s Kirkdale prison on the 20th of August 1891.� He was not selected again and subsequent English executions were carried out by James Billington.� Berry formally resigned on the 4th of March 1892.� James Berry died on
the 21st of October 1913
.
.
Period on Home Office List 1892-1895.
Thomas Scott was a rope maker and a stone mason by trade who worked as an assistant to James Billington on 13 occasions and acted as chief executioner on two occasions, both at
Stafford
.� His last execution in
England
should have been assisting James Billington with the hanging of Elijah Winstanley on
the 17th of December 1895
at Walton prison.� On the preceding evening he left the Gaol and got in a cab with a prostitute who stole his wallet after having sex with him. He was not allowed to work the following morning and was removed from the Home Office List. Most of his work as No. 1 was in
Ireland
, his last job there was the execution of John Toole at Mountjoy prison in
Dublin
on
the 7th of March 1901
.� The Irish authorities decided that they would no longer employ him as he was not on the Home Office List.
William Warbrick -
.
Period on Home Office List 1893-1910.
William Warbrick assisted James Billington at 21 hangings in the 19th century, including that of baby farmer, Amelia Dyer and a further three in the 20th century.� He assisted James Billington at Newgate with the first hanging of 1900, that of Louise Massett .� His last job was assisting Thomas Pierrepoint, with the execution of John Coulson at Armley on the 9th of August 1910.� You may find references to an assistant called Wilkinson.� This was Warbrick, who had changed his name from Wilkinson in 1896.
James Billington of Farnworth near Bolton in
Lancashire
(1847-1901).
Period on Home Office List - 1884-1901.
James Billington had a life long fascination with hanging and had unsuccessfully applied for Marwood's post but managed to secure the Yorkshire hangman's position. Like Henry Pierrepoint he was to found a dynasty of hangmen. James ran a barber shop in Farnworth when not engaged in executions. He executed 141 men and five women in
England
James' first execution was at Armley Gaol in
Leeds
the 26th of August 1884
, when he hanged Joseph Laycock, a
Sheffield
hawker, for the murder of his wife and four children. Laycock was to have said just before being hanged, "You will not hurt me?" to which James Billington replied, "No, thaal nivver feel it, for thaal be out of existence i' two minutes." This execution was judged to be successful and he carried out a further seven hangings at Armley and one at York Castle before succeeding Berry as the executioner for London and the Home Counties in 1892 and then effectively working nationwide.� His first commission outside
Yorkshire
was at Shepton Mallet on
the 15th December 1891
where he hanged Henry Dainton for the murder of his wife at
Bath
James Billington hanged 24 men and three women at Newgate prison, including Henry Fowler and Albert Milsom on
the 9th of June 1896
for beating to death 79 year old widower Henry Smith.
Perhaps his most interesting execution was that of the poisoner, Dr. Thomas Neil Cream, on
the 15th of November 1892
, again at Newgate. Cream waited till the very last moment as he felt the mechanism under the trap begin to move, to utter the words, "I am Jack the...." It is highly unlikely that Cream could have been Jack the Ripper but it certainly caused a stir at the time.
He hanged Amelia Dyer at Newgate for the murder of four month old Doris Marmon, a baby who had been entrusted to her care, having received �10 to look after her. This particular form of murder was known as " Baby Farming " and it is thought that Dyer had murdered at least six other babies for money. Each baby had been strangled with white tape. As Mrs. Dyer said, that was how you could tell it was one of hers. At 57, she was the oldest woman to go to the gallows since 1843.
The last female hanging of the 19th century was that of Mary Ann Ansell at
St. Albans
the 19th of July 1899
.� She was executed for the poisoning of her sister.
James Billington conducted
Britain
�s first hanging of the 20th century, that of 33 year old Louise Masset at Newgate on
the 9th of January 1900
for the murder of her illegitimate son. In all James Billington carried out 146 executions on
England
, including five women.� His last job was at Strangeways prison in
Manchester
on
December 3rd, 1901
the hanging of Patrick M'Kenna, who was to die for murdering his wife. James Billington died of severe bronchitis on
the 13th of December 1901
and was succeeded by his two sons, William and John.
Thomas Billington (1872-1902).
Period on Home Office List 1897-1901.
Thomas Billington was James Billington's eldest son and assisted his father at two hangings and his brother William at three, before dying of pneumonia aged 29, on
the 10th of January 1902
.
William Billington (1873-1934).
Period on Home Office List - 1899-1905.
The second of James Billington's three sons, William, took over from his father and was assisted by his younger brother John. William was to carry out 60 executions as principal in
England
, his first job being the hanging of Edward Bell at
Lincoln
on the 25th of July 1899.� He had assisted at 15 executions.� He also travelled to
Ireland
for eight executions between 1902 and 1905 and carried out two in
Scotland
William carried out Newgate�s last execution, that of George Woolfe on
the 2nd of May 1902
. He also dealt with Annie Walters and Amelia Sach who were hanged at Holloway prison on the 3rd of February 1903 for baby farming. These were the first executions at the newly created female only Holloway prison.� He executed Mrs. Emily Swan and her boyfriend, John Gallagher, who died together at Armley prison
Leeds
on
the 29th of December 1903
for the murder of Emily's husband. Hooded and noosed on the gallows Emily said, "Good morning John" to which he replied, "Good morning love". Emily replied, "Goodbye, God bless you" before the drop fell ending any more conversation.� John Ellis assisted at this double hanging.
Assisted by Henry Pierrepoint, he also carried out the first hanging at Pentonville on
the 30th of September 1902
, when they executed John McDonald who had stabbed one Mr. Henry Greaves to death. His last execution was also at Pentonville, that of Charles Wade on
the 13th of December 1904
.
The Home Office list issued in 1901, comprised James, Thomas and William Billington, plus William Warbrick, Robert Wade, Henry Pierrepoint and John Ellis.
John Billington (1880-1905).
Period on Home Office List - 1902-1905.
John was added to the Home Office's approved list of executioners in 1902. He carried out 14 hangings as principal in
England
and
Wales
, having assisted William at 24 executions. His first execution as �No. 1� was at Strangeways prison when he hanged Charles Whittaker on
the 2nd of December 1903
. He hanged John Thomas Kay on
the 17th of August 1904
at Armley prison in Leeds, while his brother was dealing with Samuel Holden at Winson Green prison in
Birmingham
on the same day.� His final commission was at Armley for the execution of Thomas Tattersall on
the 15th of August 1905
. He died a few months later in October 1905.
Henry Albert Pierrepoint (1878-1922) from Bradford
Yorkshire
Period on Home Office List - 1900-1910.
Henry Pierrepoint assisted at 35 hangings and carried out 70 executions himself, 63 in
England
and one on
Jersey
during his nine year term of office. He took great pride in his work and calculated the drops most carefully - he is said never to have had a single bungled hanging.
Henry�s first commission was at Newgate assisting James Billington, at the execution of Marcel Fougeron on the 19th of November 1901. Between January 1902 and March 1903 he assisted at a further 15 hangings and is thought to have carried out some of them as principal. The first lead role was to be the hanging of Richard Wigley at
Shrewsbury
on
Tuesday the 18th of March 1902
. Wigley had murdered his girlfriend. He was judged a �success� at this execution..
Henry, assisted by his brother Tom, hanged Rhoda Willis at
Cardiff
on
the 14th of August 1907
. She was executed on her 44th birthday for the murder of a day old baby whom she had agreed to look after for �6.00 paid to her by its unmarried mother. She was thus, in effect, another baby farmer. Her good looks and golden hair made a big impression on Henry.
Like James Billington, Henry Pierrepoint was the founder of a family dynasty, persuading his older brother Tom and son Albert to follow in his footsteps.
Files recently released by the Public Record Office show that Henry Pierrepoint was sacked because he arrived for the execution Frederick Foreman in
Chelmsford
on
the 17th of July 1910
"considerably the worse for drink" and had got into a fight with John Ellis, his assistant, on the preceding afternoon.�
John Ellis of
Ireland
between 1906 and 1923, including several notable criminals.
Dr Hawley Harvey Crippen is perhaps the most famous criminal to come Ellis's way. He was hanged on
the 23rd of November 1910
at Pentonville prison for the murder of his wife, Cora Crippen. Crippen was the first person to be caught by the use of the new wireless telegraph system allowing him to be arrested aboard the S. S. Montrose on which he had sailed to
Quebec
in
Canada
with his lover, Ethel Le Neve. At the time, it was seen as the "Crime of the Century" and has held a fascination for many ever since.
George Smith was the famous "Brides in the
Bath
" murderer whom Ellis hanged on
the 13th of August 1915
at
Maidstone
prison. Smith had married and then drowned Alice Burnham, Beatrice Constance, Annie Mundy and Margaret Elizabeth Lofty for financial gain, via their life insurance policies and wills.
Sir Roger Casement was unusual in that he had been convicted of treason, having tried to get the Germans to send arms and equipment to
Ireland
to start the 1916 Easter Uprising. He was hanged at Pentonville on
the 3rd of August 1916
.
Herbert Rowse Armstrong was hanged on
the 31st of May 1922
at
Gloucester
prison for the murder, by arsenic poisoning, of his wife. There is some doubt now over Armstrong's guilt and new evidence has been unearthed by another, present day solicitor, who acquired Armstrong's practice in Hay on Wye and works in his old office and even bought his house.
On the 9th of January 1923, Ellis had the worst job of his career when, assisted by Robert Baxter, he hanged Edith Jessie Thompson at Holloway for her part in the murder of her husband, Percy, who was stabbed to death by Frederick Bywaters. (see below). She had to be carried to the gallows and it was reported that her underwear was covered in blood after the hanging. After this, all other women were made to wear canvas underpants.
Ellis and Baxter also hanged Susan Newell at
Duke Street
on
the 10th of October 1923
.� Thirty year old Newell had strangled newspaper boy, John Johnston, who would not give her an evening paper without the money. She was the first woman to hang in
Scotland
for over 50 years and on the gallows refused the traditional white hood. John Ellis carried out his final execution on
the 28th of December 1923
, when he hanged John Eastwood at Armley prison in
Leeds
, for the murder of his wife. In March of 1924, he tended his resignation due to poor health, having executed a total of 203 people. Before his suicide on
the 20th of September 1932
, Ellis wrote his memoirs "Diary of a Hangman" which has been recently reprinted.
William Willis from
. (c1876-1939).
Period on Home Office List 1906-1926.
Willis had assisted at 75 executions, helping Ellis, Henry and Tom Pierrepoint and Robert Baxter, before undertaking 12 as �No. 1� including a series of six at
Manchester
's Strangeways prison between 1924 and 1926 and two in
Northern Ireland
in 1923 and 1924. While Ellis was hanging Edith Thompson, Willis was doing the same to Frederick Edward Bywaters at Pentonville Prison.
Willis was sacked in 1926 after he was seen to be drunk and aggressive at the hanging of Johannes Mommers at Pentonville on
the 27th of July 1926
.
The 1929 Home Office list had Thomas Pierrepoint and Robert Baxter as hangmen and Robert Wilson, Thomas Phillips, Henry Pollard, Lionel Mann and Alfred Allen as assistants.
Thomas Pierrepoint (1870 - 1954) from Sutton Bonnington, Notts.
Period on Home Office List - 1906-1946.
Tomas was six years older than his brother Henry and worked as a hangman for 40 years before retiring in 1946, in his mid seventies. Thomas assisted at 35 executions and carried out 203 civilian hangings in
England
in August 1944 to hang a
US
serviceman, who had been convicted of rape.
Some of Thomas� famous cases were :
Alfred Arthur Rouse, hanged on the 10th of March 1930 at
Bedford
prison for the murder of an unknown man. Rouse had killed the man and then put him in his (Rouse's) car and set it ablaze in an attempt to fake his own death for the insurance money.
the 19th of December 1934
at Hull Prison for the murder of her husband.
Nurse Dorothea Waddingham , who was hanged on
the 16th of April 1936
at Winson Green prison in
Birmingham
for poisoning two vulnerable women patients in her nursing home.
In the same year he also hanged Buck Ruxton at Strangeways on the 12th of May, who had murdered his wife and maid and Charlotte Bryant , who went to the gallows at
Exeter
on the 15th of July for the murder of her husband by arsenic poisoning.� Tom Pierrepoint died on
the 10th of February 1954
in
(4) and
Swansea
(1). He undertook 24 consecutive executions at Pentonville and nine at Wandsworth between 1924 and 1935.
He also hanged Frederick Guy Browne on
the 31st of May 1928
at Pentonville prison for his part in P.C. Gutteridge's murder. At the same moment his co-defendant, William Henry Kennedy was being hanged at Wandsworth by Thomas Pierrepoint.� Due to being blind in his left eye, an unfortunate mishap occurred at
Swansea
on the 11th of December 1928, at the execution of Trevor Edwards.� Baxter failed to see that his assistant, Alfred Allen had not got clear of the drop, before he pulled the lever, Allen plummeting down with Edwards, although unlike him, surviving the experience.� Baxter�s last execution was that of Alan Grierson at Pentonville on
the 30th of October 1935
.
(c1888 - 1938).
Period on Home Office List 1928-1937.
Allen assisted at 14 hangings and acted as executioner at three more between 1932 and 1937.� In the last two cases, Frederick Field at Wandsworth on the 30th of June 1936 and Frederick Murphy at Pentonville on the 17th of August 1937, the spinal cord was not crushed or severed, due to Allen effectively botching the execution by putting the noose on with the eyelet facing towards the back of the neck.� He was removed from the list on the 24th of August 1937.
Thomas Mather Phillips from Farnworth near
Bolton
(1889 - 1941).
Period on Home Office List 1918-1941.
Phillips worked as chief executioner on two occasions in 1939 and 1940, having previously assisted at 39 hangings, including that of Edith Thompson at Holloway. He died on
the 27th of March 1941
.
William Cross - from Fulham in
London
.
Period on Home Office List 1932-1941.
Cross assisted at least 12 executions and acted as chief executioner on four occasions. His first and most memorable execution was the hanging of Udam Singh at Pentonville on
Wednesday the 31st of July 1940
. Singh, a Sikh extremist, was condemned for the murder of Sir Michael O�Dwyer. Cross was also responsible for the executions of two German spies, Jose Waldeburg and Carl Meier, at Pentonville on the 10th of December, 1940 and Charles Albert Van Der Kieboom on the 17th of December 1940.� His last job was assisting Thomas Pierrepoint at Winson Green on
the 19th of September 1941
with the execution of Eli Richards.
The Home Office list of 1938 contained the names of seven men who were "competent to carry out the duties". They were apparently ordinary, stable married men who worked in normal occupations.� Reliability and stability were seen as the key issues. Any form of misbehaviour or poor performance would result in the person being removed from the list.
Albert Pierrepoint from Clayton Nr. Bradford
Yorkshire
(1905-1992).
Period on Home Office List 1932-1956.
Albert Pierrepoint was by far the most prolific hangman of the 20th century having been assistant or principal at the hangings of an estimated 434 people including 16 women in his 24 years of service in this country and abroad. His tally of executions was greatly increased as a result of World War II, working at Hameln (Hamelin) prison in the British controlled sector of Germany between 1945 and 1949 (201 executions, including 149 men and ten women who were convicted of war crimes, 40 for civilian crimes plus two British soldiers convicted of murder). The most notable of this series of executions was the first batch which took place on the 13th of December 1945, when he hanged 13 prisoners at
Hameln
. They were 11 members of staff from the Belsen Concentration Camp, including Irma Grese , Elizabeth Volkenrath and Johanna Bormann , Josef Kramer, the "Beast of Belsen" (the Commandant of the
Bergen-Belsen
concentration camp) and 7 other male staff.� A further two men convicted of the
Almelo
murders of a British soldier and a Dutch civilian were the last pair to hang on this day.
He also carried out 14 hangings in other countries, including
Austria
(eight male hangings in Graz-Karlau prison), where he trained Austrian hangmen to carry out other death sentences passed by British Military Courts there.� There were four executions in Egypt of British servicemen, three in 1950 and the fourth in 1952, plus two hangings in
Gibraltar
of war criminals in 1944.
In
England
and Wales Albert assisted at 29 hangings and carried out 138 civilian executions for murder as principal, including those of the last four women to hang. He carried out nine hangings in
Scotland
between 1948 and 1954.� As assistant or principal Albert was to execute 14 men convicted of espionage, treachery and treason during and immediately after World War II. These included John Amery, who told Albert that he had always wanted to meet him, as he was about to be led to the gallows at Wandsworth on the 19th December 1945 and Nazi propagandist "Lord Haw-Haw," real name William Joyce, at Wandsworth for treason on the 3rd of January 1946. Theodore Schurch was the last person to be executed for treachery in Britain when Albert hanged him at Pentonville on the 4th of January, 1946..
His first experience of the family �trade� was assisting his uncle Tom in the hanging of Patrick McDermott at Mountjoy Prison in
Dublin
the 29th of December 1932
. His first job as an assistant in
England
was again with his uncle, at the execution of Richard Hetherington at
Liverpool
�s Walton prison on
the 20th of June 1933
.
Albert is credited with the quickest hanging on record when he, assisted by Sid Dernley, executed James Inglis in only 7 seconds on the 8th of May 1951 at Strangeways in Manchester. His first execution as "Number 1" was that of gangster, Antonio "Babe" Mancini, at Pentonville Prison on
the 17th of October 1941
. Albert took over from his uncle as the hangman for the
Irish
Republic
and carried out the last four executions there, up to 1954, when Michael Manning became the last person to be executed in
Eire
Some of his notable executions were :
Neville George Clevelly Heath who was hanged on
the 16th of October 1946
at Pentonville Prison for the sexual/sadistic murder of Margery Gardner who was found dead in a hotel bedroom. When discovered, she was lying on her back in one of the single beds nearest to the door. She was naked and had her ankles bound with a handkerchief. She had a lot of bruising to her face and her nipples had been almost bitten off. Something had been inserted into her vagina and sharply rotated. On her back were 17 criss-cross lash marks. The cause of death had been suffocation, but only after the horrific injuries had been inflicted.
During World War II, Albert assisted his uncle Tom in the hanging at least six of the 16 American soldiers at Shepton Mallet military prison in
Somerset
.� They had been condemned by Courts Martial for murder and/or rape.
John George Haigh, the famous "Acid bath murderer," came his way on the 10th of August 1949 at Wandsworth prison for the murder of Mrs. Olive Durand-Deacon. Her gallstone and dentures were not dissolved by the acid in which he had dissolved the rest of her body and remained to convict Haigh. She was one of Haigh�s six victims.
Albert gave evidence to the 1949 Royal Commission on Capital Punishment , chaired by Sir Ernest Gowers and also a demonstration of the technique of hanging.
Derek Bentley was hanged on
the 28th of January 1953
, at Wandsworth, for his part in the murder of PC Miles. The case has been the subject of books and the film "Let him have it".
Another controversial case was that of Timothy John Evans whom Albert hanged on
the 9th of March 1950
at Pentonville for the murder of his wife at
10 Rillington Place
, the home of John Reginald Christie. Christie admitted killing seven women in total. He was hanged on
the 15th of July 1953
at Pentonville Prison. In 1966, Evans was granted a posthumous pardon. On
Tuesday the 28th of November 1950
Albert hanged James Corbitt at Strangeways in
Manchester
for the murder of his girlfriend. Corbitt had been a regular at Albert�s pub and they had sang together on a Saturday night. The had nicknamed each other �Tish� and �Tosh�.� Allegedly it was only when Albert went to look at the prisoner on the Monday night he realised who he was about to hang.� They greeted each other with their nicknames the following morning.
On
the 13th of July 1955
at Holloway Prison, Ruth Ellis became the last woman to be hanged in
Britain
. Albert�s last execution was that of 25 year old Norman Green at
Liverpool
�s Walton prison on
Wednesday the 27th of July 1955
. Green had stabbed two children to death in separate murders in 1954 and 1955. There were only three more executions in 1955 and none in 1956.� All other condemned prisoners were reprieved during this period whilst Parliament debated the subject and came up with the Homicide Act of 1957.
Pierrepoint resigned over a disagreement about fees in 1956. He had driven to Strangeways on a bitterly cold day in January 1956 to hang Thomas Bancroft. He arrived at the prison only for Bancroft to be reprieved later in the afternoon. He claimed the full fee of �15, (more than �200 at today's prices), but was offered just �1 in out of pocket expenses by the Under sheriff of
Lancashire
. Pierrepoint appealed to his employers, the Prison Commission, who refused to get involved. The Under sheriff sent him a cheque for �4 in final settlement. But to Albert this was a huge insult to his pride in his position as
Britain
's Chief Executioner so he tendered his resignation. Albert died in a nursing home in
Southport
the 10th of July 1992
at the age of 87.
His autobiography, "Executioner - Pierrepoint" is still available.
Harry Kirk from Huntingdon (1893 - 1967).
Period on Home Office List - 1941-1950.
Henry Kirk, who was always known as Harry, including on LPC4 forms, had worked as an assistant to Stanley Cross, Tom and Albert Pierrepoint on 35 occasions. He had a very short career as a hangman. When he executed Norman Goldthorpe at
Norwich
on the 22nd of November 1950 for the murder of 66 year old Emma Howe at
Yarmouth
, snorting sounds were heard coming from the prisoner. This was apparently due to the hood jamming in the eyelet of the noose. This was thus Kirk's first and last hanging as principal.
Stephen Wade from
(1887 - 1956).
Period on Home Office List - 1940-1955.
Steve Wade was another man who always wanted to be an executioner having first applied when he came out of the army at the end of World War I in 1918, then aged 21.� His application was rejected due to his age, but he kept trying and finally made it onto the list in 1940.� His first job was assisting Thomas Pierrepoint with the hanging of George Armstrong at Wandsworth on the 9th of July 1941.� After the war he worked for a coach dealership in
Doncaster
.� Having assisted both Tom and Albert Pierrepoint he was finally allowed to be the No. 1 at the execution of Arthur Charles at
Durham
on the 26th of March 1946.� He was generally selected by the Sheriff of Yorkshire for hangings at Armley prison
Leeds
from 1947 on.� In his autobiography, Albert Pierrepoint, spoke highly of Steve Wade and always found him reliable. Steve Wade also worked as an assistant to both Tom and Albert Pierrepoint on 18 occasions and carried out 29 executions in his own right, including two after Albert Pierrepoint�s resignation, those of Corbett Roberts at Birmingham on the 2nd of August 1955 and Ernest Harding at Birmingham on the 9th of August 1955. His last job, assisted by Robert Leslie Stewart, was the execution of Alec Wilkinson on
the 12th of August 1955
at Armley jail. Steve resigned due to failing health in late 1955 and died on the 22nd of December of the following year, aged 69. In all he had carried out 29 hangings as principal, including one double at
Durham
on the 13th of December 1949 and assisted at 19 others during the period 1941-1955.
Harry Bernard Allen from
(1911-1992).
Period on Home Office List - 1941-1964.
Harry Bernard Allen was born on the 5th of November 1911 at Denaby in Yorkshire, but brought up in Ashton under Lyne in
Lancashire
.� He got his first job as an assistant at Strangeways in February 1941, under Tom Pierrepoint, for the hanging of Clifford Holmes, having been second assistant (i.e. observer) at the hanging of William Cooper at
Bedford
prison in November 1940.� Harry and Steve Wade assisted Albert Pierrepoint at the execution of five German prisoners of war at Pentonville on
the 6th of October 1945
.� Harry Allen always wore a black bow tie at executions and two of these were sold in November 2008 along with other items, including his diary for �17,200.� Like Albert, Harry Allen was also a publican, keeping a pub called the Rope and Anchor in Farnworth on the outskirts of
Bolton
.� He later took over the Junction Hotel at Whitefield in
Manchester
.
After Albert Pierrepoint�s resignation, Steve Wade and Harry Allen took over as joint No. 1. However, executions were becoming fewer and fewer in the run up to and as a result of the Homicide Act of 1957 (There were none at all in 1956). Allen assisted at 53 executions, (40 with Albert Pierrepoint) and carried out 29 executions as principal (21 in
England
Wales
).
John Vickers became the first man to die for a murder committed under the provisions of the new Homicide Act of 1957 when he was hanged by Allen at
Durham
the 23rd of July 1957
.
Allen hanged George Riley on
the 9th of February 1961
at Shrewsbury Prison for the murder of his neighbour, Adeline Mary Smith.
In 1959 he performed the last execution on the Channel Islands, that of Francis Joseph Huchet at the
Newgate Street
On 20 December 1961 Allen was to carry out the last execution in
Northern Ireland
when he hanged Robert McGladdery in
Belfast
.� He also carried out
Scotland
�s last three hangings, the final one being that of Henry John Burnett at Craiginches prison in
Aberdeen
the 15th of August 1963
.
Perhaps his most controversial case was that of James Hanratty , who was convicted of the A6 murder and hanged at
Bedford
prison on
the 4th of April 1962
. There have been serious doubts raised over Hanratty's guilt and several attempts to win him a pardon. In 2002, Hanratty's family had their appeal turned down after
DNA
evidence showed conclusively that Hanratty was guilty.
Allen's last job was the hanging of Gwynne Owen Evans at Strangeways Prison at
8.00 a.m.
on
the 13th of August 1964
, whilst his accomplice, Peter Anthony Allen, was suffering the same fate at Walton. (See below) Allen and Evans were the last men to suffer the death penalty in
Britain
the 14th of August 1992
, at Fleetwood in
Lancashire
, just a month after Albert Pierrepoint.
A book on Harry Allen, entitled �Harry Allen Britain�s Last Hangman� is available from the True Crime Library - go to http://www.truecrimelibrary.com/ and then click on the �Our Shop� tab.
Robert Leslie Stewart from Chadderton Lancashire (1918-1989).
Period on Home Office List - 1950-1964.
Robert Leslie Stewart was born in Edinburgh and assisted Albert Pierrepoint and Steve Wade in 20 executions between 1952 and 1959 before becoming a principal himself in 1958, when he officiated at the execution of Vivian Frederick Teed , the last man to be executed in
Wales
, at
Swansea
on the 6th of May of that year. He was to hang a further five men before abolition and was on the final list of executioners issued by the Home Office in February 1964.
His first recorded job as an assistant (to Albert Pierrepoint) was at the hanging of Alfred Bradley at Strangeways Prison,
Manchester
the 15th of January 1952
.
Stewart shared the distinction of carrying out one of the two last hangings in Britain when he executed Peter Anthony Allen at Walton prison, Liverpool, at 8.00 a.m. on the 13th of August 1964 for his part in the murder of John Alan West, a 53 year old laundryman who was killed during the course of a robbery carried out by Allen and Evans. Stewart assisted Harry Allen at the last hanging at
Glasgow
�s Barlinnie Prison, that of 19 year old Anthony Joseph Miller on
the 22nd of December 1960
. Miller had been convicted of the robbery murder of John Cremin in a
Glasgow
.� Stewart emigrated to
South Africa
the 1st of November 1989
.
�s hangmen from 1800 � 1964 and here for
Ireland
�s hang-women.
Assistant executioners.
It was normal at 20th century hangings for their to be an assistant executioner, but on at least five occasions in the early part of the century no assistant was employed and in 19 cases the name of the assistant, if one was used, has not been traced. From 1892, an assistant could be employed under Home Office rules, although they were not generally used until 1900. The assistant had four roles to play. One was to assist in setting up and testing the drop, the second was to strap the prisoner�s legs on the gallows, the third was to assist in taking down the body and preparing it for inquest. Finally he had to able to take over in case the hangman fainted or became otherwise ill at the last moment.
In addition to those listed above who carried executions themselves, having been previously trained by being assistants, there were a further 21 men who only were ever assistants and never acted as principal, see below. Amongst the better known of these was Syd Dernley, who assisted at 19 executions in
England
and
Wales
between 1950 and 1952 and also wrote a book called "The Hangman's Tale" detailing his experiences. Dernley died in 1994. A less well known name is that of Royston Lawrence Rickard, who assisted at 13 executions between 1953 and 1964, including those of Ruth Ellis and James Hanratty and also at one of the two final British hangings, that of Peter Anthony Allen (see above). The assistant at the other execution on that day (that of Gwynne Owen Evans) was Harry Robinson.
The final list of executioners and assistants issued in February 1964, comprised Robert Leslie Stewart and Harry Allen as principals with Royston Rickard, Harry Robinson, Samuel Plant and
John
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Which English pirate radio station was founded by Ronan O’Rahilly in 1964? | Radio Caroline
Radio Caroline
by • Music - 1960s , Music - 1970s • Tags: Radio
The first British pirate radio station, Radio Caroline, was founded by Ronan O'Rahilly in 1964.
Having persuaded five City millionaires to back him, he acquired a ship, a crew of disc jockeys and engineers, two 10-kilowatt transmitters (£50,000 apiece) and a stack of records.
The station started broadcasting on 29 March 1964, when DJ Simon Dee uttered the words, "Hello everybody. This is Radio Caroline, broadcasting on 199, your all-day music station".
He was speaking from a small studio onboard the 702 ton former passenger ferry Frederica, known to its listeners as Radio Caroline.
As was the case with most European countries, British law only prohibited commercial radio broadcasting on land. By basing itself in the North Sea, Caroline was able to exploit this legal loophole, providing British teenagers with all-day rock & roll fun, while simultaneously providing O' Rahilly with all-day profit from advertisers.
The DJ's on Caroline took their shore leave in Holland and Dutch boats carried their supplies and records to the ship.
All British offshore pirate radio stations were silenced by the government's Marine Offences Act in Autumn 1967. The banning coincided with the launch of Radio One by the BBC - which was created as a carbon copy of the pirate stations.
Caroline continued to broadcast for six months, but the lack of advertising, failing morale of the DJ's (who were all now exiles from the UK) and the huge distances over which supplies had to be transported, gradually wore the station down.
Their continued broadcasting, though, was an embarrassment to the Labour government which had vowed to sink the pirates.
Both Caroline ships went silent in early March 1968 and were towed from their anchorages to Holland, where they gradually deteriorated as they were looted and vandalised. The MV Caroline eventually went to the scrapyard, but Mi Amigo was rescued and was ultimately taken back to sea. Radio Caroline was back.
For a while the station broadcast Dutch language (and style) radio during the day and English Caroline programmes at night, before the Mi Amigo was towed to a desolate anchorage in the Knock Deep at the mouth of the Thames Estuary visible from neither the Kent or Essex coasts.
At this location - and ostensibly operated and supplied from Playa De Aro in Spain - Radio Caroline and the ship commenced their next six lonely, difficult but remarkable years.
Rather than compete with Radio One , Ronan O'Rahilly decreed that Caroline should now play only album music. Listeners were now subjected to a diet of Led Zeppelin , Eric Clapton , Jethro Tull , Yes , Lynyrd Skynyrd , Barclay James Harvest and their ilk.
On 19 March 1980 Mi Amigo broke anchor and - lifted by the rising tide - was pounded on the seabed, with many leaks springing up in the engine and generator rooms at the stern. After struggling for eight hours with portable pumps the crew admitted defeat.
Tom Anderson and DJ Stevie Gordon told listeners "It's not a very good occasion really, we have to hurry this because the lifeboat is waiting. We're not leaving and disappearing, we're going into the lifeboat hoping that the pumps can take it, if so, we'll be back, if not, well we really don't like to say it. I'm sure we'll be back one way or another. For the moment from all of us, goodbye and God Bless".
These were the last words spoken on air from the Mi Amigo's transmitters. A few minutes after the crew were rescued by the lifeboat Helen Turnbull, the ship's lights went out as seawater engulfed the generator and Mi Amigo sank.
Radio Caroline was relaunched in 1983, now broadcasting from an ex-trawler called MV Ross Revenge. The station continued broadcasting until the horrendous storms of 1987 destroyed the 300 foot aerial on the ship. This was replaced by two more modest aerials, but on On Saturday 19 August 1989 the unthinkable happened.
The large Dutch vessel Volans (with armed officials on board) and the British launch Landward closed in on the Ross Revenge and boarded and took control of the ship as disc jockeys relayed a blow by blow account of events to the astonished listeners.
Once the transmitters were silenced, the Dutch stripped the ship of all broadcast equipment while the British attempted to interrogate the crew under threat of arrest. All this happened in International waters where the boarders had no official powers, and the raiders eventually left, taking with them all of the records, studios and transmitting equipment and leaving behind some vandalism and deliberate damage.
