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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anachronox
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Anachronox
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Anachronox is a 2001 role-playing video game produced by Tom Hall and the Dallas Ion Storm games studio. The game is centered on Sylvester "Sly Boots" Bucelli, a down-and-out private investigator who looks for work in the slums of Anachronox, a once-abandoned planet near the galaxy's jumpgate hub. He travels to other planets, amasses an unlikely group of friends, and unravels a mystery that threatens the fate of the universe. The game's science fiction story was influenced by cyberpunk, film noir, and unconventional humor. The story features a theme of working through the troubles of one's past.
Gameplay in Anachronox is a mix of real-time exploration and turn-based combat; the player controls a party of up to three characters as they explore a 3D environment of futuristic cities, space vessels, and outdoor areas. Inspirations for the game include older role-playing video games such as Chrono Trigger and the Final Fantasy series, animator Chuck Jones and the novel Ender's Game. The game was built with a heavily modified version of id Software's Quake II engine, rewritten chiefly to allow a wider color palette, emotive animations and facial expressions, better lighting, particle effects, and camera effects.
The development of Anachronox was long and difficult. Originally planned for a third-quarter 1998 release, it was released worldwide in June 2001 for Microsoft Windows. Tom Hall planned to create a sequel with the copious content removed during production. Critics enjoyed the game and awarded it high marks for its design and story. Ion Storm's Dallas offices were closed mere days after the game's release. In 2002, Anachronox cinematic director Jake Hughes spliced together gameplay footage and cutscenes to create a feature-length, award-winning machinima film.
Gameplay
Anachronox is a role-playing game similar in nature to many Japanese role-playing video games like Final Fantasy. The player controls a party of up to three characters as they explore a 3D environment (colloquially known as a "field map") of futuristic cities, space vessels, and outdoor areas. Players can swap for new party members, talk to non-player characters, and collect and shop for equipment and items. When players near an interactive character or item, a floating arrow-shaped electronic device called the LifeCursor appears, which lets the player click on the person or item. After a certain point in the story, players can travel by shuttle to other planets, triggering cutscenes of the shuttle trips. Each playable character has a unique skill, such as lockpicking, which may be used to solve puzzles. Some sequences involve minigames, such as an unnamed mission in which the player pilots a fighter spaceship to destroy enemies with lasers. Certain field maps also feature simple two-dimensional minigames, including the original games Ox and Bugaboo. The protagonist Boots also possesses a camera, which the player can use to take screenshots for their own enjoyment or as part of quest objectives.
Enemy encounters trigger a combat mode. As in Chrono Trigger, enemies are openly visible on field maps or lie in wait to ambush the party and thus are not random. Similar to Final Fantasys Active Time Battle, each character has a meter that gradually fills with time. When the meter is full, characters can physically attack enemies, use MysTech magic, unleash BattleSkill attacks, use items, move to a different position, or use a nearby object to attack, if present. For playable characters and computer-controlled enemies, each attack has their number of hit points (a numerically based life bar) get reduced, which can be restored through healing items or MysTech slags. Use of MysTech and equippable shield cells require Neutron-Radiated Glodents (NRG), a separate energy reserve displayed beneath a character's life bar. NRG is replenished through certain items. Use of BattleSkills require Bouge, a third bar beneath NRG that automatically fills with time; players can use different BattleSkills depending on how full the Bouge bar is. Some characters must undergo certain plot developments to unlock their BattleSkills. When a playable character loses all hit points, he or she faints. If all the player's characters fall in battle, the game ends and must be restored from a previously saved game. Winning battles earns experience points and raises characters' levels, granting them improved statistics. These statistics can be viewed through the status screen, which displays important character information and current quests. Unlike many other RPGs, Anachronox displays a character's attributes with qualitative descriptors (such as Poor and Excellent) instead of integers.
MysTech
The Mysterium Tech (or MysTech) system allows players to use in-game objects collectively known as MysTech, and create new MysTech by using a configuration screen accessed through Elementor Host items. MysTech cannot be used until they are awakened after a certain story event. Eight basic colors of MysTech exist, representing different elements; for example, green represents poison. Players can use MysTech to inflict damage upon enemies, plague them with certain status effects (such as freezing them in place), or heal party members. Casting status effect-MysTech on party members will cure them if afflicted by enemy status spells. MysTech slabs and Elementor Hosts can be found as treasure in the game world or bought from shops. To create MysTech, players place colored bugs (found on small hills in several game locations) in empty slots on an Elementor Host. The color of bugs placed in the function slot determines the color of MysTech, while other slots modify the power and/or range of the spell. Players can add special bugs known as Cobalt Crawlers to make a spell target all enemies instead of one; a Host filled with eight Crawlers unlocks a secret spell. The effect of bugs can be amplified by feeding them petals from Lifeflowers, which can be found scattered throughout the world of Anachronox. Special types of Hosts with two or three different functions allow players to pick which MysTech function to use in battle.
Plot
Setting
The game takes place on Anachronox (a portmanteau of anachronism and noxious, meaning "poison from the past"), a small planet floating inside a huge artificial sphere known as Sender One. Husks of futuristic cities exist on artificial tectonic plates, which constantly shift to connect different parts of the planet. Inhabitants believe that diseased aliens were quarantined there eons ago, resulting in the name Anachronox. Northern Anachronox is clean and upscale, while southern Anachronox is crime-ridden and run-down. Humanity travels to different planets from Sender One, which had been the center of a transportation system for a race of non-humanoids enabling faster-than-light travel. Inbound and outbound traffic stops at Sender Station, an orbiting construct above Sender One with hotels and a red light district. Civilizations conduct business using currency like the one-dollar coin known as a "loonie", while several people collect MysTech—shards of rock with markings, believed to be dormant weapons or art pieces created by an extinct alien race. MysTech were first found 300 years ago, and are poorly understood, though avidly collected.
Other planets in Sender One include Sunder, Hephaestus, Democratus, and Limbus. The galaxy's scientific community is headquartered on the temperate planet of Sunder, and people are only permitted to go there if they are sufficiently intelligent. Hephaestus is an important religious center. A mostly volcanic planet, Hephaestus hosts a town and temple complex of monks who study MysTech. Democratus is climatically similar to Earth, with regions of desert, snow, forest, and prairie. Several populations of different sentient species exist on the surface, but the planet is ruled by a race of tall, thin humanoids with large craniums who dwell on a large mechanical ring constructed around the planet. This race is obsessed with the ideal of democracy, and though they possess incredible scientific and engineering knowledge, they are constantly bogged down by their own ineptitude and the frailties of the democratic process. Limbus is known as the "planet of death", as voyagers never return; its surface is arid and rocky, with sparse vegetation. A planet mentioned but not seen in the game is Krapton, home to superheroes and villains. Most of Krapton's human population has fled, tired of being constantly abducted and saved by warring superpeople.
Characters
The protagonist of Anachronox is Sylvester "Sly Boots" Bucelli, a human and former private detective on Anachronox. Twenty-nine years old and described as "bold, brash, and overconfident", Boots has gotten himself into trouble and now runs his agency out of rented storage space above a seedy bar. His only friends are PAL-18, his spirited, sarcastic robot assistant since childhood, and Fatima Doohan, his secretary. Fatima was fatally injured and digitized by Boots onto a PDA-analogue "LifeCursor", where she bitterly lives to render assistance. Several allies join Boots over the course of the game; first is 71-year-old Grumpos Matavastros, a "scholar, outdoorsman, eccentric recluse, and renaissance man"—and a very grumpy person. A former curator of the MysTech museum on Anachronox, Grumpos devotes his life to studying the artifacts. Dr. Rho Bowman joins the party on Sunder; she is a brilliant scientist who's been branded a heretic after publication of her book, MysTech Awake! The team then gains support from Democratus, an eccentric planet boasting a planetary ring and brilliant technology. Said technology includes having the planet shrink to human height to be part of the team. Two further allies are the femme fatale Stiletto Anyway—a 25-year-old former companion of Boots known for being stealthy and aloof—and Paco "El Puño" Estrella, a washed up superhero who's turned to alcoholism after his comic book series was canceled. Their foes include Detta, a heavyset crime boss/kingpin on planet Anachronox, and several other monsters and shady characters.
Story
Sly Boots lives in a cheap apartment above Rowdy's, a bar in the seedy "Bricks" section of South Anachronox. Grumpos Matavastros commissions Boots to find a piece of MysTech, but a crime boss called Detta accosts them and steals it. Grumpos, Boots, and robot assistant PAL-18 then seek out Dr. Rho Bowman, an expert on MysTech, at an institute for troublesome scientists on Sunder. She undertakes an experiment to activate MysTech, apparently causing the destruction of Sunder. Rho and the others escape the planet on a shuttle, and drift in space for seventeen days until they are brought on board a habitat ring around the planet Democratus. Rho discovers that all MysTech is now active, and can grant powers and spells. Boots pilots a fighter ship to save Democratus from insectoid invaders known as the Verilent Hive. The heroes return to Sender Station's Lounge of Commerce; Democratus joins the party, the High Council having shrunken the planet to human height. While searching for equipment, Boots earns money as an erotic dancer and encounters Stiletto Anyway, an old flame who's become an assassin and plots revenge against Detta. Rho explains that the universe operates on the big bounce principle; a universe that forms with a Big Bang will eventually suffer a Big Crunch, giving rise to a new big bang. She explains that Sunder was destroyed by an injection of matter from the previous universe, which will hasten the current universe's big crunch. If enough matter is switched between universes, the previous one can escape a big crunch and the current one will cease to exist.
The team heads to Hephaestus, transformed to a tourist destination now that MysTech is active. They realize MysTech functions can be customized through the use of small, colored bugs and a MysTech host. Sly gains audience with the Grand Mysterium, who tells him that in the next universe, species known as "Chaos" and "Order" fought a bitter war. Order enslaved Chaos in the current universe, but Chaos wishes to escape to the previous universe to prevent future ones from existing and thus eradicate Order. The Mysterium tells Sly he must find and seal off the gate to the previous universe, and to journey to Limbus. The team is captured en route by comic supervillain Rictus; Boots meets former superhero Paco in his prison. Rictus flushes them into empty space; the High Council of Democratus restores the planet to its original size to save them.
Scenes of reflection reveal the past on Anachronox. Stiletto had been Sly's young assistant at his upscale agency; he was in love with her, but Fatima was in love with him. Detta abducted Stiletto, spurring Sly's search. Her love unrequited, Fatima went into his office one night to leave a note of resignation. Sly burst in with news of Stiletto's location, and he and Fatima pursued Detta across Anachronox by flying car. Sly lost control, wrecking it and accidentally killing Fatima. Suffering from major depression, Sly ran up debts with Detta to pay for Fatima's revival inside the LifeCursor.
The team regather at Democratus and journey to Limbus, where they meet creatures of the same race as the Grand Mysterium. They repel invaders called the "Dark Servants" from an orbital portal. The leader of Limbus explains that though Chaos is enslaved in the current universe, the Dark Servants (who originate from the current universe) are trying to free them and have found a way into the previous universe, where they initiated the destruction of Sunder. MysTech is a gift from the forces of Order to help the current universe's inhabitants fight Chaos. The team return to Anachronox to find Rowdy, a disguised citizen of Limbus who has been searching for the gate to the previous universe. Rowdy notes that they must destroy the key to the gate, now in the possession of Detta. The team infiltrate his fortress, kill him, and prepare to destroy the key at the gate itself—the fountain spiral of Anachronox. Grumpos seizes it, revealing himself to be a Dark Servant; he escapes with the agents of Chaos into the previous universe. Sly and the others prepare to follow them and save the universe; the game ends as they approach the gate.
Development
Conception
Ion Storm began developing Anachronox in 1996, funded by Eidos Interactive as part of a three-game deal alongside Daikatana and an unplanned third game. Formal announcement followed in April 1997, promising a third-quarter 1998 release. Tom Hall, veteran designer and one of the founders of Ion Storm, helmed the project and originated most of its story and design. Other founding members of the team were Todd Porter (producer), Jake Hughes (associate producer and director of cinematics), Ben Herrera (artist), Brian Eiserloh (programmer), and David Namaksy (lead mapper). Mapper Larry Herring was hired after being mentored by John Romero and submitting a custom Doom 2 map to Tom Hall. Hall first conceived Anachronox in his bathroom, prompting him to install a whiteboard and sound-recorder in his shower, as well as several notepads around his house for future ideas; he had conceived the character Sly Boots years earlier in college. He wrote a 460-page design document (completed in May 1997) outlining the universe of Anachronox, beyond the game's scope; other game design documents of the period, he noted, were usually only 125 pages in size. He then condensed the story, leaving a third beyond the scheduled game. The game's design phase lasted three months. Hall made plans for two expansion packs from the outset of development, owing to the huge story. Developers told Next Generation the story would be "Campbellian" and feature immense environments. Hall noted in mid-1997, "Not since Keen has a universe been so clear in my head."
Tom Hall announced that Anachronox would feature a "turbulent story with a roller coaster of emotion", and promised it would bring personality and humor to the role-playing genre. Hall aimed to make an emotionally gripping, cinematic experience from the beginning: "I want this game to answer the question, 'Can a computer make you cry?' I want to make the characters so warm and friendly and lovable and identifiable... I want to start them off in fun situations, but as the game goes on, I want the atmosphere to get darker and darker. Friends betray the lead character, other friends die, and you will feel some of what they feel because you have been with these people for 50 hours, and in a sense, lived part of their lives with them." Hall remarked that the characters were facets of his childhood. He later compared the name Anachronox (meaning poison from the past) and the internal struggles of each character, caused by turbulent events in their pasts and "psychic poison." Hall aimed to feature high-quality direction and camera-work in Anachronox, reminiscent of epic cinematic themes in role-playing video games like the Final Fantasy franchise. Hall enlisted producer Jake Hughes to direct cut scenes; Hughes had previously worked on several short independent films. Developers used real-time game cutscenes instead of live-action cinematics to avoid "[taking] players out of the game." Hall remarked, "All these games switch to cutscenes that look five hundred times better than the game. The secret is not to let the cutscenes kick the game's ass."
Tom Hall chose the Quake engine for Anachronox; its developer John Carmack took interest in its use for a role-playing game. Ion Storm would soon switch to the Quake II engine, necessitating a transition from December 1997 to March 1998. The team would implement engine support for 32-bit color, particle systems, a spline-based camera scriptor, facial deformations, and lip-synching. The team mimicked filmography via sweeping camera shots to compensate for graphical limitations. Facial deformation involved moving the vertices of a character's face, thereby creating emotional expressions and body language. Developers built the first models in Lightwave; the main characters had polygon counts of 500–700. By the end of 1997, Hall had scripted interaction with 130 non-player characters for 160 planned locations. Hall cited Chrono Trigger as a strong influence; previewers drew parallels with the Final Fantasy series and Ultima III. As in Chrono Trigger, battles were scripted and not caused by random, unavoidable encounters. Hall explained, "if there's a dragon guarding a door, I want the chance to say, 'whoah, look at the time, gotta run', not, 'think I'll check this door. (*roaaar*) Dragon? Where the hell was that?!?'" The team expanded the Final Fantasy-style combat by allowing actions to be queued in advance. Hall listed some of his inspirations for Anachronox in mid-2000: "In movies, some inspirational people are Spielberg, Hitchcock, George Roy Hill, Rob Reiner, and now Sam Mendes. Also a big fan of Chuck Jones, who directed Warner Brothers cartoons. Novels: Gateway, Ender's Game, Snow Crash, Hitchhiker's, so many more. Games: Chrono Trigger, Final Fantasy, LucasArts adventures (Ron Gilbert and Tim Schafer rock), Ape Escape (buy it now), Mario, Ultima III, Wizardry I, oh, I'm sure I'm forgetting some!" Hall also drew dramatic inspiration from a scene in Chrono Trigger in which the characters discuss the theme of regret around a campfire.