Using land-based studios leased in Kent in the late 1990s, Radio Caroline began broadcasting via satellite. These analogue transmissions ended and a full digital service started in February 2003.
The station has been streamed on the internet for many years, accessible via the station's website at www.radiocaroline.co.uk
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| Radio Caroline |
What was the name of the chimp that was sent into space in Project Mercury mission MR-2 in January 1961? | When the pirates took over radio - CNN.com
When the pirates took over radio
By Todd Leopold, CNN
Philip Seymour Hoffman and Nick Frost are among the stars of "Pirate Radio."
STORY HIGHLIGHTS
Pirate radio stations flourished in UK in mid-1960s
BBC played little pop music, so rogue broadcasters set up in international waters
Many of people involved were Americans, including a Texas entrepreneur
British government eventually outlawed pirates, started own BBC station
RELATED TOPICS
British Broadcasting Corporation
(CNN) -- In early 1964, the British Invasion dominated American airwaves.
From WABC in New York to KRLA in Los Angeles, California, the radio dial pulsed with the Beatles and their brethren, injecting more excitement into a medium that was already jumping with crazy DJs, cash-call contests and battles of the bands.
But the British Invasion on British radio? Good luck.
While Beatlemania took over the world, Great Britain's ever-so-proper BBC filled its air with a melange of news, gardening tips, dramas, plummy announcements and maybe -- maybe -- the occasional pop record. At night, the radio dial was almost empty, as many stations signed off at nightfall.
Enter the pirates, entrepreneurs and radio personalities who set up shop on ships just outside British territorial waters and broadcast a powerful signal back into the motherland. The era is the subject of the new film "Pirate Radio," starring Philip Seymour Hoffman, which opens Friday.
The peak of the so-called "pirate radio" stations was only three years -- from 1964 until 1967 -- but in that time the freewheeling broadcasts, many staffed by Americans, brought a party atmosphere and a pop music variety to a country that had never experienced such a sound.
"Everything was very conservative, controlled by the old guard [there]," recalls Bruce "Cousin Brucie" Morrow, a leading American DJ on the No. 1 station in the country, New York's WABC. The British DJs, Morrow recalls, would come over and study Morrow and his counterparts, staying for weeks at a time. "The only way they could get rock 'n' roll was by recordings or somebody would smuggle something in from the United States. ... And young people wanted their own music."
Radio Caroline, the first of the notable pirate radio stations, went on the air on Easter weekend 1964. Though it would be considered relatively staid by modern ears, it was a sensation in Europe. Among its early competition was Radio Atlanta, founded by American Top 40 pioneer Gordon McLendon, whose idea for a pirate station had actually been pirated itself by Caroline founder Ronan O'Rahilly. (Another station, the non-pirate but expansive Radio Luxembourg, had been focusing on the teen market for several years but was far more restrictive in its programming.)
The pirate stations were thrilling to British youth.
"You could jam that transistor way up tight against your ear and you'd hear nothing but righteous music all day long," wrote pop critic Nik Cohn in his history of rock music, "A Wop Bop a Loo Bop a Lop Bam Boom." "Nothing unpop, no crap broke in on you."
The stations were also proudly commercial, unusual in the public broadcasting world of Europe. With a growing teen market, a number of investors saw dollar signs on the pirate boats.
Among them was Don Pierson, a businessman from Eastland, Texas. Pierson, whom his son Grey describes as "beyond colorful," had been a car dealer, banker, Eastland mayor and local character when he saw an article on Radio Caroline in a newspaper.
As an unreleased documentary about Pierson, "Swinging Radio England," details, he immediately seized on the idea for his own pirate station.
"He was born without the gene that tells you what you can't do," says Grey Pierson, now a Dallas-area attorney.
Don Pierson, who would make a dandy subject for a movie himself, was an admirer of McLendon's Dallas station, KLIF, one of the most manic in the country, and based his Wonderful Radio London on KLIF's format. After losing control of that station months after it went on the air in December 1964, he started another pirate broadcaster, Swinging Radio England.
The pirate stations lived up to their swashbuckling moniker. The staffs would share quarters on the old, barely refurbished boats for weeks at a time, creating a hothouse atmosphere separate from the broadcasts themselves. Guests would have to be ferried in and out.
Roger Day, one of the Radio England DJs, describes it in the documentary as "a Boy Scout camp gone mad."
Eventually, camp came to an end. Radio England, which was beset by technical difficulties, shut down in late 1966. More important, the British government, which frowned on the pirates, made their lives difficult by haranguing the broadcasters.
"In 1967, the government passed the Marine Broadcast Offences Act [which effectively outlawed pirate stations]," recalls Morrow, an encyclopedia of radio knowledge and the author of the new "Rock and Roll: And the Beat Goes On." "That's how serious pirate radio got."
The act became law in August 1967. Six weeks later, the BBC launched Radio 1, its capitulation to the youth culture. The first DJ on the air was a pirate veteran, Tony Blackburn; it used the PAMS jingles beloved by American stations, and the first record it broadcast was "Flowers in the Rain" by the rebellious UK band the Move.
There are few reminders of the pirate radio era today. The Who paid tribute to Radio London on its 1967 album, "The Who Sell Out," and some of the personalities, including Blackburn and the late Kenny Everett, established long careers.
But mostly pirate radio established that, in Britain, rock 'n' roll was here to stay.
Morrow, who was invited to guest DJ on Caroline but declined for various reasons (not the least of which, he said, is "I don't like boats"), says he was entranced by the spirit of the buccaneers.
"They loved the American radio style," he says. And the audience responded in kind: "When a tidal wave starts, you can't stop it."
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Phantom IV, Silver Wraith and Silver Dawn are all models of which car? | Rolls Royce 1954
Rolls Royce 1954
Silver Dawn (6 cyl., 4566 cc; wb: 3050 mm)
Silver Wraith (6 cyl., 4566 cc; wb: 3225/3380 mm)
Phantom IV (8 cyl., 5675 cc; wb: 3680 mm)
Silver Dawn
OTHER MODELS: SILVER DAWN (Park Ward Conv. Coupe): same specs; 4250 lbs. SILVER WRAITH (Custom coachwork by Park Ward, Hooper and Mulliner, opt.): same specs; 127-in WB.
*Synchromesh four-speed, optional.
The Silver Dawn is the most practical and up-to-date design expression so far produced by the makers of "The finest car in the world." It is the first Rolls-Royce yet equipped with standard sedan coachwork produced at the factory, and its fairly compact overall dimensions clearly are intended to appeal to the owner-driver for whom there is no substitute. In fact, the F-head, 4½-litre engine of this superb car is also common to the Rolls-Royce Silver Wraith and the Sports and Continental Bentleys—the difference being one of compression ratios and accessories. By instituting more economical production without sacrifice of the Rolls-Royce quality, it became possible to market the Silver Dawn abroad at a price far below that of former models. Discriminating buyers in the US were quick to spot this and in 1952 and 1953 more of these cars were sold than of all other Rolls-Royce cars during the previous four years. For 1954, the Rolls-Royce built automatic transmission with fluid coupling is available as an optional extra on both the Dawn and the Wraith. For the first time since its inception, the Silver Dawn is now available on the British market with right-hand drive. The Silver Wraith, with a seven-inch longer wheelbase, continues to feature custom coachwork by leading British craftsmen.
All the 1954 World's Cars (USA)
| Rolls-Royce |
What is the name of the temple on the Athenian Acropolis? | Get top dollar for your car
On-the-spot cash payment
The prestigious history of Rolls Royce
The partnership between Henry Royce and Charles Rolls began in 1904 with Royce agreeing to sell his cars exclusively through Charles Rolls’ dealership as Rolls-Royce’s. In 1906 they founded Rolls-Royce Ltd and that same year they introduced the model that would permanently establish the company’s international reputation.
The 40/50 hp was launched at the 1906 Olympia car show, but not given to the press for testing until the following year. Autocar dubbed the 40/50 hp the “best car in the world”, something that has been claimed by Rolls-Royce of its products ever since. One particular 40/50 hp, registered as AX201, was given the name “Silver Ghost” by Rolls-Royce’s commercial director, Claude Johnson. This car was driven 27 times between London and Glasgow in a publicity stunt to prove how reliable the new car was. The press seized upon this and began referring to all 40/50 hp cars as Silver Ghosts, something that Rolls-Royce adopted retrospectively once the 40/50 hp was replaced in 1926. AX201 is probably the most valuable car in the world, with a reputed insurance value of $40,000,000.
The Rolls-Royce Phantom went through three iterations before the outbreak of war in 1939. The Phantom I and II continued to use an ever more developed version of the 40/50 hp engine from the Silver Ghost. The Phantom III was unusual for a Rolls-Royce in that it used a V12. This was equipped with a twin ignition system involving two spark plugs per cylinder, two ignition coils and two distributors. After the war, the Phantom name was used for a series of exclusive Rolls-Royce’s produced in tiny numbers for heads of state and other leading dignitaries.
The first postwar Rolls-Royce was the Silver Wraith launched in 1946. This was the last Rolls-Royce that could not be ordered with a factory-fitted bodyshell. Owners bought the chassis and had a coachbuilder cover it with bespoke panels. Three years later the closely related Silver Dawn was launched. This was available with a standard bodyshell, but was the less popular of the two cars.
The Silver Cloud of 1955 was also available with a factory fitted body, but this time the vast majority of owners opted to purchase the standard bodied car as opposed to employing a coachbuilder. The Silver Cloud was the last Rolls-Royce built with a separate chassis. Its replacement, the 1965 Silver Shadow, was of a monocoque construction which effectively ended the tradition of Rolls-Royce owners having their cars bodywork tailored to their own preferences.
The Silver Shadow took Rolls-Royce through the 1970s and is still the biggest selling Rolls-Royce model today.
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‘Rosie Lee’ is cockney rhyming slang for what? | Rosie Lee is Cockney Rhyming Slang for Tea!
Rosie Lee is Cockney slang for Tea.
"Cup of Rosie luv?"
Rosie Lee (or Rosy Lee) is one of the most well-known of all Cockney slang. In fact it has broken out and is used all over Britain.
Many people think it is named after Gypsy Rose Lee , the American stripper and burlesque artist. This is debatable but just possible - she was born in 1911 and the expression was first recorded in the 1920s.
| Tea |
Who played Police Chief Martin Brody in the 1978 film ‘Jaws 2’? | Cockney rhyming slang dying out because under-25s don't understand it | Daily Mail Online
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It has been the East End of London’s tradition dialect since the mid-19th century, but Cockney rhyming slang could soon be ‘brown bread’.
Phrases such as ‘Ruby Murray’ (curry), ‘Donald Duck’ (luck) and ‘bottle and stopper’ (copper) are among the famous sayings that cannot be identified by many Britons aged 18 to 24, a poll found.
A fifth even thought the latter of the three referred to Burger King’s Whopper meal, while four in ten could not identify ‘apples and pears’ (stairs), according to the study for tea brand Rosy Lee.
Classic sayings: Cockney rhyming slang was often used in BBC comedy Only Fools and Horses, starring David Jason as Del Boy (front) and Nicholas Lyndhurst as Rodney Trotter (back)
Meanwhile a quarter of young people thought ‘Adam and Eve’ (believe) meant ‘conceive’, one in ten defined it as ‘thieve’ and a fifth could not give any answer, reported the Daily Mirror .
Other phrases the youth of today struggled with were Bobby Moore (sure) and merry-go-round (pound) - but, as for those aged over 45, three-quarters knew the most common terms.
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Clare Fuller, a partner at Rosy Lee Tea London, told the newspaper: ‘The older respondents found it really lemon squeezy - but coals and coke made more than a few people scratch their loaves.’
The survey follows a Museum of London study in March 2012 that found Cockney rhyming slang was slowly dying amid a simultaneous rise in youth slang derived from rap music and the internet.
East End tradition: A Pearly King and Queen enjoy some whelks and cockles at the famous Tubby Isaacs stall in Aldgate, which has since closed. It is thought the Cockney phrases were popularised by travelling salesmen
TIME FOR A ROSIE LEE BREAK! TEST YOUR COCKNEY RHYMING SLANG
Brown bread - dead
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What is the National Flower of England? | What is the national flower of England? | Reference.com
What is the national flower of England?
A:
Quick Answer
The national flower of England is the Tudor rose, otherwise called The Rose of England. The Tudor rose became popular after being adopted by Henry VII in the late 15th century.
Full Answer
The Tudor rose has a similar appearance to a traditional rose but has an inner layer of white petals that are surrounded by red petals. When Henry VII was the king of England, there was a civil war, led by the House of York on one side and the House of Lancaster on the other. The House of York wore white roses as its symbol while the Lancasters wore red roses. The Tudor rose was a symbol that peace had been reached because it was a mix of both.
| Rose |
The testicles of a calf cooked and served as food are known as ‘Prairie….’what’? | England's National Symbols
Yorkshire & Humber
England's National Symbols
National symbols are defined as the symbols or icons of a national community (such as England), used to represent that community in a way that unites its people. This unity is based on a common pride, which is incited by different representations; i.e. visual (e.g. the national flower), verbal (e.g. the national anthem) and iconic (e.g. the flag). These symbols are then used in national events and celebrations, inspiring patriotism as they include every member of that particular community, regardless of colour or creed.
One of the great bronze lions at the base of Nelson's Column in London's Trafalgar Square.
England enjoys many national symbols, which are used extensively in political, social, cultural and even religious spheres, to represent this diverse land. These include:
The Flag
The flag of England is represented by a red cross on a white background. This is known as St George.s Cross and has its origins in the Crusades (12th and 13th centuries), when soldiers were identified by this red-coloured cross on their white tunics. St George was claimed to be the Patron Saint of England at the time, so the cross became associated with him.
The National Floral Emblem . The Tudor Rose
The Tudor Rose, also known as The Rose of England, was adopted as a symbol of peace and merges a white rose (representing the Yorkists) and a red rose (representing the Lancastrians). During the War of the Roses, these two sides fought over the control of the royal house.
The Royal Banner of England
This banner is also known as the Banner of the Royal Arms, amongst its other names. It is the official English banner of arms and represents the sovereignty of the rulers of England (as opposed to loyalty to the country itself). It comprises three horizontally positioned gold lions, which face the observer. Each has a blue tongue and blue claws and is set against a deep red background.
The Royal Arms of England
With much the same design as the Royal Banner, this is a coat of arms that is used in representation of the country as well as of its monarchs.
St Edward's Crown
This is one of the senior British Crown Jewels. It is the official coronation crown and is used in the coronation of English, British, and Commonwealth monarchs. It is also used as an image on various items, such as coats of arms and badges.
National Animal . The Lion
Because the lion is symbolic of bravery, it was frequently used to depict the courageous warriors of medieval England. Today, it remains the national animal of the country and is used extensively in sports. team names, logos, icons, and so on.
National Flower . The Rose
England is usually represented by a red rose, but other colours can and have also been used.
National Tree . The Oak Tree
The oak tree represents strength, beauty and survival through trials. As such, it is the perfect representation of this enduring country. King Charles II escaped parliamentarians after his father was executed and hid in an old oak tree. Since then, this escape has been called the Royal Oak and is a well-known account for many locals.
National Food . Fish .n Chips
All over the world, people associate fish and chips with England. There are many fabulous eateries that offer this dish. The fish (usually a white, flaky, mild-flavoured fish) is battered and deep-fried, and served with potato chips (often sprinkled liberally with salt and vinegar).
National Drink . Tea
Tea has been linked to England for centuries. Although these herbal infusions come in a variety of flavours and makes, the favoured norm remains Ceylon and red bush teas.
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In Greek mythology, who was awarded the armour of the dead Achilles, after competing for it with Ajax? | Achilles
Achilles
by James Hunter
Achilles was the son of the mortal Peleus and the Nereid Thetis . He was the mightiest of the Greeks who fought in the Trojan War, and was the hero of Homer's Iliad.
Thetis attempted unsuccessfully to make her son immortal. There are two versions of the story. In the earlier version, Thetis anointed the infant with ambrosia and then placed him upon a fire to burn away his mortal portions; she was interrupted by Peleus, whereupon she abandoned both father and son in a rage. Peleus placed the child in the care of the Centaur Chiron , who raised and educated the boy. In the later version, she held the young Achilles by the heel and dipped him in the river Styx ; everything the sacred waters touched became invulnerable, but the heel remained dry and therefore unprotected.
When Achilles was a boy, the seer Calchas prophesied that the city of Troy could not be taken without his help. Thetis knew that, if her son went to Troy, he would die an early death, so she sent him to the court of Lycomedes , in Scyros; there he was hidden, disguised as a young girl. During his stay he had an affair with Lycomedes' daughter, Deidameia, and she had a son, Pyrrhus (or Neoptolemus ), by him. Achilles' disguise was finally penetrated by Odysseus , who placed arms and armor amidst a display of women's finery and seized upon Achilles when he was the only "maiden" to be fascinated by the swords and shields. Achilles then went willingly with Odysseus to Troy, leading a host of his father's Myrmidons and accompanied by his tutor Phoenix and his close friend Patroclus. At Troy, Achilles distinguished himself as an undefeatable warrior. Among his other exploits, he captured twenty-three towns in Trojan territory, including the town of Lyrnessos, where he took the woman Briseis as a war-prize. Later on Agamemnon , the leader of the Greeks, was forced by an oracle of Apollo to give up his own war-prize, the woman Chryseis , and took Briseis away from Achilles as compensation for his loss. This action sparked the central plot of the Iliad, for Achilles became enraged and refused to fight for the Greeks any further. The war went badly, and the Greeks offered handsome reparations to their greatest warrior; Achilles still refused to fight in person, but he agreed to allow his friend Patroclus to fight in his place, wearing his armor. The next day Patroclus was killed and stripped of the armor by the Trojan hero Hector , who mistook him for Achilles.
Achilles was overwhelmed with grief for his friend and rage at Hector. His mother obtained magnificent new armor for him from Hephaestus , and he returned to the fighting and killed Hector. He desecrated the body, dragging it behind his chariot before the walls of Troy, and refused to allow it to receive funeral rites. When Priam , the king of Troy and Hector's father, came secretly into the Greek camp to plead for the body, Achilles finally relented; in one of the most moving scenes of the Iliad, he received Priam graciously and allowed him to take the body away.
After the death of Hector, Achilles' days were numbered. He continued fighting heroically, killing many of the Trojans and their allies, including Memnon and the Amazon warrior Penthesilia. Finally Priam's son Paris (or Alexander), aided by Apollo, wounded Achilles in the heel with an arrow; Achilles died of the wound. After his death, it was decided to award Achilles' divinely-wrought armor to the bravest of the Greeks. Odysseus and Ajax competed for the prize, with each man making a speech explaining why he deserved the honor; Odysseus won, and Ajax then went mad and committed suicide.
During his lifetime, Achilles is also said to have had a number of romantic episodes. He reportedly fell in love with Penthesilia, the Amazon maiden whom he killed in battle, and it is claimed that he married Medea .
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Which sportsman was known as the ‘Louisville Lip’? | Heroes in the Trojan War
Achilles
Achilles (Άχιλλεύς) was the son of Peleus and the Nereïd Thetis. Ligyron was the name given to Achilles at birth.
While still an infant, Thetis tried to make her son immortal. One account says that she anointed Achilles in ambrosia before laying him in a fire, burning away the mortal parts of his body, making him invulnerable from ordinary weapons. When Peleus discovered she held their son over a fire, he cried out in alarm, leaving Achilles invulnerable except for his heels. Annoyed with her husband's interferences, Thetis left her husband and son, and returned home to the sea.
A different account says that Thetis dipped him in Styx, the river of the Underworld, holding him by his feet. His heels were the only vulnerable parts of his body, which was covered by Thetis' hands. This is obviously where the term - Achilles' heel - originated.
Achilles was brought up and trained by his father and the wise Centaur, Cheiron. His name was changed from Ligyron to Achilles. He learned how to hunt and fight. He was so swift, that he could run down any wild animal.
When the Greeks began gathering the leaders, to fight in the war in Troy, Thetis knew from a prophecy that her son has two possible destinies. One was a peaceful and long life, but without the fame and glory. The other was the most glorious - he can become one of the greatest Greek heroes, but only to be fated to die young.
Thetis tried to prevent her son from going to Troy, by disguising Achilles as a girl and hiding him in the court of Lycomedes at the island of Scyrus. During his stay in Scyrus, one of the king's daughters, Deïdaemeia (Deidaemeia), fell in love with him, bore him a son, named Neoptolemus (Pyrrhus).
The Greeks having been told by the seer that Troy would not fall without the aid of Achilles. One of the Greek captains, Odysseus, penetrated his disguise, by placing spear and shield among the gifts to the king's daughters. When the Greeks blew their trumpets as if the island were been attack, Achilles snatched the weapons, thereby revealing his identity. Once discovered however, Achilles willingly joined the Greeks.
In the Trojan War, Achilles was regarded as the handsomest, the swiftest, the strongest and the bravest of the Greeks who fought in the Trojan War . He led the Myrmidons with fifty ships from Phthia, Alus, Alope, and Trachis. Achilles wore immortal armour belonging to his father, a wedding gift from the gods. He was also armed with a spear made by Cheiron, from a tree in Mount Pelion. Peleus also gave his two immortal horses to his son (Xanthus and Batus.
Before arriving in Troy, Achilles was warned by his mother, not to kill Tenes, son of Apollo and king of Tenedos. If he were to kill Tenes, the god would surely avenge his son's death. But landing on the island of Tenedos, Achilles had forgotten her warning that resulted in the king's death. Achilles killed many of Trojan leaders (including many of Priam's sons) as well as their allies. The most notable were Cycnus, son of Poseidon in the earlier year of war. In the last year of the war, he killed Hector, the Amazon Penthesileia and the Aethiopian prince Memnon , son of Eos and Tithonus.
Achilles became involved in a bitter quarrel with his commander-in-chief, Agamemnon , over the concubines, causing the young hero to withdraw from the fighting. When the Agamemnon send Nestor, Odysseus and Ajax, to entreat him to return the fighting, his pride and bitterness made him to stubbornly refuse. His pride, however, caused him to lose his beloved companion (and lover?), Patroclus. He returned to combat, avenging his friend by killing the Trojan champion, Hector . (See the Iliad .)
Achilles' own death came very quickly after killing Memnon. As he pursued the retreating Trojans back to the city gate, Paris shot an arrow at Achilles; the god Apollo had guided the arrow to one of his heel. Dying, Achilles managed to kill with his spear one last Trojan. Fierce fighting erupted around his body. His cousin Ajax managed to carry his body away while Odysseus held the Trojans at bay.
During the funeral games of Achilles, his armour resulted in bitter dispute between two comrades – Ajax and Odysseus – both heroes claiming to be the bravest warrior next to Achilles. The armour was awarded to Odysseus, resulting in Ajax's death. (See Death of Achilles .)
When Odysseus captured Helenus, the Trojan seer foretold that Achilles' son need to fight at Troy, in order for the city to fall. Odysseus brought Neoptolemus to Troy. Odysseus gave his Achilles' armour to Neoptolemus.
There are few other different accounts of his death. One of them involved Achilles falling in love with Priam's daughter, Polyxena. The Trojans promised him to arrange a secret meeting with the girl, alone that night. Achilles was ambushed and killed by Paris and Deïphobus (Deiphobus). According to Dares of Phrygia, Antilochus was killed with Achilles, so Paris was Anticholus' killer, not Memnon.
Odysseus later met Achilles' shade in the Underworld, in the Odyssey . While different accounts by Apollodous and Apollonius of Rhodes say that he lived in White Island (also known as the Isles of the Blessed or the Elysian Fields), and he was married to the sorceress Medea .
Odysseus
King of Ithaca. The Romans identified Odysseus as Ulysses. Odysseus (Ὀδυσσεύς) was the hero of the epic poem, called The Odyssey .
Odysseus was the son of Laërtes (Laertes) and Anticleia, daughter of the thief Autolycus and Mestra. Other writers say that Sisyphus was his father, who had ravished Anticleia, in revenge for Autolycus stealing his cattles. Laërtes raised Odysseus as if he was his own son. At birth, it was Autolycus named the infant – Odysseus. Odysseus has a sister, named Ctimene, who later married Eurylochus, one of the warriors who sailed with the hero to Troy and was killed by Charybdis.
Though, he was not suitor of Helen , Odysseus advised Tyndareüs (Tyndareus), king of Sparta, to make Helen's suitors to swear an oath, to provide aid to any husband she chooses. Odysseus, himself was a suitor of Penelope , daughter of Icarius and cousin of Helen. He won Penelope hand by winning the footrace. Penelope bore him a son, Telemachus .
In the war against Troy, Odysseus brought men and provided twelve ships for the war efforts, from Ithaca and Cephallenia.
Odysseus was perhaps the most untypical and complex hero in Greek mythology. Odysseus was a great fighter and superb athlete. Odysseus was undoubtedly brave, yet Homer also emphasized that he was also shrewdest and most prudent of the leader in Troy . In the Odyssey, he was shown as an extremely resourceful hero.
He was the most eloquent of the Greek leaders. When they arrived at Troy Odysseus and Menelaüs (Menelaus) were sent to Troy to demand for Helen return, Priam admired skill in oratory. Day after the quarrel between Achilles and Agamemnon , most were despaired of Achilles withdrawal; it was Odysseus eloquent speech that inspired the Greeks to stay and fight. Agamemnon sent Nestor , Ajax and Odysseus as embassy to Achilles; Odysseus was unsuccessful in persuading Achilles to return to combat. Before return to fighting, Odysseus also failed to persuade Achilles not to fast before facing Trojans. Zeus, himself, also believed in Odysseus' speech, that Achilles could lose facing a well-fed Hector. Anyway, Athena secretly fed Achilles ambrosia.
Although unsuccessful in a few of his speeches, his failure was not the result of poor oratory, rather that other leader speak, they spoke with emotion, with their pride always clouding their judgement. When Odysseus speaks, he remained objective and relied on common sense, rather than his ego or honour. But many critics and writers also accused him of being Machiavellian and manipulative. Particularly in Sophocles' plays Ajax and Philoctetes.
Odysseus was often portrayed with less favourable light by later writers and critics. They often showed Odysseus to be greedy, of glutton and cowardice behaviour.
When the Agamemnon and Menelaus were gathering men, they found that one of the prophecies was that Troy could not be taken, without Odysseus' participation. Odysseus also knew of the prophecy but also knew that if he went to Troy, he would not be able to return home for at least twenty years, losing all his ships and men.
He tried to feign madness by plowing the field with an ox and ass, sowing salt instead of seeds. One of Agamemnon's lieutenants, Palamedes, son of Nauplius, who was just as cunning as Odysseus, knew that Odysseus was feigning to be mad. Palamedes snatch Odysseus' infant son, Telemachus, from Penelope and put the infant in front of the path of the plow. To avoid the horses trampling upon his son, Odysseus was forced to turn his horses aside, thereby revealing that he was not mad at all. Odysseus had little choice but set out for Troy, but he had never forgiven Palamedes.
When the Greeks arrived at Troy, Odysseus implicated Palemedes that he was traitor, accepting gold from the Trojans. Finding the gold buried near Palamedes' tent, the Greek leaders believing Odysseus' stories, had Palamedes stoned as a traitor. Whether Homer even knew of this story remained uncertain.
In the Iliad, Homer's portrayed of Odysseus as a very cunning fighter in the war, and skilled diplomat. He was one of the Greek leaders who volunteered to accept challenge of Hector, but was eliminated in the drawing of lots. With Diomedes they slipped out of their camp at night, captured and killed a Trojan spy, Dolon. They also entered Trojan camp and killed Troy's allied Rhesus, king of the Thracians, together with twelve men, and stole the king's immortal horses. In the morning, after Diomedes was wounded, he faced the Trojans alone. Odysseus killed many Trojans, until he himself was forced to retire when he was wounded in the side by spear.
When Achilles was killed, Odysseus held the Trojans backs, while Ajax carried Achilles' body back to the Greek camp. During the funeral games, contest for armour of Achilles, was awarded to Odysseus as the hero who did the greatest services to the Greek causes in the war. This would result in the death of Ajax.
With the death Achilles and Ajax, Odysseus played even more active roles in the fall of Troy , climaxing with his stratagem of the Wooden Horse. He was the one who brought Neoptolemus , son of Achilles, to Troy, because of the oracle from the Greek seer Calchas. Odysseus was the one who captured the Trojan seer, Helenus , son of Priam and Hecuba. Again on Calchas' advice, he and Neoptolemus also brought back Philoctetes with the bow of Heracles. And he and Diomedes volunteered, to sneak into Troy and steal the wooden image of Athena, known as the Palladion. Helenus told the Greek leaders that Troy can't fall while the Palladion remained within the city walls.
He either killed Deiphobus , Helen's third husband, or he aided Menelaus, depending on which version is read. He was the who called upon the execution of Astyanax, the only son of Hector and Andromache , and in some versions, actually out the execution, by throwing the boy off Troy's highest rampart; Pausanias says that Neoptolemus was responsible for Astyanax's death, not Odysseus. When Ajax the Lesser raped Cassandra in front of the wooden image of Athena, he was the only one to call for his execution, to appease the goddess. When they distribute the Trojan women among the leaders, Odysseus received Hecuba as his slave. According to Euripides, Hecuba was transformed into a dog, when she exact revenge against Polymestor, king of Thrace, for the murder of her son, Polydorus.
After the fall of Troy, it took him ten years to reach home. Homer's Odyssey tells this tale in full.
During his wandering, he was loved by two goddesses, whom he stayed with. One was a sorceress named Circe, daughter of the sun god, Helios. And the other was a nymph named Calypso, daughter of the Titan Atlas. Although, Homer never mention in the Odyssey, of having children by either woman, others - later writers - recorded that he had children with both women. According to the Theogony, Hesiod wrote that Calypso bore him Nausithous and Nausinous, while in the Telegony, she was also the mother of Telegonus or Teledamus. However, Telegonus is usually mentioned as being Circe's youngest son. I will mentioned more, later about Circe and Telegonus.
Upon his return to Ithaca, Odysseus and Telemachus had to destroy the Penelope's suitors who had infested his palace.
In Ithaca, his nurse was Eurycleia. Those who remained loyal to Odysseus and his family during his absence were Eumaeus, the swineherd, and Philoetius, the cowherd, who helped him in the battle against the Penelope's suitors. Others loyal to Odysseus and his family were Dolius and Mentor.
The bow Odysseus used against the suitors, originally belong to Eurytus , the king of Oechalia. Iphitus gave his father's bow to Odysseus. (According to Homer, Eurytus was killed by Apollo, instead of Heracles , because he challenged the sun god into archery contest.) His arrows may have been smeared with poison. Argus was the name of his hunting dog, and was one of two who recognised Odysseus in his beggar disguise. See Heracles for more information about Eurytus.
Some years later, after returning home to Ithaca, Odysseus had to set out on a new journey, to appease Poseidon, as the dead Teiresias had foretold. Odysseus must find a land where the people never ate with salt, nor know what an oar was used for (mistaking it for a winnowing fan). Only then would Poseidon would make peace with the hero.
On Odysseus' return journey from a strange land, Odysseus came upon the land of Thesprotia, where Odysseus married the Callidice, the queen of Thesprotia. Odysseus led the Thesprotians in the war against the Brygi, but lost the battle because Ares was on the Brygi side. Athena went to support Odysseus by engaging the war god in another confrontation. When Callidice died, Odysseus returned to Ithaca, leaving their son, Polypoetes, to rule Thesprotia.
There is another story, told by Parthenius, how Odysseus seduced Evippe, daughter of Tyrimmas, when he was in Epirus. Evippe gave birth to Eurylaus, and she sent her son, when he was old enough to Euryalus. Penelope was the first to recognise one of the belongings of the young man, which Odysseus gave to Euryalus' mother, so he could recognise his own son. So Penelope duped Odyseeus into killing his own son. I could find no other sources for this story, so this is most likely Parthenius' invention.
Odysseus and Penelope had another son, named Acusilaus, according to the story in Telegony (Epic Cycle), but according to Apollodorus, their son was called Poliportes. Penelope bore Poliportes, during Odysseus' absence in Thesprotia.
During his stay with his lover, Circe , Odysseus had three sons - Agrius, Latinus and Telegonus. In one story, Telegonus one day went to search for his father, landing in Ithaca. Odysseus thought Telegonus was an intruder, and went out to drive the young man off his island. Telegonus unwittingly killed his father. As Teiresias had foretold, Odysseus' death had come from the sea.
Penelope and Telemachus knew that Telegonus would not have kill Odysseus had he known that the hero was his father. They forgave the young man and went with Telegonus, to Circe's home, bringing Odysseus' body with them. On the sorceress' island, Telegonus married Penelope, while Circe married Telemachus. Circe made both Penelope and Telemachus immortal.
The mythographer, Apollodorus, also tell this ending of Odysseus, but he also reported other versions, unrelated to Telegonus. It was said that Penelope was not faithful at all during his long absence, and her suitor Antinous had seduced her. In anger, Odysseus banished Penelope, and she returned to her father Icarius in Sparta. During her exile, Hermes raped her, and she bore Pan. In another version, Odysseus had killed Penelope because of her involvement with other suitor, Amphinomus.
In yet another version, Odysseus was been tried by the kinsmen of the suitors. Neoptolemus , Odysseus' former comrade acted as judge, and instead of acquitting Odysseus, he banished him from Ithaca, because apparently Neoptolemus coveted Odysseus' island kingdom. Another former comrade of Odysseus, Thoas , king of Aetolia, offered him his daughter in marriage, where Odysseus died of old age. Odysseus had another son, Leontophonus.
The death of Odysseus signified the end of the Heroic Age.
Diomedes
An Argive hero. Diomedes (Διομήδης) was the son of Tydeus , one of the seven leaders against Thebes, and Deïpyle (Deipyle), daughter of Adrastus, king of Argos. He was married to Aegialeia, daughter of Adrastus or of Aegialeus. Together with the other sons of the Seven, called the Epigoni , he marched against Thebes. They razed Thebes in vengeance for their fathers' death.
Diomedes also went to Calydon, home of his father. When one of Oeneus' sons ( Tydeus ) was exiled for killing a relative and another was killed shortly after the famous boar hunt ( Meleager ), Oeneus was helpless when his nephews drove him from his kingdom and put their own father on the throne. Oeneus' nephews were the sons of Agrius, who was his brother. Diomedes, however, restored the kingdom to his grandfather after killing Agrius' sons. Agrius may have also been killed.
As one of the former suitors of Helen, he joined the Greek army and brought eighty ships with him from Argos, Tiryns, Epidaurus and Troezen. He was aided by two other Epigoni, Sthenelus and Euryalus, as lieutenants.
Next to Achilles he was the mightiest of the Greek heroes at Troy. He was the favourite of Athena . To his reckless courage, the goddess added unparalleled strength, marvellous skill at arms, and unfailing valour. He was fearless and at times held off the Trojans single-handed. In a single day he killed Pandarus, seriously wounded Aeneas , and then wounded Aeneas' mother, the goddess Aphrodite . When faced against Ares , aided by Athena, he caught the spear which Ares had hurled at him and in his turn, Diomedes hurled the god's own spear back at him, seriously wounding him and forced the god of war to quit the battlefield. He was also one of the Greek leaders to volunteer to fight Hector's challenge in the single combat, but was eliminated in the drawing of lots.
On the following day, when Zeus forced all other gods not to take part of the battle, Zeus caused the rout of the Greeks forces, only Diomedes stayed back to aid Nestor when the old man's horse were killed in the retreat. Together with Nestor, he pursued Hector and would have killed him, had not Zeus hurled several thunderbolts, to dissuade them.
He volunteered with Odysseus in a nightly foray, where they captured and killed a Trojan spy, Dolon; he also killed the Thracian king Rhesus and dozen of his guards, and stealing the king's immortal horses. In the morning of the next day, Paris wounded him with an arrow.
He joined Odysseus in another night raid, to steal the Palladium in Troy. He was one of the leaders who hid in the wooden horse.
In Nostoi ("The Returns&, from the Epic Cycle), Diomedes was one of the leaders who returned safely home. He and Euryalus were regents for the young king Cyannippus, son of Aegialeus. When Cyannippus died still young, Cylarabes, son of Sthenelus had better claim to the throne than Diomedes. Diomedes was later driven to exile by Sthenelus' other son Cometes, who at Nauplius' instigation, was Aegialeia's lover.
According to Virgil's Aeneïd , Diomedes settled in Italy and founded the city of Argyripa in Apulia. When war broke out between Aeneas and Turnus, Turnus tried to persuade Diomedes to aid them in the war against the Trojans. Diomedes told them he had fought enough Trojans in his lifetime, and urged Turnus that it was best to make peace with Aeneas than to fight the Trojans.
As far as I can tell, there are no records of Diomedes' death. In fact, Diomedes was given immortality by Athena, which she had not given to his father Tydeus during the war of the Seven Against Thebes . According to Pindar, with the help of Athena, Diomedes became a minor god in southern Italy or the Adriatic.
Geneology: House of Argos (Proëtids and Aeolids).
Αἴας
Ajax, Greater
A Salamian hero. Ajax (Aias or Αἴας) was the son of Telamon and Periboea or Eëriboea (Eeriboea), daughter of Alcathoüs (Alcathous). As the grandson of Alcathoüs, Ajax became king of Megara. He was also known as Telamonian Ajax or the Greater Ajax, to distinguish him from another Ajax who fought in the same war at Troy.
At his birth, he was named after Zeus' eagle (aietos), when Heracles prayed for a brave son of Telamon.
As suitor of Helen, he came to Troy with 12 ships from Salamis. Next to cousin Achilles , Ajax was the most handsomest and bravest of the Greeks at Troy. At Troy, he had a son, named Eurysaces by his concubine, Tecmassa, daughter of Teleutas. According to one writer, Ajax also had another son named Philaeus.
Ajax of Salamis should not to be confused with the Locrian leader, known as the Lesser Ajax , son of Oïleus (Oileus). Ajax was head taller than the other Greek leaders, while the Lesser Ajax was shorter in stature than most Greek. Yet the two Ajaxes had fought side by side in numerous occasions. Ajax also fought side-by-side with his half-brother Teucer (Τεὓκρος), son of Telamon and the Trojan concubine Hesione . Teucer was the best archer in the Greek army, and he often shoots arrows behind the safety of his half-brother's large shield.
When Hector challenged the Greeks to single combat, drawing the lots, Ajax was chosen to fight the Trojan commander. Ajax fought against Hector in single combat to a draw, which they afterward exchange gifts: Hector giving Ajax his sword in return for Hector receiving Ajax's belt. The two Ajaxes were the strongest defenders of the Greek ships. He also defended Patroclus' corpse against the Trojans.
There one interesting note about the large shield of Ajax . Homer (9th-8th century BC) described in detail the shield had a shape of a figure-of-eight (8). The shield was made of seven layers of bull hide and plated with bronze. During the Bronze Age Mycenaean civilization, there were a couple of men carrying figure-of-eight shields depicted on the Mycenaean dagger. It suggested that there is a link between Homer and the Mycenaean past through oral tradition.
When Achilles was killed, Ajax carried his corpse back to the camp while Odysseus held off the Trojans. Using a sword he received from Hector as a gift, he committed suicide after losing the contest for the armour of Achilles against Odysseus.
Later when Odysseus went to the Underworld, Ajax was still angry at losing the armour to Odysseus. The Athenians worshipped him as a great hero.
Ajax the Lesser
Also known as the Lesser Ajax. Ajax (Aias or Αἴας) was the son of Oïleus (Oileus), king of Locians, by his wife Eriopis, or by the nymph, Rhene. As suitor of Helen, he brought forty ships to Troy.
Next to Achilles he was the fleetest runner of the Greeks. While he was smaller in stature than the other Greek leaders, and wore only a linen corselet, he surpassed all the Greeks in skill as a lancer.
He was one of the leaders to volunteer fight in the single combat against Hector and as well to go on nightly foray in the Trojan camp. He often fought side by side with Telamonian Ajax , and with his larger companion were the strongest defenders of the Greek ships.
During the funeral game of Patroclus, Lesser Ajax bitterly complaints Odysseus won the footrace, that he had divine aid from the goddess Athena .
Ajax brought disaster upon most of the Greek during the sacking of Troy . Ajax dragged the prophetess Cassandra from altar of Athena and raped her.
Fearing the goddess' anger, Odysseus demanded that Ajax to be immediately stoned for the sacrilege. However, the Greek leaders refrained from killing Ajax, since he clung to the statue that he had profaned. The failure of Greeks leaders to punish Ajax for the sacrilege, her anger was turned against most of the Greeks.
Athena asked the sea-god Poseidon to destroy most of the Greek fleet. Ajax surviving the wreck of his own ship, soon drowned, after boasting that the gods could not even kills him.
Philoctetes
A Malian archer. Philoctetes (Φιλοκτήτης) was the son of Poeas, king of Malis, and Demonassa. He may have sailed with Jason as an Argonaut.
Either Philoctetes or his father set alight Heracles' pyre. Heracles rewarded him by giving his bow and arrows to Philoctetes.
As a former suitor of Helen , Philoctetes brought seven ships with him from the city of Methone and Meliboea. In his journey to Troy, Philoctetes did not make it to Troy with the rest of the Greek army.
When they landed on the island of Tenedos, Philoctetes was bitten by a poisonous water snake. Though, Philoctetes did not die from the poison, the Greek physicians had problem curing him. The bite remained infected, and the wound started giving unpleasant stench that the Greek army abandoned him on the island of Lemnos. The Malians were commanded by Philoctetes' lieutenant, Medon, the son of Oileus and Rhene.
It seemed strange, because the island should not be deserted; yet Philoctetes had to live on the island, hunting and gathering food on his own for nine years without meeting anyone.
For nine years, Philoctetes his wound had not healed, and he had to live in agony and loneliness. Philoctetes barely survived from starving on the meagre food of small birds and animals.
There are several versions of how Philoctetes rejoin the Greek army with the bow of Heracles.
According to the Little Iliad, when Odysseus captured the Trojan seer, named Helenus, they learned that Troy could not fall without the bow of Heracles. There are several versions of how Philoctetes rejoin the Greek army.
Diomedes brought Philoctetes back from Lemnos, and the archer-king was healed by Machaon, the son of Asclepius . Philoctetes used his arrow to kill Paris. At Paris' death, Helen was given to Deïphobus (Deiphobus), Paris' brother, in marriage.
According to Apollodorus, it was Calchas, the Greek seer, who prophesied that Troy could not fall unless the bow of Heracles was brought to Troy. Odysseus and Diomedes went to Lemnos and gaining possession of the bow by trickery. Philoctetes rejoined the Greek army and was healed. The first victim to Philoctetes arrow was Paris.
At Paris death, Helenus and Deiphobus contend with one another for the hand of their brother's widow in marriage. The Trojans favoured Deiphobus' claim over Helenus. So they awarded Helen to Deiphobus. Helenus angrily left Troy, and was captured by Odysseus.
The best-known version come from the play of Sophocles, called Philoctetes. The Trojan seer named Helenus revealed to the Greek found out that one of the requirements of winning the war was that the bow of Heracles needed to be brought to Troy.
Odysseus used young Neoptolemus to manipulate Philoctetes into giving the bow to Neoptolemus. Instead of then giving the bow to Odysseus, Neoptolemus took pity on the helpless Philoctetes by returning the bow to him.
Philoctetes would have kill Odysseus, had the god Heracles , not intervene. Heracles told Philoctetes to forgive the Odysseus and the other Greek leaders, who had abandoned him on the island, and to rejoin the Greek army.
Whichever version you preferred, Philoctetes was healed by Machaon. The first enemy Philoctetes killed was Paris and Deiphobus married Helen.
Philoctetes was among the heroes who were hidden within the belly of the Wooden Horse (Trojan Horse). He killed Admetus during the sacking of Troy.
According to Apollodorus, Philoctetes and his followers were driven to Campania in Italy. Philoctetes fought against the Lucanians in a war before settling in Crimissa in southern Italy.
Neoptolemus (Νεοπτόλεμος) was the son of Achilles and Deidameia, the daughter of King Lycomedes of Scyrus.
Achilles was staying in Lycomedes' court on the island of Scyrus, where he met Deiddameia. Achilles slept with Deidameia, so that Neoptolemus was conceived. Achilles probably left for Troy before Neoptolemus was born. According to Apollodorus, Neoptolemus was called Pyrrhus (Pyrrhos or Πυρρος) at birth.
After nine years of war at Troy, Helenus, the Trojan seer foretold that Troy could not fall without Neoptolemus' aid. Odysseus fetched Neoptolemus at Scyrus, giving the boy, Achilles' god-fashioned armour. Neoptolemus became the new leader of the Myrmidons, Achilles' followers. Menelaus promised his daughter Hermione to Neoptolemus, as a reward for fighting in the war.
In Sophocles' play called Philoctetes, Neoptolemus tried to persuade Philoctetes to rejoin the Greek army, because Helenus , the Trojan seer, had foretold that one of the conditions of capturing Troy was that the bow of Heracles was required in the war.
Neoptolemus was among the Greek heroes who hid in the belly of the Wooden Horse (Trojan Horse). Neoptolemus killed Priam , the aged king of Troy, either within the temple of Zeus or he dragged the king out of sanctuary of the altar, and slaughtered Priam outside the temple doors.
When the ghost of Achilles appeared before the Greeks, demanding the sacrifice of Polyxena, Priam's youngest daughter, it was Neoptolemus who cut her throat upon his father's grave. Some say it was Neoptolemus who was also responsible for Astyanax's death, while others say that it Odysseus was responsible.
The morning after the fall of Troy, the Greek army began dividing loots and captives. Neoptolemus received the seer Helenus , the son of Priam and Helenus. He also received Andromache , wife of Hector, as his concubine.
Having Helenus as his slave proved to be valuable asset; the seer's prophetic skills helped him to avoid unnecessary troubles. Since the Lesser Ajax had raped Cassandra in Athena's temple, a storm would destroy most of the Greek fleet. Helenus advised Neoptolemus to travel home overland, probably crossing the Hellespont, and travelled through Thrace and Macedonia. According to Apollodorus, however, it was Thetis, the sea goddess and his grandmother, who advised Neoptolemus to stay on the island of Tenedos for 2 days, and the Epic Cycle Nostoi, along with Apollodorus' account, mention Neoptolemus travelling overland from Thrace to Greece. Again, according to the Nostoi, Neoptolemus encounter Odysseus at Maronea.
According to Hyginus, a young Thracian woman, named Harpalyce , proved to be a better warrior than him. She was a daughter of Harpalycus, and he had trained Harpalyce to fight. Neoptolemus had wounded Harpalycus, but Harpalyce saved her father and drove Neoptolemus away.
Later, Neoptolemus safely reached his father's home in Phthia, a city or region in southern Thessaly. Instead of taking over the kingdom from his grandfather, Peleus , Helenus again advised the young hero to find a new kingdom for himself in Epeirus (Epirus). Epeirus was a large northwest region of Greece.
Andromache bore Neoptolemus three sons: Molossus, Pergamus and Pielus. Though, Helenus and Andromache were slaves and former enemies of the Greeks, Neoptolemus treated them both fairly and with respect.
When Neoptolemus was to finally marry Hermione the daughter of Menelaus and Helen , he freed Helenus and Andromache, let them married and gave them the city of Buthrotum to rule. But according to Apollodorus, Deidameia, Neoptolemus' mother, became Helenus' wife, not Andromache.
The marriage was not to last long. Orestes, the son of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra , and nephew of Menelaus had been promise to Orestes in marriage before the war started. Orestes cured of his madness and persecution of the Erinyes , decided and conspired together with Hermione and her father (Menelaus) to murder Neoptolemus.
Orestes committed fresh murder, by killing Neoptolemus. Hermione encouraged her new lover to murder Andromache and her three sons. Peleus managed to rescue Andromache and his great-grandsons. Peleus was in despair because he had outlived his son and grandson.
Molossus would later find a new kingdom, called Molossus within northern Epeirus, while Pergamus went to Mysia, where he conquered the city of Teuthrania, and renamed it to Pergamum.
The geographer Pausanias know of one local legend where a priest of Apollo murdered Neoptolemus. And Apollodorus offered another version of Neoptolemus' death. When the young hero went to Delphi to demand reparation for his father's death from Apollo, he stole the votive offerings to the gods and set fire to Apollo's temple. Machaireus of Phocia, who was there at that time, killed Neoptolemus.
A young hero in the Odyssey . Telemachus (Τηλέμαχος) was the son of Odysseus and Penelope .
Telemachus was only an infant when his father left for Troy. Apparently, his father tried to pretend to be insane in order to avoid going to war, but one of Agamemnon's captain was just as cunning as Odysseus. Palemedes exposed Telemachus to danger, and Odysseus could not avoid exposing his feigned madness when he saved Telemachus' life.
The reason why Odysseus didn't want to go to Troy because a prophecy said he could not return home without wandering for 10 years after the war, losing all of his ships and men.
On the 17th or 18th year of his father's absence, young noblemen from Ithaca and surrounding islands began to woo his mother. Over 100 nobles persistently stay at their home. Penelope couldn't turn them away, and Telemachus was still too young to drive them from their home.
On the 19th year, Telemachus was at the point of despairing that his father would never return home, when the goddess Athena appeared in the form of Mentes, advising him to seek news of his father at Pylos and Sparta. Odysseus was not only goddess' favourite; she was the protector of Odysseus' wife and son during the hero's absence.
Athena disguised later as Mentor, spirited Telemachus out of Ithaca on a ship, and took the young man to Pylos, where he met Nestor . Nestor had no news but sent him to Sparta, where he met Menelaus and his wife Helen , who was actually Telemachus aunt. The news Menelaus wasn't much. Despite being related to Helen, Menelaus could not assist Telemachus in removing Penelope's unwanted suitors. Telemachus must either await for his father's return, or find some way to remove the suitors, himself.
By the time, Telemachus returned to Ithaca, he met his father in the guise of old beggar. The clever disguise was Athena's magic, but the goddess revealed Odysseus' true identity to Telemachus. So father and son were finally reunited.
Odysseus insisted that he can't reveal his return to either to his wife or to his wife's suitors, until he assessed the situation at home. So in the guise of old man, Odysseus test both his wife's loyalty and the situation in his palace. Telemachus assisted his father by hiding most of the weapons from the suitors.
Even unarmed, the suitors still could overpowered Odysseus and Telemachus, but their situation did improve when Penelope decided at last to choose a new husband. She would only one who could string Odysseus' old bow, and fired an arrow through the holes of twelve axe. Telemachus tried to string the bow first, but couldn't. Neither could any of the suitors; they didn't have Odysseus' strength.
When Odysseus managed to get the bow into his hands, he easily strings the bow and shoots an arrow through the hoops. With this formidable weapon, Odysseus began killing the suitors, with the assistance of his son and two servants who were still loyal to him. A battle ensued, and ended with the death of all the suitors. Odysseus didn't reveal his identity to Telemachus' mother until the battle ended.
Odysseus knew that he would have to deal with the suitors' family, so he went in search of his father, Laertes, as well as enlisting some aids from those still loyal to him. The Ithacan townspeople would have attacked Odysseus, but Athena intervened, forcing the Ithacan noblemen to make peace with Odysseus.
With his father reunited with his mother, Telemachus became a brother of Acusilaus.
According to the Telegony, Telegonus, son of Odysseus and Circe , and therefore Telemachus' half-brother. Telegonus had unwittingly killed their father. Telemachus forgave his half-brother. Telemachus and his mother left Ithaca with Telegonus, where they buried Odysseus on Circe's island. Telemachus married Circe, while his mother married Telegonus. Circe being a goddess, made Telemachus and his mother immortal.
According to a fragment, attributed to Hesiod, during his short visit in Pylus, Telemachus slept with Polycaste, Nestor's daughter, and became the father of Persepolis.
Hector
Commander-in-chief of the Trojan forces and their allies. Hector (Ἕκτωρ) was the eldest son of Priam and Hecuba . He was Troy's greatest warrior. Hector was the brother of Paris , Helenus and Cassandra . He married Andromache , the daughter of Eëtion (Eetion), king of Thebes. Hector was the father of Astyanax (Scamandrius).
In the last year of war, with withdrawal of Achilles from battle because of his quarrel with Agamemnon , Hector's prowess in battle rose to great height, inspired by the gods, Zeus and Apollo. He challenged the Greeks to fight him in single combat. Many heroes volunteered, including Diomedes and Odysseus, but drawing lots, Ajax won the right to fight Hector. In a single combat against Ajax, he fought to a draw. Although, he was the best warrior on the Trojan sides, Ajax and Diomedes had bested him in their few meetings. The height of his heroism happened when he smashed the gates of the Greek field fortification around the camp. The second climax of his career was when he set one of the Greek ships on fire.
His rash bravery and over-confidence often clouded his judgement. Twice he didn't listen to the wise counsel from his brave friend, Polydamas, with disastrous results. Polydamas advised him to leave the horses behind, when they breached the Greek gate; he did not listened. After the Hector fired one of the ships, Patroclus in Achilles' armour brought reinforcement, which routed the Trojans and drove them back outside the Greek camp. Many of the Trojans trying to escape drove their chariots through the gate. In their hasty retreat they crashed into one another. Twenty-two Trojans died at the gates.
After the death of Achilles' companion, Patroclus, Polydamas advised Hector that the Trojans should not face the Greek forces in battle, with Achilles returning to battlefield. He also advised the commander not to faced Achilles in combat. Over-confident of his mixed successes from the previous day he ignored Polydamas' counsels. Many Trojan leaders fell to the vengeful Achilles that day and the Trojans were driven back to the city. Achilles later killed Hector in single combat.
Zeus preserved his body with ambrosia, to prevent decay and damage to his body, despite Achilles' attempt to drag his body behind his chariot. His aged father, Priam ransomed his body, for the funeral. The Iliad ended with with a tribute for the bravery of Hector at the funeral.
After the fall of Troy, the Greeks murdered his son Astyanax, while his wife ( Andromache ) became concubine of his killer's son, Neoptolemus . Neoptolemus killed his father, King Priam, during the fall of Troy.
When Neoptolemus married Hermione, daughter of Helen and Menelaüs, he set Andromache and Helenus freed, and allowed the two to marry.
The second son of Priam and Hecuba , Paris (Πάρις) was also called Alexander.
Hecuba had a disturbing nightmare in which she gave birth to son who will burn the city down. The seer Aesacus, Priam's son by Arisbe, told king that this son would cause the destruction to Troy. Paris was left exposed in the wilderness, but he was suckled by she-bear. The farmer, Agelaüs (Agelaus) raised him as a shepherd in his farm. He grew up into handsome and strong young man. When the king held games, Paris entered and won every competition that caused even Priam's sons jealous, that they wanted to attack the shepherd, but Cassandra recognised him as her brother. Paris was then married to a nymph Oenone, daughter of the river-god Cebren, where the young couple lived in Mount Ida.
Oenone's happiness was short-lived, when Hermes arrived with three goddesses and asked him to judge them and decided who was the fairest among them. Paris awarded the golden apple to Aphrodite, who promised him Helen of Sparta , as his wife. He caused the enmity of two powerful goddesses against the Trojans. Oenone tried to plead with Paris to stay with her. Failing to persuade her husband from leaving her, she told him when he comes back to her, and she would wait for him and heal him of any wound he probably will receive from the coming war.
But Helen was wedded to Menelaüs (Menelaus), a king with many powerful allies. As Paris guested in Sparta, during his Menelaüs' absence, Aphrodite caused Helen to fall in love with Paris and ran away with him, thereby causing the Trojan War.
In the war, Paris was the best archer in the Trojan forces, though his records were unimpressive; he managed to wound Diomedes. After ten years of war, many Trojan would have gladly return Helen to the Menelaüs, but each time, Paris refused, with his father support. During the single combat between Paris and Menelaüs, Aphrodite spirited him away when his life was in danger. Paris only claim to glory was killing Achilles , the arrow guided by Apollo to pierce his only weakness, his heel.
Death of Paris
Paris himself was killed by poisoned arrow from Philoctetes . Dying, Paris returned to his first wife, Oenoe, in Mount Ida, because she had promised to heal his wound when he left her for Helen. But after ten years of waiting for his return, she refused to heal her husband. Paris returned to Troy to die. Oenone instantly regretting her decision, hurried to Paris with drug to rid of the Hydra's venom. But she arrived too late. In her remorse and because of her love for Paris, she either hanged herself or threw herself into Paris' burning pyre. No one else mourned for him.
After his death, Helen was forced to marry her brother-in-law, Deïphobus, who was killed by Helen's first husband at the fall of Troy. Helen returned to Sparta with Menelaüs.
Helenus
A Trojan seer. Helenus (Ἕλενος) was the son of Priam , the king of Troy, and Hecuba . Helenus was the brother of Hector , Paris , Deiphobus and Cassandra .
As a seer, Helenus knew that Troy was doom. Helenus failed to dissuade Paris from sailing to Sparta to fetch Helen . Helenus seemed to be a good fighter, during the war. His role in the Iliad, however, was minor.
According to the Little Iliad and Sophocles' Philoctetes, Odysseus captured Helenus, before Paris' death. It was Helenus who told the Greeks of the requirements of winning the war, such as Neoptolemus and Philoctetes with the bow of Heracles was needed at Troy, the bones of Pelops need to be relocated and stealing the Palladium from the altar of Athena.
In Apollodorus' Epitome, Helenus was captured after Paris' death. It was Calchas who foretold that the Greeks needed to fetch Philoctetes and the bow of Heracles. See Philoctetes about Odysseus and one of his companions fetching the bow of Heracles.
Once Philoctetes rejoined the Greeks, healed of his wound, Philoctetes killed or mortally wounded Paris with his deadly arrow.
When Paris died, Helenus and his other brother Deiphoubus contend with one another for the hand of Helen in marriage. When Deiphobus won and married Helen, Helenus left Troy for Mount Ida.
Odysseus captured Helenus to reveal how Troy may be capture. Helenus was easy to persuade, and told the Greeks they Neoptolemus, the son of Achilles must come and fight at Troy. They also had to bring the bones of Pelops had to Troy for burial. Helenus also told them that Troy could fall unless the Palladium was taken out of the altar of Athena.
When Troy fell, Neoptolemus received Helenus as slave. Andromache, the widow of Hector and sister-in-law of Helenus, became Neoptolemus' concubine. Helenus knew that the most of the Greek fleet would be destroyed after the Lesser Ajax had raped his sister Cassandra, at Athena's temple. Helenus advised to Neoptolemus to go home by land than sea. According to Apollodorus, it was Thetis, Neoptolemus' grandmother, to advise Neoptolemus to stay on the island of Tenedos for two days before setting out on land, through Thrace.
Neoptolemus safely reached his father's home, where he met his grandfather ( Peleus ) for the first time. Rather than taking over the kingdom from Peleus, at Helenus' suggestion, Neoptolemus went to Epeirus to find his own kingdom.
Helenus lived with Neoptolemus and Andromache, acting more like a close adviser than a slave. When Neoptolemus decided to marry Hermione, the daughter of Menelaus and Helen, the hero set Helenus and Andromache free, where Helenus was allowed to find his own kingdom in Epeirus. When Hermione and her lover, Orestes , murdered Neoptolemus, Helenus took care of Neoptolemus' sons. Andromache had a son, , by him, and it is believed that Andromache became Helenus' wife. However, Apollodorus says that Neoptolemus gave his mother, Deidameia, to Helenus as wife; not Andromache.
In Virgil's Aeneid, Helenus met Aeneas and his followers, who were looking for a new home. Helenus revealed to Aeneas that his new home would be in Central Italy.
Deïphobus
A Trojan prince. Deïphobus (Δηίφοβος) was a son of Priam and Hecuba ; he was possibly their third son. He was a brother of Hector, Paris, Helenus and Cassandra. Probably in their family, Deïphobus was probably the second best fighter among his brothers, next to Hector .
In the Iliad, his brother Helenus led a third battalion against the wall of the Greek camp, with Deïphobus serving as lieutenant, but Homer didn't write anything of his exploit in the Iliad. Athena impersonated Deïphobus by taking his form, in order to dupe and lure Hector to fight Achilles in single combat. Here, Hector revealed that Deïphobus was Hector's favourite brother. When Deïphobus vanished from Hector's side, the Trojan commander realised that he was fated to die that day.
It is after the death of Hector that he became better known. According to one legend, he and Paris ambushed and killed Achilles, by using their sister, Polyxena as bait.
When Paris died, Deïphobus quarrelled with his brother, Helenus, over who should marry their brother's widow, Helen . By this time, Helen wanted to return home, to her first husband, and her daughter that she had abandoned in Sparta. It is not certain how he won the quarrel, but it was Deïphobus who eventually married Helen. The marriage would be short-lived. Helenus left Troy, but was captured by the Greeks. Helenus, as a seer, was very vital to the Greek victory.
When the Greek breached the defence of Troy through the use of the Wooden Horse, Deïphobus was among those who tried to defend the city, but he was killed by Menelaus , Helen's first husband.
In The Aeneid, the hero Aeneas would encounter Deïphobus' shade in the Underworld. Aeneas was his cousin. Deïphobus talked of his last night, revealing Helen's treachery. While Deïphobus celebrated, getting drunk and then falling asleep after their supposed victory over the Greeks, Helen hid all of Deïphobus' weapons, so he was defenceless when Menelaus and Odysseus (Ulysses) came into the house.
Aeneas
A Dardanian hero. He was the son of Anchises and the goddess Aphrodite . Hesiod says that Aphrodite gave birth to Aeneas (Αἰνείας) at the peaks of Ida. Aeneas was of the Trojan royal line of Dardania. Aeneas was brought up in Mount Ida by nymphs who lived there. He married Creüsa (Creusa), daughter of Priam and Hecuba, and became father of Ascanius (Iülus). Since Anchises was crippled by thunderbolt, Aeneas ruled in his father's place in Dardania.
Aeneas may have being a companion of Paris, when Paris went to Sparta. Aeneas, at first, did not join the war, until Achilles drove him out of Mount Ida.
When Aeneas joined the war, he was second only to Hector, as the best Trojan warrior. Aeneas was also second-in-command of the Trojan forces.
Diomedes seriously wounded Aeneas, before stealing Aeneas' immortal horses, which were originally belonged to Tros . Aphrodite failed to rescue her son, because Diomedes wounded her and drove her off the battlefield. Apollo, however, spirited Aeneas away, before Diomedes could kill him.
Although, Poseidon favoured the Greek forces right throughout the war, nevertheless, the sea god rescued Aeneas from Achilles, for it was foretold that he would rule the Trojan lines.
Aeneas was the only one of two Trojan leaders to escape the fall of Troy; the other being Antenor (who was also a Dardanian). Aeneas tried to escape with his family. Aeneas had to carry his crippled father on his back while holding to his son's hand. Creüsa got separated from Aeneas and was killed, but according to Pausanias, she was rescued by Aphrodite and Kybele, to prevent the Greeks taking her as concubine.
There are several tales of his adventure after Troy. One told of him been captured by Neoptolemus and became his slave (Little Iliad).
When Aeneas witnessed a serpent killed a Trojan seer named Laocoon and his sons, Aeneas knew Troy would soon fall, so Aeneas deserted Troy. Taking his family and his followers, Aeneas returned home to Mount Ida (Sack of Ilium).
And another tale says that Aeneas ruled Troy after the Greeks left, as Poseidon had foretold in the Iliad.
Apollodorus' Epitome says that Aeneas escaped from the city, carrying his father. The Greeks allowed him to escape because of his piety.
However, the most famous account about Aeneas after the fall of Troy can be found in the Roman epic poem, known as the Aeneïd (Aeneid), told by Virgil (Vergil), in which he settled near the present day Rome. Go to the Tales of Rome for detail about the Aeneid.
The Aeneïd was sort of the combination of epics in Greek mythology, such as his journey to Italy was told like the Argonautica and the Odyssey , in the first half. While the setting in the second half of the Aeneid had a plot more like the Iliad , during the Trojan War.
Aeneas and his followers tried to find a new home. After a long and perilous sea voyage, they arrived in Italy. Aeneas decided to settle in Latium, where Latinus, king of Latium, welcomed him. Latinus was in favour of Aeneas marrying his daughter Lavinia.
Due to hatred of Juno ( Hera ), who had hated all Trojans since the Judgement of Paris , the goddess stirred up trouble among the Italians. Juno caused Amata, wife of Latinus, to hated Aeneas, refusing to allow the hero marry her daughter.