Programming and design
As production continued, Tom Hall dubbed the game's scripting language "APE" (Anachronox Programming Language). Hall explained, "I call it my new Apple II because it's so much fun to program in and it takes all the drudgery out of it. It's sort of if you mushed together C, Basic and Java in a way—for programming people it's sort of Windows based. It began as a defined dialogue window, but provided variables so that you could position and move a picture. So from there it grew like UNIX with little bits and pieces, and you have things that initialize data to the window, things that constantly update the window, and things that happen after the window, in little code chunks and with that you can do any little thing." Hall wrote and coded the mini-game Bugaboo for Anachronox in 15 hours to demonstrate the environment's simplicity. Other tools developed for the game were B.E.D. (a battle editor), ION Radiant (for level design, based on QERadiant), NoxDrop (for item and character placement), and Planet (a spline-based camera system coded by Joey Liaw). Ion Storm worked with QuakeEd developer Robert Duffy to create QERadiant, later adapted to ION Radiant. Hall lauded Planet: "you can control entities on paths, trigger events, manipulate particles, and do just about anything you please. One of the more common team beliefs is that the only true limit to Planet is the person controlling it." Hall aimed to provide several end-user modification tools, such as one to allow gamers to create their own MysTech elements. Other programs would allow implementation of new dialogue, voice-acting, and camera work. Ion Storm developed tutorials and documentation for each tool.
Developers tasked both art and map design personnel with creating levels, ensuring visual quality. Hall implemented a "grow as you play" philosophy, choosing to show certain features and statistics (like "Beat" or the use of MysTech) only after the player enabled their use. Developers sought to make the game accessible to expert and casual players through two statistic displays—numerical or qualitative (using categories such as "very good" or "bad"). Hall disparaged complicated number systems found in other games: "One of the things I hate about RPGs is, you've got, like, 'here's this thing and here's that thing' and it's like 'this is 52 and that's 53' I mean, what's the difference? It's like, OK it's 'a point,' and the formula will come up to be like 'two points' and like, sure, that's going to make a difference. So now I have to hit the guy three times..." Hall also sought to ensure players knew their next goal, and invented the character of Fatima Doohan to keep track of missions. Fatima's name is a pun born from the phrase, "What am I doing?" Hall named her after the experience of loading an old saved game in an RPG and having forgotten what comes next in the current quest or storyline.
Ion Storm contracted Soundelux Design Music Group to provide music for Anachronox. The firm hired Bill Brown for additional music. Tom Hall was impressed with Brown's work, particularly music for the planet Democratus. Hall worked with musician Ron Jones and a local Dallas band to record the game's two funk numbers by mid-1998. Tom Hall planned for each character to have their own theme music, and for songs to change via interaction or exploration. He spoke of the planned music, "The Anachronox sound will be industrial, mixed with forties bluesy swing. As you get on later in the game, the music gets scarier, more chaotic, and gets down to hard-core metal." Developers integrated DirectMusic support in 1999 to allow dynamic changing of background music. Sound programmer Henrik Jonsson implemented 3D sound and other capabilities using the Miles Sound System. Developers also planned to use software called Magpie Pro to lip-sync animated mouths to spoken words. The team chose not to record voices for each line of dialogue, as Tom Hall felt certain speech would become repetitive. The Undermain Theatre group of Dallas provided several voices. Tom Hall voiced PAL-18 reportedly because "no one else got it goofy enough".
Promotion and later development
Ion Storm debuted a trailer for the game at E3 1997. The team worked several long nights and slept in a cardboard fort (named "Fort Nox") in the office to prepare the trailer. A thief stole developers' laptop at the Dallas airport, requiring Ion Storm to upload a new demo for the conference. Hall continued writing and designing; he invented the Brebulan language by creating several phonemes and glyphs of the letter 8 turned on its side. Ben Herrera completed several sketches of characters and worlds by August 1997, and the team hoped to achieve full engine functionality by September 2, Hall's birthday. The game would suffer serious delays in its production. Eidos regularly sent producer James Poole to Dallas to check progress. After Ion Storm exhausted the initial $13 million provided for Daikatana and Anachronox, Eidos purchased a controlling stake in the company to install John Kavanagh as President in hopes of speeding development; monthly expenditures meanwhile rose to $1.2 million.
Ion Storm solicited feedback from fans after demonstrating progress on Anachronox at E3 1998, and assured inclusion of a multiplayer mode. Tom Hall touted, "It is going to be very cinematic and about as non-linear as you can get. Some levels will be bigger than anything ever seen in a 3-D environment. We are really pushing the engine for this, with loads of textures." Developers made two demonstrations; the second featured lasers, lens flare, and volumetric fog. The gaming press received Anachronox well; one reporter wrote the game was "stunningly beautiful...[with] some of the most superb effects ever seen in a computer game, including rippling water, stunning laser lights and shadow effects". Another wrote that the game would be "graphically spectacular, with detailed characters". Panelists at E3 nominated Anachronox in the "Most Promising Game" and "Best RPG" categories for the Game Critics Awards. Ion Storm planned for a 1999 release, and unveiled new screenshots at the 1998 European Computer Trade Show. Among the game's maps developed in 1998 were Hephaestus (polished by David Namaksy); Whitendon (Iikka Keränen); Democratus, "Matrix 0", and certain interiors of Anachronox (Larry Herring); and the city of Limbus (Rich Carlson). Lead programmer Joey Liaw left Ion Storm to attend Stanford University in mid-1998. That November, several developers at Ion Storm departed to form their own company; among them was David Namaksy, lead level designer for Anachronox. Leaked e-mails evidencing leadership struggles at Ion Storm the following January eroded morale among the remaining team.
As of January 1999, Ion Storm CEO Todd Porter expected the game to ship 2.5 million copies. Ion Storm decided to produce a sequel for Anachronox around early 1999, feeling there would otherwise be too much content for one game, requiring prohibitive costs and delays. Team member Brian Eiserloh noted that several art assets had already been created for the sequel. By May 1999, the team had settled on a cast of 450 non-player characters, and planned for a late 1999 or early 2000 release date. Ion Storm launched the Anachronox website in early 1999 with a movie-style trailer. Tom Hall featured four Anachronox non-player characters in his online tongue-in-cheek spoof of Kasparov versus the World. Among the game's maps completed in 1999 were the Bricks slums of Anachronox (Seneca Menard), Ballotine (Josh Jay), Sender Station (Lee Dotson), others parts of Democratus (Matt Sophos), the Casinox area of Anachronox (Brian Patenaude), and the junkyard maze of Anachronox. Tom Hall reported in 1999 that an option was being developed to remove adult themes, later manifested as an option to turn off profanity. Ion Storm demonstrated the game at E3 1999; the team drove an RV to the event, which suffered a blowout and electrical failure. Computer Games Magazine afterward commented that Anachronox had "wider roots than a Banyan grove and more promise per square byte than a CD collection of political speeches."
Hall personally invented and scripted Boots's erotic dancing mini-game. He noted, "we're not above degrading our main character." Ion Storm showed off the mini-game at E3 2000, drawing humored reactions. Art director Lee Perry noted in March 2000 that perfecting the battle system was the biggest remaining hurdle for release. Ion Storm promoted a fall 2000 release date in May, and IGN reported in July that a Dreamcast port of Anachronox was planned for production after the PC version's release. Ion Storm issued a clarification that they were only considering a Dreamcast port. The team finished the game's control setup in August. Ion Storm loaned staff to the team of Daikatana to speed its release in summer 2000. Though losing money, Eidos allowed development of Anachronox to continue due their high esteem of Tom Hall, as well as a desire not to punish the game's team for the delays resulting from assisting Daikatana. Eidos maintained no expectations of profit, and merely hoped Anachronox would recoup its budget.
The team began working six-day weeks by late 2000. By 2001, the team was working 12- to 16-hour days and 6- to 7-day weeks. Hall described weekly bug meetings before release: "you see 100 bugs at the start of the week, fix the 80 you can replicate, and then meet the next Monday to address the 200 bugs they found, fix the 160 you can replicate, then meet to discuss the 400 they found...the time in-between is scary. Usually, the programmers find the bug, then stumble out of their cube, 'we were SO lucky to find that' or 'how did that EVER work?' It's like some bizarre divination method that no one is quite sure how it finds things, but no one wants to 'disturb the mojo'." Several Internet rumors that Ion Storm would soon close spread in May 2001. By June 2001, all dialogue had been recorded and Ion Storm was working on balancing, playtesting, and adjusting gameplay; release was set for the next month. Anachronox went gold and shipped to manufacturers in late June.
Release and patches
Anachronox was released on June 27, 2001, in North America, June 29 in Europe, and June 30 in Oceania. PC Gamer packaged a game demo of Anachronox with its 100th issue. The Canberra Times staged a giveaway of three game copies to coincide with its release in Oceania. By the end of 2001, sales of Anachronox in North America had reached 20,480 units, according to PC Data. Vice later estimated sales four months after initial launch at 40,000 units. The game was rereleased in Oceania as a budget title in 2004.
Team member Lucas Davis compiled the development tools and documentation for Anachronox and released them in August 2001. Four bug-fixing patches exist for Anachronox. Ion Storm created the first (1.01), which fixes a buffer overrun crash occurring especially under Windows 2000. Ion Storm released the first patch (1.01) on July 2, 2001, shortly before its offices were shuttered. Joey Liaw set up a GeoCities website for reporting bugs and technical information after the game's release, and worked on a new patch in his spare time. The second patch (1.02, or build 44) was released in May 2003. This patch overhauls the save-game system, adds taxi-cabs between distant points in the Bricks and provides important stability fixes. It was followed by another patch by Joey Liaw, version 1.02 (build 45), released September 2003. In April 2004, a fan-made unofficial patch got released (version 1.02 (build 46) which fixes most of the remaining bugs. Fans have translated the game into German and released a conversion patch. Level designer Rich Carlson released a scrapped secret level for Anachronox in February 2004 after finding it on an old floppy disk.
Reception
Anachronox earned positive reviews from critics. The Daily Telegraph called it the most original game Ion Storm had produced, while The Scotsman's reviewer appreciated its "many original touches". PC Gamer featured Anachronox four times in its top 100 PC games lists: #16 (2007), #17 (2008), #61 (2010), & #76 (2015). It was also USA Today'''s Game of the Week. Writer Jeff Green lamented that Ion Storm had shut down after Anachronox; he called it "easily the best console-style RPG ever made for the PC."
Reviewers highlighted the gameplay style, branded an unusual mix between role-playing video games and PC first-person shooters. Some compared it to the Final Fantasy series and Deus Ex. The Evening Standard wrote, "Anachronox swaps puzzlement for humour while keeping the character interaction, deep storyline and strategic battles that make the Japanese games so good." Computer Gaming World felt the game "incorporates the best elements of the adventure and role-playing genres." In contrast, Next Generation felt the genre-blending resulted in generic gameplay at times. Lyndon Russell of the Herald Sun praised the basic mechanics, though he found the combat predictable. Erik Wolpaw praised the battle system's unique focus on movement, but wished characters could wait for a turn rather than perform an action. The puzzle elements, such as those brought by Fatima, were well-received, even considered "indispensable".
The game's aesthetics were strongly praised. One reviewer appreciated the variety of styles in the music; it has been compared to Yanni, Enya, John Tesh, and sci-fi scores. Alan Dang contrarily found the music at times "neutral" and generic; Paul Ward found it pleasant but sparse. Numerous critics praised the voice acting and dialogue. The game's cinematic cutscenes were also acclaimed; Computer and Video Games noted they were "superbly used for laughs or to create a real sense of dramatic tension", while Next Generation wrote that Anachronox would be remembered as the germination point for blending interactive gaming and cinema. The Guardian, while also giving praise, found them somewhat predictable. Several reviewers praised the field map and level design of all but the last levels. Earlier ones were said to contain many "little details that bring the game to life" and significant immersion. The later levels were less well received, with one reviewer suspecting that Ion Storm ran out of time to polish the game, as some end-game locations were "hideously ugly, with huge slab-like polygons, dodgy backdrops and pixelated low resolution textures". The Guardian felt the lighting was too dark in general, while Kevin Cheung of The Sydney Morning Herald found the graphics blocky.
Reviewers hailed the story, characters, setting, and dialogue of Anachronox, citing its science fiction themes and offbeat, quirky humor. The Advertiser summarized the plot as "a beefy storyline loaded with strong characters, powerful dialogue, outrageous humour, seemingly endless surprises and a wild ride around the galaxy." Elliott Chin singled out the game's humor, which, while divisive of Computer Gaming Worlds staff at first, won it the publication's "Best Use of Humor" 2001 award. Even apart from humor, the dialogue was acclaimed as "so clever, it almost distracts from the game play" and as "very natural and colloquial". David Gordon of The Independent enjoyed the game for its "dark and ominous" plot and setting, centered on the quest to stop the destruction of the universe. The setting was compared to Blade Runner, film noir, The Matrix, Total Recall and the Dark City franchise. Reviewers enjoyed the game's odd characters and how the team of "has-beens and rejects" brought new life to the genre, particularly by averting the coming-of-age cliché. Sly was well-received, described as a "typical downtrodden B-movie private eye", a "Mickey Spillane-style hero" in a cyberpunk setting, and a "space-age Sam Spade". Several critics complained about the game's slow start on the planet Anachronox, especially its elevator-riding scenes. Reviewer Elliott Chin disagreed, evoking "a superb sense of timing, starting out small and slowly building to the main event", while David Phelan stated that strong character writing would encourage gamers to play beyond the "pedestrian-paced" opening scenes.
Several critics took issue with the game's graphics and outdated Quake II engine; reviewer Stephen Hunt named the game "a muddy affair" due to the "elderly" engine. Some reviewers, however, felt the game's charm made the engine's age irrelevant. Reviewers also encountered several software bugs and glitches, among them incompatibility with Windows 2000 and a bug forcing the player to repeat a sequence near the end several times. However, they differed in their opinions of the game as a result of them, ranging from "nearly unplayable" to "a flawed classic." Reviewers also criticized the game's restricted display resolution choices; players could only choose from two options at polar ends of hardware requirements.
Legacy
Before releasing Anachronox, Ion Storm retextured characters and adapted sequences from the game for Shiner, a production by the Undermain Theatre. Scenes from the game were used to illustrate the vivid imagination and struggles of a paralyzed woman named Xela. Anachronox references the films Miller's Crossing and Barton Fink through street addresses on planet Anachronox; Tom Hall had studied acting at the University of Wisconsin–Madison and volunteered as an usher for Undermain. Though received well, the game did not prevent the closure of Ion Storm's Dallas office in July 2001; John Romero and Tom Hall departed after its release. The game became "semi-obscure"; Tom Hall explained: "Millions were spent making it, and upon release, $50,000 (~$ in ) advertising it." He reflected on the game in 2007:
Vice published a 2021 retrospective on the development of Anachronox, with the development team fondly remembering Hall's leadership. Vice concluded that Anachronox was an "unqualified success", writing that Tom Hall successfully translated the 2D console JRPG experience into a 3D PC game whose adult themes, varied gameplay, and unique dialogue fully realized his "ridiculously ambitious" vision. Hall later reflected, "There are many sadder stories than this one...we got our games out."
Machinima film
Cinematic director Jake Hughes independently combined the game's cut-scenes into a two-and-a-half-hour film titled Anachronox: The Movie, released as 13 MPEG files on Machinima.com. The work was considered machinima's first feature-length production (incorrectly: the longer film The Seal of Nehahra predates it) and one of its most ambitious projects. Judges at the 2002 Machinima Film Festival (MFF) awarded it Best Picture, Best Writing, and Best Technical Achievement. Machinima.com's editors said of the film, "Anachronox: The Movie is a tour de force, one of the finest Machinima films produced to date, and probably the most accomplished Machinima feature to date. Hell, it managed to hold two overworked jury members in a room for two and a half hours before the MFF 2002—what more can we say?" As of 2003, Machinima.com planned to release the film on DVD with extra footage and artwork. In 2006, the DVD images got distributed via BitTorrent.