Juno also stirred other Latin tribes, including Turnus, leader of the Rutulians, who was a suitor of Lavinia. Most of the Latin tribes declared war on the Trojans, and rallied under the leadership of Turnus. The Greek hero Diomedes , who settled in southern Italy, refused to take part in another war against the Trojans. He urged the warring Latins to make peace with Aeneas.
As the Trojans tried to hold back their enemies, Aeneas sought allies around central Italy. The Etruscans sided with the Trojans. An aged king of Pallanteum (within present-day Rome), named Evander had also offered aid to Aeneas. Evander send some men, under leadership of his son Pallas.
Many leaders on both sides fell in the war. Among the dead was Pallas, killed by Turnus. Aeneas avenged Pallas, killing Turnus in single combat. The war ended with Turnus' death.
See Aeneïd for more about Aeneas' adventure.
After the war in Italy, Aeneas married Lavinia. They probably had a son, named Silvius. Some say that Aeneas founded the city of Alba Longa; others say that it was his son Ascanius who founded this city. His descendant, Romulus was to become founder of the city of Rome and also become its first king.
According to Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Aeneas fell in battle against the Rutulians, and his body was never recovered in battle. But according to the poet Ovid, Venus (Aphrodite) persuaded Jupiter (Zeus) to make her son immortal. Juno had finally given up her enmity towards the Trojans and come to term with Aeneas; Zeus' consort did not object to her step-daughter's request. At the end of his life, Venus took her son to live with her in Olympus.
Sarpedon & Glaucus
Sarpedon (Σαρπηδών) and Glaucus (Glaucos or Γλαὓκος) were co-captains of the Lycian forces, and allies of Troy. The two Lycian heroes were cousins; they were grandsons of the hero Bellerophon . Glaucus was the son of Hippolochus. There are some confusion over who were Sarpedon' parents.
Some say that Sarpedon was the son of Zeus and Europa, and brother of Minos and Rhadamanthys. If that were the case, then Sarpedon would be very old.
Another version says that the Cretan Sarpedon migrated to Lycia, when he was driven off from Crete by Minos. Evander, Sarpedon's son, married Deïdameia (Deidameia), daughter of Bellerophon . It was Evander and Deïdameia who were parents of Sarpedon. Therefore, the Sarpedon, who fought in Troy, was the grandson of the Cretan Sarpedon (Europa's son).
In a third version, Homer says that, Sarpedon was the son of Zeus and Laodameia, another daughter of Bellerophon. Personally, I think the second version was more probable.
During the war, Sarpedon was one of the better fighters on the Trojan side. Sarpedon killed Tlepolemus, son of Heracles and Auge, leader of the Rhodians. While Glaucus encountered the divine-inspired Diomedes , until they had both discovered each other's lineage. Apparently, their grandfathers were once guest-friends (Bellerophon and Oeneus). Instead of fighting one another in combat, the two enemies exchanged armours, promising to avoid one another in combat.
Sarpedon and Glaucus distinguished themselves in the fighting, two days later. They led one of the strongest attacks on the wall of the Greek camp. But on that same day, Sarpedon was killed by Patroclus, companion of Achilles. Furious fighting was fought over Sarpedon's body, until his body was recovered by the god Zeus (who was his father, according to Homer). Sarpedon's body was brought back to Lycia by the gods, Hypnos ("Sleep") and Thanatos ("Death"), for proper funeral.
When Achilles was killed, there was another furious fighting over Achilles' body. Glaucus was killed by the Ajax , son of Telamon, who was standing guard over the Achilles' body.
Memnon
An Eithopian prince. Memnon (Μέμνων) was the son Tithonus and Eos , goddess of Dawn. Memnon was cousin to Hector and Paris , since Tithonus was brother of Priam .
Memnon brought his army as reinforcement for Troy, and achieved short successes in the battlefield against the Greeks. He had arrived some time after the death of the Amazon Queen, Penthesileia .
Memnon drove the Greeks back from Troy's walls, and in the retreat of the Greek army, the chariot of Nestor crashed. Antioclus, Nestor's young son, came to his assistance, but Memnon easily killed Antioclus. Nestor wanted to avenge his son's death, but Memnon refused to fight an old man.
Achilles still mourning over the death of his friend, Patroclus, now lamented over Antioclus' death, when Nestor asked the hero to fight against Memnon. Memnon had golden helmet, armour and shield were made by Hephaestus , just like Achilles' armour, helmet and shield. But his armour and shield did little to protect Memnon.
Memnon's death was followed by Achilles, on that same day.
Turnus
Turnus was the king of Rutulia and enemy of Aeneas . Turnus was either the son of Pilumnus and Danae , who was the daughter of Acrisius , or he was the son of King Daunus of Rutulia and Venilia. Turnus was also the brother of Juturna , the goddess of spring and wife of Janus .
In Roman myths, Turnus was mainly known in Vergil's Aeneid , where he was leader in the war against Aeneas and the Trojan refugees. Juno ( Hera ), who hated all Trojans since the Judgement of Paris, had persecuted Aeneas since he left Troy to find a new home.
Turnus had wanted to marry Lavinia, the daughter of King Latinus . The old king favoured Aeneas, mainly because a prophecy say that her daughter will marry a foreign prince, but Latinus' wife, Amata, and Juno supported Turnus. Both queen and goddess incited the Latins and the Rutulians against Aeneas and the Trojans. Turnus' jealousy caused him to declare war upon the Trojans.
Though Turnus killed many Trojans and their allies, the Rutulian leader was eventually killed in single combat against Aeneas. The Aeneid ended with Turnus' death.
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Helena Bonham Carter and Meat Loaf appear in which 1999 film starring Brad Pitt? | FIGHT CLUB - Trailer - (1999) - HQ - YouTube
FIGHT CLUB - Trailer - (1999) - HQ
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Trailer for David Fincher's film starring Brad Pitt, Edward Norton, Helena Bonham Carter, Meat Loaf, Jared Leto, Holt McCallany, Zach Grenier, Richmond Arquette,
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| Fight Club |
On the human body, the axilla is better known as what? | Fight Club - Nitrate Online Review
Fight Club
Edward Norton, Helena Bonham Carter,
Meat Loaf, Jared Leto, Zach Grenier,
Eion Bailey, and Ezra Buzzington
Written by Chuck Palahniuk
Fight Club director David Fincher is from a new generation of terribly self-absorbed scene-shooters. Hell-bent to establish a style, Fincher and his colleagues churn up a lot of atmosphere and dread in their films. Critics praise the work for its �artistic flourishes� and �lack of compromise�. That�s why his debut film, Alien 3, feels like a violent tug-of-war between art and trash. Realizing that the Alien franchise had probably already run its course before this third round, Fincher took viewers on a completely nihilistic turn as if to say, �I want to transcend this!� Sigourney Weaver�s Ripley, possibly the most physically and emotionally battered female hero this side of Linda Hamilton�s Terminator-wrangling Sarah Connor, slogged through the film knowing that her comrades from James Cameron�s masterful Aliens had all perished in their sleep during a doomed spaceship flight. Meanwhile, she also grappled with the reality that a baby alien � retracting teeth and all � was just days away from sprouting out of her belly. Not a helluva lot of fun, for either her or the viewer.
Ah, but such bleak suffering is so � artistic. Using this logic, Fincher later unleashed Seven. Essentially a slasher film, with its geek-show parade of decomposing bodies and musty murder sites, Seven also threw in some literary references � not to mention endless shots of damp, dark interiors accented by the occasional piercing flashlight beam � to qualify itself as a work of creative merit. The film�s subtle-as-a-heart-attack conclusion, meanwhile, featured a smirking serial killer whittling off his finger pads to avoid being accurately printed by the police, before presenting Seven�s hero with the severed head of his pregnant young wife. A real maestro of the light touch, this Fincher. But boy, does he know how to film trickling water and dusty basements!
Fast-forward past The Game, another moody, Michael Douglas mystery, and one finds Fincher�s Fight Club, easily the most overstuffed, self-important wad of hooey to gush from the �pretentious pipe� since Oliver Stone unleashed his occasionally brilliant, but mostly goofy, Natural Born Killers. Throwing as much shit as possible into the fan and praying that some of it will stick, Fight Club features morphing special effects, interior �brain shots� of neuronal synapses, the raid of a liposuction clinic for discarded fat, testicular cancer support groups, and Meat Loaf with breasts. But it�s so teeming with ideas that Fight Club ultimately bubbles over, like a spewing geyser, without a coherent path to follow.
Fight Club is chronicled by The Narrator, played with chameleonic range by Edward Norton. A voice-over by The Narrator guides viewers through several days in the life of this initially mild-mannered corporate drone. The lonely, urban routine of this unnamed thirtysomething in an unnamed city consists of assessing auto accidents for a bloodless car company by day, and thumbing through interior decorating catalogs for new furniture by night. Eventually, this sterile plight brings on insomnia. �At night,� the sleep-deprived Narrator explains, �I�m never really asleep. At work, I�m never really awake.�
Starving for some human connection, The Narrator haunts support groups hosted for the terminally ill. When he pairs up with an authentic sufferer and shares in a cathartic fountain of tears, Norton�s warmth-seeking �tourist� soaks up the emotion like a bloodsucking mosquito. Much has been written about Fight Club�s torrent of bloody violence, but the film�s truly offensive moments occur during the support club scenes. Meat Loaf, for instance, shows up as a testicular cancer victim with a testosterone shortage and � consequently � a particularly well-endowed chest. Many references are made to his �oversized tits�, while a brain tumor victim laments her inability to �get laid� from the podium. Later, when a fellow faker named Marla (Helena Bonham Carter, looking like the goth-garbed Bride of Marilyn Manson) materializes at the groups, she sums up their appeal with the flippant observation, �They�re cheaper than a movie, and they serve coffee.� Fight Club�s hip, irreverent take on human suffering is apparently meant to be a real hoot.
Later, The Narrator bumps into psychotic anarchist Tyler Durden, played by Brad Pitt. Appearing as a Cuban pimp cloned with a Venice Beach surferboy, Durden�s flamboyant presence prompts Norton to ask his vocation. �I sell soap,� Durden replies with a sleazy smile.
After his apartment burns to the ground, The Narrator calls Durden in desperation and asks to share his abode. Soon, the two build up a Satanic partnership, a �yin yang� combination with Pitt�s rippling pectorals and macho mentality guiding The Narrator down a progressively more dangerous route. Initially, the duo start a Fight Club, where disillusioned young men can meet, socialize, and bash each other�s cheeks in. Durden preaches contempt for the materialistic, suggesting that contemporary man is so insulated from his hunter-gatherer roots and feminized by an increasingly technical society, he can only achieve release through such primal brawling. Durden practices what he preaches, urinating in the soup as a social club waiter, and splicing porno footage into Disney features as a theater projectionist. A swell guy. As for his soap salesman front, Durden�s sudsy wares have a secret ingredient: human fat seized from a liposuction clinic. Durden figures there�s a vengeful irony in recycling the abandoned blubber and selling it back to the high-society women who had it removed in the first place.
Eventually, Fight Club members are indoctrinated into Project Mayhem, a quest to blow up America�s credit card company headquarters � to Durden, it�s the ultimate stab at unnecessary consumerism. In preparation, his band of anarchists sabotages corporate art dislays, erases retail videotapes, and destroys espresso shops. Some of this is staged in an appropriately grim fashion, but much of it, such as the defacing of a high-rise building with a fiery-eyed �happy face� motif, is meant to induce chuckles from the audience. Fincher recently stated that Fight Club was meant to be a comedy. But instead of inducing belly laughs, such misguided scenes are more likely to cause stomach upset in rightfully offended viewers.
Instead of biting off several mouthfuls more than it can chew, Fight Club could have stuck with The Narrator and followed his Travis Bickle-style descent into psychosis without all the frills that merely limit the personal aspects of this film. There�s a creepy scene where Norton�s character beats himself bloody before his disbelieving boss, then threatens the onlooker with an assault lawsuit. It�s reminiscent of a similar corporate blackmail from the far-more-insightful American Beauty. However, American Beauty is much more focused and effective in portraying a man�s social alienation, because we can empathize with its tortured hero. However, when The Narrator beats the face of an angelic blonde member in his quest to �destroy something beautiful�, we can only look in revulsion. Who is this warped twit, anyway? Norton, who demonstrated a superhuman ability to morph and grow as a character in American History X and Primal Fear, is at the mercy of a presentation more concerned with bombast than subtlety. He simply doesn�t have room to breathe.
Meanwhile, Pitt gets credit for spicing up his resume with a truly twisted turn: Durden is his least sympathetic character since the image-smashing redneck killer Early Grayce, from 1993�s Kalifornia. But unlike Grayce, whose appearance as a backwoods, white trash hick masked a gift for cunning, cold-blooded evil, Durden is set up to look cool and funny. It�s a sad move. Travis Bickle, the ultimate disenfranchised urban antihero from Martin Scorsese�s 1976 masterpiece Taxi Driver, certainly wasn�t presented as a stud. Watching Bickle�s disintegration is like peeping through a neighbor�s window: you felt ashamed watching his pathetic downward spiral, but you certainly don�t feel admiration.
Where does it all end? Well, there�s a clever, Sixth Sense-style twist to introduce the third act, and Bonham-Carter frumping around pointlessly as a love interest. In the end, however, Fight Club is an unhinged mess of a movie, with potentially dangerous ideas handled in a winking, cynical manner. Why couldn�t Durden and his fascist masses spend a few days camping in the Grand Tetons instead, rediscovering their animal instincts fending off bears, hunting elk, and cooking brook trout with a butane stove?
Copyright � 1999 by Nitrate Productions, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
www.nitrateonline.com Copyright � 1996-2005 by Nitrate Productions, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
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Which film starring Judy Garland was based on a novel by L Frank Baum? | A look back at 'The Wizard of Oz' - Houston Chronicle
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A look back at 'The Wizard of Oz'
'There's no place like home,' but with the prequel in theaters, let's take a look back on the 75th anniversary of the film's premiere
Photo: Hulton Archive, Getty Images
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"The Wizard of Oz," based on a 1900 novel by L. Frank Baum, was a smash hit in 1939 and remains one of Hollywood's most cherished classics.
"The Wizard of Oz," based on a 1900 novel by L. Frank Baum, was a smash hit in 1939 and remains one of Hollywood's most cherished classics.
Photo: Hulton Archive, Getty Images
"The Wizard of Oz," based on a 1900 novel by L. Frank... Photo-4297491.58084 - Houston Chronicle
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Judy Garland starred as Dorothy, in Victor Fleming's film, "The Wizard of Oz."
Judy Garland starred as Dorothy, in Victor Fleming's film, "The Wizard of Oz."
Photo: MGM Studios, Getty Images
Judy Garland starred as Dorothy, in Victor Fleming's film,... Photo-4297497.58084 - Houston Chronicle
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Judy Garland (right) and Billie Burke link hands, surrounded by Munchkins.
Judy Garland (right) and Billie Burke link hands, surrounded by Munchkins.
Photo: Getty Images
Judy Garland (right) and Billie Burke link hands, surrounded by... Photo-4297504.58084 - Houston Chronicle
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Margaret Hamilton, as The Wicked Witch of the West, hides behind a tree from Dorothy, played by Judy Garland, and the scarecrow as they make their way down the yellow brick road.
Margaret Hamilton, as The Wicked Witch of the West, hides behind a tree from Dorothy, played by Judy Garland, and the scarecrow as they make their way down the yellow brick road.
Photo: Hulton Archive, Getty Images
Margaret Hamilton, as The Wicked Witch of the West, hides behind a... Photo-4297502.58084 - Houston Chronicle
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Ray Bolger, Jack Haley, Judy Garland, and Bert Lahr run arm in arm through a field of poppies.
Ray Bolger, Jack Haley, Judy Garland, and Bert Lahr run arm in arm through a field of poppies.
Photo: Getty Images
Ray Bolger, Jack Haley, Judy Garland, and Bert Lahr run arm in arm... Photo-4297511.58084 - Houston Chronicle
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Margaret Hamilton as the Wicked Witch, and a winged monkey look... Photo-4297507.58084 - Houston Chronicle
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Bert Lahr in costume as the cowardly lion in the musical "The Wizard of Oz."
Bert Lahr in costume as the cowardly lion in the musical "The Wizard of Oz."
Photo: John Kobal Foundation, Getty Images
Bert Lahr in costume as the cowardly lion in the musical "The... Photo-4297500.58084 - Houston Chronicle
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Dorothy and the Tin Man, seen here in a still from the film "The Wizard Of Oz," directed by Victor Fleming for MGM.
Dorothy and the Tin Man, seen here in a still from the film "The Wizard Of Oz," directed by Victor Fleming for MGM.
Photo: Hulton Archive, Getty Images
Dorothy and the Tin Man, seen here in a still from the film... Photo-4297492.58084 - Houston Chronicle
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Frank Morgan as the professor in "The Wizard Of Oz," directed by Victor Fleming for MGM.
Frank Morgan as the professor in "The Wizard Of Oz," directed by Victor Fleming for MGM.
Photo: Hulton Archive, Getty Images
Frank Morgan as the professor in "The Wizard Of Oz,"... Photo-4297493.58084 - Houston Chronicle
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Ray Bolger, Judy Garland and Jack Haley as the Scarecrow, Dorothy, and the Tin Woodsman, respectively, in a promotional still from the film.
Ray Bolger, Judy Garland and Jack Haley as the Scarecrow, Dorothy, and the Tin Woodsman, respectively, in a promotional still from the film.
Photo: MGM Studios, Getty Images
Ray Bolger, Judy Garland and Jack Haley as the Scarecrow, Dorothy,... Photo-4297488.58084 - Houston Chronicle
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American actor Jack Haley played The Tin Man.
American actor Jack Haley played The Tin Man.
Photo: Silver Screen Collection, Getty Images
American actor Jack Haley played The Tin Man. Photo-4297486.58084 - Houston Chronicle
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Judy Garland who played the role of Dorothy, flanked by, left, Jack Haley who was the Tin man, and Ray Bolger who played the Scarecrow, walking on the yellow brick road in "The Wizard of Oz."
Judy Garland who played the role of Dorothy, flanked by, left, Jack Haley who was the Tin man, and Ray Bolger who played the Scarecrow, walking on the yellow brick road in "The Wizard of Oz."
Photo: Paul Popper/Popperfoto, Getty Images
Judy Garland who played the role of Dorothy, flanked by, left, Jack... Photo-4297485.58084 - Houston Chronicle
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From left to right, Jack Haley as the Tin Man, Ray Bolger as the Scarecrow, Judy Garland as Dorothy and Bert Lahr as the Cowardly Lion in the MGM film "The Wizard of Oz," 1939.
From left to right, Jack Haley as the Tin Man, Ray Bolger as the Scarecrow, Judy Garland as Dorothy and Bert Lahr as the Cowardly Lion in the MGM film "The Wizard of Oz," 1939.
Photo: Authenticated News, Getty Images
From left to right, Jack Haley as the Tin Man, Ray Bolger as the... Photo-4297484.58084 - Houston Chronicle
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Judy Garland as Dorothy and Ray Bolger as the Scarecrow.
Judy Garland as Dorothy and Ray Bolger as the Scarecrow.
Photo: MGM Studios, Getty Images
Judy Garland as Dorothy and Ray Bolger as the Scarecrow. Photo-4297482.58084 - Houston Chronicle
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American actor Ray Bolger portrated The Scarecrow.
American actor Ray Bolger portrated The Scarecrow.
Photo: MGM Studios, Getty Images
American actor Ray Bolger portrated The Scarecrow. Photo-4297481.58084 - Houston Chronicle
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In the end it was all a dream...
In the end it was all a dream...
Photo: MGM Studios, Getty Images
In the end it was all a dream... Photo-4297494.58084 - Houston Chronicle
Image 17 of 20 | 'The Wiz'
In 1975, a stage play titled "The Wiz" recast Oz with African-American actors (including, left to right, Michael Jackson, Nipsey Russell, Diana Ross and Ted Ross) and was subsequently turned into a film directed by Sidney Lumet in 1978. less
In 1975, a stage play titled "The Wiz" recast Oz with African-American actors (including, left to right, Michael Jackson, Nipsey Russell, Diana Ross and Ted Ross) and was subsequently turned into a film ... more
Photo: Michael Ochs Archives, Getty Images
In 1975, a stage play titled "The Wiz" recast Oz with... Photo-4297574.58084 - Houston Chronicle
Image 18 of 20 | 'Return to Oz'
In 1985, Disney made an unofficial sequel starring young actress Fairuza Balk titled "Return to Oz" based on another novel by L. Frank Baum.
In 1985, Disney made an unofficial sequel starring young actress Fairuza Balk titled "Return to Oz" based on another novel by L. Frank Baum.
Photo: Richard Blanshard, Getty Images
In 1985, Disney made an unofficial sequel starring young actress... Photo-4297575.58084 - Houston Chronicle
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| The Wizard of Oz |
The English town of Colchester lies on which river? | Judy Garland | Wizard Of Oz to be celebrated at Oscars | Contactmusic.com
Wizard Of Oz to be celebrated at Oscars
Wizard Of Oz to be celebrated at Oscars
The Oscars will celebrate the 75th anniversary of 'Wizard Of Oz' which received six nominations at the awards ceremony in 1939.
The Oscars will celebrate the 75th anniversary of 'Wizard Of Oz'.
The iconic musical adventure film starring the late Judy Garland - which received six nominations in 1939 - will be given a special tribute at the 86th Academy Awards which will take place on March 2 in Los Angeles.
Show producers Craig Zadan and Neil Meron said: ''We are delighted to celebrate the birthday of one of the most beloved movies of all time at this year's Oscars.''
'Wizard Of Oz' - based on L. Frank Baum's classic children's novel - won two Oscars for Best Original Score and Best Song at the 12th Academy Awards but narrowly missed out on Best Picture to civil war love story, 'Gone With the Wind'.
The fantasy tale, tells the story of Dorothy a young girl who finds herself in the mystical world of Oz where she embarks on an adventure with her new pals The Lion, The Scarecrow and The Tin Man in hopes of returning home to Kansas.
Over the years the story has seen numerous reincarnations in the form of a Broadway musical and 'The Wiz' an African American adaptation of the Broadway show, which later starred Michael Jackson and Diana Ross in the 1978 film remake.
Contactmusic
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‘People in the Sun’ is the work of which American artist? | Hopper Drawing | Whitney Museum of American Art
Whitney Museum of American Art
Wed–Thurs10:30 am–6 pm
Fri–Sat10:30 am–10 pm
Sun10:30 am–6 pm
Works with Resources for Teachers
Browse by artist’s name
The perfect gift for any art enthusiast:
Memberships start at just $85.
Explore Hopper’s Studies
Edward Hopper (1882–1967), Study for Nighthawks, 1941 or 1942. Fabricated chalk and charcoal on paper; 11 1/8 × 15 in. (28.3 × 38.1 cm). Whitney Museum of American Art, New York; purchase and gift of Josephine N. Hopper by exchange 2011.65
Hopper Drawing is the first major museum exhibition to focus on the drawings and creative process of Edward Hopper (1882–1967). More than anything else, Hopper's drawings reveal the continually evolving relationship between observation and invention in the artist's work, and his abiding interest in the spaces and motifs--the street, the movie theatre, the office, the bedroom, the road—that he would return to throughout his career as an artist. This exhibition showcases the Whitney's unparalleled collection of Hopper's work, which includes over 2,500 drawings bequeathed to the museum by his widow Josephine Hopper, many of which have never before been exhibited or researched. The exhibition surveys Hopper's significant and underappreciated achievements as a draftsman, and pairs many of his greatest oil paintings, including Early Sunday Morning (1930), New York Movie (1939), Office at Night (1940), and Nighthawks (1942), with their preparatory drawings and related works. This exhibition also features groundbreaking archival research into the buildings, spaces and urban environments that inspired his work.
Hopper Drawing is organized by Carter E. Foster, Steven and Ann Ames Curator of Drawing.
Significant support for this exhibition is provided by The Horace W. Goldsmith Foundation, the National Endowment for the Arts, The Dietrich Foundation, The Selz Foundation, Barney A. Ebsworth, Steve Martin and Anne Stringfield, The Robert Lehman Foundation, Jane Carroll, Aaron I. Fleischman and Lin Lougheed, Arlene and Robert Kogod, and an anonymous donor.
This exhibition is supported by an indemnity from the Federal Council on the Arts and Humanities.
Works from the Exhibition
View more 12 displayed of 34
Installation Photography
Off-site: A Hopper-Inspired Pop-up
at the Flatiron Building
In celebration of Hopper Drawing, a life-size window installation of Edward Hopper’s Nighthawks (1942) is on view inside the landmark Flatiron prow , one of the original architectural inspirations for this iconic painting.
Watch: Edward Hopper’s New York
A Walking Tour
Whitney curator Carter Foster visits New York City sites—including the Flatiron building—that inspired Hopper’s iconic paintings.
To activate closed captioning on this video, play the video. A CC button will appear on the player controls, and will give you the option to display captions in English. For more information, visit the accessibility page .
In the News
"The back and forth between the works on paper and on canvas makes the show doubly illuminating, and thrilling."
| Edward Hopper |
In the British monarchy, who succeeded King George III to the throne? | Hopper Drawing | Whitney Museum of American Art
Whitney Museum of American Art
Wed–Thurs10:30 am–6 pm
Fri–Sat10:30 am–10 pm
Sun10:30 am–6 pm
Works with Resources for Teachers
Browse by artist’s name
The perfect gift for any art enthusiast:
Memberships start at just $85.
Explore Hopper’s Studies
Edward Hopper (1882–1967), Study for Nighthawks, 1941 or 1942. Fabricated chalk and charcoal on paper; 11 1/8 × 15 in. (28.3 × 38.1 cm). Whitney Museum of American Art, New York; purchase and gift of Josephine N. Hopper by exchange 2011.65
Hopper Drawing is the first major museum exhibition to focus on the drawings and creative process of Edward Hopper (1882–1967). More than anything else, Hopper's drawings reveal the continually evolving relationship between observation and invention in the artist's work, and his abiding interest in the spaces and motifs--the street, the movie theatre, the office, the bedroom, the road—that he would return to throughout his career as an artist. This exhibition showcases the Whitney's unparalleled collection of Hopper's work, which includes over 2,500 drawings bequeathed to the museum by his widow Josephine Hopper, many of which have never before been exhibited or researched. The exhibition surveys Hopper's significant and underappreciated achievements as a draftsman, and pairs many of his greatest oil paintings, including Early Sunday Morning (1930), New York Movie (1939), Office at Night (1940), and Nighthawks (1942), with their preparatory drawings and related works. This exhibition also features groundbreaking archival research into the buildings, spaces and urban environments that inspired his work.
Hopper Drawing is organized by Carter E. Foster, Steven and Ann Ames Curator of Drawing.
Significant support for this exhibition is provided by The Horace W. Goldsmith Foundation, the National Endowment for the Arts, The Dietrich Foundation, The Selz Foundation, Barney A. Ebsworth, Steve Martin and Anne Stringfield, The Robert Lehman Foundation, Jane Carroll, Aaron I. Fleischman and Lin Lougheed, Arlene and Robert Kogod, and an anonymous donor.
This exhibition is supported by an indemnity from the Federal Council on the Arts and Humanities.
Works from the Exhibition
View more 12 displayed of 34
Installation Photography
Off-site: A Hopper-Inspired Pop-up
at the Flatiron Building
In celebration of Hopper Drawing, a life-size window installation of Edward Hopper’s Nighthawks (1942) is on view inside the landmark Flatiron prow , one of the original architectural inspirations for this iconic painting.
Watch: Edward Hopper’s New York
A Walking Tour
Whitney curator Carter Foster visits New York City sites—including the Flatiron building—that inspired Hopper’s iconic paintings.
To activate closed captioning on this video, play the video. A CC button will appear on the player controls, and will give you the option to display captions in English. For more information, visit the accessibility page .
In the News
"The back and forth between the works on paper and on canvas makes the show doubly illuminating, and thrilling."
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Francois Fillon was appointed Prime minister of which country in May 2007? | Sarkozy appoints Francois Fillon as French PM — RT News
Sarkozy appoints Francois Fillon as French PM
Published time: 18 May, 2007 01:25
Edited time: 18 May, 2007 05:25
Francois Fillon has been appointed the new Prime Minister of France, taking over from Dominique de Villepin. President Nicolas Sarkozy made the appointment on his first day in office.
During a ceremony at Matignon, the Prime Minister's official residence, Dominique de Villepin handed over power.
“Naturally, I would like to wish Francois Fillon good luck and to give him my hopes and my trust. He has all of the talents to succeed at the service of our country. Thank you, Francois and good luck,” he said.
Mr Fillon is a moderate right wing reformer. As Minister for Social Affairs under Chirac, he pushed through a controversial pensions overhaul, despite mass street protests.
President Sarkozy plans to pass a series of reforms as soon as possible: to cut taxes, curb trade union power and make work contracts more flexible. Some of the reforms could face resistance and the President believes Francois Fillon will help to push them through.
“The presidential elections have brought in a new political path chosen by the citizens. It's my duty, and I will respect all of the commitments that we've taken because the renovation of political life is at stake. I will be listening to all of the French because as France is changing, it needs everyone,” said the new France’s Prime Minister.
Nicolas Sarkozy's promises to boost France’s stagnating economy appealed to French voters.
As concerns what the voters themselves think, one of them, Musher Papazian, used to run a Russian restaurant in Paris, but value added tax (VAT) in the catering business was too high and he was forced to sack his employees and close down his business. Instead, he opened a Russian grocery store.
“Many politicians promised to lower VAT, but no one actually did. We chose Sarkozy because he said he will create favourable conditions for small businesses by lowering taxes,” said Musher Papazian.
He hopes Sarkozy will make running his business more lucrative, and that the empty promises of past governments won’t be repeated.
It's not only domestic policy that the new government wants to change. It's also expected to take a more pro-American foreign policy stance. But the new Prime Minister says relationships with other countries like Russia will also be important.
“We think Russia is a great country not only in the geographical sense of the word. It plays a huge role in the world’s politics. We respect Russia and want to develop our relations with it,” claims Francois Fillon.
Nicolas Sarkozy is set to announce the rest of his 15 member cabinet on Friday. However, Fillon's post is not yet set in stone. First the President’s UMP party must win a majority in June’s parliamentary elections.
| France |
What is the capital of Germany? | BBC NEWS | Europe | Sarkozy names ally Fillon as PM
Sarkozy names ally Fillon as PM
Francois Fillon oversaw Nicolas Sarkozy's election campaign
Francois Fillon, a key ally of French President Nicolas Sarkozy, has been appointed the country's new prime minister in a ceremony in Paris.
Mr Fillon, 53, a moderate conservative senator, helped direct Mr Sarkozy's successful election campaign.
He is expected to play a leading role in the president's plans to reform France's employment and welfare laws.
Mr Sarkozy, who succeeded Jacques Chirac on Wednesday, is due to name the rest of his government on Friday.
He has promised to halve the number of government ministers to 15, and has said about half will be women.
The outgoing prime minister, Dominique de Villepin, who resigned from the post on Tuesday, received his successor and formally handed over power in a ceremony on Thursday morning.
FRANCOIS FILLON
Nicolas Sarkozy's election campaign director and jogging partner
A senator, from the left of Mr Sarkozy's conservative UMP party
Has a Welsh wife, Penelope, and five children
Profile: Francois Fillon
In line with tradition, the Republican Guard was deployed in ceremonial uniform and Mr Fillon arrived via a red carpet laid out across the courtyard at the prime minister's official residence, the Matignon.
During the ceremony the new prime minister said: "I will listen to everyone because a France in motion needs everyone."
Afterwards Mr de Villepin emerged from the Matignon, wished Mr Fillon good luck and said: "He has all the necessary qualities to succeed in the service of our country."
Mr Fillon served as social affairs minister between 2002 to 2004, pushing through a major overhaul of the country's pension system in the midst of large street protests.
He has also served in several other government posts for the UMP party, but lost his place in Mr Chirac's administration in 2005 and pledged his loyalty to Mr Sarkozy.
Reform agenda
The new president said on his first day in office that France needed to bring in more reforms quickly.
Getting France moving again - Mr Sarkozy sets the pace
"There is a demand for change. Never have the risks of inertia been so great for France as they are now in this world in flux where everyone across the world is trying to change quicker than the others, where any delay can be fatal," he said.