Sequel
Tom Hall felt the story of Anachronox was too large for one game (requiring an estimated 70 hours of gameplay), and planned for two expansion packs in 1998. Each expansion pack would represent another third of the overall story. He confirmed in 1999 that Anachronox would be followed by only one sequel; several art assets had already been created for the sequel by mid-2000. Hall speculated in 2000 that further adventures in two new universes may take place after the sequel. Ion Storm's closure nixed plans for a continuation; Hall has unsuccessfully tried to purchase the intellectual property rights to the Anachronox universe. He later stated that he did not regret ending Anachronox on a cliffhanger, as most characters had resolved their inner turmoil.
Hall noted in 2007 that other team members were willing to come back to help: "We went through such turmoil but stayed for the love of the universe, the game and each other. Former team members often mention that if I ever got the intellectual property back and was going to make Anachronox 2, just tell them when and where. We have, as we say, 'The Love. Hall remarked in 2010, "If I don't do the game in the next 10 years, I'll just write up the rest of the story and put it on my website for closure, how about that?".
On February 17, 2015, Square Enix announced that it will allow developers to create games based on some of their old Eidos IPs via the Square Enix Collective project, including the Anachronox'' IP.
References
External links
Anachronox: The Movie at Internet Archive
2001 video games
Cyberpunk video games
Eidos Interactive games
Id Tech games
Ion Storm games
Role-playing video games
Science fantasy video games
Science fiction video games
Video games about extraterrestrial life
Video games developed in the United States
Video games featuring female protagonists
Video games set on fictional planets
Windows games
Windows-only games
Works based on Square Enix video games
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Bercow
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John Bercow
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John Simon Bercow (; born 19 January 1963) is a British former politician who was Speaker of the House of Commons from 2009 to 2019, and Member of Parliament (MP) for Buckingham between 1997 and 2019. A member of the Conservative Party prior to becoming Speaker, he was the first MP since Selwyn Lloyd in 1971 to be elected Speaker without having been a Deputy Speaker. After resigning as Speaker in 2019 and opting not to seek re-election as MP for Buckingham in the 2019 general election, Bercow left Parliament. In 2021, he joined the Labour Party but was suspended in 2022.
Bercow was a councillor in the London Borough of Lambeth from 1986 to 1990 and unsuccessfully contested Parliamentary seats in the 1987 and 1992 general elections, before being elected for Buckingham in 1997. Promoted to the Shadow cabinet in 2001, he held posts under Iain Duncan Smith and Michael Howard. In November 2002, Bercow resigned over a dispute concerning his support for the Adoption and Children Act 2002, but returned a year later, only to be dismissed from the Shadow Cabinet in 2004. Having initially been strongly associated with the right-wing faction of his party, his views shifted; by 2007, there were rumours that he would defect to the Labour Party.
On the resignation of Michael Martin in June 2009, Bercow stood successfully in the election to replace him as Speaker. As Speaker, he was obliged to leave the Conservative Party and remain as an independent for the duration of his tenure. He was re-elected unopposed at the commencements of the Parliaments in 2010, 2015 and 2017. This made him the first Speaker since the Second World War to have been elected four times, as well as the first since then to have served alongside four Prime Ministers. In September 2019, Bercow declared that he would stand down as Commons Speaker and MP on 31 October; he remained Speaker until being appointed to the Manor of Northstead on 4 November 2019.
In 2014, Bercow was appointed Chancellor of the University of Bedfordshire. In July 2017, he was appointed Chancellor of the University of Essex, stepping down from this role in November 2021. In January 2020, he became part-time professor of politics at Royal Holloway, University of London.
In 2022, an independent Commons complaints body found Bercow to have persistently bullied staff, sworn at them over the course of more than a decade, and at one time made an undisclosed discriminatory remark. The body concluded that it would have recommended Bercow's expulsion had he still been an MP, and that he should never be permitted a pass to the Parliamentary estate. The Labour Party subsequently suspended him.
As of 2023, he is the only living former Speaker of the House of Commons.
Early life and education
Bercow was born in Edgware, Middlesex, the son of Brenda ( Bailey) and Charles Bercow, a taxi driver. His father was born to a Jewish family and his mother converted to Judaism. His paternal grandparents were Romanian Jews who arrived in Britain from Romania in the early 20th century. Having settled in the UK, the family anglicised its surname from Berkowitz to Bercow. Bercow attended Frith Manor Primary School in Woodside Park, and Finchley Manorhill, a large comprehensive school in North Finchley. In his youth, Bercow was a successful junior tennis player, but was too short to turn professional. In 1975 he appeared on the UK children's television series Crackerjack!.
Bercow graduated with a first-class honours degree in Government from the University of Essex in 1985. Anthony King, a professor at the university, has said about Bercow that "When he was a student here, he was very right-wing, pretty stroppy, and very good. He was an outstanding student." As a young activist, Bercow was a member of the right-wing Conservative Monday Club. He stood as a candidate for the club's national executive in 1981 with a manifesto calling for a programme of "assisted repatriation" of immigrants, and became secretary of its immigration and repatriation committee. However, at the age of 20 he left the club, citing the views of many of the club's members as his reason, and has since then called his participation in the club "utter madness" and dismissed his views from that period as "bone headed".
After graduating from the University of Essex, Bercow was elected as the last national chairman of the Federation of Conservative Students (FCS), 1986–87. The FCS was then broken up by the chairman of the Conservative Party, Norman Tebbit, after one of its members had accused previous Tory PM Harold Macmillan of war crimes in extraditing Cossacks to the Soviet Union. Bercow attracted the attention of the Conservative leadership, and in 1987 he was appointed by Tebbit as vice-chairman of the Conservative Collegiate Forum (the successor organisation of the FCS) to head the campaign for student support in the run-up to the 1987 general election.
After a spell in merchant banking, Bercow joined the lobbying firm Rowland Sallingbury Casey (part of Saatchi & Saatchi) in 1988, becoming a board director within five years. With fellow Conservative Julian Lewis, Bercow ran an advanced speaking and campaigning course for over 10 years, which trained over 600 Conservatives (including several current MPs) in campaigning and communication techniques. He has also lectured in the United States to students of the Leadership Institute.
Political career
Councillor
In 1986, Bercow was elected as a Conservative councillor in the London Borough of Lambeth, and served for four years representing the Streatham, St Leonard's ward. In 1987, he was appointed the youngest deputy group leader in the United Kingdom.
Special adviser
In 1995, Bercow was appointed as a special adviser to the Chief Secretary to the Treasury, Jonathan Aitken. Following Aitken's resignation to fight a libel action, Bercow served as a special adviser to the Secretary of State for National Heritage, Virginia Bottomley.
Parliamentary career
Bercow was an unsuccessful Conservative candidate in the 1987 general election in Motherwell South, and again at the 1992 general election in Bristol South. In 1996 he paid £1,000 to charter a helicopter so that he could attend the selection meetings for two safe Conservative parliamentary seats on the same day – Buckingham and Surrey Heath – and was selected as the candidate for Buckingham. He has referred to the hiring of the helicopter as "the best £1,000 I have ever spent".
Bercow was first elected to parliament in the 1997 general election as the MP for Buckingham with a majority of 12,386. He then increased his majority at the 2001 general election being elected by a margin of 13,325 votes. He was re-elected at the 2005 general election with an again increased majority of 18,129.
Bercow devoted a notable portion of his maiden speech to praising former Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher whom he called "the world's greatest living statesman." In 1999, the Almanac of British Politics described him as an "articulate, abrasive and waspish Commons performer" who Tony Blair had labelled as "nasty and ineffectual in equal quantity" for an attack he had made on Robin Cook.
Bercow rose quickly through the opposition's junior offices. He was appointed a frontbench spokesman for Education and Employment in June 1999, and then a frontbench spokesman for Home Affairs in July 2000, before being brought into the shadow cabinet in 2001 by the Conservative leader Iain Duncan Smith. He served as Shadow Chief Secretary to the Treasury from September 2001 to July 2002, and as Shadow Minister for Work and Pensions from July to November 2002. During this first spell on the front benches, Bercow publicly said that he did not think he was ruthless enough to reach the top of politics. In November 2002, when the Labour government introduced the Adoption and Children Act, which would allow unmarried gay and heterosexual couples to adopt children, Duncan Smith imposed a three-line whip requiring Conservative MPs to vote against the bill, rather than allowing a free vote. Arguing that it should be a free vote, Bercow defied the whips and voted with Labour, then resigned from the front bench. As a backbencher he was openly critical of Duncan Smith's leadership.
In November 2003, the new Conservative leader Michael Howard appointed Bercow as Shadow Secretary of State for International Development. However, he went on to clash with Howard over taxes, immigration and Iraq, and was sacked from the front bench in September 2004 after telling Howard that Ann Widdecombe was right to have said that there was "something of the night about him". Bercow has a long-standing interest in Burma and frequently raised issues of democracy and genocide in the country. In 2006, he was a patron of the Tory Reform Group. In 2001, he supported the ban on MPs becoming members of the Monday Club.
Bercow was formerly the treasurer of the All-Party Parliamentary Group for Tribal Peoples, an APPG composed of over 30 cross-party MPs which aims to raise parliamentary and public awareness of tribal peoples.
Bercow won the Stonewall award for Politician of the Year in 2010 for his work to support equality for lesbian, gay and bisexual people. Stonewall gave him a score of 100% for always voting for its position on gay equality issues in parliament between 2007 and 2009.
Opposition MP of the Year
In 2005, Bercow won the Channel Four/Hansard Society Political Award for 'Opposition MP of the Year'. He said:
In addition to pursuing a wide variety of local issues, I have attempted to question, probe and scrutinise the Government in the House of Commons on important national and international topics which concern people. Over the last 12 months, I have constantly pressed the case for reform of world trade rules to give the poorest people on the planet a chance to sell their products and improve their quality of life. The plight of the people of Darfur, Western Sudan, has also been a regular theme. They have suffered too much for too long with too little done about the situation. I shall go on arguing for Britain to take the lead in the international community in seeking decisive action for peace and justice.
Rumours of defection
Following the defection of Conservative MP Quentin Davies to the Labour Party in June 2007, there were persistent rumours that Bercow was likely to be the next Conservative MP to leave the party.
Bercow did not at that time defect to Labour, but in September 2007, accepted an advisory post on Gordon Brown's government's review of support for children with speech, language and communication special needs. The Conservative Party chairman, Caroline Spelman, confirmed that this appointment was with the consent of the Conservative Party. Bercow had a long-term interest in this topic, as his son Oliver has been diagnosed with autism.
Bercow review
In 2008, Bercow was asked by Labour cabinet members Ed Balls and Alan Johnson to produce a substantial review of children and families affected by speech, language and communication needs (SLCN). After the report, the government pledged £52 million to raise the profile of SLCN within the education field. The review looks at the extreme consequences to which communication problems can lead; from initial frustration at not being able to express oneself, to bullying or being bullied at school, fewer job prospects and even a descent into criminality.
The interim report highlighted a number of core issues: that speech, language and communication are not only essential life skills but fundamental human rights; that early identification of problems and intervention is important to avoid social problems later on; and that the current system of treatment was patchy, i.e. there was a need for services to be continually provided for children and families from an early age.
Role in expenses scandal
During the 2009 expenses scandal, it was revealed that Bercow changed the designation of his second home on more than one occasion – meaning that he avoided paying capital gains tax on the sale of two properties. He also claimed just under £1,000 to hire an accountant to fill in his tax returns. Bercow denied any wrongdoing, but agreed to pay £6,508 plus VAT to cover any tax that he may have had to pay to HM Revenue and Customs.
It was revealed in 2014 that the House of Commons authorities had destroyed all evidence of MPs' expenses claims prior to 2010. Bercow faced accusations that he had presided over what had been dubbed a "fresh cover-up" of the expenses scandal.
In July 2015, Bercow was again criticised for the amount of his expenses, including a claim of £172 for a chauffeur-driven journey. Andy Silvester, campaign director at the TaxPayers' Alliance, said: "This is an obscene waste of money and shows appalling judgment from whoever made the arrangements."
Charitable work
Bercow has supported a number of charities. He has been a Patron of the ME Association, Brain Tumour Research and a Patron of the Patchwork Foundation founded by Harris Bokhari. He also spoken at a fundraising event for the mental health charity Jami. In 2018, Bercow supported a fundraiser for Children in Need.
Speaker of the House of Commons
Election and first term
Bercow had long campaigned quietly to become Speaker and was touted as a successor to Michael Martin. On 20 May 2009, he officially declared to stand in the speakership election, which had been triggered by Martin's resignation, and launched his manifesto for the job. In reference to his decision to stand, Bercow said: "I wanted it because I felt that there was a task to be undertaken and that's about strengthening backbench involvement and opportunity in parliament, and helping parliament get off its knees and recognise that it isn't just there as a rubber-stamping operation for the government of the day, and as necessary and appropriate to contradict and expose the government of the day."
In the first round of the election on 22 June, Bercow received 179 votes – more than any other candidate, but short of the majority required for victory. In the third and final round of voting later that day, he defeated George Young by 322 votes to 271, and was approved by the Queen at 10 pm that night as the 157th Speaker. In accordance with convention, he rescinded his Conservative Party membership. Bercow was elected by a large number of Labour votes, many MPs being driven by the perception that Michael Martin had been hounded out of the job and wanting his replacement to be someone who was not a Conservative Party favourite.
Bercow was the first Speaker to be Jewish, the first one to have been elected by an exhaustive ballot, and the first not to wear traditional court robes while presiding over the House of Commons. However, in accordance with tradition, Bercow did display his coat of arms at Speaker's House.
Speaker's residence refurbishment
Within weeks of taking office as Speaker, Bercow ordered a redecoration and refurbishment of the Speaker's grace and favour apartment in the Palace of Westminster, partly with the objective of making it child-friendly; the work cost £20,659 and was paid for by Parliament. It followed extensive work on the apartment under the previous Speaker.
Youth Parliament
In October 2009, Bercow chaired the United Kingdom Youth Parliament's first annual sitting in the House of Commons, making them the only group except members of parliament to sit in the chamber. He chaired every subsequent sitting and attended every annual conference until his resignation in 2019, addressing and supporting Members of Youth Parliament from across the UK.
2010 general election and second term
The Speaker of the House of Commons is traditionally seen as outside party politics, and is often not challenged by the main parties at general elections, including the 2010 general election. In September 2009, Nigel Farage resigned his leadership of the UK Independence Party (UKIP) to stand for Bercow's Buckingham seat, asserting, "This man represents all that is wrong with British politics today. He was embroiled in the expenses saga and he presides over a Parliament that virtually does nothing." John Stevens, another candidate, found support for his campaign from the former Independent MP Martin Bell. Bercow also faced opposition from the British National Party and the Christian Party.
As Bercow lacked a party endorsement and therefore a campaign team, he sought to build one. A group of his supporters known as 'Friends of Speaker Bercow' solicited donations for the campaign, aiming to raise £40,000. When one of their letters was received by a member of UKIP, the recipient referred it to the Parliamentary Commissioner for Standards, complaining that it appeared that Bercow's fundraising campaign was operating from the Speaker's Office, which is required to remain politically neutral. The Commissioner declined to launch an investigation because of the lack of evidence.
Speaker's Lectures
To mark the centenary of the Parliament Act 1911, Bercow commissioned a series of lectures about the main political figures of the century. The Speaker's Lectures continue with a variety of topics such as historic parliamentarians and current affairs.
2015 general election and third term
Bercow was returned as an MP in the 2015 general election. The election was notable for the 1,289 spoilt ballot papers, an issue he addressed in his victory speech.
On 26 March 2015, the House of Commons defeated a government motion (introduced by former Conservative party leader and then leader of the House of Commons William Hague) to require there to be a secret ballot vote on whether Bercow remain speaker after the 2015 general election. A number of MPs described it as an underhand plot to oust Bercow, largely based on the timing of the motion just before the dissolution of Parliament, when some Labour MPs expected to oppose it had already returned to their constituencies. In the event, Bercow was re-elected unopposed as Speaker following the general election.
In February 2017, Bercow said he had supported continued membership of the European Union in the 2016 referendum.
On 6 February 2017, Bercow said in the house that he would be "strongly opposed" to US President Donald Trump addressing the Houses of Parliament during his planned state visit to the UK, and told MPs that "opposition to racism and sexism" were "hugely important considerations". The comments proved controversial and made the headlines in many UK newspapers the following day, with some such as Guardian columnist Owen Jones, Labour leader Jeremy Corbyn, Labour MP Dennis Skinner and Liberal Democrat leader Tim Farron supporting this intervention. His comments were criticised by some opponents of Trump, such as Conservative MP Nadhim Zahawi, for being hypocritical and undermining the Speaker's neutrality, and some in the government reportedly felt that Bercow had overstepped his role. John Whittingdale, the Conservative MP for Maldon and a former Culture Secretary, dismissed Bercow's remarks as "playing to the gallery for as much publicity as possible", and Bercow himself apologised to the Lord Speaker Lord Fowler over a lack of consultation over his remarks.
2017 general election and fourth term
Following the 2017 general election, Bercow was re-elected unopposed as Speaker of the House by members of parliament on 13 June 2017.
Brexit
In January 2019, Bercow broke with convention, allowing a vote on an amendment to a government business motion. The amendment, tabled by Dominic Grieve MP, required Prime Minister Theresa May to table a motion within three days on proposed alternative plans if her Brexit deal was rejected by Parliament.
On 18 March 2019, Bercow, in a statement to the House, pre-empted a move by the Government to bring the UK/EU Withdrawal Agreement for a third vote. Citing a convention which dates back to 1604, Bercow stated that he would not allow a vote on a motion which was "substantially the same" as a previously rejected motion.
Retirement as Speaker and career after parliament
Having served 10 years as Speaker, Bercow became the longest-serving Speaker since Edward FitzRoy, who served nearly 15 years in post between 1928 and 1943.
In October 2018, it was reported that Bercow intended to step down as Speaker in the summer of 2019, but in January 2019 it was reported that he planned to stay as Speaker until the end of the parliament, in 2022. On 9 September 2019, amid debates about Brexit and parliament being prorogued, Bercow declared to the House of Commons that he would stand down on 31 October, or at the next general election, whichever was sooner; the former applied.
Despite the convention that former Speakers of the House of Commons are elevated to membership of the House of Lords when they resign, the Prime Minister denied Bercow a peerage because it was perceived that he had not maintained political neutrality in office and would not be politically neutral in the House of Lords as convention requires Sources in the Cabinet had suggested beforehand that this would be due to his rulings during the Parliamentary votes on Brexit, which the Government saw as biased against them. Bercow became the first ex-Speaker since the retirement of Arthur Onslow in 1761 to have been eligible for, but not have been made the offer of, a peerage. Overall, he is the tenth Speaker not to receive a Peerage since the 1707 Act of Union, and the fifth since Onslow's retirement not to be immediately elevated to the House of Lords: Charles Wolfran Cornwall died in office with no peerage offer to his surviving family, John Henry Whitley was offered but declined, and following the deaths of Edward FitzRoy and Sir Harry Hylton-Foster in office, their widows were ennobled instead. With no prospect of a government-sponsored peerage, Bercow lobbied the Labour leader, Jeremy Corbyn, in the hope that the opposition might give him preferment.
In November 2019, Bercow was appointed by Chancellor of the Exchequer Sajid Javid as Steward and Bailiff of the Manor of Northstead; since members of the House of Commons are prohibited from resigning, the legal device of appointment to an "office of profit under The Crown" is used to permit members to leave their legislative offices.
In the same month, Bercow stated that he "think[s] that Brexit is the biggest foreign policy mistake in the post-war period, and that is my honest view." This led to further questions about Bercow's impartiality during the Brexit parliamentary debates. He maintained that he was impartial during the debates, and only made his views clear after leaving office.
His autobiography, Unspeakable, was published in 2020. In his memoirs, he was highly critical of David Cameron, Theresa May, Boris Johnson and Andrea Leadsom. Bercow has since identified himself as a soft leftist and declared that he voted for Sadiq Khan to be Mayor of London. He was also nominated for a peerage by Labour leader Jeremy Corbyn, but this was refused by Prime Minister Boris Johnson. Bercow has also been very critical of the Conservative government's handling of COVID-19 since leaving Parliament.
On 19 June 2021, Bercow said that he had joined the Labour Party "a few weeks ago". He said Boris Johnson's Conservative Party was "reactionary, populist, nationalistic and sometimes even xenophobic." He said his move to Labour was motivated by his "support for equality, social justice and internationalism. That is the Labour brand."
It was revealed that Bercow broke the pledge he made in 2012 not to take his speaker's pension until he is 65 years old. While Bercow originally "proposed before he leaves office to waive his entitlement to the Speaker's pension until he reaches the age of 65", in 2021 he revealed he started taking the pension when he left the office, after speaking with his wife.
Bullying of office staff
In May 2018, Bercow's former private secretary Angus Sinclair alleged on the BBC's Newsnight programme that Bercow had repeatedly bullied him while at work. Sinclair said that he was told to sign a non-disclosure agreement when he left his post, to prevent him revealing Bercow's bullying. Bercow denied the claims. Sinclair's allegations came not long after the BBC reported that his successor as Bercow's private secretary, Kate Emms, had been signed off work and then moved to another role. Unnamed colleagues of Emms had told the BBC's Newsnight programme that her sickness and change of role were because of bullying by Bercow.
In October 2018, Bercow had called for an independent body to be set up to investigate allegations of harassment and bullying in Parliament. He faced calls to quit after an independent report by Dame Laura Cox found that harassment and bullying had been tolerated and concealed for years, which Bercow denies. On 23 October 2018, three Conservative MPs, Will Quince, Mims Davies and Anne Milton, resigned from the Commons Reference Group on Representation and Inclusion, which is chaired by Bercow, and cited Bercow's handling of bullying and sexual harassment allegations in Parliament as the reason for doing so.
In January 2020, Lord Lisvane, who served as Clerk of the House of Commons under Bercow, submitted a formal complaint to the Parliamentary Commissioner for Standards. In the same month Lisvane's complaint was followed up by a further accusation of bullying, made by the former Black Rod, Lieutenant-General David Leakey.
In January 2022, the Parliamentary Commissioner for Standards, Kathryn Stone, upheld 21 allegations out of 35 brought by Lord Lisvane and private secretaries Kate Emms and Angus Sinclair against Bercow, who appealed to the Independent Expert Panel.
In March 2022, the Independent Expert Panel upheld the findings of the Parliamentary Commissioner for Standards, concluding that Bercow had "been widely unreliable and repeatedly dishonest in his evidence", a "serial liar" and a "serial bully". Formally reprimanding Bercow, the Panel recommended that, as he was no longer a Member of Parliament and could not, therefore, be expelled from the House of Commons, “he should never be permitted a pass to the Parliamentary estate". The Labour Party subsequently suspended him from the party. Bercow rejected the Panel's findings and declared the body—which included a former Lord Justice of Appeal and a former Chief Coroner—to be a "kangaroo court" lacking in legal expertise. Lisvane dismissed Bercow's rejection as "hysterical petulance from someone caught bang to rights".
Personal life
Bercow married Sally Illman in 2002 after 13 years of an "on-off" relationship, and they have three children. Their elder son, Oliver, is autistic. Sally had an affair with Bercow's cousin in 2015 but Sally later returned to the marriage; Bercow said he bore some responsibility for the affair by not providing enough time for his wife. His wife, who used to be a Conservative, switched to supporting the Labour Party, campaigning for both her husband individually and Labour in the wider election in 1997. Bercow and those close to him reject the view that she was especially influential in changing his political views. Both he and his wife are teetotallers.
Bercow is a humanist, and before taking the role of Speaker was a member of the All-Party Parliamentary Humanist Group. When discussing the role of clergy in Parliament, he described himself in a Commons debate as "an irreligious person taking a secular interest in an important subject".
Bercow has been a fan of Arsenal F.C. since January 1971 and is a season ticket holder. He always attends games with his son, and has appeared on AFTV. Bercow is also a lifelong follower of tennis, having played competitively against the likes of Andrew Castle and Jeremy Bates in his youth. His book on the sport, Tennis Maestros: The Twenty Greatest Male Tennis Players of All Time, was published in 2014 by Biteback Publishing.
Bercow is a director and shareholder of Fedhead Limited. His wife owns 24 percent of the company.
Books
Arms
Honours
Scholastic
University degrees
Chancellor, visitor, governor, rector and fellowships
Honorary degrees
Freedom of the City
References
Further reading
Bobby Friedman. Bercow, Mr Speaker: Rowdy Living in the Tory Party (2011) Gibson Square.
External links
Debrett's People of Today
The Speaker official Parliament website
APPG for Tribal Peoples – Official website
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1963 births
Alumni of the University of Essex
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British special advisers
Secular humanists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Rhein%C3%BCbung
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Operation Rheinübung
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Operation Rheinübung ("Exercise Rhine") was the last sortie into the Atlantic by the new German battleship and heavy cruiser on 18–27 May 1941, during World War II. This operation aimed to block Allied shipping to the United Kingdom as the previously successful Operation Berlin had done. After Bismarck sunk HMS Hood during battle of the Denmark Strait (24 May), it culminated with the sinking of Bismarck (27 May), while Prinz Eugen escaped to occupied France port. From that point on Germans would rely only on U-boats to wage the Battle of the Atlantic.
Background
During both World Wars, the island of Britain was dependent upon huge numbers of merchant ships to bring in food and essential raw materials, and protecting this lifeline was one of the highest priorities for British forces. If this lifeline could be severed, the British Empire in Europe would have to either sue for peace; negotiate an armistice; or abandon the British Isles as a base of operations to blockade the sea approaches to Western Europe; giving Germany in effect, complete mastery of Western Europe, with no tactical base in Europe to oppose that control.
Germany's naval leadership (under Admiral Erich Johann Albert Raeder) at the time firmly believed that defeat by blockade was achievable. However, they also believed that the primary method to achieve this objective was to use traditional commerce raiding tactics, founded upon surface combatants (cruisers, battle-cruisers, fast battleships) that were only supported by submarines. Regardless of the method or manner, Raeder convinced the High Command (OKW) and Hitler that if this lifeline were severed, Britain would be defeated, regardless of any other factors.
Operation Rheinübung was the latest in a series of raids on Allied shipping carried out by surface units of the Kriegsmarine. It was preceded by Operation Berlin, a highly successful sortie by and which ended in March 1941.
By May 1941, the Kriegsmarine battleships Scharnhorst and Gneisenau were at Brest, on the western coast of France, posing a serious threat to the Atlantic convoys, and were heavily bombed by the Royal Air Force. The original plan was to have both ships involved in the operation, but Scharnhorst was undergoing heavy repairs to her engines, and Gneisenau had just suffered a damaging torpedo hit days before which put her out of action for 6 months. This left just two new warships available to the Germans: the battleship Bismarck and the heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen (while the Kriegsmarine had three serviceable light cruisers, none had the endurance necessary for a long Atlantic operation), both initially stationed in the Baltic Sea.
The aim of the operation was for Bismarck and Prinz Eugen to break into the Atlantic and attack Allied shipping. Grand Admiral Erich Raeder's orders to Admiral Günther Lütjens were that "the objective of the Bismarck is not to defeat enemies of equal strength, but to tie them down in a delaying action, while preserving her combat capacity as much as possible, so as to allow Prinz Eugen to get at the merchant ships in the convoy" and "The primary target in this operation is the enemy's merchant shipping; enemy warships will be engaged only when that objective makes it necessary and it can be done without excessive risk".
To support and provide facilities for the capital ships to refuel and rearm, German Naval Command (OKM) established a network of tankers and supply ships in the Rheinübung operational area. Seven tankers and two supply ships were sent as far afield as Labrador in the west and the Cape Verde Islands in the south.
Lütjens had requested that Raeder delay Rheinübung long enough either for Scharnhorst to complete repairs to her engines and be made combat-worthy and to rendezvous at sea with Bismarck and Prinz Eugen or for Bismarcks sister ship to accompany them. Raeder had refused, as Scharnhorst would not be ready until early July. The crew of the newly completed Tirpitz was not yet fully trained, and over Lütjens's protests Raeder ordered Rheinübung to go ahead. Raeder's principal reason for going ahead was his knowledge of the upcoming Operation Barbarossa, where the Kriegsmarine was going to play only a small, supporting role, and his desire to score a major success with a battleship before Barbarossa that might impress upon Hitler the need not to cut the budget for capital ships.
To meet the threat from German surface ships, the British had stationed at Scapa Flow the new battleships and as well as the battlecruiser and the newly commissioned aircraft carrier . Elsewhere, Force H at Gibraltar could muster the battlecruiser and the aircraft carrier ; at sea in the Atlantic on various duties were the battleships , and and the battlecruiser . Cruisers and air patrols provided the fleet's "eyes". At sea, or due to sail shortly, were 11 convoys, including a troop convoy.
OKM did not take into account the Royal Navy's determination to destroy the German surface fleet. To make sure that Bismarck was sunk, the Royal Navy would ruthlessly strip other theatres of action. This would include denuding valuable convoys of their escorts. The British would ultimately deploy six battleships, three battlecruisers, two aircraft carriers, 16 cruisers, 33 destroyers and eight submarines, along with patrol aircraft. It would become the largest naval force assigned to a single operation up to that point in the war.
Rheinübung
Bismarck sails
The heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen sailed at about 21:00 on 18 May 1941 from Gotenhafen (Gdynia, Poland), followed at 2:00 a.m., 19 May, by Bismarck. Both ships proceeded under escort, separately and rendezvoused off Cape Arkona on Rügen Island in the western Baltic, where the destroyers Z23 and Z16 Friedrich Eckoldt joined them. They then proceeded through the Danish Islands into the Kattegat. Entering the Kattegat on 20 May Bismarck and Prinz Eugen sailed north toward the Skagerrak, the strait between Jutland and Southern Norway, where they were sighted by the Swedish aircraft-carrying cruiser on around 1:00 p.m. Gotland forwarded the sighting in a routine report. Earlier, around noon, a flight of Swedish aircraft also detected the German vessels and likewise reported their sighting.
On 21 May the Admiralty was alerted by sources in the Swedish government that two large German warships had been seen in the Kattegat. The ships entered the North Sea and took a brief refuge in a Grimstadfjord near Bergen, Norway on 21 May where Prinz Eugen was topped off with fuel, making a break for the Atlantic shipping lanes on 22 May. By this time, Hood and Prince of Wales, with escorting destroyers, were en route to the Denmark Strait, where two cruisers, and were already patrolling. The cruisers and had been sent to guard the waters south-east of Iceland.
Once the departure of the German ships was discovered, Admiral Sir John Tovey, the Commander-in-Chief of the British Home Fleet, sailed with King George V, Victorious and their escorts to support those already at sea. Repulse joined soon afterwards.
On the evening of 23 May, Suffolk sighted Bismarck and Prinz Eugen in the Denmark Strait, close to the Greenland coast. Suffolk immediately sought cover in a fog bank and alerted The Admiralty. Bismarck opened fire on Norfolk at a range of six miles but Norfolk escaped into fog. Norfolk and Suffolk, outgunned, shadowed the German ships using radar. No hits were scored but the concussion of the main guns firing at Norfolk had knocked out Bismarcks radar causing Lütjens to re-position Prinz Eugen ahead of Bismarck. After the German ships were sighted, British naval groups were redirected to either intercept Lütjens' force or to cover a troop convoy.
Battle of the Denmark Strait
Hood and Prince of Wales made contact with the German force early on the morning of 24 May, and the action started at 5:52 a.m., with the combatants about apart. Gunners onboard Hood initially mistook Prinz Eugen that was now in the lead for Bismarck and opened fire on her, Capt Leach commanding HMS Prince of wales realising V/Adm Holland's error engaged Bismarck from the outset. Both German ships were firing at Hood. Hood suffered an early hit from Prinz Eugen which started a rapidly spreading fire amidships.