Shortly afterwards, the pair put on their jogging kits and went for a brisk run around the Bois de Boulogne.
The BBC's Caroline Wyatt, in Paris, says all this is a new and very different style for France, whose heads of state here have traditionally been patrician, somewhat remote figures.
It is clear that Mr Sarkozy and Mr Fillon are serious about getting this nation moving again, she says, beginning by setting their own personal example.
Mr Fillon's renowned conciliatory skills will be much needed as prime minister if he is to succeed in a post often described as a poisoned chalice, says the BBC's Alasdair Sandford in Paris.
Mr Fillon will lead the UMP party into parliamentary elections in June.
Opinion polls suggest the party will gain a majority, giving Mr Sarkozy and Mr Fillon the scope to push ahead with reforms.
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Harry, Liam, Niall, Louis and Zayn are all members of which British boy band? | All you want to know about one direction members
All you want to know about one direction members
5 month ago
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One direction is an English pop boy band in London, composed of Niall Horan, Liam Payne, Harry Styles, Louis Tomlinson, and previously, Zayn Malik until his departure from the band on 25 March 2015 the group signed with the simoom Cowels record label Syco Records after and finishing third in the seventh series of the British televised singing competition The X Factor in 2010. Propelled to international success by social media, One Direction's have done four albums, Up All Night (2011), Take Me Home (2012), Midnight Memories (2013) and Four (2014) topped charts in most major markets, and generated hit singles including "What Makes You Beautiful", "Live While We're Young", and "Story of My Life". Their fifth studio album, Made in the A.M., was released in November 2015. June 2015, Forbes listed their earnings at $130 million for the previous twelve months and ranked them the fourth highest earning celebrities in the world.
Liam Payne
Liam Payne is English singer and song writer, Malik was known as the "Bradford Bad Boy" of One Direction. Since joining One Direction, Payne, along with bandmates Niall Horan, Louis Tomlinson, Harry Styles and former bandmate Zayn Malik, have released five commercially successful albums, performed on four worldwide tours, and won multiple awards, including two BRIT Awards and four MTV Video Music Awards.
Payne has first auditioned for the fifth series of the British singing competition and then after Payne returned to the seventh series of the British Singing Competition the X Factor in 2010.He auditioned with the Michael Buble version of Cry Me a River, which earned him four years and a standing ovation from Cowell. Payne was considered the second favourite to win the competition following his solo audition. He failed to progress to the Boys category at judges' houses." Four others in his age group did as well, but after a suggestion by Nicole Scherzinger, a guest judge, they were put together to form a five-piece boy band at Wembley Arena, during the boot camp stage of the competition, thus qualifying for the Groups category.
Subsequently, the group got together for two weeks to get to know each other and to practice. Payne began dating X Factor dancer and online personality Danielle Peazer in 2010 during his time on the X Factor. The couple split briefly in September 2012 before rekindling their romance in December 2012. The couple ended their relationship in April 2013.During their hiatus, Payne briefly dated singer Leona Lewis. Payne began dating Cheryl in 2016.
Harry Styles
Harry Edward is an English song writer and singer. He is also known as boy band of one direction, Since joining one direction ,harry along with bandmates Niall Horan, Zayn Malik, Liam Payne and Louis Tomlinson, has released five commercially successful albums, performed on two worldwide tours, and won several awards, including five Brit Awards and four MTV Video Music Awards. In addition to singing, harry Styles has also appeared in television and film, including the Nickelodeon series iCarly and the concert film One Direction: This Is Us.
Styles came up with the name One Direction. For their qualifying song at "judges' houses", and their first song as a group, One Direction sang an acoustic version of "Torn". Simon Cowell later commented that the performance satisfy him that the group "were confident, fun, like a gang of friends, and kind of fearless as well. Within the first four weeks of the live shows, they were Cowell's last act in the competition. The group quickly gained popularity in the UK.
One direction finished in the third place and immediately after the final, their song "Forever Young", which would have been released if they had won The X Factor, was leaked onto the internet. Shortly afterwards it was confirmed that One Direction had been signed by Cowell to a reported £2 million Syco Records record contract.
Styles will make his acting debut in Christopher Nolan's action-thriller Dunkirk (2017) which is based on the British military evacuation in World War II. He will star alongside Tom Hardy, Mark Rylance, Cillian Murphy and Kenneth Branagh. A style was in a relationship with The Xtra Factor presenter Caroline Flack from November 2011 to January 2012, which caused controversy and criticism over their 14-year age gap. Styles also dated singer Taylor Swift from October 2012 to January 2013
Louis Tomlinson
Tomlinson was born in don caster south, He had a number of jobs, including at a Vue cinema and at Doncaster Rovers football stadium as a maid in the hospitality suites. As a student at Hall Cross, Tomlinson appeared in several musical productions. He admitted to not applying himself currently in school, but he thoroughly enjoyed being with his friends and being involved with musical productions, Taking the lead role of Danny Zuko in the Hall Cross musical production of Grease motivated him to audition for The X Factor.
Tomlinson parents Troy Austin and Johannah Poulston, split when he was a toddler. He is estranged from his father. He has four half-sisters from his mother's second marriage to Mark Tomlinson: Charlotte "Lottie", Felicite "Fizzy", and identical twins Daisy and Phoebe, who had roles as babies in the television series Fat Friends alongside their brother. Mark and Johannah divorced while Louis was competing on The X Factor.
Tomlinson has another half-sister, Georgia, from his father's second marriage, it was announced in October 2013 that his mother Poulston was expecting twins with her fiance, Daniel Deakin. She gave birth to a set of fraternal twins, Ernest and Doris, on 12 February 2014; Poulston married Deakin on 20 July 2014.
Zayn Malik
Zayn is an English singer and songwriter. In 2010, Malik auditioned as a solo artist for the British reality television music competition The X Factor. After being eliminated as a solo performer, Malik was brought back into the competition, along with Harry Styles, Niall Horan, Liam Payne, and Louis Tomlinson, to form the boy band One Direction. During his time in the group, Malik and his bandmates released the albums Up All Night (2011), Take Me Home (2012), Midnight Memories (2013), and Four (2014). In March 2015, Malik's representative announced the singer's departure from the band.
Malik is identified to be the strongest vocalist amongst his former group, as Brad Nelson of The Guardian writes that "He was one of the more accomplished vocalists of the group, exhibiting the widest range. He mostly inhabited a silvery, full-bodied tenor, similar to but more sharp and precise than Harry Styles’ smoky warble." and asserted that his departure would leave "a void of vocal agility.
Zayna Malik is an official ambassador of the British Asian Trust charity group, contributing to improving the lives of disadvantaged people living in South Asia, with his former group One Direction; he contributed to African fundraising events with Comic Relief. In March 2016, he brought a box at Bradford City for underprivileged children to watch football, named after his maternal grandfather Walter Brannan, As of April 2015, shortly after he left One Direction, Malik's net worth was £25 million ($41 million).As of April 2016, and his net worth is £30 million ($49 million).
Niall Horan
Niall horan was born on a September 13th, 1993 in Westmeath; Mulingar He has one older brother, Greg Horan. And His parents are Maura Gallagher and Bobby Horan. His parents divorced when he was five and he lived a few years between each homes, until he chose to live with his dad. Niall was a pupil at Colaiste Mhuire, a Christian Brothers School. Niall was into music from a young age, from about 5 or 6. He started playing the guitar when he was about twelve, and one year later he entered the school's talent show, singing The Script's
Niall who cannot entered a small local competition, where he was singing Chris Brown's 'With You', this time he won the show. In 2009, Niall supported Lloyd Daniels in a small music venue. All those things led him realize he was maybe good at singing. In 2010, Niall entered the X Factor. He sang 'I'm yours' and 'So Sick' on his audition, and got through to the next round. They came third on the show, and one day after that their mentor, Simon Cowell, gave them a record deal. Their first single 'What Makes You Beautiful' is one of the biggest hits of 2012, and their debut album 'Up All Night' went straight to number one in America.
| One Direction |
In 1992, who became the first female Director-General of the British Security Service MI5? | One Direction: which member matched which boyband stereotype? | Music | The Guardian
One Direction: which member matched which boyband stereotype?
The roles in boybands are tightly cast – so how well did the 1D boys conform to them?
One Direction … Straight outta central casting. Photograph: Fox via Getty Images
Monday 24 August 2015 11.04 EDT
Last modified on Monday 24 August 2015 19.00 EDT
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There’s no questioning the startling achievements of One Direction : indoctrinating fans from Lochaber to Lisbon, shifting albums by the millions, selling out live shows around the world, and racking up YouTube views in the billions. But putting numbers aside, how well did Harry, Zayn, Niall, Louis and Liam really succeed? Success in this instance is measured in terms of living up to their svengali’s expectations – the magic formula to which all boybands adhere; the cartoonish roles in which they must exist as for eternity. Below are the results …
The Mysterious One
By definition, mystery is impossible to explain, and in the context of a boyband, it is even more ephemeral. A musk of enigma lingers around this member at all times like a psychopathic groupie, and while it might seem like the most enviable of boyband roles, its attributes are not assigned but there from birth: the sharp, model-like features, the subtle sartorial suaveness, when set alongside the rest of the band’s garish getup; the ability to remain relatively stoney-faced throughout interviews. Former mysterious members include Simon Webbe from Blue, Kevin Richardson from the Backstreet Boys and Another Level’s Bobak Kianoush – the only man capable of looking aloof while dressed in a pleather shirt and uttering the words: “I love the taste of whipped cream, spread it on the top of me.”
Which one of One Direction ? Zayn Malik
Why? Cheekbones. Silence. Skulking off early before the ship began to sink.
How successful? 5/5
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The Boyish One
Every boyband must have its boy. As well as possessing the physical attributes of a young man, he must also act the fool. He is slight in size, and has a fixed grin for no other reason than an enforced sense of naive optimism in the face of gruelling tour schedules and humiliating dance routines. Most importantly, he must not have a single wisp of facial hair. This member is the go-to favourite of both the tween market and the more mature, motherly members of the fanbase. Some of the most successful man-children include Lee Brennan from 911, Kian Egan from Westlife, Take That’s Mark Owen, Scott Robinson from 5ive, Aston Merrygold from JLS (despite his tiny chin beard), Backstreet Boys’ Nick Carter and Nathan Sykes from the Wanted, who is allegedly an actual escaped 11-year-old.
Which one of One Direction? Niall Horan
Why? Harry Styles may be the youngest member of One Direction, but Niall is the band’s most youthful in spirit. Take his rosy cheeks, angelic blonde hair, or this nice photo of him sitting on a jet ski .
How successful? 4/5
Take That … Who’s the boyish one? Clue: his first name is Mark. His second is Owen. Photograph: Mike Prior/Redferns
The Starry One
Having the most coveted role, the Starry One is the most likely to succeed when solo. Occupying the role is no guarantee – take Busted’s Charlie Simpson, who seemed like a dead cert for superstardom until he opted for emo instead. And the Starry One is not necessarily the most talented – Gary Barlow had all the talent in Take That, but after the group split, no one devoted a moment’s thought to him for more than a decade. Perhaps the best examples are Justin Timberlake and Michael Jackson, who both enjoyed massive success by trying to sound like Michael Jackson. It’s worth a quick mention of New Kids on the Block’s Jordan Knight, whose career could have blossomed had all of his singles been as strong as Give It to You – the video for which features the best ever high-energy dance routine conducted in a ribbed beige polo neck.
Which One Direction? Harry Styles
Why? Adapted to the madness of the celebrity menagerie the most naturally. Excellent voice. Looks good in a hat.
How successful? 4/5
Justin Timberlake … The starry one. Photograph: Andre Csillag/Rex Features
The Rebellious One
AJ McLean from Backstreet Boys; Shane Lynch from Boyzone; Jay, Abs and Sean from 5ive in a punch-up for the role: the bad boy of the group is the antithesis of the Boyish One. He might own a motorbike, he definitely smokes, probably had an eyebrow ring at some stage, has experimented with adventurous facial hair and is more than likely to cover himself in the kind of tattoos formerly engraved on the arms of the Hells Angels. While they flirt with the concept of rock’n’roll, only Take That’s Robbie Williams has ever been officially allowed in the rockers’ inner circle – and even that was for a remarkably short honeymoon period, before Liam Gallagher told him he couldn’t sit with them anymore.
Which one of One Direction? Louis Tomlinson
Why? Louis sang the Plain White T’s Hey There Delilah for his initial audition, which in 2010’s X Factor terms is pretty much the equivalent of covering Throbbing Gristle and biting the head off a bat. If the pot-smoking scandal was not enough , perhaps that fact that Louis played the lead role of Danny Zuko in a high-school production of Grease should convince you.
How successful? 3/5
Shane Lynch … bad boy for life. Photograph: Mark Liley/Sportsphoto Ltd/Allstar
The Generic One
Who could forget Spike Dawbarn? Howie Dorough? Terry Coldwell? Michael Graham? Chris Kirkpatrick? Everyone, that’s who! It feels a bit cruel to define a young man as an anonymous entity; the name you always forget when trying to list all the members of a band without using Wikipedia. But while the Generic One is not necessarily the most impressive singer or the best looking, perhaps these unremarkable qualities make life after the band more bearable. The Generic One may be the only one to survive without the sort of mid-life grappling for attention that spawned tracks such as Rudebox . The boyband’s ultimate winner.
Which one of One Direction? Liam Payne
Why? There’s nothing more everyman about Liam that his disdain for red carpet selfies.
How successful? 4/5
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What is the the first name of the Hungarian inventor of the Rubik’s Cube? | The History of Rubiks Cube - Erno Rubik
Model, Emily Dixon playing wth the classic Rubiks Cube at the Toy Fair 2011 at Olympia Exhibition Centre on January 25, 2011 in London, England. Photo by Tim Whitby/Getty Images
Updated February 03, 2016.
There is only 1 correct answer and 43 quintillion wrong ones for Rubiks Cube. God's algorithm is the answer that solves the puzzle in the least number of moves. One eighth of the world's population has laid hands on 'The Cube', the most popular puzzle in history and the colorful brainchild of Erno Rubik.
Enter Erno Rubik
Erno Rubik was born in Budapest, Hungary during World War II. His mother was a poet, his father an aircraft engineer who started a company to build gliders. Rubik studied sculpture in college, but after graduating, he went back to learn architecture at a small college called the Academy of Applied Arts and Design. He remained there after his studies to teach interior design.
The Cube
Rubik's initial attraction to inventing the Cube was not in producing the best selling toy puzzle in history.
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The structural design problem interested Rubik; he asked, "How could the blocks move independently without falling apart?" In Rubik's Cube, twenty-six individual little cubes or cubies make up the big Cube. Each layer of nine cubies can twist and the layers can overlap. Any three squares in a row, except diagonally, can join a new layer. Rubik's initial attempt to use elastic bands failed, his solution was to have the blocks hold themselves together by their shape. Rubik hand carved and assembled the little cubies together. He marked each side of the big Cube with adhesive paper of a different color, and started twisting.
An Inventor Dreams
"It was wonderful, to see how, after only a few turns, the colors became mixed, apparently in random fashion. It was tremendously satisfying to watch this color parade. Like after a nice walk when you have seen many lovely sights you decide to go home, after a while I decided it was time to go home, let us put the cubes back in order. And it was at that moment that I came face to face with the Big Challenge: What is the way home?" - Erno Rubik
See - More Erno Rubik Quotes
That was how the Cube as a puzzle, was invented in the spring of 1974, when the twenty-nine year old Rubik discovered it was not so easy to realign the colors to match on all six sides. He was not sure he would ever be able to return his invention to its original position. He theorized that by randomly twisting the Cube he would never be able to fix it in a lifetime, which later turns out to be more than correct. He began working out a solution, starting with aligning the eight corner cubies. He discovered certain sequences of moves for rearranging just a few cubies at a time. Within a month, he had the puzzle solved and an amazing journey lay ahead..
First Patent
Rubik applied for his Hungarian patent in January 1975 and left his invention with a small toy making cooperative in Budapest. The patent approval finally came in early 1977 and the first Cubes appeared at the end of 1977. By this time, Erno Rubik was married.
Two other people applied for similar patents at about the same time as Rubik. Terutoshi Ishige applied a year after Rubik, for a Japanese patent on a very similar cube. An American, Larry Nichols, patented a cube before Rubik, held together with magnets. Nichols' toy was rejected by all toy companies, including the Ideal Toy Corporation, which later bought the rights to Rubik's Cube.
| Ernő |
Usually affecting children, the medical condition pertussis is better known by what name? | Rubik's cube invention: 40 years old and never meant to be a toy - Telegraph
Google
Rubik's cube invention: 40 years old and never meant to be a toy
As Rubik's cube celebrates its 40th birthday with a Google Doodle, Harry Wallop looks back at one of the unlikeliest hits in the toy world
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There are only a handful of toys that last more than a generation. But the Rubik's cube, which celebrates its 40th birthday (and features on Google with a Doodle ), now joins the likes of Barbie, Play-Doh, Lego and the Slinky, as one of the great survivors in the toy cupboard.
What makes its success all the remarkable is that it did not start out as a toy. The Rubik's cube was invented in 1974 by Erno Rubik, a Hungarian architect, who wanted a working model to help explain three-dimensional geometry.
After designing the “magic cube” as he called it (twice the weight of the current toy), he realised he could not actually solve the puzzle. The more he moved the coloured squares, the more mixed up they became. “It was a code I myself had invented!” he wrote. “Yet I could not read it.”
The cube, made up of nine coloured squares on each side, can be rearranged in 43 quintillion different ways. That is 43,000,000,000,000,000,000.
Related Articles
Exhibition marks 40 years of Rubik's Cube
24 Apr 2014
After a month, and using a method of rearranging the corners of each side first, he finally solved the puzzle.
Being from Hungary, then behind the Iron Curtain, it meant that Rubik took a few years to market the cube as a toy. It was shown at the Nuremberg Toy Fair in 1979 (a toy fair which has seen many great toys be launched, such as Playmobil in 1974), and was spotted as a potential hit. It was licensed to the Ideal Toy Corp in 1980 and, by January 2009, more than 350 million units had been sold worldwide, making it the biggest-selling toy of all time.
Its heyday was in the early 1980s – it won Toy of the Year in the UK in both 1980 and 1981 – even though the great majority of children could not solve the cube and resorted to cheating by peeling off the coloured stickers.
It then fell from fashion, but never completely disappeared, thanks in part to “speed cubing” competitions, where people tried to solve the cube as quickly as possible. The current world record is held by Mats Valk, a Dutch teenager, who managed to solve it in 5.55 seconds.
Robots, however, been able to solve the Rubik’s cube even more quickly. The Cubestormer III robot built from Lego kits and powered by a Samsung Galaxy S2 smartphone solved it in 3.25 seconds in March this year.
Ed Miliband, the Labour leader, was once asked whether he had a hidden talent. He answered : "I can do a Rubik's cube in one minute and 30 seconds."
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Babcock, Elberta and Rubidoux are all varieties of which fruit? | Pacific Groves - Plant Descriptions - Fruit Tree Varieties (Peaches, Pears)
Fruit Tree Varieties
Babcock Peach
BABCOCK - Medium size fruit with red blush and white flesh. Juicy, non-acid, sweet flavor. Freestone. Low chilling requirement. Ripens in June. Popular for home and commercial use. (Early/self fertile).
California Curlfree
CALIFORNIA CURLFREE - Known for its resistance to peach leaf curl. Fruit is similar to Redhaven. Good for canning and freezing and eating fresh. Ripens just ahead of Redhaven. Featured in February 1989 issue of Sunset Magazine. (Early-midseason/self- fertile).
DESERT GOLD - Medium, round fruit. Yellow with red blush. Good quality yellow semi-clingstone flesh. Low chilling requirement. Excellent for warmer regions. Blooms early. Ripens early to mid-June. (Early-midseason/self-fertile).
Donut
DONUT - yellow skin with red blush, white flesh. Mildly sweet flavor with a hint of almond. Small to medium donut-shaped peach. Bears early, very low chill. Self-fertle. Excellent variety.
EARLY ELBERTA (GLEASON STRAIN) - The Gleason Strain is the proven outstanding variety of excellent quality in demand by commercial canners. Fruit is large, golden-yellow with oblong shape. A brighter golden color than Elberta with little or no red blush. Ripens late June to early August. (Mid-season/self-fertile).
ELBERTA - The fruits are large, freestone, colored a deep golden- yellow, blushed red with firm, yellow flesh. Famous for its outstanding shipping qualities. Long the leading major commercial variety in many areas of the U.S. An excellent pollinizer of other varieties. Ripens late July to mid-August. (Mid-season/self-fertile).
Fay Elberta Peach
FAY ELBERTA - Fruit similar to Elberta but more colorful. Yellow freestone flesh. Colorful flowers. Most popular freestone peach for all uses. Medium to low chilling requirement. Ripens several days after Elberta. (Mid-season/self-fertile).
FLAME CREST - This is a large, yellow flesh freestone. Light pubescence, bright red fruit. A vigorous grower and very productive. Ideal for canning and freezing. Ripens late July. (Mid-season/self-fertile).
FROST - This new cultivar is known for its resistance to peach-leaf curl. Frost will develop fruit that is very similar in quality to Redhaven, making it good for canning and freezing. The tree is vigorous and productive and ripens just ahead of Redhaven. (Mid-season/self-fertile).
Florida Prince Peach
FLORIDA PRINCE - New variety from Florida. Very low chilling needs. Larger and 10 days earlier than "Desert Gold". High quality fruit. (Early/self-fertile).
GOLDEN JUBILEE - A popular freestone peach for home canning and local markets. A large yellow peach, blushed with red. Light yellow, firm, melting flesh. Medium chilling requirement. Ripens in early to mid-July. (Mid-season/self-fertile).
Halehaven Peach
HALEHAVEN - Medium to large fruit, red over greenish-yellow, changing to yellow at maturity. Yellow, freestone flesh very flavorful. Vigorous grower. Medium chilling requirement. Ripens mid to late July. (Mid-season/self-fertile).
J.H.HALE - Fruit is very large, freestone, round and uniform. Skin is golden, covered with a brilliant red cheek. Flesh is yellow, solid and meaty, free from stringiness. One of the finest commercial and shipping peaches since 1900. Tree requires good soil and cross pollination. Ripens late July to mid-August. (Mid-late season/needs pollinizer).
JULY ELBERTA (KIM) - Fruit similar to Elberta. Ripens late June to early July. Medium chilling requirement. Popular commercial variety in California. (Mid-season/self-fertile).
JUNE GOLD - Low chilling requirement for this medium to large fruit. Skin has red blush over a golden-yellow. Juicy, delicate flavor. Ripens late May to early June. (Early/self-fertile).
RED BARON - Fruit similar to Rio Oso Gem. Low chilling requirement. Fruit is firm, freestone, flavorful and juicy. Large, productive tree. Ripens mid-July. An outstanding home orchard variety with excellent flavor and a fine show of deep re flowers. (Mid-season/self-fertile).
REDHAVEN - The standard of all early peaches. Most widely planted peach today. Color is a beautiful red and golden-yellow. Flesh is firm, smooth textured and fine flavored. Fruit is uniform, round, medium sized and appealing. Redhaven is good for canning, freezing and shipping. Fruit sets heavily and must be thinned for good fruit size. Medium chilling requirement. Ripens mid-June to early July. (Early mid-season/self-fertile).
REDHAVEN, EARLY - A sport of Redhaven which ripens about 2 weeks earlier than its parent. Has all the outstanding features of Redhaven; and by using it, you can stretch your Redhaven season another 2 weeks. (Early/self-fertile).
RELIANCE - An exceptionally hardy, yellow freestone peach. Has a dull blush over a greenish-yellow ground color. Medium to large size with a sweet, mild flavor. Delicious fresh, canned or frozen. Excellent for Northern climate. Ripens with Redhaven. (Early mid-season/self-fertile).
RIO OSO GEM - Large fruit with bright red skin. Flesh is firm, yellow, juicy and freestone. One of the best peaches for freezing. Ripens mid-August. Fruit holds well on tree. Very showy flowers. (Mid-late season/self-fertile).
SIMS - Large, yellow, cling peach. Good canning quality. Excellent for climates with mild winters. Ripens late August. (Mid-late season/self/fertile).
STRAWBERRY FREE - Medium fruit with pink blush. Flesh is freestone, white and firm. Low chilling requirement. Ripens mid to late May. (Early/self-fertile).
VENTURA - Very low chill peach. Requires very little winter chill and produces a quality fruit in very mild summer heat areas. Yellow flesh, medium size, freestone, smooth skinned peach. (Mid-season/self-fertile)
VETERAN - A Canadian introduction with Elberta-type fruit. Fruit is round, medium sized and good quality. Above average for canning and freezing. One of the few varieties especially adapted to the coastal areas. Ripens early to late July. (Mid-season/self-fertile).
Genetic Dwarf Peaches
The actual fruiting part of the tree is dwarfed in size; budded on a standard sized rootstock. The bloom on many genetic dwarfs (especially stone fruit) is very showy. Most reach a height of 6' to 8'.
BONANZA - Blooms and bears fruit very early. Will reach 5' to 6'. Fruit is blushed red with yellow, freestone flesh. Ripens early.
HONEY BABE - The earliest ripening freestone peach with best flavor of any genetic peach. Fruit is large and deep red over yellow.
PIX-ZEE - Delicious, firm, yellow flesh freestone. Self-fertile.
Pears, European and Hybrid
Nearly all European pear varieties are self-fertile and require a pollinizer. As most pears are diploids, they are suitable pollinizers for other varieties that bloom at the same time. Domestic seedling, OHxF97 and Winter Nellis are used as the standard rootstocks and Quince and OHxF333 are used as dwarfing rootstocks. Hybrid pear varieties are self-fertile except Orient. Better yields will be realized for all varieties if another variety is present. Domestic seedling, OHxF97 and Winter Nellis are used as the standard rootstocks and Quince and OHxF333 are used as dwarfing rootstocks.
Bartlett Pear
BARTLETT - The leading pear variety both commercially and for home use. It is an outstanding canning variety. Normally large, smooth, attractive fruit that is golden-yellow, slightly blushed with red. The flesh is tender and juicy, buttery and of excellent dessert quality. Trees bear young and have compact upright growth. Does not cross pollinize with Seckel. Ripens mid-July. (Early/needs pollinizer).
BOSC - This large, long-necked pear is yellow colored, marked with light brown russet. Bosc's very good quality and flavor make it an eating treat. A good quality market pear that ripens best at room temperature instead of cold storage. Ripens mid-September to early October. (Late/self-fertile).
COMICE - An outstanding, large dessert pear. Late maturing with high quality, fine textured, juicy, sweet, melting flesh. Color is red, blushed golden-yellow. Low chilling requirement. A good eating pear, but best flavor after a month of storage. Ripens late September to mid-October. (Late/needs pollinizer).
D'Anjou Pear
D'ANJOU - Leading variety of winter pear. Fruit is firm, juicy and has superbly rich flavor. Outstanding for both home and orchard trade. Flavor best after 1 or 2 months storage. Excellent keeping qualities. Tree is large, vigorous and very productive. Ripens mid-August to mid-September. (Mid-season/self-fertile).
Red D'Anjou
D'ANJOU, RED - A D'Anjou sport that comes on with a deep red surface that gets even brighter red after it comes out of storage and ripens. Flesh coloring, texture and flavor are identical to D'Anjou. Ripens mid-August to mid-September. (Mid-season/self-fertile).
FANSTIL - Medium sized yellow fruit with red blush. Flesh is white, crisp and juicy. Low chilling requirement. Good resistance to fireblight. Ripens mid-August. (Mid-season/self-fertile).
FLORIDAHOME - Very low chill, very heat and cold tolerant. Small, green fruit. Juicy fruit not too gritty. (Early/needs pollinizer).
FLEMISH BEAUTY - Very hardy, large, productive tree. Medium size yellow flesh with red blush fruit. Very good flavor. (Early/self-fertile).
Hood Pear
HOOD - large yellow-green fruit. Vigorous tree. Resistant to fireblight. Partially self-fertile, best with Floridahome. Very low chill, 100 hours.
Kieffer Pear
KIEFFER - Medium to large fruit is yellow with a red blush. White flesh is crisp and coarse. Bears very late. Low chilling requirement. Excellent for cooking and canning. Stores well. Ripens early September to mid-October. (Late/self-fertile).
MOONGLOW - Disease resistant Barlett-type pear. Attractive fruit with soft red blush, best picked when green-yellow, then stored in a cool, dark place for one or more weeks. Excellent pollinator. (Mid-season/needs pollinizer).
SECKEL - Fruit is small, reddish-brown over yellow with russet. Flesh is white and sweet. Excellent dessert pear. Low chilling requirement. Does not cross pollinize with Bartlett. Good resistance to fireblight. Ripens late August to mid-September. (Mid-season/needs pollinizer).
Seckel Pear
WINTER NELLIS - Medium fruit, yellow-green to green with russet. Vigorous and heavy cropping tree. Small sized tree. Ripens late September to mid-October. (Late/needs pollinizer).
| Peach |
Who won the Golden Shoe (Boot) Award for most goals scored in the 1966 FIFA World Cup? | Grow the Elberta Peach Tree - Prunus persica 'Elberta'
Fruit Tree Hardiness Zones Map
Peach Tree History
The scientific name persica, along with the word "peach" itself and its cognates in many European languages, derives from an early European belief that peaches were native to Persia (now Iran). The modern botanical consensus is that they originate in China, and were introduced to Persia and the Mediterranean region along the Silk Road before Christian times.
Cultivated peaches are divided into "freestone" and "clingstone" cultivars, depending on whether the flesh sticks to the stone or not; both kinds can have either white or yellow flesh. Peaches with white flesh typically are very sweet with little acidity, while yellow-fleshed peaches typically have an acidic tang coupled with sweetness, though this also varies greatly.
Both colors often have some red on their skin. Low-acid white-fleshed peaches are the most popular kinds in China, Japan, and neighbouring Asian countries, while Europeans and North Americans have historically favored the acidic, yellow-fleshed kinds. Info source wikipedia.org
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In Tolkien’s ‘The Hobbit’ who is the leader of the Company of Dwarves? | Dwarves - Tolkien Gateway
Dwarves
Dwarves
"Who told you, and who sent you?" — Gandalf
This article or section needs more/new/more-detailed sources to conform to a higher standard and to provide proof for claims made.
Dwarves
"A bunch of dwarves" by Alarie
General Information
Stocky; bearded; never bald; especially hardy and loyal; notoriously stubborn
Hair color
Blond, brown, black, blue, red, and (when older) grey or white
Weaponry
Images of Dwarves
"Since they were to come in the days of the power of Melkor , Aulë made the dwarves strong to endure. Therefore they are stone-hard, stubborn, fast in friendship and in enmity, and they suffer toil and hunger and hurt of body more hardily than all other speaking peoples; and they live long, far beyond the span of Men, yet not forever."
The Dwarves, or Khazâd in their own tongue, were beings of short stature, often friendly with Hobbits although long suspicious of Elves . They were typically blacksmiths and stoneworkers by profession, unrivaled in some of their arts even by the Elves.
While there were several tribes (Houses) of the Dwarves, the most prominent was that of the Longbeards .
Contents
[ edit ] Origin
Unlike Elves and Men , the Dwarves are not counted among the Children of Ilúvatar . Their creator was Mahal , known as Aulë the Smith. Aulë created the Seven Fathers of the Dwarves , from whom all other Dwarves are descended, deep beneath an unknown mountain somewhere in Middle-earth . However, Aulë did not have the divine power to grant independent life to any creation, and the dwarves were bound to his will. Ilúvatar came and reprimanded Aulë, who confessed his desire to create more living things, but in repentance lifted his hammer to destroy the dwarves. Even as the blow was about to land, the dwarves cowered and begged for mercy, as Ilúvatar had taken pity and given true life to the creations of his child, including them in His plan for Arda . However, Ilúvatar did not wish them to wake before the Elves , whom he intended to be the first-born. Ilúvatar granted the Dwarves life, and therefore they are known as the Adopted Children of Ilúvatar, but he bade Aulë lay them to sleep in their chamber deep beneath the mountain, and they were to awake after the Awakening of the Elves . [1]
Dwarves as portrayed in The Battle for Middle-earth II game.