Then, at about 6 a.m., one or more of Hood'''s magazines exploded, probably as the result of a direct hit by a shell from Bismarck. The massive explosion broke the great battlecruiser's back, and she sank within minutes. All but three of her 1,418-man crew died, including Vice Admiral Lancelot Holland, commanding officer of the squadron.Prince of Wales continued the action, but suffered multiple hits with and shells, and experienced repeated mechanical failures with her main armament. Her commanding officer, Captain Leach, was wounded when one of Bismarck's shells struck Prince of Wales bridge. Leach broke off the action, and the British battleship retreated under cover of a smokescreen.Bismarck had been hit three times but Admiral Lütjens overruled Bismarcks Captain Ernst Lindemann who wanted to pursue the damaged Prince of Wales and finish her off. All of the hits on Bismarck had been inflicted by Prince of Wales guns. One of the hits had penetrated the German battleship's hull near the bow, rupturing some of her fuel tanks, causing her to leak oil continuously and at a serious rate. This was to be a critical factor as the pursuit continued, forcing Bismarck to make for Brest instead of escaping into the great expanse of the Atlantic. The resulting oil slick also helped the British cruisers to shadow her.
The pursuitNorfolk and Suffolk and the damaged Prince of Wales continued to shadow the Germans, reporting their position to draw British forces to the scene. In response, it was decided that the undamaged Prinz Eugen would detach to continue raiding, while Bismarck drew off the pursuit. In conjunction with this, Admiral Dönitz committed the U-boat arm to support Bismarck with all available U-boats in the Atlantic. He organised two patrol lines to trap the Home Fleet should Bismarck lead her pursuers to them. One line of 7 boats was arrayed in mid-Atlantic while another, of 8 boats, was stationed west of the Bay of Biscay. At 6:40 p.m. on 24 May, Bismarck turned on her pursuers and briefly opened fire to cover the escape of Prinz Eugen. The German cruiser slipped away undamaged.
At 10 p.m., Victorious was away and launched an air attack with nine Fairey Swordfish torpedo bombers, which were guided in by Norfolk. In poor weather, and against heavy fire, they attacked and made a single torpedo hit under the bridge. However, up against strong belt armour and anti-torpedo bulges, it failed to cause substantial damage. The attacking aircraft were all safely recovered by Victorious, despite poor weather, darkness, aircrew inexperience and the failure of the carrier's homing beacon.
At 3 a.m. on 25 May, the British shadowers lost contact with Bismarck. At first, it was thought that she would return to the North Sea, and ships were directed accordingly. Then Lütjens, believing that he was still being shadowed by the British, broke radio silence by sending a long radio message to headquarters in Germany. This allowed the British to triangulate Bismarck's approximate position and send aircraft to hunt for the German battleship. By the time that it was realised that Lütjens was heading for Brest, Bismarck had broken the naval cordon and gained a lead. By 11 p.m., Lütjens was well to the east of Tovey's force and had managed to evade Rodney. Bismarck was short of fuel due to the damaging hit inflicted by Prince of Wales which had caused Lütjens to reduce speed to conserve fuel but Bismarck still had enough speed to outrun the heavy units of the Home Fleet and reach the safety of France. From the south, however, Somerville's Force H with the carrier Ark Royal, the battlecruiser Renown, and the light cruiser HMS Sheffield were approaching to intercept.
The British ships were also beginning to run low on fuel, and the escape of Bismarck seemed more and more certain. However, at 10:30 a.m. on 26 May, a PBY Catalina flying-boat, based at Lough Erne, Northern Ireland, found Bismarck. She was from Brest and not within range of Luftwaffe air cover.
This contact was taken over by two Swordfish from Ark Royal. This carrier now launched an airstrike, but her aircrew were unaware of Sheffield's proximity to Bismarck, mistook the British cruiser for the German battleship and therefore immediately attacked her. Their torpedoes had been fitted with influence detonators, and several of them exploded prematurely. Others missed their target, and the attacking aircraft then received a warning from Ark Royal that Sheffield was in the vicinity, whereupon the Swordfish finally recognised the cruiser and broke off the attack.Ark Royal now launched, in almost impossibly bad weather conditions for air operations, and from a distance of less than 40 miles upwind of Bismarck, a second strike consisting of 15 Swordfish. These were carrying torpedoes equipped with the standard and reliable contact detonators. The attack resulted in two or three hits on the German ship, one of which inflicted critical damage on her steering. A jammed rudder now meant she could now only sail away from her intended destination of Brest. At midnight, Lütjens signalled his headquarters: "Ship unmanoeuvrable. We shall fight to the last shell. Long live the Führer."
Bismarcks end
The battleships Rodney and King George V waited for daylight on 27 May before attacking. At 8:47 a.m., they opened fire, quickly hitting Bismarck. Her gunners achieved near misses on Rodney, but the British ships had silenced Bismarck's main guns within half an hour. Despite close-range shelling by Rodney, a list to port, and widespread fires, Bismarck did not sink.
According to David Mearns and James Cameron's underwater surveys in recent years the British main guns achieved only four hits on Bismarcks main armoured belt, two through the upper armour belt on the starboard side from King George V and two on the port side from Rodney. These four hits occurred at about 10:00 a.m., at close range, causing heavy casualties among the sheltering crew.
Nearly out of fuel – and mindful of possible U-boat attacks – the British battleships left for home. The heavy cruiser attacked with torpedoes and made three hits. Scuttling charges were soon set off by German sailors, and at 10:40 a.m., Bismarck capsized and sank. Dorsetshire and the destroyer rescued 110 survivors. After an hour, rescue work was abruptly ended when there were reports of a U-boat presence. Another three survivors were picked up by and two by the German weather ship . Over 2,000 died, including Captain Lindemann and Admiral Lütjens.
Aftermath
After separating from Bismarck, Prinz Eugen went further south into the Atlantic, intending to continue the commerce raiding mission. On 26 May, with just 160 tons of fuel left, she rendezvoused with the tanker Spichern and refuelled. On 27 May, she developed engine trouble, which worsened over the next few days. On 28 May, she received a further refueling from Esso Hamburg. With her speed reduced to , it was no longer considered practicable to continue. She abandoned her commerce raiding mission without sinking any merchant ships, and made her way to Brest, arriving on 1 June where she remained under repair until the end of 1941. She later escaped from France with two other German battleships during the Channel Dash.
In the action, just two U-boats had sighted the British forces, and neither was able to attack. In the aftermath, the British ships were able to evade the patrol lines as they returned to base; there were no further U-boat contacts. The Luftwaffe also organized sorties against the Home Fleet, but none were successful until 28 May, when planes from Kampfgeschwader 77 attacked and sank the destroyer .
After Rheinübung, a recent breakthrough into the Kriegsmarine's enigma network enabled the Royal Navy to mount a concerted effort to round up the network of supply ships deployed to refuel and rearm the Rheinübung ships. The first success came on 3 June, when the tanker Belchen was discovered by the cruisers and south of Greenland. On 4 June the tanker Gedania was found in mid-Atlantic by Marsdale, while east the supply ship Gonzenheim was caught by the armed merchant cruiser , and aircraft from Victorious. On the same day in the south Atlantic, midway between Belém and Freetown, the southernmost limit of the Rheinübung operation, the tanker Esso Hamburg was intercepted by the cruiser ; while the following day London, accompanied by , sank the tanker Egerland. A week later, on 12 June, the tanker Friederich Breme was sunk by the cruiser HMS Sheffield in the mid-Atlantic. On 15 June, the tanker Lothringen was sunk by the cruiser , with aircraft from . In just over two weeks, 7 of the 9 supply ships assigned to Operation Rheinübung had been accounted for, with serious consequences for future German surface operations.
Conclusion
Operation Rheinübung was a failure, and although the Germans scored a success by sinking "The Mighty Hood", this was offset with the loss of the modern battleship Bismarck, which represented one-quarter of the Kriegsmarines capital ships. No merchant ships were sunk or even sighted by the German heavy surface units during the 2-week raid. Allied convoys were not seriously disrupted; most convoys sailed according to schedule, and there was no diminution of supplies to Britain. On the other hand, the Atlantic U-boat campaign was disrupted; boats in the Atlantic sank just 2 ships in the last weeks of May, compared to 29 at the beginning of the month. As a result of Bismarcks sinking, Hitler forbade any further Atlantic sorties, and her sister ship Tirpitz was sent to Norway. The Kriegsmarine was never again able to mount a major surface operation against Allied supply routes in the North Atlantic; henceforth its only weapon was the U-boat campaign.
References
Bibliography
Further reading
Robert D. Ballard: The Discovery of the Bismarck (1990). .
Walter Boyne, Clash of Titans: World War II at Sea (New York: Simon & Schuster 1995).
Fritz Otto Busch :The Story of Prinz Eugen (1958). ISBN (none).
Sir Winston Churchill: The Second World War.
Ludovic Kennedy: Pursuit – the Sinking of the Bismarck'' (1974).
Stephen Roskill: The War at Sea 1939-1945 Vol I (1954) ISBN (none).
External links
German battleship Bismarck
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light%20Years%20%28Kylie%20Minogue%20album%29
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Light Years (Kylie Minogue album)
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Light Years is the seventh studio album by Australian singer Kylie Minogue. Mushroom Records released it on 22 September 2000 in Australia; Parlophone released it on 25 September 2000 in the United Kingdom. Following the commercial failure of Impossible Princess (1997), Minogue left Deconstruction Records and took a hiatus from recording music. She signed with Parlophone in June 1999 and decided to return to her pop roots. She worked with various writers and producers, including Steve Anderson, Johnny Douglas, Robbie Williams, Guy Chambers, and Mark Picchiotti.
Light Years is a dance-pop, disco, and Europop album that refers to music from the 1970s. Lyrically, the album touches upon themes of women's empowerment, celebration, and sex, in a cheeky and campy approach. Music critics provided positive reviews, complimenting Minogue's return to pop despite them being ambivalent towards the lyrical content. Retrospectively, Light Years has been recognized as one of Minogue's strongest releases. The album won the ARIA Award for Best Female Artist and Best Pop Release at the 2001 ceremonies. Light Years peaked in the top position on the Australian Albums Chart, Minogue's first number-one album in her native Australia. It reached the top 10 in Russia, Scotland, New Zealand, and on the UK Albums Chart.
Five singles were released from Light Years, including "Spinning Around" and "On a Night Like This", which both reached number one in Australia, as well as the top 20 entries "Kids" and "Please Stay". All peaked inside the top 10 in the UK. The final single, "Your Disco Needs You" was only released in Australia and Germany. Light Years was further promoted with the On a Night Like This Tour, which visited Europe and Australia from March to May 2001. At the time, it was the highest grossing tour by a solo artist in Australia, with ticket sales of approximately US$5 million. The album was re-issued in Europe in 2018 and returned to the UK Albums Chart and the Scottish Albums Chart.
Background
In 1997, Kylie Minogue released her sixth studio album, Impossible Princess. The album represented a drastic change in the singer's musical direction, incorporating elements of electronica and alternative music. The British public was unimpressed with her new musical direction, viewing it as a trend-chasing attempt, and failed to identify with her new intimate image as "IndieKylie". The backlash resulted in Impossible Princess having little impact on British record charts—it initially peaked at number 10 on the UK Albums Chart and sold only 18,000 copies in the first two weeks of release. After embarking on a successful promotional tour, Minogue left Deconstruction Records and BMG in November 1998, ending their six-year relationship.
Following the split, Minogue took a break from recording music to focus on her acting career. She spent several months in Barbados performing Miranda in Toby Gough's production of The Tempest during an annual operatic festival. She also starred in the Australian films Cut and Sample People, both released in 2000. She gave several live performances in Australia, including the 1998 Sydney Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras, the opening ceremonies of Melbourne's Crown Casino and Sydney's Fox Studios in 1999. Minogue performed Duran Duran's 1984 single "The Reflex" on the tribute complication Undone: The Songs of Duran Duran (1999), and collaborated with the Pet Shop Boys on a duet, titled "In Denial", on their 1999 studio album Nightlife.
Following "In Denial", Parlophone—a British record label the Pet Shop Boys had been with since 1985—decided to sign Minogue in June 1999. She announced she would start working on a new album, saying: "I took my time in choosing a new label [...] there is much I hope to achieve with my next album and I believe that anything is possible with this new partnership." Parlophone A&R executive Miles Leonard commented: "I believed that [Minogue] was still very strong vocally, and still definitely a star... I believed in her as an artist and I knew that with the right project, the right songwriters, the right producers, the right team, she would still have a fanbase out there."
Development and recording
In an early meeting with Parlophone to discuss which direction Minogue intended to pursue, the singer decided to return to her pop roots, saying "I should do what I do best... [Pop music] is the kind of music that people want from me." Minogue believed the album was a new beginning, as she started singing pop music again. Minogue was inspired by the music of the 1970s, which she discovered when she was a child via her parents' record collection, including the soundtrack from Grease (1978), Donna Summer's "Bad Girls" and "Dim All the Lights" (both in 1979). The label did not want to make another Pete Waterman Limited (PWL) record, but quality pop music with the help of great contributions and collaborations. Her team approached PWL owner Pete Waterman, who had worked with Minogue earlier in her career, during the production. However, the collaboration did not happen.
Minogue enjoyed making Light Years; she got a chance to work with people who were certain how they wanted her to sound. She felt that working with different producers would help the album have a diverse feeling. She wanted the album to be song-driven and explained the musical styles to the producers with three keywords: "poolside", "disco", and "cocktails". Minogue worked on Light Years in Sydney, London, and Los Angeles, where she put the final touches on the album. Before signing with Parlophone, Minogue spent a week with her frequent collaborator Steve Anderson at Real World Studios in Box, Wiltshire, where most of the production of Impossible Princess was done. Three tracks were chosen from the session: "So Now Goodbye", "Butterfly", and "Bittersweet Goodbye". Minogue picked "Bittersweet Goodbye" when she was deep in the production process, saying it made her feel calm. A string arrangement by Wil Malone was added to the track, while Anderson kept Minogue's vocals from the original demo. Chicago-based DJ Mark Picchiotti flew to Los Angeles to record Minogue's vocals for "Butterfly", and then produced the track in his hometown.
Former Take That member Robbie Williams contributed three songs with his songwriting partner Guy Chambers: "Loveboat", "Your Disco Needs You", and "Kids". Minogue shared the songwriting credit on the first two. She found in Williams her ideal male counterpart based on their similar musical output; she felt the work between Williams and Chamber was extraordinary. Chamber co-wrote another track with Minogue titled "I'm So High". They were among the earliest collaborations, which Minogue felt were a good foundation for the album. Minogue wrote the lyrics to "Light Years" with Biffco's songwriters Richard Stannard and Julian Gallagher in 10 minutes. The demo, originally titled "Light Relief", was unexpectedly favoured by the label and was picked up for the final tracklist. The songwriters also collaborated on "Please Stay".
Minogue made several demos with a set of writers and producers arranged by Brian Rawling, including Steve Torch, Graham Stack, and Mark Taylor. She ended up recording "On a Night Like This", a song written originally for the Swedish recording artist Pandora for her 1999 album No Regrets. In New York, A&R executive Jamie Nelson pitched a demo of "Spinning Around" to Minogue and she agreed to record it. The track—written by Ira Shickman, Osborne Bingham, Kara DioGuardi, and Paula Abdul—was originally intended to be featured on Abdul's studio album, but it was given to Minogue after the album failed to materialise. Minogue recorded "Under the Influence of Love", a song written by Paul Politi and Barry White that Love Unlimited covered in 1974. The track reminded Minogue of her previous songs, despite having not heard it before the production of Light Years. Johnny Douglas wrote and produced "Password", "Disco Down", and "Koocachoo"; he also produced "So Now Goodbye", a track that Minogue wrote with Anderson.
Musical styles
Music critics have characterised Light Years as a dance-pop, disco, and Europop album. The album marked a return to her signature pop style, following the experimental record Impossible Princess. A reviewer from Sputnikmusic and Nick Levine of Digital Spy emphasise elements of disco, the 1970s and early 2000s music. AllMusic's Chris True noted the album reflects the late 1990s teen pop movement. Yahoo! Music's Gary Crossing referred to the album as a "largely undemanding collection of disco, Hi-NRG, Ibizan trance, funk, 60s film and TV themes and Latin-flavoured tunes". Elements of house, electronica, psychedelic pop, Eurodisco, and French Touch were highlighted by Nick Smith of musicOMH and Ian Gormely of Exclaim!. Described the album as being filled with "crisp rhythm sections, melodic orchestral passages and vivid grooves", Albumisms Quentin Harrison also noted influences from 1970s artists Cheryl Lynn, Tina Charles, and The Hues Corporation.
The opening track, "Spinning Around", is a string-laden dance-pop song with prominent influences from disco music. The Guardians Betty Clarke opined that the track sets the tone for Light Years and compared it to Minogue's "Hand on Your Heart" (1989). "So Now Goodbye"—a track that blends house, disco, and electronica elements—draws inspiration from Gloria Gaynor's "I Will Survive" (1978), Madonna's "Lucky Star" (1983) and the work of American band Earth, Wind & Fire. The bittersweet "Disco Down" was compared to the work of Giorgio Moroder and featured Christmassy church bells during the chorus. Michael Dwyer of The Age found Minogue goes "hardcore Mardi Gras" on the contemporary house and electronic dance track "Butterfly". "On a Night Like This" has a darker, more Europop edge, which was compared to Spiller's "Groovejet (If This Ain't Love)" (2000).
Backing vocals and the arrangement of strings and fluttering flutes drive the fifth track, "Loveboat". The song features funky light guitar and faux-French effects. "Loveboat" was compared to the work of Barry Manilow, Minogue's "I Don't Need Anyone" (1997), and Williams's "Millennium" (1998). "Koocachoo" has elements of jazz and the 1960s music, and built around a chirping synth and horn arrangement. The track contains a groovy bass riff, retro guitar tone, sitar, keyboard sound effects, and "ba baba ba" harmonies in the chorus. English bassist Paul Turner contributed bass and guitars to the track. "Your Disco Needs You" is a disco track that is heavily influenced by Village People's "Go West" (1979). Minogue sings in a serious tone, accompanied by a brass section, regal horns, a male chorus, and high soprano back-up vocals. Cameron Adams from the Herald Sun felt that the song is a hybrid between Village People's "Y.M.C.A." (1978) and Queen's "Bohemian Rhapsody" (1975), while Chris Charles of the BBC News described it as "ABBA and the Pet Shop Boys getting down at the hottest gay club in town".
The samba-infused "Password" was used as a pregap hidden introductory track. "Please Stay" features Latin pop, soft acoustic, and flamenco elements. Crossing found "Bittersweet Goodbye", the album's only sentimental ballad, to be a "strange concoction" of Olivia Newton-John, Kate Bush and Cocteau Twins. It is followed by Minogue's cover of "Under the Influence of Love" (1967), in which her vocals are double-tracked for the bridge. Smith referred to the track as "Saint Etienne meets the best of the Nolans". The guitar-driven pop track "I'm So High" contains a subtle and slowly building melody. Dwyer wrote songs like "I'm So High" help Minogue "leave the club floor for car radio with equally enjoyable results". The penultimate track is "Kids", a joyous pop duet with Williams. It has funky groove rhythms and a distorted, guitar-driven euphoric chorus with soft guitars, synths, and vocal crescendos. English musicians Chris Sharrock and Neil Taylor played percussion and guitars on "Kids", respectively. The Village Voice Emma Pearse felt that the song helps Minogue transport her energy "into Prince and Beck territory". The post-disco title track is an homage to Summer's "I Feel Love" (1977), featuring harmonies and electronic touches. The track reminds Clarke of Brotherhood of Man's "Angelo" (1977).
Themes
Minogue called Light Years an uplifting and vibrant record, with mostly happy songs that reflect her easy nature when she was making the album. She said listening to it felt like being on a summer holiday. Lyrically, Minogue said that she was "really going for it... [without] holding back", with several songs containing cheekiness, showgirl images, or camp elements. The songs were written from her imagination, rather than the autobiographical style of songwriting that she had experimented with on her previous record Impossible Princess. Minogue recalled writing each song as if it was a scene from a film or a video and trying to interpret and convert the idea into a song. Harrison highlighted Minogue's ability to focus on themes of flirtation, fun, and romance "without undercutting her previous growth as an artist" on Impossible Princess.
Betty Clarke of The Guardian identified the theme of women's empowerment and celebration. She called Light Years "an album that celebrates being a girl", and commented that "not since the Spice Girls has the capacity to fill a dress been so celebrated". "Spinning Around" declares Minogue has changed and learned from her past mistakes. True and Smith interpreted it as Minogue's move away from her more experimental work on Impossible Princess. Pam Avoledo of Blogcritics found the amorous song depicted a woman who is expressing herself and taking control of her life. Clarke viewed "On a Night Like This" and "So Now Goodbye" as the up-tempo disco antics that successfully depict the notions of "grabbing the best looking man in the club, then ditching him when you feel like it". "Butterfly" discusses the spiritual freedom and joy of life, while "Bittersweet Goodbye" is a stripped-back ode to love. Smith viewed the track as a tribute to her former lover Michael Hutchence, who died in November 1997.
Writing for The Sydney Morning Herald, Catherine Keenan wrote the album is "full of gay club anthems and not short on sex". Minogue calls for the listener to join her on the dance floor on "Your Disco Needs You". At one point, she delivers a military-like spoken interlude in French: "Vous êtes jamais seuls / Vous savez ce qu'il faut faire / Ne laissez pas tomber votre nation / La disco a besoin de vous!" ("You are never alone / You know what to do / Don't let your nation down / The disco needs you!") "Loveboat" is an homage to the 1970s television series of the same name, while referencing martinis, bikinis and James Bond in its lyrics. It contains several French phrases and cheeky lines such as "Rub on some lotion / The places I can't reach." Levine referred to the lyrics of "Loveboat" as a sensual couplet. Smith felt that the track is a mixture of kitsch and tropicana, and Minogue sounds ebullient. The penultimate track is "Kids", a joyous pop duet with Williams. The track references to the careers of both Minogue and Williams, with Minogue singing the line: "I've been dropping beats since Back in Black." On the title track, Minogue plays an air hostess on a fictional KM-Air flight. Adams found Minogue devoted to the erotic track.
Packaging and release
German fashion photographer Vincent Peters shot the artwork for Light Years, while Mark Farrow was selected to design the cover. The shoot took place in Ibiza, a place that Minogue felt "has a magical quality" to it. On the cover, wearing a blue chiffon swimsuit, Minogue stares into the distance. The cover has a backdrop of the sky and the sea, with a glimpse of a golden sunset filtering through. Parlophone dropped Minogue's surname on the cover, and branded it as a "Kylie" album. Minogue wanted the cover to capture the music's essence: sunshine, beach, fun, and glamour. She thought the photoshoot was extraordinary, and the "lightness of the chiffon matched [her] mood and desire". Another picture from the photoshoot saw a head-to-knees Minogue wearing nothing but a towel. Peters felt Minogue has a strong sense of self, which sets her apart from other celebrities he had worked with. William Baker, who helped through the album process, said that he wanted a cover that was "a visual statement about [Minogue] reclaiming the throne of the Princess of Pop" and the result shows she has "returned to her rightful place!"
Crossing found the glossy sleeve artwork "leaves very little to the imagination" and that Minogue is "unashamedly playing [her] 'never mind the book, have a gander at the cover' card". Clarke wrote Light Years was packaged "with male hormones in mind". Charles found it tacky, while John Earls of Classic Pop noted its commercialized nature, commenting that the artwork is better suited for a Ministry of Sound compilation and the cover is the only dull aspect of Light Years. From the same publication, Christian Guiltenane wrote Minogue created "a stunning fantasy figure" with the sunset's glow behind her. Writing for Idolator, Mike Wass commented that the "camp, fun and flirty" cover successfully captured the music of Light Years.
Minogue titled the album Light Years describing her career journey, which she believes will continue as she has just begun to discover herself. She said: "I feel like I've come a long way... I think some other forces know where I'm going, but I'm not meant to know–that would've ruined it." Clarke felt the title was Minogue's response to Ray of Light, a similarly named 1998 album by Madonna. The album includes "Password", a hidden introductory track in the pregap portion of the CD. The listener can only hear the track by rewinding the opening song "Spinning Around". Robbie Williams, who usually has hidden tracks at the end of his albums, inspired this. Minogue said that although she was making a grown-up album, she wanted to keep a sense of enjoyment. She admitted the method is "a bit odd and silly, but that's the fun of it". Smith felt the track was hard to find, while Earls commented the decision was made at "the peak of the CD boom" and "Password" is a worthy reward.
Mushroom Records first released the album in Australia on 22 September 2000. Parlophone released it on 25 September 2000 in the UK. On the German, Spanish and Japanese versions of the album, the original French spoken interlude of "Your Disco Needs You" was translated into their respective languages. EMI released the album in Canada on 26 September 2000 and distributed the album in North America. A special tour edition package was released in the UK on 5 March 2001, containing a second disc featuring various remixes. For the Australian tour edition, additional remixes were included as well as Minogue's cover of Olivia Newton-John's "Physical" (1981), which she performed during the tour. The album was re-issued by Parlophone in Japan in 2003, 2007, 2009, and 2011. In 2018, Light Years was re-released by BMG as a blue vinyl exclusively through Sainsbury's supermarket chain in Europe, limited to 2500 copies.
Promotion
Shortly after signing with Parlophone, Minogue and Baker released an elaborate art book titled Kylie. The photography-only book celebrates fan memorabilia, commentary, and Minogue's life. The book contains a nude sketch of Minogue, and several celebrities such as Elle MacPherson, fashion designer Vivienne Westwood, actor Barry Humphries, and singer Boy George. Minogue appeared on the controversial cover of the June issue of GQ shot by Terry Richardson, wearing a white tennis dress showing her naked bottom with the banner "Kylie: At Your Service".
Minogue did an extensive promotion campaign for the album, appearing on various television programs and at music festivals. On 17 June 2000, before the album's release, Minogue appeared specially at London's G-A-Y nightclub where she performed several songs, including "Spinning Around", "Better the Devil You Know" and "Step Back in Time". In July, she performed at Party in the Park in Hyde Park and Mardi Gras London in Finsbury Park. Wearing a pink showgirl costume, she performed ABBA's "Dancing Queen" (1976) and "On a Night Like This" to an audience of 100,000 people at the 2000 Sydney Olympics closing ceremony in October. Later that month, she sang "Waltzing Matilda", "Celebration" (1992), and "Spinning Around" at the 2000 Summer Paralympics opening ceremony.
Minogue promoted the album with her sixth concert tour, called On a Night Like This Tour. She performed in Europe in March 2001, before visiting Australia in April and May. Broadway shows and the musicals of the 1930s inspired the tour's style. In the United Kingdom, the tour sold 140,000 tickets in one weekend. In Australia, Minogue played a record-breaking nine concerts at the Sydney Entertainment Centre, beating the previous record held by AC/DC for the most dates performed at the venue in a single tour. It was the biggest tour by a solo artist in the country, grossing U.S. $5 million from sales of 200,000 tickets. Minogue's concert on 11 May 2001 was filmed and released on home video under the title Live in Sydney.
Singles
"Spinning Around" was released as the lead single from Light Years in June 2000. Two previously unreleased tracks, the alternative dance "Cover Me With Kisses" and acoustic track "Paper Dolls", were included on the single's B-side. Liz Collins shot the single's artwork, which captured Minogue dressed in pastel pink clutching a hula hoop. Directed by Dawn Shadforth, the music video features Minogue in revealing gold hotpants. The song entered the Australian Singles Chart at number one, becoming the singer's first chart-topper since "Confide in Me" (1994). The song debuted at number one in the United Kingdom, making her only the second artist to have a number-one single in three consecutive decades (after Madonna). It was her fifth number-one single in the UK and her first in a decade, following "Tears on My Pillow" (1990).
The second single, "On a Night Like This", was released in September, with the ballad "Ocean Blue" as the B-side track. It debuted at number one in Australia, making it her sixth number-one in that region; it also gave her the record for having the most singles debuting at number one with five entries. On the UK Singles Chart, the single debuted at number two. An accompanying music video, directed by Douglas Avery, was filmed in Monte Carlo in July. The plot is loosely based on Martin Scorsese's 1995 crime drama movie Casino, with Minogue portraying a trophy wife; Dutch actor Rutger Hauer served as her on-screen husband. An accompanying cover sleeve was taken from the booklet of Light Years, featuring Minogue lying on a marble surface before a sea front.
"Kids" was released as the third single from Light Years and as the second from Williams' album Sing When You're Winning in October. Four original tracks by Williams appeared as B-side tracks: "John's Gay", "Often", "Karaoke Star", and "Kill Me or Cure Me". The music video, directed by Simon Hilton, contains choreography taken from Grease and references to Busby Berkley. The single peaked at number fourteen in Australia and at number two in the United Kingdom. Released on December, the fourth single "Please Stay" peaked at number 10 on the UK Singles Chart, her 20th top 10 entry, and number 15 on the Australian Singles Chart. It was the final release from Light Years in the UK, and was backed by two B-side tracks: a cover of "Santa Baby" and the previously unreleased track "Good Life". The music video saw Minogue sliding down a fireman's pole and dancing on top of a pool table.
"Your Disco Needs You" was chosen as the final single, released only in Australia and Germany. It includes specially commissioned mixes of the track and "Password". Hugely popular as an album track, it was never released as a single in the UK because the content was considered "too gay" and "too camp". The decision sparked protests and petitions from fans lobbying for its release. A music video featuring scenes of Minogue dancing in formation accompanied the single's release in Germany. The track peaked at number 20 in Australia and number 31 in Germany. "Butterfly", a track that was in the running to be the fourth single, was remixed and issued in the US as a promotional single by Pichotti's Blue Plate Records in November 2001. It peaked at number fourteen on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Play chart.
Critical reception
Light Years received generally positive reviews from contemporary music critics. The Guardian assigned a normalized rating out of 10 to reviews from UK mainstream critics—the album has an average score of 5.8 based on 6 reviews. NME wrote "Light Years is all you need to know about Kylie in less than an hour: fun, perfectly-formed, not too taxing and occasionally annoying". Dorian Lynskey of Select called it "an unrelenting hoot" that is filled with potential singles and fearlessly derivative. Clarke praised Minogue's newfound confidence, noting she has "her tongue firmly in her cheek for this camp slice of epic disco". Dwyer praised the "breezy disco hedonism" nature of Light Years, while Pearse wrote the album is among "some decidedly classy classic pop creations".
Several reviewers were displeased with the album's non-substantive production. Andrew Lynch of entertainment.ie viewed the album as inconsequential and uneven, although he considered it "a much better record [as a whole] than most critics would like to admit". Crossing found the album well-produced, but was critical of the songwriting effort and its cheeky content. Charles thought that Minogue "has become a parody of herself" with an album filled with catchy, throwaway pop songs. Bernard Zuel of The Sydney Morning Herald wrote Williams and Chambers' contributions keep Light Years from being completely disposable. In their negative reviews, T'Cha Dunlevy of The Gazette and Sandra Sperounes of Edmonton Journal dismissed the record as lightweight and unimaginative, and said that Minogue "is still doing her best Madonna's impression."
Retrospectively, Light Years is generally considered to be one of Minogue's strongest releases. It was one of three of Minogue's studio albums to receive a four-star rating from British writer Colin Larkin in the Encyclopedia of Popular Music (2011) with Rhythm of Love (1990) and Fever (2001). He classified it as "high standard". Smith praised Minogue's confidence, calling the album a game-changer and her most accessible work since Rhythm of Love. Levine commented that "as far as fruity little party records go, Light Years is an absolute peach". In 2018, Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine ranked Light Years as Minogue fourth-best studio album for its outstanding production. Harrison praised Minogue's spirited vocal performance, and concluded that besides its carefree appeal, Light Years has an "unrecognized compositional breadth and vitality that affirms Minogue's ongoing commitment to music excellence".