The Seven Fathers awoke in their places in pairs with their wives, though Durin I had awoken alone. The seven different groups of Dwarf-folk originated in the locations where the Seven Fathers of the Dwarves first awoke. [2] [3]
The seven clans of the Dwarves were:
Firebeards and Broadbeams , originally from Nogrod and Belegost .
Ironfists and Stiffbeards , originated in the Orocarni in the far East.
Blacklocks and Stonefoots , originated in the Orocarni.
Durin settled in the caves above Kheled-zâram which later became the greatest of Dwarf realms, Khazad-dûm . Therefore the halls of the Longbeards were not located near the halls of another Dwarf-kingdom.
There was also an eighth group of Dwarves that was not a separate member from these seven kindreds, but composed of exiles from each: the Petty-dwarves , who were hunted like animals to the point of extinction by the Elves in the First Age.
[ edit ] First Age
The Dwarves for many years did not know any other folk, until Firebeards and Broadbeams had their first meeting with the Elves in Beleriand in the year 1250 of the Years of the Trees . From that time on there was friendship between the Sindar and the Dwarves, and they began exchanging knowledge and creating ring-mails and many other works; the Dwarves of Nogrod were unmatched in Middle-earth in smithing. They delved the caves of Menegroth , and adopted the writing of Daeron . It was the Dwarves who told the Sindar about Orcs attacking their Elven kin on the other side of the mountains, which prompted King Thingol to begin a build up of arms which the Dwarves made for him.
Later on a great army of Orcs attacked the Elves, but in the First Battle of Beleriand were defeated and fled. Those that got away ran south right into an army of Dwarves who issued from Mount Dolmed and destroyed them.
After the Return of the Noldor , Finrod Felagund desired to settle himself in the Caves of Narog and the Dwarves of the Ered Luin aided him and gave him the dwarven name Felak-gundu ( Felagund ). They eventually made for him the Nauglamír . This necklace without equal contained one of the Silmarils , and sparked jealousy and conflicts over its true ownership. These initial conflicts receded by the beginning of the Second Age, but were rekindled to a new intensity by the discord sown by Sauron . They eventually created a rivalry and mistrust between Elves and Dwarves that endured to the end of the Third Age, when Gimli the Dwarf bridged the distance between the two races by developing a deep admiration for lady Galadriel and forming a strong friendship with Legolas the Elf.
Things finally came to a head between the forces of Morgoth and the Elves, Men, and Dwarves in the Nirnaeth Arnoediad . The Dwarves fought for the Union of Maedhros
In early Second Age most of the Firebeards and Broadbeams houses migrated to Khazad-dûm from their cities in the Blue Mountains which were ruined during the sinking of Beleriand.
[ edit ] Second Age
The Dwarves had little participation in most of the important events involving the other races. However their friendship with the Elves perhaps became more close than ever; the Dwarves of Moria maintained close connections to the Gwaith-i-Mírdain of Eregion ; the Doors of Durin of Moria were built to facilitate the communication between the two people, and was constructed jointly by both races.
When Eregion was sacked by Sauron 's forces, the Dwarves assailed them from behind however it was too late to stop him from conquering all Eriador . [4]
Liz Danforth - Annatar and the seven rings
When " Annatar " distributed the Rings of Power, he gave seven to Dwarf Lords in order to subdue and control them. However, they did not have the same effect as they did over Men. Dwarves did not shift into the wraith-world and in fact resisted domination. The Rings only augmented their greed and ability to create riches.
At the end of the Age, very few Dwarves participated in the great War , with some joining the side of Sauron . Some of the Dwarves of Moria joined the great host of the Last Alliance of Elves and Men . [5]
[ edit ] Third Age
Angus McBride - The Dwarves are upon You!
In Third Age 1980 , after centuries of greedy digging for mithril and other minerals, the Dwarves woke a Balrog that was sleeping in the deeps of the Misty Mountains since the First Age. The Dwarves fled Khazad-dum, which from then on was called Moria, which means "Black pit".
Most of Durin's folk left for the Grey Mountains in the North, while some followed the new king, Thráin I , who briefly went to Erebor in T.A. 1999 . For more than 300 years the Dwarves of the Grey Mountains prospered until the Dragons in the far North started to gain strength. Some fled to the Iron Hills , while most followed the the new king Thrór to Erebor to start a new Kingdom under the Mountain . There, they prospered for over 200 years until the dragon Smaug descended in T.A. 2770 . The King and his company went in exile South, while most of the survivors went to the Iron Hills.
Durin's folk settled in Dunland , and in T.A. 2790 King Thrór traveled North to Moria where he was killed by the Goblin king Azog . Thrór's son Thráin II (who had received the Last of the Seven Rings from his father before his departure) summoned all the Houses of Dwarves to war. Thus began the War of Dwarves and Orcs , in which the Dwarves destroyed all the Goblin strongholds in the Misty Mountains culminating to the great Battle of Azanulbizar where all the dwarven clans united. The Goblin hosts issuing from Moria were strong and relentless until the arrival of fresh Dwarves of the Iron Hills . The Battle ended with the victory of Dwarves, but at great cost. The Dwarven clans however were unwilling to repopulate Moria. Thráin therefore came to the Blue Mountains and established his realm there.
Angelo Montanini - Dori
The Wizard Gandalf was instrumental into helping Thráin's son Thorin in reclaiming the Kingdom of Erebor. Thorin gathered around him twelve dwarves , mostly from his own line, and was joined by Gandalf and Bilbo Baggins . The Quest of Erebor ended with the death of Smaug . After a quarrel with the Men and Elves over the unguarded hoard, the Dwarves - assisted by those from the Iron Hills - united with the Men and Elves to fight the attacking Goblins and Wargs, in what was called the Battle of Five Armies , where Thorin was killed.
[ edit ] Fourth Age
Not much is known about the Dwarves in the Fourth Age . After the War of the Ring , Gimli brought a part of Durin's Folk from Erebor to the Glittering Caves behind Helm's Deep and founded a colony there. Subsequently, Gimli went on many travels with his friend Legolas, and History lost track of their fate. Through their friendship and influence, the feud between the two races that had lasted for millennia finally ended, shortly before the departure of the last Elves from Middle-earth. It is rumored that Gimli and Legolas eventually boarded a ship that sailed down the river Anduin, out to sea and across to Valinor in the year Fo.A. 120 . Gimli would thus have become the only Dwarf to ever be permitted to cross to the Undying Lands.
Durin VII (the Last), retook Moria and brought Khazad-dûm back to its original splendor, and the Longbeards lived there till the "world grew old and the days of Durin's race ended".
[ edit ] Nature
They were 4.5 - 5 feet (1.35 - 1.52 m) tall and their more distinctive characteristic was their beard which they have from the beginning of their lives, male and females alike; and which they shave only in shame. [6]
As creations of Aulë, they were attracted to the substances of Arda and crafts. They mined and worked precious metals throughout the mountains of Middle-earth, but had a tendency toward gold lust, and committed their share of rash and greedy acts. Among these was the dispute over the Nauglamír , which led to the slaying of Elu Thingol and stirred up the initial suspicion between Elves and Dwarves to open hatred. [5]
Dwarves generally lived far from the sea and avoided getting on boats, as they disliked the sound of the ocean and were afraid of it. [7]
[ edit ] Hardiness
The Dwarves were created by Aulë to be strong, resistant to fire and the evils of Morgoth. They were hardier than any other race, secretive, stubborn, and steadfast in enmity or loyalty.
Despite their short stature, they were known for their strength and endurance in battle, as well as their fury, particularly when avenging their fallen kin, and for being some of the greatest warriors in all of Middle-earth. They fought valiantly in many wars and battles over the Ages holding axes. [6]
Sickness was almost unknown to the Dwarves, as they were immune to human diseases. [8]
They were generally less corruptible than Men. When Sauron attempted to enslave the Free Folk of Middle-earth using the Rings of Power , the Elves completely resisted his power (indeed, his hand had never sullied the Three Rings ), while the Nine Rings utterly corrupted the Men who bore them into the Ringwraiths . In contrast, the Dwarves were sturdy and resistant enough that Sauron was not able to dominate them using the Seven Rings . At most, the Seven Rings sowed strife among the Dwarves and filled their wearers with an insatiable greed for gold, but they did not turn them into wraiths subservient to the Dark Lord, and he considered his plan to have failed. Sauron was furious at the Dwarves' resistance, spurring his drive to recapture the Seven Rings from them.
Another example was Gimli , who, while Saruman used the power in his voice and the Rohirrim were spell-bound by his magic, Gimli was unmoved and commented that Saruman's words cannot be trusted, causing Saruman to be angered enough to lose his charm. [9]
[ edit ] Lifespan
The lifespan of Dwarves was varied depending on their ancestry. The Longbeards were particularly long-lived, but by the Third Age their lifespan was diminished and they lived, on average, 250 years. Until they were around 30 years of age, Dwarves were considered too young for heavy labor or war (hence the slaying of Azog by Dain Ironfoot at age 32 was a great feat). By the age of 40, Dwarves were hardened into the appearance that they would keep for most of their lives. Between the approximate ages of 40 and 240, most Dwarves were equally hale and able to work and fight with vigor. They took on the appearance of age only about ten years before their death, wrinkling and greying rapidly, but never going bald. Occasionally they would live up to 300 years of age, and Dwalin reached the rare lifespan of 340 years (comparable to a Middle Man living to 100). [8]
Although Dwarves did not suffer from diseases, corpulence could affect them. In prosperous circumstances, many grew fat by the age of 200 and became physically inept. [8]
[ edit ] Culture and family
The Dwarves' numbers, although they sometimes flourished, often faced periods of decline, especially in periods of war. The slow increase of their population was due to the rarity of Dwarf-women , who made up only about a third of the total population. Dwarves seldom wedded before the age of ninety or more, and rarely had so many as four children. They took only one husband or wife in their lifetime, and were jealous, as in all matters of their rights. The number of Dwarf-men that married was actually less than a third, for not all the Dwarf-women took husbands; some desired none, some wanted one they could not have and would have no other. Many Dwarf-men did not desire marriage because they were absorbed in their work. [10] [8]
Dwarf-women seldom walked abroad, and that only in great need. When they did travel, they were so alike Dwarf-men in voice, appearance, and garb that it was hard for other races to tell them apart. They were likewise seldom named in genealogies, joining their husbands' families. The only Dwarf-woman named in Tolkien's legendarium is Dís , sister of Thorin Oakenshield, who was given a place in the records because of the gallant deaths of her sons, Fíli and Kíli. The scarcity of women, their rare mention, and their identical looks with the males, coupled with the Dwarves' secretive culture, led many to mistakenly believe that Dwarves were born out of stone, and upon death they returned to that stone. [10] [8]
Dwarves are fiercely devoted to their parents and children. In their desire for their children to grow up hardy and enduring, they may treat them harshly, but they will protect them at all costs. Dwarves resent injuries to their children and to their parents more than injuries to themselves. [8]
[ edit ] Religion
The Dwarves loved and revered the Vala Aulë. [7] [1]
Of old the Elves believed that the Dwarves would have no future in Arda Unmarred , but the Dwarves themselves held to a promise that Ilúvatar would hallow them and adopt them as his Children. They maintained that after death Aulë (Mahal) cared for them, gathering them to the Halls of Mandos with the other Children of Ilúvatar, though in halls set apart. It is said that after the Last Battle they will work alongside Aulë in the remaking of Arda. [1]
[ edit ] Language
The Dwarven language was created by Aulë, and was called Khuzdul . It was a strange language to Elves and Men, and few non-Dwarves learned it, because it was difficult, and the Dwarves kept it secret, preferring to communicate in the languages of their neighbors. Only one Khuzdul phrase was well known to outsiders: the ancient battle cry, going back to at least the First Age: "Baruk Khazâd! Khazâd ai-mênu!", which means "Axes of the Dwarves! The Dwarves are upon you!". The Dwarves taught Khuzdul carefully to their children, as a learned language, not a cradle-tongue, and thus the language changed very little over the ages, unlike those of other races. The Dwarves also devised a secret language of gestures to communicate between themselves in silence, the iglishmêk . [11]
[ edit ] Names
The Dwarves called themselves the Khazâd , the name Aulë gave them; this is adapted as Hadhod rim in Sindarin , and Casar i in Quenya . Casari was the common word for Dwarves among the Noldor , but the Sindar usually called them Naugrim or Nogothrim, the Stunted People. [12]
An epithet for the Dwarves in Quenya was Auleonnar, meaning "offspring of Aule". [13]
In their dealings with people of other races, the Dwarves did not reveal their true names, rather adopting new names in other languages (the petty-dwarves were an exception). During the Third Age, the Longbeards used northern Mannish names in public.
[ edit ] Inspiration
Almost all the names of the Dwarves of Middle-earth are taken from the Old Norse Völuspá .
According to Tolkien, the "real 'historical'" plural of dwarf is dwarrows or dwerrows. He once referred to dwarves as "a piece of private bad grammar" ( Letters , 17), but in Appendix F to The Lord of the Rings he explains that if we still spoke of dwarves regularly, English might have retained a special plural for the word dwarf as with man. The form dwarrow only appears in the word Dwarrowdelf, a name for Moria . Tolkien used Dwarves, instead, which corresponds with Elf and Elves, making its meaning more apparent. The use of a different term also serves to set Tolkien's Dwarves apart from the similarly-named creatures in mythology and fairy-tales.
The enduring popularity of Tolkien's books, especially The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings , has led to the popular use of the term dwarves to describe this race in fantasy literature. Before Tolkien, the term dwarfs (with a different spelling) was used, as seen in Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs. In fact, the latter spelling was so common that the original editor of The Lord of the Rings "corrected" Tolkien's dwarves to dwarfs ( The Letters of J.R.R. Tolkien , 138).
[ edit ] Other versions of the Legendarium
In the earliest versions of Tolkien's Middle-earth mythology (see: The History of Middle-earth ) the dwarves were evil beings created by Melkor .
In an earlier version of the legendarium it is hinted that the Dwarves do not know about Ilúvatar, or that they disbelieve his existence, but later writings contradict that suggestion. [14]
| Thorin Oakenshield |
In America, a run-down part of a town, frequented by vagrants and alcoholics, is known informally as ‘Skid…what’? | Tolkien in brief: The Hobbit | Books | The Guardian
Tolkien in brief: The Hobbit
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We meet Bilbo Baggins standing outside his hobbit hole smoking a pipe. He is a respectable hobbit, disinclined towards anything which might qualify as an adventure ("Nasty, bothersome things", as he describes them). However, all this is soon to change as Gandalf, a wizard, strides into his life. Bilbo decides that Gandalf is "not quite his sort", and attempts to get rid of him, becoming so flustered that he inadvertently asks the wizard to tea.
A knock on the door the following day reminds Bilbo of his promise, but he finds a dwarf, rather than a wizard, on the doorstep. One dwarf quickly becomes 13, with Gandalf bringing up the rear, and when the whole company is assembled they reveal the purpose of their visit: they are setting out to reclaim their home - the Lonely Mountain - from the dragon, Smaug, who usurped them. Thorin Oakenshield, the leader of the company, asks Bilbo to accompany them, for they are 13 and this is an unlucky number. Against his better judgement, Mr Baggins finds himself joining them.
After many adventures in many lands, their progress is halted when they reach the Misty Mountains, and are captured by goblins. The dwarves and Gandalf escape, but Bilbo is accidentally left behind. Crawling around in the dark, he finds a golden ring and pockets it.
As he wanders through the goblins' tunnels, looking for a way out, he encounters a small, slimy creature called Gollum. Gollum challenges Bilbo to a riddle competition: if Gollum loses, he will show Bilbo the way out, but if Bilbo loses, Gollum will eat him. At his wits' end, Bilbo puts his hands in his pockets, comes across the ring, and wonders aloud, "What have I got in my pocket?" Gollum cannot guess the answer and agrees to show Bilbo the way out. But the ring that Bilbo found belongs to Gollum, and Gollum guesses that Bilbo has it. Bilbo runs away, slipping the ring on his finger. Gollum races straight past him and inadvertently guides Bilbo to the gate. Bilbo escapes, and finds the dwarves, but decides to keep the story of his adventure to himself.
The next obstacle is the forest of Mirkwood, where Gandalf leaves them. While in the forest, all except Bilbo are captured by the wood elves. Bilbo has discovered that the ring he found, when worn, makes him invisible. He hides in the wood elves' kingdom and rescues the dwarves, packing them in empty barrels which are floated upstream. Thus they come to Lake Town, which lies in the shadow of the Lonely Mountain.
From here it is a short trip to the mountain itself. The company disturbs Smaug and he flies out to wreak havoc on the surrounding lands. He burns down Lake Town, but is finally shot by a man named Bard.
The dwarves are delighted and take back their kingdom, but others (the Lake Towners and the wood elves) feel they too have a claim to some of the treasure. They besiege the mountain, but then all join forces when the goblins arrive, also seeking the treasure. A great battle is fought and the dwarves, elves and men eventually prevail, but Thorin Oakenshield is killed. Bilbo returns home with a share of the treasure - and his magic ring.
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What is the art of preparing, stuffing and mounting the skins of animals for display called? | Taxidermy - definition of taxidermy by The Free Dictionary
Taxidermy - definition of taxidermy by The Free Dictionary
http://www.thefreedictionary.com/taxidermy
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tax·i·der·my
(tăk′sĭ-dûr′mē)
n.
The art or operation of preparing, stuffing, and mounting the skins of dead animals for exhibition in a lifelike state.
tax′i·der′mal, tax′i·der′mic adj.
tax′i·der′mist n.
taxidermy
(ˈtæksɪˌdɜːmɪ)
n
(Professions) the art or process of preparing, stuffing, and mounting animal skins so that they have a lifelike appearance
[C19: from Greek taxis arrangement + -dermy, from Greek derma skin]
ˌtaxiˈdermal, ˌtaxiˈdermic adj
(ˈtæk sɪˌdɜr mi)
n.
the art of preparing, preserving, and stuffing the skins of animals and mounting them in lifelike form.
[1810–20; < Greek táxi(s) arranging (see taxis 1) + dérm(a) skin + -y 3]
tax`i•der′mal, tax`i•der′mic, adj.
tax′i•der`mist, n.
taxidermy
- The stuffing of dead animals.
See also related terms for stuffing .
taxidermy
the art of preparing, stuffing, and mounting the skins of animals so that they appear lifelike. — taxidermist, n.
1.
taxidermy - the art of mounting the skins of animals so that they have lifelike appearance
artistry , prowess , art - a superior skill that you can learn by study and practice and observation; "the art of conversation"; "it's quite an art"
Translations
taxidermy
[ˈtæksidɜːrmi] n → taxidermie ftaxi driver n → chauffeur mf de taxi
She's a taxi driver → Elle est chauffeur de taxi ., Elle est chauffeuse de taxi .taxi fare n → prix m de la course
taxidermy
taxidermy
(ˈtӕksidəːmi) noun
the art of preparing and stuffing the skins of animals etc. taksidermie تَحْنيط الحَيَوان препариране на животни taxidermia taxidermie die Taxidermie udstopning af dyr ταρίχευση taxidermia taksidermia پوست پیرایی taksidermia taxidermie פִּחלוּץ चर्म प्रसाधन vještina guljenja i nadjevanja životinja állatkitömés seni opset uppstoppun dÿra tassidermia はく製術 박제술 iškamšų darymas taksidermija, putnu vai zvēru izbāšana taksidermi taxidermie utstopping av dyr wypychanie zwierząt taxidermia taxidermie, arta împăierii animalelor набивка чучел vypchávanie zvierat umetnost nagačevanja živali prepariranje uppstoppning av djur เทคนิคการทำให้ซากสัตว์คงสภาพเหมือนมีชีวิต hayvan doldurma 動物標本剝製術 набивання опудал کھال ميں بھس بھرنا nghệ thuật nhồi thú bông 动物标本剥制术
ˈtaxidermist noun
taksidermis مُحَنِّط الحَيَوانات препаратор taxidermista preparátor der/die Präperator(in) dyreudstopper ταριχευτής taxidermista taksidermist پوست پیرا eläinten täyttäjä taxidermiste מְפַחלֵץ चर्म प्रसाधक nadjevač životianja állat(ki)tömő tukang opset maður sem stoppar upp dÿr tassidermista はく製師 박제사 iškamšų meistras taksidermists ahli taksidermi taxidermist dyreutstopper , preparant wypychacz zwierząt taxidermista taxidermist, persoană care împăiază animale набивщик чучел preparátor nagačevalec preparator konservator, uppstoppare คนทำรูปสัตว์โดยใช้วิธียัดไส้และเย็บ hayvan doldurucu (動物標本)剝製師 набивач опудал, таксидерміст جانوروں کي کھال ميں بھرنے والا người nhồi thú bông （动物标本）剥制师
| Taxidermy |
The Sundance Film Festival takes place annually in which US state? | What does taxidermy mean?
Definitions for taxidermyˈtæk sɪˌdɜr mi
This page provides all possible meanings and translations of the word taxidermy
Princeton's WordNet(0.00 / 0 votes)Rate this definition:
taxidermy(noun)
the art of mounting the skins of animals so that they have lifelike appearance
Wiktionary(0.00 / 0 votes)Rate this definition:
taxidermy(Noun)
The art of stuffing, and mounting the skins of dead animals for exhibition in a lifelike state.
Origin: From τάξις + δέρμα
Webster Dictionary(0.00 / 0 votes)Rate this definition:
Taxidermy(verb)
the art of preparing, preserving, and mounting the skins of animals so as to represent their natural appearance, as for cabinets
Freebase(0.00 / 0 votes)Rate this definition:
Taxidermy
Taxidermy is the art of preparing, stuffing, and mounting the skins of animals for display or for other sources of study. Taxidermy can be done on all vertebrate species of animals, including mammals, birds, fish, reptiles, and amphibians. A person who practices taxidermy is called a taxidermist. Taxidermists may practice professionally for museums or as businesses catering to hunters and fishermen, or as amateurs, such as hobbyists, hunters, and fishermen. To practice taxidermy, one should be very familiar with anatomy, sculpture, and painting, as well as tanning.
Chambers 20th Century Dictionary(0.00 / 0 votes)Rate this definition:
Taxidermy
taks′i-dėr-mi, n. the art of preparing and stuffing the skins of animals.—adjs. Taxider′mal, Taxider′mic.—v.t. Tax′idermise.—n. Tax′idermist. [Fr.,—Gr. taxis, arrangement, derma, a skin.]
The Nuttall Encyclopedia(0.00 / 0 votes)Rate this definition:
Taxidermy
the art of preparing and preserving the skins of animals for exhibition in cabinets.
Numerology
The numerical value of taxidermy in Chaldean Numerology is: 9
Pythagorean Numerology
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On a London Underground train map which colour depicts the Circle Line? | London Underground - Rick Steves Travel Forum
London Underground
Please sign in to post.
London Underground
Posted by Amy (Canton, USA) on
02/27/11 04:55 PM
This may seem like a dumb question... however, are the undergrounds in London similar to those in the USA where in order to determine which line to board you look for the last stop for direction you are headed? Also, what do the white outlined connected circles refer to? Ie: Kings Cross station
Thanks in advance for help with my silly questions!
02/27/11 05:49 PM
6890 posts
Assuming that you have a good underground map, you won't have any difficulty. As you start down to the platforms, there is clear signage as to where the train is going. Every stop the train will make from the station you are in to the end of the line is shown. You'll quickly be able to determine if you are going in the right direction.
02/28/11 01:23 AM
3200 posts
While there are line diagrams in a few places, signage in the London Underground doesn't go by terminus but by direction of travel (northbound, southbound, eastbound, westbound) which can be a bit confusing if you don't know the geography. But if you have a map with you it will be possible to check the relative direction on that. The connected circles refer to connections between lines serving the same station.
02/28/11 05:56 AM
8617 posts
Actually, I liked the Underground's line name with compass directions better than using the last stop on the line. To me, it's easier to remember, as an example, I took district line east in the morning, so I'll need the district line west to get back. The circles show places where you can connect to a different line.
02/28/11 02:07 PM
15408 posts
Its always best to be sure your London Underground map is in colour. Each line is inexorably tied to a particular colour. The Circle Line - yellow Central Line - red District Line (all branches) - green Piccadilly Line - dark blue Northern Line (both branches) - black Victoria Line - blue Bakerloo Line - brown Hammersmith and City Line - pink Metropolitan Line - purple Jubilee Line - silver Docklands Light Railway - hollow green
LORAL - London Overground railway - orange (all lines) Happy planning...
03/01/11 12:39 AM
1986 posts
To add to the above- You only need to know whether you are going N, S, W or E to find the right platform. most platforms serve only one line so you usually dont have to do further checking. Exception are the platforms serving both District (green) and Circle (yellow ) lines. On these platforms there are electric signs letting you know which train is next. On a few lines the lines split toward the outskirts of town (piccadilly, Northern, district among others) then if you are travelling past the junction you should know the terminus of the line you want. This is always (usually?) shown on a card in the front of the train- as well as on the electric signs yes- the interconnecting circles are to indicate where you can interchange among different lines - usually (except yellow and Green) by having to go to a different platform- good signage
03/03/11 06:19 PM
643 posts
The answer to your question is YES. On the front of each train will be a station, which is the direction the train is heading. You need to know if that station is in the direction you want to go on the Line you want to go on! Many platforms serve more than one line. For example in Paddington the trains may be Circle Line (yellow) or District Line (green). Fortunately a rudimentary understanding of the system will serve you well. Wife and I had no trouble catching the correct underground train after getting to Paddington from Heathrow in 2008.
| Yellow |
Who wrote the ‘Discworld’ Series of books? | London Underground Facts for Kids | KidzSearch.com
2
in) standard gauge
The London Underground is a system of electric trains which are in London , United Kingdom . It is the oldest underground railway in the world. It started running in 1863 as the Metropolitan Railway. After the opening the system was copied in many other cities, for example New York and Madrid . Even though it is called the Underground about half of it is above the ground. The "Tube" is a slang name for the London Underground, because the tunnels for some of the lines are round tubes running through the ground. The Underground has got 274 stations and over 408 km of track . Some lines and stations were also closed after a time, for example Aldwych . From 2006–2007 over 1 billion passengers used the underground.
Underground train systems in other cities may be called metros or subways (in North America ). Subway is used in Britain to refer to underground walkways.
Contents
The nickname "the Tube" comes from the round tunnels some trains use. The 'tube train' shown is in a tunnel near Hendon Central Station , London .
Beginnings
The Metropolitan Line was the first part of the Underground to be made. It was opened in 1863. It then ran between Paddington and Farringdon. It took 40,000 passengers per day. Later it was made longer. The District Line was built by a different company. In 1884, the Circle Line was finished. All these lines used steam engines at first.
In 1890, a line using electric trains was opened. It was much deeper below ground than the other lines. Now it is part of the Northern Line. More lines like this were opened. People liked them, so in 1905 the lines that used steam engines were changed to use electric trains.
Into the 20th century
Because the different lines were run by different companies, changing lines was difficult. Between 1900 and 1902 Charles Yerkes bought most of the companies and formed a company named Underground Electric Railways of London Company Ltd, short UERL.
In the 1930s and 1940s
In 1933 a company was formed of all the bus, tram and underground companies, called London Passenger Transport Board (LPTB). It planned to make the network longer, but the Second World War stopped this. In the war, some Underground stations were used as shelters against bombs .
After the war
After the war more passengers used the underground. Because of that they built the Victoria Line which took over many passengers. The Piccadilly Line was built farther to Heathrow Airport in 1977. The Jubilee Line was opened in 1979. In 1999 the Jubilee Line was built longer to Stratford.
Network
Zone 1 (central zone) of the Underground network as it would look in reality
Trains
The system uses two kinds of trains, a big type - called sub surface trains and a smaller type - deep level trains. The big ones are used for the rectangular tunnels (District Line, Metropolitan Line, Circle Line), the small ones for the round tunnels. Most lines have different trains, although they fit into one of the two categories.
Stations
The Underground's trains usually drive to 270 stations. 14 Stations are outside of London.
Lines
10,595
↑ Known as the Central London before 1937. [3]
↑ The Metropolitan and District railways joint inner circle service started in the shape of a horseshoe, a complete loop was formed in 1884 [4] and the current spiral in 2009. The line has been referred to as the Circle line at least since 1936 and first appeared separately on the tube map in 1948. [5]
↑ Originally a joint Great Western and Metropolitan railways service, the line first appeared separately on the tube map in 1990. [6]
↑ The name dates from 1937. [3]
↑ Until 1994 the Waterloo & City line was operated by British Rail and its predecessors.
Tickets
The Underground uses zones to collect fares. There are 9 zones. Zone 1 is the most central zone. The only London Underground stations in Zones 7 to 9 are on the Metropolitan line beyond Moor Park , outside Greater London. Some stations are in two zones, and the cheapest fare applies. [7]
Paper tickets or the contactless Oyster card can be used for travel. The Oyster Card is a plastic card which stores credit (money and Travelcards) which the owner uses to pay for Underground travel. The user must "charge" (put money onto) their card at a ticket machine. They then touch the card on a yellow reader to pay for their journey. Since its introduction in 2002 it has become very popular with regular travelers, as the prices are much cheaper if you use an Oyster card.
There are ticket offices, some open only in the rush-hour, and ticket machines, which can be used at any time. Some machines take coins only, other touch-screen machines take coins and English notes, and usually give change. These machines also take credit and debit cards: some newer machines accept cards only.
Summary of ticket types
The following tickets are available from London Underground and TfL ticket offices to use on the Underground:
Ticket
Escalators at Bank station on the Northern Line.
When most of the stations in the London Underground system were built, disabled and wheelchair access was not considered. While many above-ground stations have only a few steps to the platform, nearly all Underground stations have some of the systems's 410 escalators and 112 lifts ( elevators ). Newer stations include disabled access, and many older stations install disabled access when they are refurbished or rebuilt. Since 2004, maps inside the trains show which stations have step-free access from street level. Transport for London plan to have a network of over 100 fully accessible stations by 2020, which means that 75% of Tube journeys can be made with step-free access.
The escalators in the London Underground system are some of the longest in Europe. They run 20 hours a day, 364 days a year and are used by 13,000 people per hour, with 95% of them running at one time.
Safety
File:Westminster station barrier.jpg
Platform Screen Doors at Westminster Station.
There have been relatively few accidents in the Underground's history. Most happen if people accidentally fall onto the tracks. In some stations there are pits in the middle of the track to stop people being injured if they fall onto the track. Newly rebuilt parts of the system, especially on the Jubilee line, have platform doors. These doors only open when a train stops and prevent people falling or jumping onto the tracks.
Platform doors
In recent years, refurbished and rebuilt parts of the Underground, especially the Jubilee Line (around Westminster) have had sliding platform doors installed to prevent people falling off the platform onto the tracks, and discourage/prevent suicides.
Bomb attacks
In the 30s, 70s and 90s the Underground was bombed many times by the IRA , and for this reason there have been no wastebins in or around stations until very recently, when clear plastic sacks were introduced in some parts of the system. On 7th July 2005 there were three attacks by radical Islamic terrorists on two Circle Line trains and on one Piccadilly Line .
Smoking
Smoking is not allowed in any part of the underground. It was banned after a fire in King's Cross Station in 1987.
Criticism
The commuters of London often complain about the Underground. Even newspapers, especially the Evening Standard , often criticise the system.
Usually the complaints are about delays, overcrowding and the fares . Sometimes strikes of London Underground staff occur.
Fares
London Underground fares are now the most expensive of any rail system around the world, including the luxurious Orient Express, and they continue to rise at very high levels. Concern has also been raised over the huge difference between oyster card fares and cash fares, with the criticism that the high cash fares will discourage tourists and day visitors to London from traveling around the City.
Delays
Because the underground is a very old system, engineering work is often needed and often causes delays. There can be other reasons as well, for example signal failures or other breakdowns. Customers can claim a refund if their tube journey is delayed for more than 15 minutes due to problems within the control of Transport For London.
Overcrowding
Because many more commuters use the underground than planned, overcrowding often happens. This can cause stress and frustration with the underground system among commuters. According to a report by MPs, commuters face "a daily trauma" and are often forced to travel in "intolerable conditions".
Industrial action
Because so many passengers travel on the London Underground network every day, strikes or industrial actions on the Underground network have a very high impact on London's traffic and can impact on London's economy. London Underground and the rail unions claim to be under high pressure from the working public, private businesses and government departments.
Strike actions on the London Underground occur for a number of reasons, including health and safety, working conditions and pay levels. There were several such strikes in the late 1970s.
References
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In the game of Bingo, which number is known as ‘Fat Lady With a Crutch’? | Bingo Number-calling Nicknames
35.. Jump and jive - Flirty wives
36.. Three dozen - Perfect (as in 36-24-36) - Yardstick... he wishes! (USA)
37.. A flea in heaven - More than eleven
38.. Christmas cake
39.. Those famous steps - All the steps - Jack Benny
40.. Two score - Life begins at - Blind 40 - Naughty 40 - Mary (USA)
41.. Life�s begun - Time for fun
42.. That famous street in Manhattan - Whinny the Poo
43.. Down on your knees
44.. Droopy drawers - All the fours - Open two doors - Magnum (USA)
45.. Halfway house - Halfway there - Cowboy's friend - Colt (USA)
46.. Up to tricks
48.. Four dozen
49.. PC (Police Constable) - Copper - Nick nick - Rise and shine
50.. Bulls eye - Bung hole - Blind 50 - Half a century - Snow White's number (five-oh - five-oh..) - Hawaii five O, Hawaii (USA)
51.. I love my mum - Tweak of the thumb - The Highland Div[ision] - President's salute
52.. Weeks in a year - The Lowland Div[ision] - Danny La Rue - Pack 'o cards - Pickup (USA)
53.. Stuck in the tree - The Welsh Div[ision] - The joker
54.. Clean the floor - House of bamboo (famous song)
55.. Snakes alive - All the fives - Double nickels - Give us fives - Bunch of fives
56.. Was she worth it?
57.. Heinz varieties - All the beans (Heinz 57 varieties of canned beans)
58.. Make them wait - Choo choo Thomas
59.. Brighton line (engine 59 or it took 59 mins to go from London to Brighton)
60.. Three score - Blind 60 - Five dozen
61.. Bakers bun
62.. Tickety boo - Turn on the screw
63.. Tickle me - Home ball (USA)
64.. The Beatles number - Red raw
65.. Old age pension - Stop work (retirement age)
66.. Clickety click - All the sixes - Quack quack (USA)
67.. Made in heaven - Argumentative number
68.. Saving grace - Check your weight
69.. The same both ways - Your place or mine? - Any way up - Either way up - Any way round - Meal for two - The French connection - Yum yum - Happy meal (USA)
70.. Three score and ten - Blind 70 - Big O (USA)
71.. Bang on the drum - Lucky one
72.. A crutch and a duck - Six dozen - Par for the course (golf) - Lucky two
73.. Crutch with a flea - Queen B - Under the tree - Lucky three
74.. Candy store - Grandmamma of Bingo - Lucky four
75.. Strive and strive - Big Daddy - Granddaddy of Bingo - Lucky five
76.. Trombones - Seven 'n' six - was she worth it? - Lucky six
77.. Sunset strip - All the sevens - Two little crutches - The double hockey stick - Lucky seven
78.. Heavens gate - Lucky eight
79.. One more time - Lucky nine
80.. Gandhi's breakfast - Blind 80 - Eight and blank - There you go matey
81.. Fat lady and a little wee - Stop and run - Corner shot
82.. Fat lady with a duck - Straight on through
83.. Fat lady with a flea - Time for tea - Ethel's Ear
84.. Seven dozen
87.. Fat lady with a crutch - Torquay in Devon
88.. Two fat ladies - Wobbly wobbly - All the eights
89.. Nearly there - All but one
90.. Top of the shop - Top of the house - Blind 90 - As far as we go - End of the line
Explanations of some nicknames:
1 Kelly's eye: In reference to the one-eyed Australian bushranger gangster Ned Kelly. (Note: apparently this explanation is incorrect. A viewer from Australia sent this message: "Ned Kelly didn't have one eye! He didn't even lose an eye in the shoot out at Glenrowan. And when he was wearing his helmet, you couldn't even see his eyes through the slot." But another Australian viewer sent this explanation: "The reason for "Kellys eye" may have been referring to Ned Kelly's helmet, which had one large slot for his eyes that looked like one eye.")
2 One little duck: The shape looks a bit like a swan.
3 One little flea: Looks a bit like a flea.
7 One little crutch: Looks like a crutch.
8 One fat lady: Resembles the two halves of a large lady.
9 Doctor's orders: A pill known as Number 9 was a laxative given out by army doctors in Britain. Apparently in the second world war in Britain doctors wrote on sick notes a 9 pm curfew, thus if patients were found out of their homes after that time they were violating their sick note. (Provided by a visitor)
The curfew story's not true. In the Great War, however, there was such a thing as a "number nine" pill, that was freely prescribed for virtually everything. (Provided by another visitor)
10 Downing street: UK Prime Minister's address, 10 Downing Street.
12 Royal salute: As in, a 21-gun salute for a Royal birthday or other celebration.
13 Bakers Dozen: Bakers in olden times used to make one extra piece of bread/cookie etc to the dozen ordered by a customer so they could do a taste test before it was sold to the customer, hence the phrase.
17 Dancing queen: From the Abba song of the same name. Over-ripe: Opposite of tender; 14 and 17 straddle 16 which is sweet!
23 Lord's My Shepherd: From Psalm 23.
26 Bed and breakfast: Traditionally the cost of a nights' lodgings was 2 shillings sixpence, or two and six.
26 Half a crown: Equivalent to 2'6d. Or two and six.
39 The famous steps; all the steps: From the 1935 Hitchcock film
59 The Brighton Line: The London-Brighton service was no. 59.
65 Old age pension: 'Pension' age in the UK is at the age of 65.
76 Seven 'n' six - was she worth it?: The price of the marrige licence, seven shillings and six pence.
A marriage license may have been 7/6 (37.5p in new money) once upon a time, but 7/6 was more recently the cost of a "short time" with a lady of negotiable affection.... (Provided by a visitor)
78 Heavens gate: it rhymes: heaven-seven, gate-eight.
80 Gandhi's breakfast: in reference to Ghandi�s famous peace protest, in which he abstained from food - Imagine him sitting crosslegged with a big empty plate in front of him, looking from above. Another suggested explanation: ate (8) nothing (0).
81 Corner shot: Generally used in Military clubs tambola aka housie in India; origin unknown.
83 Ethel's Ear: Fat lady beside ear-shaped three.
(Above explanations are courtesy of visitors' feedback and bbc.co.uk )
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| 87 |
Persil is the French name for which herb? | Learn the Bingo Lingo
Learn the Bingo Lingo
-
December 12, 2011
When you are looking for a wealth of online bingo knowledge, www.bingo-reviewer.com – online bingo reviews can be a great help. Choosing your gaming platform isn’t the only thing you need to wise up on though. Bingo can feel like it has its own language and when the numbers are called, it’s handy to know your “heavens gate” from your “saving grace”.
The majority of bingo lexis is made up from sound patterns, similar to cockney-rhyming slang, and items that resemble the shape of numbers. Others make reference to themes that are implied by specific numbers. There are one or two exceptions, which require a little “out of the box” thinking, yet most of the lingo is self-explanatory and with a little imagination the riddles can be easily solved. With rumour in the air that the established British bingo language is dying, it is definitely time to swat up and be loyal to one of our nation’s best-loved gaming traditions.
Shape-influenced bingo nicknames include favourites such as “two little ducks” for 22 and “two fat ladies” for 88. You also find that the number seven plays the crutch to these, with 27 and 87 being called as the duck and the fat lady “with a crutch” respectively. More simply, “legs 11” is also suggestive of the shape as well as stating the number itself.
Rhyming bingo lingo has a certain charm to it and is almost suggestive of bingo’s (or beano as it was known) working class routes. The game originated in America and was played by marking cards with beans, depending on which numbered cigar-box discs were called. Despite the country of origin there is a definite essence of a similarity in the type of class associated with the game. Rhymes are one of the most commonly associated features of British bingo and are met with great response in bingo halls across the country. Some bingo callers choose to shout only the bingo lingo phrase and in response will hear the crowd chant the related number.
Popular catchphrases include; “knock at the door” (number four), “man alive” (number five) and “dirty Gertie”, who, of course, lives at number 30. The latter of the three will also strike a chord with the die-hard, lifelong bingo players who may have heard of the Second World War song, “Dirty Gertie from Bizerte”; it’s also a nickname for the naked lady statue, La Délivrance, which was erected near Regents Park Road in 1927.
Some bingo nicknames use culture and history as a reference. The call for 10, although it is a rhyme, also uses the name of whoever is currently residing at Number 10 Downing Street; for example, today we would say, “David’s den, number 10”. An easily identifiable cultural reference is, “unlucky for some” (13), which alludes to the suspicion that the number 13 is associated with bad fortune.
Further inspiration is found within books, music and religion: “those famous steps” (number 39, from the 1915 John Buchan novel, “The Thirty-Nine Steps”), “dancing queen” (number 17, taken from the ABBA hit), and “The Lord is my shepherd” (number 23, as per Psalm 23.)
As well as the more quirky number calling terminology, there are plenty that can be taken quite literally. “All the fours” and “all the fives”, for example, translate literally as 44 and 55. While “halfway house” or “halfway there” (used for number 45), is half the number of bingo balls.
Unsurprisingly for the English Language, there are no set rules for bingo lingo, so making up your own phrases is also an option. Use a modern-day cultural reference, throw in a bit of rhyme and have a beano. You never know, it might just stick.
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Dancer and actress Virginia McMath was better known by what name? | Virginia Katherine McMath (1911 - 1995) - Genealogy
Virginia Katherine McMath
in Rancho Mirage, Riverside, CA, USA
Place of Burial:
July 16 1911 - Independence, Jackson Co, Missouri, USA
Death:
Apr 25 1995 - Rancho Mirage, Riverside Co, California, USA
Parents:
William Eddins McMath, Lela Emogen Rogers
Husband:
Apr 25 1995 - Riverside, California, USA
Father's last name:
July 16 1911 - Independence, Missouri, U.S.A
Death:
Apr 25 1995 - Rancho Mirage, California, U.S.A
Parents:
William "eddins" Mcmath, Lela Emogene Mcmath (born Owens)
Ex-husband:
Edward Jackson (Jack) Culpepper (Pepper)
Ex-husband:
July 16 1911 - Independence, MO
Death:
Apr 25 1995 - Rancho Mirage, California
Parents:
William Eddins McMath, Lela Emogene (Emogen) McMath, (W/Ai 13th cousin 3x removed+) (born Owens)
Ex-husband:
July 16 1911 - Independence, Missouri, USA
Death:
Apr 25 1995 - Rancho Mirage, California, USA
Parents:
William Eddins McMath, Lela E McMath (born Owens)
Husband:
July 16 1911 - Independence Mo.
Father:
July 16 1911 - Independence, Missouri
Death:
Apr 25 1995 - Rancho Mirage, California
Parents:
July 16 1911 - Independence, Missouri
Death:
Apr 25 1995 - Rancho Mirage, California, U.S
Parents:
July 16 1911 - Independence, Missouri
Death:
Apr 25 1995 - Rancho Mirage, California
Parents:
July 16 1911 - West Virginia
Death:
July 16 1911 - Independence, Missouri
Death:
Apr 25 1995 - Rancho Mirage, California, U.S
Parents:
ex-husband's child
About Ginger Rogers
American stage and film dancer and actress Ginger Rogers along with Fred Astaire was the most legendary dancing team in film history; she was also a successful dramatic actress, even winning a Best Actress Oscar.
Born Virginia Katherine McMath, she began her dancing career in vaudeville and made her Broadway debut in 1929 in Top Speed. After starring in George Gershwin's Girl Crazy, she went to Hollywood and began performing in movies, typecast as a flippant blonde.Her first performance with Fred Astaire occurred in Flying Down to Rio, which was so popular that they continued the partnership in nine other films. Though best known for her dancing, Rogers preferred dramatic acting and in 1940 won an Academy Award for her leading role in Kitty Foyle. She also enjoyed a sure hand in light comedy and starred in such films as Tom, Dick and Harry and The Major and the Minor. Rogers returned to the Broadway stage in 1965 when she took over the role of Dolly Levi in Hello Dolly and followed that in 1969 with a star performance as Mame in London.
From the 1950s onwards, Rogers would make occasional appearances on television. In the later years of her career, she made guest appearances in three different series by Aaron Spelling; The Love Boat (1979), Glitter (1984), and Hotel (1987) which would be her final screen appearance as an actress.
Rogers had no children.
Ginger Rogers was an American actress, dancer, and singer who appeared in films, and on stage, radio, and television throughout much of the 20th century.
Movies
| Ginger Rogers |
The city of Buffalo lies on which North American Great Lake? | Ginger Rogers, Who Danced With Astaire and Won an Oscar for Drama, Dies at 83
Ginger Rogers, Who Danced With Astaire and Won an Oscar for Drama, Dies at 83
By PETER B. FLINT
Ginger Rogers, the vivacious actress whose supple grace in the arms of Fred Astaire lifted the spirits of Depression-era moviegoers in some of the most elegantly romantic musical films ever made, died yesterday at her home in Rancho Mirage, Calif. She was 83.
The blond, blue-eyed actress, who came out of Charleston contests and the vaudeville circuits to win notice as a cherub-faced flapper with a piping voice and a sassy air in early musicals like "42d Street" and "Gold Diggers of 1933," went on to win acclaim for her dramatic portrayals and an Academy Award for best actress for her depiction of a lovelorn career woman in the 1940 film "Kitty Foyle."
The potent chemistry of her partnership with Astaire, in a succession of urbane romances that featured rapturous dance routines, propelled her into the top 10 of Hollywood's box-office attractions. "He gives her class, and she gives him sex," Katharine Hepburn once said. By 1941, Ginger Rogers was the highest-paid American woman, earning $355,000 a year.
While her graceful dancing was on display in her many musicals, Miss Rogers also won renown in dramatic roles including an aspiring actress in "Stage Door" (1937) and a prostitute's daughter in "Primrose Path" (1940). Her gift for comedy bubbled through movies like "Bachelor Mother" (1939), "Tom, Dick and Harry" (1941) and "The Major and the Minor" (1942). In a screen career that began with a bit role in "Young Man of Manhattan" in 1930, she made more than 70 movies.
But the Astaire-Rogers musicals, epitomizing grace, energy and sophistication, were her enduring memorial. The couple, in their smooth, seemingly effortless style, spun gossamer fantasies from the infectious scores of Irving Berlin, George Gershwin, Jerome Kern, Cole Porter and Vincent Youmans.
Anna Kisselgoff, the chief dance critic of The New York Times, said yesterday: "Ginger Rogers was a better dancer than most people gave her credit for. She may have swooped and dipped into many a romantic swoon, but her footwork was as precise as Astaire's."
The plots of their films often turned on mistaken identity and other far-fetched devices, but they were accepted as breathing spaces between the couple's champagne dance numbers in lavish settings where all the walls, telephones and pianos were white, the butlers were always comic and love was the only concern.
Under Astaire's painstaking coaching, Miss Rogers's dancing became more fluid with each film, and the consensus was that none of his later partnerships generated the electricity they did.
Writing in 1972, the dance critic Arlene Croce said Miss Rogers "danced with love, with pride in the beauty of an illusion -- and with one of the most elegant dancer's bodies imaginable." She added, "She avoided any suggestion of toil or inadequacy."
When the actress went to the stage of the Biltmore Bowl in the Biltmore Hotel in Los Angeles to accept her Oscar on Feb. 27, 1941, she stood with tears streaming down her face and said: "This is the greatest moment of my life. I want to thank the one who has stood by me faithfully: my mother."
It was her mother, the former Lela Owens, who groomed her for a show-business career with singing, dancing and acting lessons. Miss Rogers, whose given name was Virginia Katherine McMath, was born on July 16, 1911, in Independence, Mo. Her father, William McMath, and her mother were divorced soon after. Their daughter was called Ginger because a cousin could not pronounce Virginia, and she took her later surname from John Rogers, who was briefly her stepfather. She grew up in Kansas City, Mo., and Fort Worth. Her mother continued to manage her career until she died in 1977.
At 15, Miss Rogers became the champion Charleston dancer in Texas. Then, for three years, her mother chaperoned her through four vaudeville acts a day throughout the South and Midwest. "I traveled with my mother, Lela, and there was never enough money," Miss Rogers said. "I always had to roll down my silk stockings and carry a doll when we bought train tickets so I could go half-fare. If we had $3, we always figured how to tip for the trunks and still eat." She played Kansas City, St. Louis and Chicago. When Miss Rogers was 18, they went to New York, where she sang with two bands and in a musical and starred in the Gershwins' 1930 Broadway hit "Girl Crazy," introducing the songs "But Not for Me" and "Embraceable You."
At 19, she made her first feature film in New York, "Young Man of Manhattan," uttering a memorable instruction: "Cigarette me, big boy." In her third musical film, "42d Street," she was a risque, wisecracking chorine, Anytime Annie. "The only time she said no," a fellow actor quipped, "she didn't hear the question."
Her big break came when she was 22, when she and Mr. Astaire won supporting roles in "Flying Down to Rio." Their rollicking introduction of a dance called the Carioca stole the show from its nominal stars, Dolores Del Rio and Gene Raymond.
Over the next six years they were teamed in eight more movies and introduced a glittering array of now-standard songs and dances, among them "Night and Day" and "The Continental" from "The Gay Divorcee," "I Won't Dance" from "Roberta," "Cheek to Cheek" from "Top Hat," "Let's Face the Music and Dance" from "Follow the Fleet," "Never Gonna Dance" from "Swing Time" and "They All Laughed" from "Shall We Dance."
Years later, she wrote about their partnership, emphasizing that Astaire was no Svengali. By the time they joined forces in "Flying Down to Rio" in 1933, she pointed out, she had made 20 films, he only one. She acknowledged that they had "occasional snits," but, she said: "We had fun, and it shows. True, we were never bosom buddies off the screen; we were different people with different interests. We were a couple only on film."
And, she noted: "I'd do three or four pictures between those I made with Fred. We weren't Siamese twins. I always wanted to stretch out and do some things as me, alone, by myself. I did, and among the things was 'Kitty Foyle.' "
Miss Rogers's later films included an elaborate fantasy, "Lady in the Dark" (1944); a wartime romance, "I'll Be Seeing You" (1945); the comedies "Dreamboat" (1952), "Monkey Business" (1952) and "Forever Female" (1954), and melodramas like "Tight Spot" (1955) and "Harlow" (1965). Reviewers attributed her enduring success to a dualistic personality -- tough versus vulnerable, ingenuous versus calculating -- and to a talent for mimicry and pretense.
In 1951, Miss Rogers won wide praise in a Broadway comedy, "Love and Let Love," although reviewers panned the play. Typically, she concluded, "We could have gone on touring around the country, probably playing to packed houses and getting our money back, but I'd rather be a sitting duck in a big pond."
In later musical triumphs, she succeeded Carol Channing in the title role of "Hello, Dolly!" on Broadway in 1965 and played the role to ovations for more than two years. In 1969, she introduced "Mame" to London audiences. Gower Champion, who directed her in "Dolly," hailed her "drive, verve, spark and talent."
Miss Rogers liked to keep busy. She often worked in summer stock, appearing in productions of musicals like "Annie Get Your Gun" and "The Unsinkable Molly Brown" and in comedies like "Tovarich" and "Bell, Book and Candle." In the 1970's she developed a successful nightclub act, and she was also a fashion consultant to the J. C. Penney chain.
In her last film, in 1965, she played Jean Harlow's mother in "Harlow." By then, she was unhappy with the frankness of Hollywood films. Looking back, she said, "We made happy pictures that people enjoyed seeing, not the kind the audiences have to go through trauma to see nowadays."
Miss Rogers's autobiography, "Ginger: My Story," was published by HarperCollins in 1991. John Mueller, in The New York Times Book Review, found Miss Rogers's book short on insight and discreet to the point that "one does not get a terribly rich feel for her personality." In discussing her career, he continued, "she is far more likely to tell us what she wore than what she did."
Miss Rogers was a Christian Scientist who never smoked or drank alcohol, except for an occasional glass of wine at supper. She loved the outdoors and exercised regularly. When her schedule allowed, she swam every day and played golf and tennis several times a week. She ate moderately and maintained a trim figure in middle age, giving this advice: "I try to feed my hunger rather than my appetite."
In 1938, she built a mountaintop mansion in Beverly Hills with a large swimming pool, a tennis court and an elaborate soda fountain. She also bought a big dairy and multi-crop ranch on the Rogue River near Medford, Ore., which eventually became her main home.
The actress was married five times: to Edward Culpepper, a dancer and actor known in vaudeville as Jack Pepper (1928 to 1931); the actor Lew Ayres (1934 to 1940); Jack Briggs, another actor (1943 to 1949); Jacques Bergerac, a French actor and businessman (1953 to 1957), and William Marshall, a director and producer (1961-1967). All five marriages ended in divorce. "I yearned for a long, happy marriage with one person," she wrote. But, she said, her life had been blessed in other ways, and in 1987 she said she didn't mind being alone. "It'd be fun to have a chum around, but it's very had to have a chum unless you're married to him," she said. "And I don't believe in today's concept for living with someone unmarried."
In 1992, Miss Rogers was one of the recipients of the 15th annual Kennedy Center Honors for lifetime achievement.
Asked by one interviewer what personal quality she was proudest of, Miss Rogers replied: "The most important thing in anyone's life is to be giving something. The quality I can give is fun and joy and happiness. This is my gift."
Ever a Trouper Through the Decades
In more than six decades in show business, Ginger Rogers appeared in some 70 films, as well as in vaudeville, theater and television. Here are some highlights of her career.
Films
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Which British celebrity had a pet called Fanny the Wonderdog? | KINGS OF CAMP. JULIAN CLARY.
Julian Clary
Born on May 25th 1959 in Surbiton, he was raised in nearby Teddington, South West London with his two older sisters. A strong Catholic education by Benedictine monks made him a very religious youngster. He was an altar boy and a choir boy and used to enjoy all things to do with his church until he became aware of his homosexuality. Church then became 'awkward' for him and he would then only attend with his mother, just to please her.
When Julian was thirteen his tall, glamorous, blonde oldest sister, Frances, started out on a career as a Tiller Girl. He was fascinated with her work, her flamboyant costumes, and the way she used make-up, this probably accounting for his own campness in later years, although he had always felt an affinity with the effeminate. Once, when he was five, and to his father's dismay, he had borrowed a doll's dress and put it on his toy tiger.
After studying drama at Goldsmith's College for three years and gaining a degree in Drama and English, he left in 1983. A variety of jobs, including being a railway guard and doing singing telegrams, followed. It was around this time that Julian acquired Fanny the wonderdog. At nineteen he had a girlfriend for a short time, but she left him and he started a relationship with a barman at the Old Vic.
Dragged up in a kaftan, with beads and a pink wig, he started on the London comedy circuit as "Gillian Pie-Face". It was not a success with him being constantly heckled and often booed off stage. Losing the drag and dressing in PVC and Rubber he re-invented himself as "The Joan Collins Fan Club". Julian was happily surviving with this act, doing the rounds with just himself, his dog, and his suitcase, when he was 'discovered' one night by some producers in the audience. His debut television appearance was with Channel 4 in "Cabaret at the Jongleurs" in 1988 where he was billed as "The Joan Collins' Fan Club" with Fanny the Wonderdog.
A steady stream of work followed and he became known as Julian Clary having been persuaded to drop the reference to Joan Collins. In 1993 he comp�red the British Comedy Awards which was being broadcast live. A sexual joke that he made about the then Chancellor of the Exchequer, Norman Lamont, although greeted with enthusiastic laughter and applause by the celebrity audience attending, resulted in gross condemnation of him by the press the following day, some even calling for him to be banned from television even though only twelve viewers had been offended enough to complain out of a viewing audience of more than thirteen million. Julian escaped to tour Australia, not returning until 1995.
Julian soon became more popular than ever with the British public. Acting roles, comedy series, show hosting, advertisements, guest appearances, and pantomime parts, in all far too many to mention here have made him a household name. Could anyone today see or hear him and not know who he was? The modest, vulnerable, but flamboyant, gay, camp, loveable, yet often outrageous - Julian Clary.
| Julian Clary |
Who played Mr Darcy in the 1995 television series ‘Pride and Prejudice’? | Julian Clary, horoscope for birth date 25 May 1959, born in Surbiton, with Astrodatabank biography - Astro-Databank
Julian Clary
Biography
British comedian, film actor, and TV host, best known for his camp television comporting in outrageous costumes and his endless stream of sexual double entendres and puns. He provided the British public with an image of a gay man who was also upfront about sex and sexuality.
Brought up in Teddington, London, Julian has two older sisters. His dad was a traffic policeman and his mom a probation officer. Julian went to a strict Catholic school in Ealing, London. His campy affectations may have been influenced early by his sister, who began her career as a Tiller girl when Julian was 13. He studied drama at Goldsmith's College in south London, then had a variety of jobs including that of a guard on the London Underground and a singing telegram emissary.
At the age of 19 he had a girlfriend but after she left him he started a relationship with a barman at the Old Vic. He started on the London comedy circuit as "Gillian Pie-Face," wearing a caftan, beads, and pink wig. His début television appearance was on Channel 4 in Cabaret at the Jongleurs in 1988 as "The Joan Collins Fan Club" with his pet,
Fanny the Wonderdog. Fanny retired in 1988.
In 1989, he began hosting "Sticky Moments with Julian Clary," a TV quiz show series in which he wore costumes that were over the top. In 1993 he was the host M.C. of the British Comedy Awards which was being broadcast live on TV. A sexual joke involving Norman Lamont, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, received uproarious laughter from the celebrity audience. Although there were only 12 complaints from a viewing audience of three million, the next day's press was indignant and called for him to be banned from
television. As a result, Julian Clary went on tour in Australia.
He returned to Britain in 1995 and took up acting and hosting again. In the film "Carry on Columbus," 1992, he played the prison governor Don Juan Diego. He was the subject of a biographical program in the series "First on Four," shown on Channel 4 television in 1998. As of 2000, he was co-hosting "Prickly Heat," a television game show on Sky Television that made its debut in 1998.
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The Roman goddess Ceres is the protector of what? | Ceres | The Roman Pantheon
The Roman Pantheon
A comprehensive guide to the deities of the ancient Romans
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· by iulla
Ceres, one of the Di Consentes , is a goddess of the earth, grain, crops, and laws. She is also a goddess related to death and purification: after a funeral, in order to purify themselves from the defilement they received from the dead, the family would sacrifice a sow to Ceres; and if an individual died and did not receive a burial, a “preliminary sow” (porca praecidanea) would be sacrificed to Ceres and Tellus.
Ceres does not seem to be the Greek Demeter: however, she certainly seems to have been influenced by Roman knowledge of the Greek Demeter, and the Aventine Triad of Ceres, Liber, and Libera later became associated with the Greek triad of Demeter, Dionysos, and Persephone.
Her name is etymologically linked to the Latin verb creare, which means “to create”.
She had a mystery cult in Rome, called the initia Cereris.
EPITHETS
Flava: Golden (in reference to the color of grain)
Frugifera: Bearer of Crops
Genetrix Frugum: Progenitress of Crops
Inferna: Of the Underworld (in reference to her connection with the Underworld)
Larga: Abundant
Mater Frugum: Mother of Crops
Potens Frugum: Powerful in Crops
Profunda: The Deep (in reference to her connection with the Underworld)
Rubicunda: Ruddy (in reference to the color of grain)
ATTRIBUTES
Pregnant cows, sows, entrails, cakes of milk and honey, and wine were acceptable sacrifices to Ceres.
She had a special public priestess, who was in theory a native of Magna Graecia and of low social status.
APPEARANCE
Always depicted as a woman, sometimes holding wheat or crowned with wheat.
FESTIVALS
October 4th: “Fast” of Ceres
October 5th: Mundus Patet
December 21st: Sacrifice of a pregnant sow, bread, and must to Ceres and Hercules
MYTHOLOGY
Ceres is said to have an entourage of 12 deities, who assist her in agricultural matters: Vervactor (First Spring-Plougher), Reparator (Second-Plougher), Inporcitor (Ridge-Maker), Insitor (Broadcaster), Obarator (Seed-Coverer), Occator (Harrower), Sarritor (Manual Hoer), Subruncinator (Manual Weed-Root-Remover), Messor (Reaper), Convector (Grain-Transporter), Conditor (Granary Protector), and Promitor (Bringer Forth for Use). It is possible that there were more helpers – such as a Thresher and a Winnower – but, if this is the case, their names have been lost to us.
She was syncretized in some way with the Greek Demeter, and every year had a rite in which she was associated with Proserpina.
CULT SITES AND TEMPLES
A temple to Ceres stood on the property of Pliny the Younger and was a building which he was obliged to rebuild due to its neglect.
Temple of Ceres, Liber, and Libera stood on the Aventine in Rome.
PICTURES
Small golden amulet of Ceres holding a cornucopia. From Rome, ca 1st to 2nd century CE.
Funerary statue of a young woman as Ceres. Roman, 3rd century CE.
Statue of a seated Ceres. From Emerita Augusta, modern-day Merida, Spain, 1st century CE.
SOURCES
Robert Turcan, The Gods of Ancient Rome. New York, NY: Routledge Publishers, 2000.
Jorg Rupke, Religion of the Romans. Malden, MA: Polity Press, 2007.
John Scheid, An Introduction to Roman Religion. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 2003.
Georges Dumezil, Archaic Roman Religion Volume 1. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970.
Beard, North, and Price, Religions of Rome Volume 1: A History. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2002.
Barbette Spaeth, The Roman Goddess Ceres. University of Texas Press, 1996.
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Which English author wrote The Kate Hannigan series, The Mallen novels and The Tilly Trotter trilogy? | Agricultural Deities | Horticulture and Soil Science Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia
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The list of authors can be seen in the page history . As with Horticulture and Soil Science Wiki , the text of Wikipedia is available under the Creative Commons Licence .
Demeter, Greek goddess of grains, agriculture and fertile soil
Over the course of human civilization many gods and goddesses have come into being. Among these dieties there are many who preside over agriculture, plants, and the earth.
Contents
Ashnan was the Mesopotamian goddess of grain.
Dagon
Dagon was originally an Assyro-Babylonian fertility god who was the god of grain and fishing.
Nidaba
Nidaba was the Sumerian goddess of writing, learning and the harvest.
Nikkal
Nikkal, whose name means "Great Lady" and "Fruitful" was the Phoenician goddess of orchards and fruit.
Emesh
Emesh was the Sumerian god of vegetation and the abundance of the earth.
Nisroch
Nisroch was the Assyrian god of agriculture.
Enbilulu
Enbilulu was the Mesopotamian god of rivers, irrigation and farming.
Enkimdu
Enkimdu was the Sumerian god of canals, ditches and farming.
Enten
Enten was the Sumerian god of fertility and livestock.
Egypt
Edit
Osiris was the Egyptian god of the underworld and rebirth. As such, he was responsible for granting life that supported vegetation and grain as well as presiding over the annual flooding of the Nile. He is often depicted as a pharaonic man with green skin.
Heqet
Heqet was the Egyptian goddess of fertility. She was associated with the flooding of the Nile, and the germination of grain crops. She was often depicted as a frog sitting upon a lotus.
Shezmu
Edit
Shezmu was the Egyptian god of blood, oil and wine. He was depicted as having the head of a lion with fangs and a mane drenched in blood. It is said he wore human skulls around his waist like a belt.
Renenutet
Renenutet was the Egyptian goddess of nourishment and the harvest. She was depicted as a cobra or a woman with the head of a cobra.
Greece
Representation of Gaia (laying down) with her children, the Seasons. (ca. 200–250 B.C.)
Demeter
Demeter was the Greek goddess of grasses, fertile land, grains, fruit and agriculture. She was the sister to Zeus and mother of Persephone. She also presided over the cycle of life and death.
Dionysus
Dionysus was the Greek god of grapes, celebrations, wine and winemaking. He had many cults around Greece. His followers were known as "maenads" or "the raving ones."
Gaea
Gaea was the Greek, primordial representation of the earth. Born for Chaos, she was the mother of all the Olympian gods and titans by her union with Oranos (the sky).
Athena
Athena was the virginal Greek goddess of defensive warfare, crafts, wisdom, olives and olive groves.