Commercial performance
Upon its release, Light Years debuted in second position on the ARIA Charts the week of 8 October 2000, denied the top position by The Games of the XXVII Olympiad: Official Music from the Opening Ceremony, the official album of the 2000 Summer Olympics opening ceremony. In its third charting week, it rose to number one, becoming Minogue's first number-one album in her home country, 12 years after her debut album was released. The album remained within the top 20 for over 30 consecutive weeks, from October 2000 to June 2001. It fell off the chart for the first time in July 2001, before re-entering at number 40 in October when Fever was released. In total, Light Years spent 43 weeks on the top 50 chart, beating Impossible Princess as Minogue's longest-charting album at the time. Within the year 2000, the album was certified quadruple platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) for sales exceeding 280,000 copies. It appeared on the ARIA year-end album charts for 2000 and 2001 at number seventeen on both, and the decade-end chart at number 69. In New Zealand, the album debuted and peaked at number eight the week of 22 October; Light Years remained on the chart for a total of five weeks.
The album debuted at number two on the UK Albums Chart during the week of 7 October 2000, behind Madonna's Music. On 9 February 2001, it was certified platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) for shipments of more than 300,000 units. It was Minogue's most successful album sales-wise since Enjoy Yourself (1989). When Fever was released in October 2001, Light Years had remained in the top 100 for 27 non-consecutive weeks. From January to May 2002, the album re-entered the chart, staying for 11 weeks. In 2018, the reissue of Light Years peaked at number 36 on the UK Albums Chart on 7 June; it was the third best-selling vinyl album of the week. That same week, the reissue also appeared on the Scottish Albums Chart, reaching number 21—Light Years had previously peaked at number 3 there after its original release in 2000. In Ireland, the album spent five weeks on the chart and peaked at number 13. Light Years had sold 498,337 copies in the UK by October 2020.
According to Music & Media, Light Years peaked at number 10 on the European Top 100 Albums chart. The album peaked within the top 40 in several European countries, including Belgium, Finland, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Sweden, and Switzerland. Light Years also reached number 50 in France, and number 71 in Netherlands. In South Africa, the album peaked at number 11 and was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry of South Africa for shipments of 100,000 copies.
Accolades and impact
"Spinning Around" earned nominations for Best Female Artist and Best Pop Release at the 2000 ARIA Music Awards show, winning the latter. In the following ceremony, Light Years garnered four nominations, winning Minogue's first Best Female Artist and the second-consecutive Best Pop Release, while losing both Highest Selling Album and Album of the Year to Powderfinger's Odyssey Number Five (2000). That same year, "On a Night Like This" was also nominated for Highest Selling Single and Single of the Year. Phonographic Performance Company of Australia recognized Minogue as the seventh-most broadcast artist of 2001, while three tracks from Light Years appeared on the top 100 Most Broadcast Recordings of 2001: "Spinning Around" (number 12), "On a Night Like This" (number 15), and "Kids" (number 163).
Music critics recognized Light Years for reviving Minogue's career and reestablishing her to the public. The music video for "Spinning Around" led to her bottom and the revealing hotpants gaining extensive coverage in the media, referring to it as one of her trademark looks. Jaelani Turner-Williams of Stereogum and Clarke credited the album for introducing a more sophisticated side of disco-pop for the new century. Minogue went on to make six more studio albums with Parlophone until 2016, her longest label residency after Mushroom Records.
Critics also highlighted Light Years impact on the music scene. Cinquemani stated house tracks "On a Night Like This" and "Butterfly" predicted the rise of EDM music and created the template for Minogue's releases over the next 15 years. True commented Minogue is finally comfortable with who she is and praised the album as one of the best disco records since the 1970s. A reviewer from Sputnikmusic credited the album for bringing nu-disco to the public, predicting the direction for her later releases, and influencing pop projects for two decades—namely Madonna's Confessions on a Dance Floor (2005), Arcade Fire's Reflektor (2013), and Carly Rae Jepsen's "Julien" (2019). In a 2010 article, Karina Halle of Consequence noted Minogue's flamboyant musical style has been passed down to contemporary pop artists like Lady Gaga.
Track listing
Notes
signifies an additional producer
signifies an additional vocal producer
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Light Years.
Recording locations
Metropolis Studios, London
Angel, London
Blah St., Hampshire, England
Studio 2, Dublin
Olympic, London
Real World, Box, England
Therapy, London
Master Rock, London
Sarm Hook End, London
Musicians
Kylie Minogue – lead vocals ; backing vocals
Big G. – additional guitar
Johnny Douglas – beats ; keyboards, guitar ; backing vocals
Dave Clews – keyboards ; programming
Alan Ross – guitar
Simon Hale – strings, horn arrangement ; keyboards, string arrangements, conducting
Andy Caine – backing vocals ; male choir
Miriam Stockley – backing vocals
Gavyn Wright – orchestra leader
Steve McNichol – programming
Andy Duncan – drum programming ; percussion
Tracy Ackerman – backing vocals
Phil Spalding – bass guitar ; fuzz bass electric rhythm guitar and wah-wah
Guy Chambers – keyboards ; ; piano ; electric guitar, acoustic guitar, electric sitar ; arrangement
Lance Ellington – male choir
Rick Driscoll – male choir
Clive Griffith – male choir
Pete Howarth – male choir
Mick Mullins – male choir
Dan Russell – male choir
Jon Savannah – male choir
Tony Walthers – male choir
Carl Wayne – male choir
Paul Turner – bass, guitars
Robert Williams – backing vocals
Sharon Murphy – backing vocals
John Themis – guitars
Wil Malone – orchestra arrangement, conducting
London Session Orchestra – orchestra
Craig J. Snider – additional keyboards
Dem Girlz – backing vocals
Natural – guitars, additional arrangements
Kraig McCreary – guitars
Resin Rubbers – strings
Paul Mertens – flute
Dave Sears – additional arrangements
Steve Lewinson – bass
Steve Power – additional keyboards
Robbie Williams – vocals
Winston Blissett – bass guitar
Neil Taylor – guitars
Chris Sharrock – percussion
Gary Nuttall – backing vocals
Katie Kissoon – backing vocals
Sylvia Mason-James – backing vocals
Tessa Niles – backing vocals
Paul "Tubbs" Williams – backing vocals
Claire Worrall – backing vocals
Biff – backing vocals
Technical
Mike Spencer – production
7th District – additional production, mix
Big G. – additional vocal production, engineering, mixing, mastering
Graham Stack – production, mixing
Mark Taylor – production, mixing
Johnny Douglas – production
Ren Swan – engineering, mixing
Tom Hannen – engineering assistance, mixing assistance
Guy Chambers – production
Steve Power – production, mixing ; engineering
Tony Cousins – mastering
Richard "Biff" Stannard – production
Julian Gallagher – production
Ash Howes – recording, mixing
Alvin Sweeney – recording assistance, mixing assistance
Dave McCracken – Pro Tools
Steve Anderson – production
Adam Brown – recording, mixing
Mark Picchiotti – production, mixing
Tom Carlisle – mix engineering
Pete Davis – Pro Tools
Richard Woodcraft – additional engineering
Savvas Iossifidis – additional engineering
Dave Naughton – mix engineering assistance
Richard Flack – Pro Tools
Jim Brumby – Pro Tools
Artwork
Vincent Peters – photography
Farrow Design – design
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Decade-end charts
Certifications and sales
Release history
See also
List of number-one albums of 2000 (Australia)
List of UK top-ten albums in 2000
List of top 25 albums for 2000 in Australia
List of top 25 albums for 2001 in Australia
List of best-selling albums of the 2000s in Australia
List of albums with tracks hidden in the pregap
References
Citations
Websites
Chart positions and certifications
Others
Media notes
Print sources
External links
Light Years at Kylie.com (archived from 2004)
2000 albums
Albums produced by Guy Chambers
Albums produced by Mark Taylor (music producer)
Albums produced by Richard Stannard (songwriter)
ARIA Award-winning albums
Kylie Minogue albums
Parlophone albums
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surge%20protector
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Surge protector
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A surge protector (or spike suppressor, surge suppressor, surge diverter, surge protection device (SPD) or transient voltage surge suppressor (TVSS) is an appliance or device intended to protect electrical devices from voltage spikes in alternating current (AC) circuits. A voltage spike is a transient event, typically lasting 1 to 30 microseconds, that may reach over 1,000 volts. Lightning that hits a power line can give a spike of over 100,000 volts and can burn through wiring insulation and cause fires, but even modest spikes can destroy a wide variety of electronic devices, computers, battery chargers, modems and TVs etc, that happen to be plugged in at the time. Typically the surge device will trigger at a set voltage, around 3 to 4 times the mains voltage, and divert the current to earth. Some devices may absorb the spike and release it as heat. They are generally rated according to the amount of energy in joules they can absorb.
Definitions
The terms surge protection device (SPD) and transient voltage surge suppressor (TVSS) are used to describe electrical devices typically installed in power distribution panels, process control systems, communications systems, and other heavy-duty industrial systems, for the purpose of protecting against electrical surges and spikes, including those caused by lightning. Scaled-down versions of these devices are sometimes installed in residential service entrance electrical panels, to protect equipment in a household from similar hazards.
Voltage spikes
In an AC circuit a voltage spike is a transient event, typically lasting 1 to 30 microseconds, that may reach over 1,000 volts. Lightning that hits a power line can give many thousands, sometimes 100,000 or more volts. A motor when switched off can generate a spike of 1,000 or more volts. Spikes can degrade wiring insulation and destroy electronic devices like light bulbs, battery chargers, modems, TVs, and other consumer electronics.
Spikes can also occur on telephone and data lines when AC main lines accidentally connect to them or lightning hits them, or if the telephone and data lines travel near lines with a spike and the voltage is induced.
A long term surge, lasting seconds, minutes, or hours, caused by power transformer failures such as a lost neutral or other power company error, are not protected by transient protectors. Long term surges can destroy the protectors in an entire building or area. Even tens of milliseconds can be longer than a protector can handle. Long term surges may or may not be handled by fuses and overvoltage relays.
Surge currents
Surge currents are much lower in Category A locations than at Category B and C locations.
Category A loads are more than 60 feet of wire length from the service entrance to the load. Category A loads can be exposed to 6kV, 0.5kA surge currents.
Category B loads are more than 30 feet from the service entrance and less than 60 feet of wire length from the service entrance to the load. Category B loads can be exposed to 6kV, 3kA surge currents.
Category C loads are less than 30 feet from the service entrance to the load. Category C loads can be exposed to 20kV, 10kA surge currents.
A building's wiring adds impedance that limits the surge current that reaches the loads. There is less surge current at longer wire distances and where more impedance is present between the service entrance and the load.
A coiled extension cord can be used to increase the wire length to more than 60 feet and to increase the impedance between the service entrance and the load.
Protectors
A transient surge protector attempts to limit the voltage supplied to an electric device by either blocking or shorting current to reduce the voltage below a safe threshold. Blocking is done by using inductors which inhibit a sudden change in current. Shorting is done by spark gaps, discharge tubes, zener-type semiconductors, and metal-oxide varistors (MOVs), all of which begin to conduct current once a certain voltage threshold is reached, or by capacitors which inhibit a sudden change in voltage. Some surge protectors use multiple elements.
The most common and effective way is the shorting method in which the electrical lines are temporarily shorted together (as by a spark gap) or clamped to a target voltage (as by a MOV) resulting in a large current flow. The voltage is reduced as the shorting current flows through the resistance in the power lines. The spike's energy is dissipated in the power lines (and/or the ground), or in the body of the MOV, converted to heat. Since a spike lasts only tens of microseconds, the temperature rise is minimal. However, if the spike is large enough or long enough, like a nearby hit by lightning, there might not be enough power line or ground resistance and the MOV (or other protection element) can be destroyed and power lines melted.
Surge protectors for homes can be in power strips used inside, or a device outside at the power panel. Sockets in a modern house uses three wires: line, neutral and ground. Many protectors will connect to all three in pairs (line–neutral, line–ground and neutral–ground), because there are conditions, such as lightning, where both line and neutral have high voltage spikes that need to be shorted to ground.
Additionally, some consumer-grade protectors have ports for Ethernet and coaxial cables, and plugging them in allows the surge protector to shield them from external electrical damage.
Transient voltage suppressor
A transient voltage suppressor or TVS is a general classification of electronic components that are designed to react to sudden or momentary overvoltage conditions. One such common device used for this purpose is known as the transient voltage suppression diode, a Zener diode designed to protect electronics device against overvoltages. Another design alternative applies a family of products that are known as metal-oxide varistors (MOV).
The characteristic of a TVS requires that it respond to overvoltages faster than other common overvoltage protection components such as varistors or gas discharge tubes. This makes TVS devices or components useful for protection against very fast and often damaging voltage spikes. These fast overvoltage spikes are present on all distribution networks and can be caused by either internal or external events, such as lightning or motor arcing.
Applications of transient voltage suppression diodes are used for unidirectional or bidirectional electrostatic discharge protection of transmission or data lines in electronic circuits. MOV-based TVSs are used to protect home electronics, distribution systems and may accommodate industrial level power distribution disturbances saving downtime and damage to equipment. The level of energy in a transient overvoltage can be equated to energy measured in joules or related to electric current when devices are rated for various applications. These bursts of overvoltage can be measured with specialized electronic meters that can show power disturbances of thousands of volts amplitude that last for a few microseconds or less.
It is possible for a MOV to overheat when exposed to overvoltage sufficient for the MOV to start conducting, but not enough to totally destroy it, or to blow a house fuse. If the overvoltage condition persists long enough to cause significant heating of the MOV, it can result in thermal damage to the device and start a fire.
Comparison of transient suppressors
Domestic use
Many power strips have basic surge protection built in; these are typically clearly labeled as such. However, in unregulated countries there are power strips labelled as "surge" or "spike" protectors that only have a capacitor or RFI circuit (or nothing) that do not provide true (or any) spike protection.
Industrial use
A surge arrester, surge protection device (SPD) or transient voltage surge suppressor (TVSS), is used to protect equipment in power transmission and distribution systems. The energy criterion for various insulation material can be compared by impulse ratio. A surge arrester should have a low impulse ratio, so that a surge incident on the surge arrester may be bypassed to the ground instead of passing through the apparatus.
To protect a unit of equipment from transients occurring on an attached conductor, a surge arrester is connected to the conductor just before it enters the equipment. The surge arrester is also connected to ground and functions by routing energy from an over-voltage transient to ground if one occurs, while isolating the conductor from ground at normal operating voltages. This is usually achieved through use of a varistor, which has substantially different resistances at different voltages.
Surge arresters are not generally designed to protect against a direct lightning strike to a conductor, but rather against electrical transients resulting from lightning strikes occurring in the vicinity of the conductor. Lightning which strikes the earth results in ground currents which can pass over buried conductors and induce a transient that propagates outward towards the ends of the conductor. The same kind of induction happens in overhead and above ground conductors which experience the passing energy of an atmospheric EMP caused by the lightning flash.
Surge arresters can only protect against induced transients characteristic of a lightning discharge's rapid rise-time, and will not protect against electrification caused by a direct strike to the conductor. Transients similar to lightning-induced, such as from a high voltage system's fault switching, may also be safely diverted to ground; however, continuous overcurrents are not protected against by these devices. The energy in a handled transient is substantially less than that of a lightning discharge; however it is still of sufficient quantity to cause equipment damage and often requires protection.
Without very thick insulation, which is generally cost prohibitive, most conductors running more than minimal distances (greater than approximately ) will experience lightning-induced transients at some time during use. Because the transient is usually initiated at some point between the two ends of the conductor, most applications install a surge arrester just before the conductor lands in each piece of equipment to be protected. Each conductor must be protected, as each will have its own transient induced, and each SPD must provide a pathway to earth to safely divert the transient away from the protected component.
The one notable exception where they are not installed at both ends is in high voltage distribution systems. In general, the induced voltage is not sufficient to do damage at the electric generation end of the lines; however, installation at the service entrance to a building is key to protecting downstream products that are not as robust.