Hecate
Hecate was the chthonic (earth-bound) goddess of nature, crossroads, the wilderness, poisonous plants and magic. Modern-day scholars regard the figure of Hecate as mysterious and "at home on the fringes..."
The Seasons
The Seasons, also known as the Horae, were goddesses of the seasons and natural portions of time. They guarded the gates of Olympus and presided over the fertility of the earth.
Persephone
Edit
Persephone was the Greek queen of the underworld, daughter to Demeter, and wife to Hades. Her movement to and from the underworld is representative of the new plant growth in spring and the death of vegetation in the winter. She is associated with spring and the seeds of fruit.
Rome
16th century depiction of Saturn
Terra
Terra, or Tellus, was the Roman primordial personification of the earth. Romans appealed to her for help during earthquakes. She also presided over the productivity of farmland, motherhood and pregnancies.
Vertumnus
Vertumnus was the Roman god of the seasons, change, plant growth and fruit trees. He is closely associated with Pomona.
Annona
Annona was the divine personification of the grain supply in ancient Rome. She was connected to and often depicted with the goddess Ceres.
Consus
Consus was the protector of grains and storage facilities. He was represented by a grain seed.
Puta
Puta was a minor Roman goddess who presided over the pruning of trees.
Ceres
Ceres was the Roman goddess of agriculture, crops, fertile land and grain. She is the Roman counterpart to the Greek goddess Demeter.
Pomona, by Nicolas Fouché, c. 1700
Pomona
Pomona was the Roman goddess of fruit, fruit trees and fruitful abundance. She is closely associated with Vertumnus.
Saturn
Edit
Saturn was the Roman god of agriculture, harvest, justie and strength. He was the son of Terra and the father of Ceres as well as many other gods and goddesses. He is seen as the Roman equivalent of the Greek titan Cronos.
Faunus
Faunus was the half-goat god of forests, fields, plains and cattle. He is often associated with the Greek god Pan.
Lympha
Lympha was the ancient Roman goddess of fresh water. She is often included among agricultural deities due to the significance of water to agriculture.
Flora
Flora was the minor Roman goddess of flowers and spring.
Mexico and Meso-America
Acan is the Mayan god of wine. He is identified with the drink, balche, made from fermented honey to which the bark of the balche tree was added.
Axomamma
Axomamma was the Incan goddess of potatoes.
Chicomecoatl
Chicomecoatl was the Aztec goddess of agriculture during the Middle Culture period. She is sometimes called "goddess of nourishment", a goddess of plenty and the female aspect of corn.
Pachamama
Pachamama was the Incan fertility goddess who presided over planting and harvesting. She was said to cause earthquakes.
Sara Mama
Sara Mama was the Incan goddess of grain.
Xipe Totec
Xipe Totec was the Aztec god of life-death-rebirth, agriculture, vegetation, the east, disease, spring, goldsmiths, silversmiths and the seasons.
Xochipilli
Xochipilli was the Aztec god of art, games, beauty, dance, flowers, and song. His name contains the Nahuatl words xochitl (flower) and pilli (prince), thus his name means "Flower Prince."
North America
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Malmsey is a type of which alcoholic drink? | Types of Drinkware for Beer, Wine, and Cocktail | Greatist
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Red solo cups are fine for backyard barbecues and certain country music artists , but when we're hosting a dinner party or feeling fancy, we prefer to drink our adult beverages out of slightly more sophisticated vessels. And, as if feeling like a badass holding a martini weren't enough, there's scientific reason to be choosy about your glass.
The container you pour your beverage into can help maximize the aromas and body of the drink to optimize flavor, says David "Rev" Ciancio, owner Idle Hands Bar and director of marketing for Schweid & Sons . Some research even suggests that the shape of your glass can affect how much and how quickly you drink.
Glass shape influences consumption rate for alcoholic beverages. Attwood AS, Scott-Samuel NE, Stothart G. PloS one, 2012, Aug.;7(8):1932-6203.
Science aside, some glassware exists today because that’s the way people have always enjoyed those drinks, explain Geza Horvath, a sommelier for New York City’s Artisanal Bistro . And of course the elegance of certain glasses (despite their impracticality) can give individuals a perception of a finer drinking experience, adds Matt Gorecki , a beer expert and consultant.
Ready to get the best out of your drink (and stay classy doing it)? Pick your poison below and find out how to make the most of each sip.
Beer
American Pint
Sometimes called a shaker, the American pint typically holds 16 ounces of suds. It has a simple, cylindrical shape that gradually widens at the top and is generally meant for lagers or brown ales, Ciancio explains. Although the large, wide glass is cheap to manufacture and easy to drink out of (making it a staple in most bars), it’s actually not the best way to bring out the aromas and flavors in many craft beers, he adds. (Try one of the options below instead.)
Imperial Pint
American and imperial pints share the same basic characteristics (they're meant to hold beer, they're cheap, and they're easy to drink from), yet the British version of the pint glass is a 20-ouncer with a slight ridge toward the top that makes it easier for a barback to stack. Ciancio recommends this glassware for English ales.
Pilsner
While the name makes it an obvious fit for the classic pilsner, Ciancio adds that other German-style beers like bock or kölsch are also nice to sip from this glass. The tall, tapered shape captures the carbonation and color of a pilsner while allowing a foamy head to form.
Snifter
Also known as a brandy snifter, cognac glass, or balloon, a snifter is a short-stemmed glass with a wide bottom and relatively narrow top. The wider base allows room for swirling to release aromas, which then get trapped at the narrow top. A rounded bottom makes it easy to cup in your hand, simultaneously warming the liquor. Ciancio recommends using this type of glassware for intense beers with strong aromas like barley wines, strong ales, quads , or wee heavys . This glass is bound to come in handy as well if you’re a brandy drinker.
Wheat Beer Glass
Similar to pilsner glasses, wheat beer or weizen glasses are a little thinner, allowing for more head (or frothy foam) on the beer, Ciancio explains. The tall and slender glassware also help amplify aromas and are perfect for their namesake beers.
Mugs and Steins
While Ciancio cautions against enormous tubs, reasonably sized mugs and steins are ideal for red ales, lagers, porters, stouts, or anything robust with deep flavors. The wide, cylindrical mug has thick glass walls to help insulate your beer, and a large handle makes it easy to carry without inadvertently warming up your drink.
Bonus Points for Beer Snobs
Look for lace. “If your glass has a nice lace (leftover foam rings) as you drink, that means the person serving you cares about your experience and the glass has been properly cleaned,“ Ciancio says.
Steer clear of frosty mugs. A very cold glass can detract from the taste of your brew. “Some beers, like cask ales, are better served at room temperature,” he says.
Foam is your friend. While foam may have been a sign of concern in your keg-beer days, don’t fret. “Obviously you don’t want a glass full of bubbles, but a nice head on a beer not only brings out the aromas, but it also protects the beer from getting too warm too quickly, and keeps the beer moving in your glass,” Ciancio explains.
Liquor
Martini
Though the first sip can be a struggle not to spill, there is a point to the martini glass’s cone shape: It prevents your ingredients from separating, says Betsy Fischman, co-founder of BoozeMenus.com . The long stem also ensures your hands won’t affect the temperature of the drink. As a bonus, “the martini glass is sexy no matter who’s holding it!” Fischman says.
Coupe
The coupe was the Champagne flute of our grandparents' generation, but today it's morphed into the go-to glass for many cocktails, Fischman says. Think sidecars, daiquiris, and Manhattans. Plus the stem keeps your drink cool, and it looks elegant and inviting.
Highball
The highball glass is ideal for carbonated cocktails, Fischman says. “It’s best to keep less surface liquid exposed to air,” she explains. “The more exposed, the quicker the carbonation will evaporate, leaving you with a flat drink.” Order a gin and tonic, scotch and soda, or an anything-and-soda combo, and you’ll often find yourself holding a highball.
Lowball
“Drinking a cocktail should be a pleasurable experience, and presentation and pleasure go hand-in-hand,” Fischman says. Lowball glasses are ideal for spirits or boozier cocktails (think scotch or brandy served on the rocks) because they average two to four ounces. Nice since drinking a two-ounce cocktail in a 10-ounce highball may feel a little awkward.
Wine
Tulip or White Wine Glass
Usually white and rose wine are served in slender, tulip-shaped glassware, and that's not just because of tradition. Smaller glasses help slow down any rise in temperature from the chilled beverages, while the stem of the glass allows you to hold your drink without your hands heating it up, Horvath explains.
Red Wine Glass
Red wines should be served in larger, bowl-shaped glasses to increase surface area and allow for more aroma release, Horvath says. If you only own larger glasses, don’t freak out: White wine in a red glass will only mildly affect the taste, Fischman says, however, the smaller the glass, the colder it will stay. Fischman does warn against Champagne in a red wine glass: The wider the surface area, the quicker it will lose carbonation, resulting in a flat drink.
Flute
The narrow, tulip-shaped flute is a familiar drinking vessel at weddings and toast-worthy occasions for holding your celebratory bubbly. “The carbonation is the major reason behind the shape,” Horvath says. The glass helps retain Champagne’s trademark carbonation, and the bowl is also designed to visually highlight the rising bubbles.
Stemless Glass
These are becoming a staple in modern kitchens, with their clean design and easy-to-clean shape (no worries about shattering a delicate stem here!). Stemless glasses are best for reds served at room temp since your hands holding the glass can unintentionally heat up cooler whites and roses.
The Bottom Line
Is it time to retire red solo cups from your cabinet forever? Yes, if you ask Ciancio, who says the only time to drink out of a plastic cup is “never.” However, at the end of the day, it’s not just what you’re drinking but also where you’re drinking. “While weddings call for champagne served in crystal, a walk down Bourbon Street should always be complimented by a lampshade-shaped plastic cup,” Fischman says. To that, we say cheers!
| Wine |
In which century was the Royal Greenwich Observatory opened in London? | Mixing Alcohol and Diabetes - OneTouch®
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Mixing Alcohol with Your Diabetes
You can drink if your diabetes is well controlled—and you take the right precautions
People with diabetes often assume alcohol is off limits. Not so! For most people, keeping an eye on how much and what you drink will help avoid the alcohol-related pitfalls of low glucose levels, weight gain and high blood pressure.
Before having an alcoholic drink, ask yourself three questions recommended by the American Diabetes Association (ADA):
Is my diabetes under control?
Does my health care provider agree that I can consume alcohol?
Do I know how alcohol can affect me and my diabetes?
If you answer yes to all three questions, it's probably OK to have a drink. But make sure you know the potential effects of alcohol as well as your personal limitations.
What happens when you drink?
Normally, when blood glucose levels drop, the liver converts the body's stored carbohydrate into glucose. Sent into the bloodstream, this glucose helps avoid or slow down a low blood glucose reaction (hypoglycemia).
This process is interrupted when alcohol enters your system. The liver's first priority is to clear the alcohol from your blood quickly, and it will not put more glucose into the bloodstream until it has detoxified the alcohol. As blood glucose levels fall, you can quickly become hypoglycemic
Treat hypoglycemia quickly
Because alcohol's effects on glucose can last up to 12 hours, you may want to test your blood glucose before going to bed. If it is at a safe level—between 100 and 140 mg/dL—you should be fine. If it's lower, eat a snack—half a sandwich, yogurt, cold cereal, cheese and crackers, apple and peanut butter—to raise it.
To help prevent low glucose levels when drinking alcohol, eat a carbohydrate-containing meal or snack with your beverage.
Hypoglycemia can mimic effects of alcohol
Some early warning signs of low blood glucose levels, such as dizziness, disorientation and sleepiness, can mimic drunken behavior. This could cause others to mistake your hypoglycemic symptoms for the effects of alcohol, and they may not realize they need to seek help. Make sure your friends know that low blood glucose and drunken behavior share common features. You also may want to wear a bracelet or other ID tag identifying you as having diabetes.
Good drink choices
The ADA recommends no more than one alcoholic drink per day for women and no more than two drinks per day for men. One drink is defined as 12 ounces of beer, 5 ounces of wine or 1.5 ounces of liquor. Light beers or dry wines are good choices because they have less alcohol and fewer calories. If you enjoy mixed drinks, use diet soft drinks, water or seltzer as your mixers. Avoid drinks high in sugar like sweet wines or sugary mixed drinks like piña coladas or wine coolers.
You can exchange the calories from alcohol for those you would otherwise get from a serving of fat. But, never substitute alcohol for a meal.
If you drink alcohol regularly, tell your doctor or diabetes educator during your check-up and before diabetes medication is prescribed, especially if your drinking pattern has changed recently.
When to avoid alcohol
Having one drink at a party is not a problem for most people, but certain people should avoid alcohol entirely, especially if they already suffer from some of the complications of diabetes.
If you have nerve damage in your arms and legs (peripheral neuropathy), alcohol could increase the burning or tingling sensation in your hands and feet. People with eye damage (diabetic retinopathy), uncontrolled high blood pressure, high triglycerides or kidney damage also should be extra cautious, as alcohol may worsen these conditions. Alcohol can increase your risk of high blood pressure, a leading cause of kidney disease. If you have high blood pressure, alcohol can interfere with your hypertensive medicines and make it harder to control your blood pressure.
Be aware that combining alcohol with some oral diabetes medications, especially chlorpropamide (Diabinese®), can cause flushing of the face, arms and neck. You may notice other common subtle symptoms as well, such as lightheadedness, difficulty with balance or stomach irritation; if so, avoid further alcohol until you discuss it with your health care provider. Generally, as long as the symptoms are not life threatening, it is OK to continue cautious alcohol consumption with careful blood glucose monitoring.
Alcohol and heart health
Many studies have linked light to moderate alcohol consumption with a lower risk of cardiovascular disease, something everyone with diabetes worries about. But if you don't drink, don't start. The potential cardiovascular benefits are not great enough to warrant it. One thing is certain: drinking too much alcohol will erase any potential benefits as well as worsen diabetes-related complications like nerve damage and kidney and eye disease.
The bottom line when it comes to drinking is this: There's no substitute for modest portions and control. Sip, don't guzzle your drink. Savor it.
Top tips if you drink alcohol
1Limit alcohol to one drink per day for women and two drinks per day for men if your diabetes is well controlled. If you haven't achieved good control, don't drink.
2Choose lower-calorie light beers, dry wines or drinks mixed with diet soft drinks, tonic water or seltzer.
3Tell your doctor or diabetes educator if you drink alcohol regularly or if your drinking habits have recently changed.
4Always eat a meal or snack when you drink to ward off hypoglycemia. Test glucose before going to bed if you've had a drink that evening. If it's too low, eat a snack.
5You can exchange the calories from alcohol for those you would otherwise get from a serving of fat. But never substitute alcohol for a meal.
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Which James Bond film was named after Ian Fleming’s home in Jamaica? | Ian Fleming facts: From Goldeneye to JFK, the colourful life of the real James Bond | Books | Entertainment | Daily Express
By Stefan Kyriazis
06:01, Fri, Aug 22, 2014
Daniel Craig as the latest incarnation of Bond - but do you know what Vesper Lynd was names after?[ FS]
His name was Fleming, Ian Fleming.
The son of a Conservative MP for Henley, he was educated at Eton and Sandhurst before pursuing careers as as a journalist and naval intelligence officer.
He wrote his first James Bond novel, Casino Royale, at the age of 44 and went on to sell over 100 million books worldwide.
Eleven more Bond novels and a very famous children’s book cemented his position as one of the best-selling and best-loved authors of the 20th century.
The first Bond film, Dr No was released in 1962 and began one of the greatest franchises in film history - a franchise that would bring us the likes of Sean Connery, Roger Moore and Daniel Craig as the leading man, surrounded by a host of famous beauties such as Ursula Andress, Jane Seymour, Honor Blackman, Halle Berry and Eva Green.
SCROLL DOWN FOR 10 FACTS ABOUT IAN FLEMING
Life often imitated art and Fleming’s privileged background and increasing fame meant that he mixed with the highest levels of society and seemingly made the most of every moment.
Yet he only enjoyed a few years of international success before he died suddenly of a heart attack in the early hours of August 12, 1964. It was his son Caspar’s 12th birthday.
Matthew Parker’s new book Goldeneye: Where Bond Was Born: Ian Fleming's Jamaica takes a look at Fleming’s extraordinary life and the creation of his most famous fictional character.
To mark the 50th anniversary of his death, Parker has shared his favourite facts about the man behind the iconic spy.
Ian Fleming with Sean Connery on the set of the first Bond film, Dr. No, at Pinewood Studios [ PH]
1. GOLDENEYE IS A HOUSE
All the James Bond novels and stories were written at Goldeneye, the house he built on Jamaica’s north coast where he spent two months of every year from the end of the war until his death 50 years ago.
In 1976 the estate was purchased by Bob Marley who sold it on to Island Records founder Chris Blackwell the following year. Blackwell has developed the estate and surrounding lands into a luxury resort.
Fleming's gardener, Ramsey, although retired, still lives on the property.
2. HE HAD ECLECTIC MUSIC TASTES
The Bond books are filled with virile, overtly macho fights, both with fists and guns but, as a child, Fleming wanted no part in his upper class family’s hunting, shooting and fishing exploits.
Instead, he preferred to stay in and listen to Hawaiian guitar music.
3. WOMEN WERE NOT ALWAYS ON HIS MIND
Despite his reputation for being obsessed with beautiful women in his books and his own life, his first brush with expulsion from Eton was not because of womanising, but because he bunked off to visit the Empire Exhibition at Wembley in 1925 aged 17.
Our office certainly doesn't look like this: Fleming's Jamaican home Goldeneye [ PH]
4. VESPER WAS NOT NAMED AFTER A MOTORBIKE
The first ever Bond girl, Vesper Lynd of Casino Royale, was actually named after a cocktail - a mix of frozen rum, fruit and herbs - Ian had been given in Jamaica.
Two of his other famous heroines, Solitaire from Live and Let Die, and Domino from Thunderball, are named after rare Jamaican birds.
A legend is born - Sean Connery and Ursula Andress in Dr. No [ FS]
5. HE WASN'T KEEN ON AMERICA
The very British agent OO7 seemed to constantly and single-handedly save the world. So it’s not a great surprise to discover that Fleming had little regard for the United States, calling it: “A society that fails to establish a clear moral definition of right and wrong."
In case that wasn't clear enough, he also believed that Americans were, “Totally unprepared to rule the world that is now theirs.”
Fleming and his wife Ann Charteris [ GETTY]
6. HE BECAME AN UNWITTING PLAYER IN THE SUEZ CRISIS
He first became front-page news not because of his books but because the Prime Minister Antony Eden stayed at his house in Jamaica when his health failed during the Suez Crisis of 1956.
7. HIS SHARED HIS WIFE WITH A POLITICIAN
Ian Fleming fell in love with his wife Ann Charteris while she was still married to the second Viscount Rothermere.
But she didn't remain faithful to her new husband and had a life-long affair with Hugh Gaitskell, the leader of the Labour Party.
The Flemings had one son, Caspar, who lived a short and rather tragic life. After losing his father at the age of 12, Caspar took his life when he was 23.
Fleming also wrote the children's book that inspired the perennial classic Chitty Chitty Bang Bang [KOBAL COLLECTION]
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8. HIS SON INSPIRED CHITTY CHITTY BANG BANG
Not many people realise that Fleming also wrote the books that inspired the 1968 Dick Van Dyke film.
Chitty Chitty Bang Bang: The Magical Car about an eccentric inventor's adventures with his thinking, flying Paragon Panther was written for Fleming’s son Caspar and published in three volumes, the first in 1964.
It was serialised in the Daily Express every day for a week when it was published.
Matthew Parker [ PH]
9. JAMES BOND WAS NAMED AFTER A BIRD-WATCHER
Fleming was a keen bird-watcher and appropriated the name for his most famous creation from a leading American ornithologist.
He wrote to the real Bond's wife, explaining his choice, "It struck me that this brief, unromantic, Anglo-Saxon and yet very masculine name was just what I needed and so a second James Bond was born."
The real James Bond turned up with his wife at Goldeneye in 1964. Fleming said he was "terribly amused by the whole thing".
10. HE ADVISED JFK ON THE CUBAN CRISIS
At a dinner in Washington, Fleming told JFK that the best way to deal with Castro was to suggest that American nuclear tests had made men with beards sexually impotent.
It's unclear whether Kennedy took his advice.
Goldeneye: Where Bond Was Born: Ian Fleming’s Jamaica by Matthew Parker (Hutchinson, £20) is out now
Most read in Books
| Goldeneye |
Who wrote the 1961 play ‘The Night of the Iguana’? | Ian Fleming's GoldenEye Resort @ Universal Exports, The Home of James Bond, 007
-click to enlarge-
Long before GoldenEye was the title for Brosnan's first Bond movie it was the name of Ian Fleming's vacation house in Jamaica. It was here where Fleming first sat down with his typewriter and his copy of Birds of the West Indies and created James Bond.
According to John Cox, author of numerous Bond resources, �Every person plans to run off to some tropical isle, but few do. Real life, family, work, and monetary limitations get in the way. Ian Fleming let none of these considerations stop him. When his war was over, he would, with certainty, return to Jamaica, and not just as a tourist.
Ian Fleming's GoldenEye Estate
-click to enlarge-
Fleming set to work. He purchased property, designed a house, and set about doing paradise right. The house, Goldeneye, was like Fleming's writing would prove to be: simple, direct, filled with panache, but never elegant, or opulent. There was no hot-water plumbing, no glass in the jalousied windows, no provision for air conditioning. Yet, the house quickly became one of the most envied on the north coast of Jamaica.�
Even today, the house is still the envy of much of many as it opens its doors as a luxury resort to wealthy patrons from around the world. Packages are offered that will allow you to stay in the actual villa where Fleming worked, as well as in the surrounding houses. In fact, one company is even offering a James Bond extravaganza weekend including helicopter rides to Bond sets, Ferrari rentals and three nights at the villa.
Photo Gallery - Click an Image to Enlarge:
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A heitiki would normally be worn round which part of the body? | Spleen and Lymphatic System
Spleen and Lymphatic System
El bazo y el sistema linfático
The lymphatic system is an extensive drainage network that helps keep body fluid levels in balance and defends the body against infections. It is made up of a network of lymphatic vessels that carry lymph — a clear, watery fluid that contains protein molecules, salts, glucose, urea, and other substances — throughout the body.
The spleen, located in the upper left part of the abdomen under the ribcage, works as part of the lymphatic system to protect the body, clearing worn-out red blood cells and other foreign bodies from the bloodstream to help fight off infection.
About the Spleen and Lymphatic System
One of the lymphatic system's major jobs is to collect extra lymph fluid from body tissues and return it to the blood. This is crucial because water, proteins, and other substances are always leaking out of tiny blood capillaries into the surrounding body tissues. If the lymphatic system didn't drain the excess fluid from the tissues, the lymph fluid would build up in the body's tissues, causing them to swell.
The lymphatic system also helps defend the body against germs (viruses, bacteria, and fungi) that can cause illnesses. Those germs are filtered out in the lymph nodes, which are small masses of tissue located along the network of lymph vessels. The nodes house lymphocytes, a type of white blood cell. Some of those lymphocytes make antibodies, special proteins that stop infections from spreading by trapping disease-causing germs and destroying them.
The spleen also helps the body fight infection. The spleen contains lymphocytes and another kind of white blood cell (called macrophages) that engulf and destroy bacteria, dead tissue, and foreign matter and remove them from the blood passing through the spleen.
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Basic Anatomy
The lymphatic system is a network of very small tubes (or vessels) that drain lymph fluid from all over the body. The major parts of the lymph tissue are located in the bone marrow, spleen, thymus gland, lymph nodes, and the tonsils. The heart, lungs, intestines, liver, and skin also contain lymphatic tissue.
One of the major lymphatic vessels is the thoracic duct, which begins near the lower part of the spine and collects lymph from the pelvis, abdomen, and lower chest. The thoracic duct runs up through the chest and empties into the blood through a large vein near the left side of the neck. The right lymphatic duct is the other major lymphatic vessel and collects lymph from the right side of the neck, chest, and arm, and empties into a large vein near the right side of the neck.
Lymph nodes are round or kidney-shaped. Most lymph nodes are about 1 cm in diameter but they can vary in size. Most of the lymph nodes are found in clusters in the neck, armpit, and groin area. Nodes are also located along the lymphatic pathways in the chest, abdomen, and pelvis, where they filter the blood. Inside the lymph nodes, lymphocytes called T-cells and B-cells help the body fight infection. Lymphatic tissue is also scattered throughout the body in different major organs and in and around the gastrointestinal tract.
The spleen helps control the amount of blood and blood cells that circulate through the body and helps destroy damaged cells.
How A Healthy Lymph System Works
Carrying Away Waste
Lymph fluid drains into lymph capillaries, which are tiny vessels. The fluid is then pushed along when a person breathes or the muscles contract. The lymph capillaries are very thin, and they have many tiny openings that allow gases, water, and nutrients to pass through to the surrounding cells, nourishing them and taking away waste products. When lymph fluid leaks through in this way it is called interstitial fluid.
Lymph vessels collect the interstitial fluid and then return it to the bloodstream by emptying it into large veins in the upper chest, near the neck.
Fighting Infection
Lymph fluid enters the lymph nodes, where macrophages fight off foreign bodies like bacteria, removing them from the bloodstream. After these substances have been filtered out, the lymph fluid leaves the lymph nodes and returns to the veins, where it re-enters the bloodstream.
When a person has an infection, germs collect in the lymph nodes. If the throat is infected, for example, the lymph nodes of the neck may swell. That's why doctors check for swollen lymph nodes (sometimes called swollen "glands" — but they're actually lymph nodes) in the neck when your throat is infected.
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Problems of the Lymphatic System
Certain diseases can affect the lymph nodes, the spleen, or the collections of lymphoid tissue in certain areas of the body.
Lymphadenopathy. This is a condition where the lymph nodes become swollen or enlarged, usually because of a nearby infection. Swollen lymph nodes in the neck, for example, can be caused by a throat infection. Once the infection is treated, the swelling usually goes away. If several lymph node groups throughout the body are swollen, that can indicate a more serious disease that needs further investigation by a doctor.
Lymphadenitis . Also called adenitis, this inflammation of the lymph node is caused by an infection of the tissue in the node. The infection can cause the skin overlying the lymph node to swell, redden, and feel warm and tender to the touch. This infection usually affects the lymph nodes in the neck, and it's usually caused by a bacterial infection that can be easily treated with an antibiotic.
Lymphomas . These cancers start in the lymph nodes when lymphocytes undergo changes and start to multiply out of control. The lymph nodes swell, and the cancer cells crowd out healthy cells and may cause tumors (solid growths) in other parts of the body.
Splenomegaly (enlarged spleen). In healthy people, the spleen is usually small enough that it can't be felt when you press on the abdomen. But certain diseases can cause the spleen to swell to several times its normal size. Usually, this is due to a viral infection, such as mononucleosis . But in some cases, more serious diseases such as cancer can cause it to expand. Doctors usually tell someone with an enlarged spleen to avoid contact sports like football for a while because a swollen spleen is vulnerable to rupturing (bursting). And if it ruptures, it can cause a huge amount of blood loss.
Tonsillitis. Tonsillitis is caused by an infection of the tonsils, the lymphoid tissues in the back of the mouth at the top of the throat that normally help to filter out bacteria. When the tonsils are infected, they become swollen and inflamed, and can cause a sore throat, fever, and difficulty swallowing. The infection can also spread to the throat and surrounding areas, causing pain and inflammation. A child with repeated tonsil infections may need to have them removed (a tonsillectomy).
| Neck |
Which British comedian hosts a television programme called ‘TV Burp’? | Drug Allergies | Reactions, Symptoms & Treatment | ACAAI Public Website
Vomiting
Feeling dizzy or light-headed
Anaphylaxis , a potentially life-threatening reaction that can impair breathing and send the body into shock; reactions may simultaneously affect two or more organ systems (for example, when there is both a rash and difficulty breathing)
Penicillin causes most allergic drug symptoms. Just because you show allergic symptoms after taking penicillin doesn’t mean that you will react to related drugs, such as amoxicillin, but it’s more likely. Also, just because you had a reaction to penicillin (or any other drug) at one time doesn’t mean you will have the same reaction in the future.
Antibiotics that contain sulfa drugs, such as Septra and Bactrim (sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim) and Pediazole (erythromycin-sulfisoxazole), occasionally cause allergic reactions. Nonantibiotic drugs containing sulfa are very low-risk.
Diagnosing
Drug allergies can be hard to diagnose. An allergy to penicillin-type drugs is the only one that can be definitively diagnosed through a skin test . Some allergic reactions to drugs - particularly rashes, hives and asthma - can resemble certain diseases.
Your allergist will want to know the answers to these questions:
What drug do you suspect caused your reaction?
When did you start taking it, and have you stopped taking it?
How long after you took the drug did you notice symptoms, and what did you experience?
How long did your symptoms last, and what did you do to relieve them?
What other medications, both prescription and over-the-counter, do you take?
Do you consume herbal medications or take vitamin or mineral supplements? If so, which ones?
Your allergist will also want to know whether you have had a reaction to any other drug. If you can, bring the suspected drug with you. This will help the allergist recommend alternatives as needed.
During a physical examination, your allergist will look for problems that are part of the drug reaction, along with nonallergic reasons for the reaction.
Depending on the drug suspected of causing the reaction, your allergist may suggest a skin test or, in limited instances, a blood test. A blood test may be helpful in diagnosing a severe delayed reaction, particularly if your physician is concerned that multiple organ systems may be involved. This rare reaction is known as “drug rash with eosinophilia and systemic symptoms” or, more commonly, “DRESS syndrome.”
If a drug allergy is suspected, your allergist may also recommend an oral drug challenge, in which you will be supervised by medical staff as you take the drug suspected of triggering a reaction. (If your reaction was severe, a drug challenge may be considered too dangerous.)
Management and Treatment
If you have a drug allergy:
Make sure all of your doctors are aware of your allergy and the symptoms you experienced.
Ask about related drugs that you should avoid.
Ask about alternatives to the drug that caused your allergic reaction.
Wear an emergency medical alert bracelet or necklace that identifies your allergy.
Anaphylaxis
Anaphylaxis is a severe, potentially life-threatening reaction that can simultaneously affect two or more organ systems (for instance, when there is both swelling and difficulty breathing, or vomiting and hives). If this occurs, call 911 and seek emergency medical care immediately.
If you are caring for someone who appears to be having a severe reaction to a drug, tell the emergency care team what drug was taken, when it was taken and what the dosage was.
If your allergic reaction to a drug is not life-threatening, your allergist may give you:
An antihistamine to counteract the allergic reaction
A nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug, such as ibuprofen or aspirin, or a corticosteroid to reduce inflammation
Drug desensitization
If there is no suitable alternative to the antibiotic that you are allergic to, you will need to undergo drug desensitization. This involves taking the drug in increasing amounts until you can tolerate the needed dose with minimal side effects. This will most likely be done in a hospital so immediate medical care is available if problems develop.
Desensitization can help only if you are taking the drug every day. Once you stop it — for example, when a chemotherapy cycle ends — you will need to go through desensitization a second time if you need the drug again.
Penicillin Allergy
Nearly everyone knows someone who says they are allergic to penicillin. Up to 10 percent of people report being allergic to this widely used class of antibiotic, making it the most commonly reported drug allergy. Over time, however, the vast majority of people who once had a severe allergic reaction to penicillin lose sensitivity and can be treated safely with the drug (although 10 percent of individuals will remain allergic).
Penicillin, famously discovered by Alexander Fleming in 1928, is prescribed today to treat a variety of conditions, such as strep throat. Despite its efficacy, some people steer clear of penicillin for fear of experiencing an allergic reaction to the medication.
Understanding penicillin allergies is important for a variety of reasons. For certain conditions, penicillin is the best (or only proven) therapy. Some patients need penicillin because they are allergic to other types of antibiotics. Allergists, experts in the treatment and diagnosis of allergies and asthma, may want to know if childhood allergic reactions persist in their adult patients, to establish more complete medical histories and treatment options.
Penicillin Allergy Symptoms
Mild to moderate allergic reactions to penicillin are common, and symptoms may include any of the following:
Hives (raised, extremely itchy spots that come and go over a period of hours)
Tissue swelling under the skin, typically around the face (also known as angioedema)
Throat tightness
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