Types
Low-voltage surge arrester: Apply in Low-voltage distribution system, exchange of electrical appliances protector, low-voltage distribution transformer windings
Distribution arrester: Apply in 3 kV, 6 kV, 10 kV AC power distribution system to protect distribution transformers, cables and power station equipment
The station type of common valve arrester: Used to protect the 3 ~ 220 kV transformer station equipment and communication system
Magnetic blow valve station arrester: Use to 35 ~ 500 kV protect communication systems, transformers and other equipment
Protection of rotating machine using magnetic blow valve arrester: Used to protect the AC generator and motor insulation
Line Magnetic blow valve arrester: Used to protect 330 kV and above communication system circuit equipment insulation
DC or blowing valve-type arrester: Use to protect the DC system’s insulation of electrical equipment
Neutral protection arrester: Apply in motor or the transformer’s neutral protection
Fiber-tube arrester: Apply in the power station’s wires and the weaknesses protection in the insulated
Plug-in Signal Arrester: Used to twisted-pair transmission line in order to protect communications and computer systems
High-frequency feeder arrester: Used to protect the microwave, mobile base stations satellite receiver, etc.
Receptacle-type surge arrester: Use to Protect the terminal Electronic equipment
Signal Arrester: Apply in MODEM, DDN line, fax, phone, process control signal circuit etc.
Network arrester: Apply in servers, workstations, interfaces etc.
Coaxial cable lightning arrester: Used on the coaxial cable to protect the wireless transmission and receiving system
Important specifications
These are some of the most prominently featured specifications which define a surge protector for AC mains, as well as for some data communications protection applications.
Clamping voltage
Also known as the let-through voltage, this specifies what spike voltage will cause the protective components inside a surge protector to short or clamp. A lower clamping voltage indicates better protection, but can sometimes result in a shorter life expectancy for the overall protective system. The lowest three levels of protection defined in the UL rating are 330 V, 400 V and 500 V. The standard let-through voltage for 120 V AC devices is 330 volts.
Underwriters Laboratories (UL), a global independent safety science company, defines how a protector may be used safely. UL 1449 became compliance mandatory in jurisdictions that adopted the NEC with the 3rd edition in September 2009 to increase safety compared to products conforming to the 2nd edition. A measured limiting voltage test, using six times higher current (and energy), defines a voltage protection rating (VPR). For a specific protector, this voltage may be higher compared to a Suppressed Voltage Ratings (SVR) in previous editions that measured let-through voltage with less current. Due to non-linear characteristics of protectors, let-through voltages defined by 2nd edition and 3rd edition testing are not comparable.
A protector may be larger to obtain a same let-through voltage during 3rd edition testing. Therefore, a 3rd edition or later protector should provide superior safety with increased life expectancy.
A protector with a higher let-through voltage, e.g.400 V vs 330 V, will pass a higher voltage to the connected device. The design of the connected device determines whether this pass-through spike will cause damage. Motors and mechanical devices are usually not affected. Some (especially older) electronic parts, like chargers, LED or CFL bulbs and computerized appliances are sensitive and can be compromised and have their life reduced.
Joule rating
The Joule rating number defines how much energy a MOV-based surge protector can theoretically absorb in a single event, without failure. Better protectors exceed ratings of 1,000 joules and 40,000 amperes. Since the actual duration of a spike is only about 10 microseconds, the actual dissipated energy is low. Any more than that and the MOV will fuse, or sometimes short and melt, hopefully blowing a fuse, disconnecting itself from the circuit.
The MOV (or other shorting device) requires resistance in the supply line in order to limit the voltage. For large, low resistance power lines a higher joule rated MOV is required. Inside a house, with smaller wires that have more resistance, a smaller MOV is acceptable.
Every time a MOV shorts, its internal structure is changed and its threshold voltage reduced slightly. After many spikes the threshold voltage can reduce enough to be near the line voltage, i.e. 120 vac or 240 vac. At this point the MOV will partially conduct and heat up and eventually fail, sometimes in a dramatic meltdown or even a fire. Most modern surge protectors have circuit breakers and temperature fuses to prevent serious consequences. Many also have an LED light to indicate if the MOVs are still functioning.
The joule rating is commonly quoted for comparing MOV-based surge protectors. An average surge (spike) is of short duration, lasting for nanoseconds to microseconds, and experimentally modeled surge energy can be less than 100 joules. Well-designed surge protectors consider the resistance of the lines that supply the power, the chance of lightning or other seriously energetic spike, and specify the MOVs accordingly. A little battery charger might include a MOV of only 1 watt, whereas a surge strip will have a 20 watt MOV or several of them in parallel. A house protector will have a large block-type MOV.
Some manufacturers commonly design higher joule-rated surge protectors by connecting multiple MOVs in parallel and this can produce a misleading rating. Since individual MOVs have slightly different voltage thresholds and non-linear responses when exposed to the same voltage curve, any given MOV might be more sensitive than others. This can cause one MOV in a group to conduct more (a phenomenon called current hogging), leading to possible overuse and eventual premature failure of that component. However the other MOVs in the group do help a little as they start to conduct as the voltage continues to rise as it does since a MOV does not have a sharp threshold. It may start to short at 270 volts but not reach full short until 450 or more volts. A second MOV might start at 290 volts and another at 320 volts so they all can help clamp the voltage, and at full current there is a series ballast effect that improves current sharing, but stating the actual joule rating as the sum of all the individual MOVs does not accurately reflect the total clamping ability. The first MOV may bear more of the burden and fail earlier.
One MOV manufacturer recommends using fewer but bigger MOVs (e.g.60 mm vs 40 mm diameter) if they can fit in the device. It is further recommended that multiple smaller MOVs be matched and derated. In some cases, it may take four 40 mm MOVs to be equivalent to one 60 mm MOV.
A further problem is that if a single inline fuse is placed in series with a group of paralleled MOVs as a disconnect safety feature, it will open and disconnect all remaining working MOVs.
The effective surge energy absorption capacity of the entire system is dependent on the MOV matching so derating by 20% or more is usually required. This limitation can be managed by using carefully matched sets of MOVs, matched according to manufacturer's specification.
According to industry testing standards, based on IEEE and ANSI assumptions, power line surges inside a building can be up to 6,000 volts and 3,000 amperes, and deliver up to 90 joules of energy, including surges from external sources not including lightning strikes.
The common assumptions regarding lightning specifically, based ANSI/IEEE C62.41 and UL 1449 (3rd Edition) at time of this writing, are that minimum lightning-based power line surges inside a building are typically 10,000 amperes or 10 kiloamperes (kA). This is based on 20 kA striking a power line, the imparted current then traveling equally in both directions on the power line with the resulting 10 kA traveling into the building or home. These assumptions are based on an average approximation for testing minimum standards. While 10 kA is typically good enough for minimum protection against lightning strikes it is possible for a lightning strike to impart up to 200 kA to a power line with 100 kA traveling in each direction.
Lightning and other high-energy transient voltage surges can be suppressed with pole-mounted suppressors by the utility, or with an owner supplied whole house surge protector. A whole house product is more expensive than simple single-outlet surge protectors and often needs professional installation on the incoming electrical power feed; however, they prevent power line spikes from entering the house. Damage from direct lightning strikes via other paths must be controlled separately.
Response time
Surge protectors do not operate instantaneously; a slight delay exists, some few nanoseconds. With longer response time and depending on system impedance, the connected equipment may be exposed to some of the surge. However, surges typically are much slower and take around a few microseconds to reach their peak voltage, and a surge protector with a nanosecond response time would kick in fast enough to suppress the most damaging portion of the spike.
Thus response time under standard testing is not a useful measure of a surge protector's ability when comparing MOV devices. All MOVs have response times measured in nanoseconds, while test waveforms usually used to design and calibrate surge protectors are all based on modeled waveforms of surges measured in microseconds. As a result, MOV-based protectors have no trouble producing impressive response-time specs.
Slower-responding technologies (notably, GDTs) may have difficulty protecting against fast spikes. Therefore, good designs incorporating slower but otherwise useful technologies usually combine them with faster-acting components, to provide more comprehensive protection.
Standards
Some frequently listed standards include:
IEC 61643-11 Low-voltage surge protective devices - Part 11: Surge protective devices connected to low-voltage power systems - Requirements and test methods (replaces IEC 61643-1)
IEC 61643-21 Low voltage surge protective devices - Part 21: Surge protective devices connected to telecommunications and signalling networks - Performance requirements and testing methods
IEC 61643-22 Low-voltage surge protective devices - Part 22: Surge protective devices connected to telecommunications and signalling networks - Selection and application principles
EN 61643-11, 61643-21 and 61643-22
Telcordia Technologies Technical Reference TR-NWT-001011
ANSI/IEEE C62.xx
Underwriters Laboratories (UL) 1449.
AS/NZS 1768
Each standard defines different protector characteristics, test vectors, or operational purpose.
The 3rd Edition of UL Standard 1449 for SPDs was a major rewrite of previous editions, and was also accepted as an ANSI standard for the first time. A subsequent revision in 2015 included the addition of low-voltage circuits for USB charging ports and associated batteries.
EN 62305 and ANSI/IEEE C62.xx define what spikes a protector might be expected to divert. EN 61643-11 and 61643-21 specify both the product's performance and safety requirements. In contrast, the IEC only writes standards and does not certify any particular product as meeting those standards. IEC Standards are used by members of the CB Scheme of international agreements to test and certify products for safety compliance.
None of those standards guarantee that a protector will provide proper protection in a given application. Each standard defines what a protector should do or might accomplish, based on standardized tests that may or may not correlate to conditions present in a particular real-world situation. A specialized engineering analysis may be needed to provide sufficient protection, especially in situations of high lightning risk.
In addition, the following standards are not standards for standalone surge protectors, but are instead meant for testing surge immunity in electrical and electronic equipment as a whole. Thus, they're frequently used in the design and test of surge protection circuitry.
IEC 61000-4-2 Electrostatic discharge immunity test
IEC 61000-4-4 Electrical fast transient/burst immunity test
IEC 61000-4-5 Surge immunity test
Primary components
Systems used to reduce or limit high-voltage surges can include one or more of the following types of electronic components. Some surge suppression systems use multiple technologies, since each method has its strong and weak points.
The first six methods listed operate primarily by diverting unwanted surge energy away from the protected load, through a protective component connected in a parallel (or shunted) topology. The last two methods also block unwanted energy by using a protective component connected in series with the power feed to the protected load, and additionally may shunt the unwanted energy like the earlier systems.
Metal oxide varistor
A metal oxide varistor (MOV) consists of a bulk semiconductor material (typically sintered granular zinc oxide) that can conduct large currents when presented with a voltage above its rated voltage. MOVs typically limit voltages to about 3 to 4 times the normal circuit voltage by diverting surge current elsewhere than the protected load. MOVs may be connected in parallel to increase current capability and life expectancy, providing they are matched sets.
MOVs have finite life expectancy and degrade when exposed to a few large transients, or many small transients. Every time an MOV activates its threshold voltage reduces slightly. After many spikes the threshold voltage can reduce enough to be near the protection voltage, either mains or data. At this point the MOV conducts more and more often, heats up and finally fails. In data circuits, the data channel becomes shorted and non-functional. In a power circuit, you may get a dramatic meltdown or even a fire if not protected by a fuse of some kind.
Modern surge strips and house protectors have circuit breakers and temperature fuses to prevent serious consequences. A thermal fuse disconnects the MOV when it gets too hot. Only the MOV is disconnected leaving the rest of the circuit working but without surge protection. Often there is an LED light to indicate if the MOVs are still functioning. Older surge strips had no thermal fuse and relied on a 10 or 15 amp circuit breaker which usually blew only after the MOVs had smoked, burned, popped, melted and permanently shorted.
A failing MOV is a fire risk, which is a reason for the National Fire Protection Association's (NFPA) UL1449 in 1986 and subsequent revisions in 1998, 2009 and 2015. NFPA's primary concern is protection from fire.
Therefore, all MOV-based protectors intended for long-term use should have an indicator that the protective components have failed, and this indication must be checked on a regular basis to ensure that protection is still functioning.
Because of their good price–performance ratio, MOVs are the most common protector component in low-cost basic AC power protectors.
Transient voltage suppression diode
A transient-voltage-suppression diode (TVS diode) is a type of avalanche diode which can limit voltage spikes. These components provide the fastest limiting action of protective components (theoretically in picoseconds), but have a relatively low energy-absorbing capability. Voltages can be clamped to less than twice the normal operation voltage. If current impulses remain within the device ratings, life expectancy is exceptionally long. If component ratings are exceeded, the diode may fail as a permanent short circuit; protection may remain, but normal circuit operation is terminated in the case of low-power signal lines.
Due to their relatively limited current capacity, TVS diodes are often restricted to circuits with smaller current spikes. TVS diodes are also used where spikes occur significantly more often than once a year, since this type of component will not degrade when used within its ratings. A unique type of TVS diode (trade names Transzorb or Transil) contains reversed paired series avalanche diodes for bi-polar operation.
TVS diodes are often used in high-speed but low-power circuits, such as occur in data communications. These devices can be paired in series with another diode to provide low capacitance as required in communication circuits.
Thyristor surge protection device (TSPD)
A Trisil is a type of thyristor surge protection device (TSPD), a specialized solid-state electronic device used in crowbar circuits to protect against overvoltage conditions. A SIDACtor is another thyristor type device used for similar protective purposes.
These thyristor-family devices can be viewed as having characteristics much like a spark gap or a GDT, but can operate much faster. They are related to TVS diodes, but can "break over" to a low clamping voltage analogous to an ionized and conducting spark gap. After triggering, the low clamping voltage allows large current surges while limiting heat dissipation in the device.
Gas discharge tube (GDT) spark gap
A gas discharge tube (GDT) is a sealed glass-enclosed device containing a special gas mixture trapped between two electrodes, which conducts electric current after becoming ionized by a high voltage spike. GDTs can conduct more current for their physical size than other components. Like MOVs, GDTs have a finite life expectancy, and can handle a few very large transients or a greater number of smaller transients. The typical failure mode occurs when the triggering voltage rises so high that the device becomes ineffective, although lightning surges can occasionally cause a dead short.
GDTs take a relatively long time to trigger (longer than a lightning strike of 60 ns to 70 ns), permitting a higher voltage spike to pass through briefly before the GDT conducts significant current. It is not uncommon for a GDT to let through pulses of 500 V or more of 100 ns in duration.
In some cases, additional protective components are necessary to prevent damage to a protected load, caused by high-speed let-through voltage which occurs before the GDT begins to operate. The triggering voltages are typically 400–600 volts for gas tubes and those that are UL Standard 497 listed typically have high surge current ratings, 5,000 to 10,000 amperes (8x20 µs).
GDTs create an effective short circuit when triggered, so that if any electrical energy (spike, signal, or power) is present, the GDT will short this. Once triggered, a GDT will continue conducting (called follow-on current) until all electric current sufficiently diminishes, and the gas discharge quenches. Unlike other shunt protector devices, a GDT once triggered will continue to conduct at a voltage less than the high voltage that initially ionized the gas; this behavior is called negative resistance.
Additional auxiliary circuitry may be needed in DC (and some AC) applications to suppress follow-on current, to prevent this from destroying the GDT after the initiating spike has dissipated. Some GDTs are designed to deliberately short out to a grounded terminal when overheated, thereby triggering an external fuse or circuit breaker.
Many GDTs are light-sensitive, in that exposure to light lowers their triggering voltage. Therefore, GDTs should be shielded from light exposure, or opaque versions that are insensitive to light should be used.
The CG2 SN series of surge arrestors, formerly produced by C P Clare, are advertised as being non-radioactive, and the datasheet for that series states that some members of the CG/CG2 series (75-470V) are inherently radioactive.
Due to their exceptionally low capacitance, GDTs are commonly used on high-frequency lines, such as those used in telecommunications equipment. Because of their high current-handling capability, GDTs can also be used to protect power lines, but the follow-on current problem must be controlled.
Selenium voltage suppressor
An "overvoltage clamping" bulk semiconductor similar to an MOV, though it does not clamp as well. However, it usually has a longer life than an MOV. It is used mostly in high-energy DC circuits, like the exciter field of an alternator. It can dissipate power continuously, and it retains its clamping characteristics throughout the surge event, if properly sized.
Carbon block spark gap overvoltage suppressor
A spark gap is one of the oldest protective electrical technologies still found in telephone circuits, having been developed in the nineteenth century. A carbon rod electrode is held with an insulator at a specific distance from a second electrode. The gap dimension determines the voltage at which a spark will jump between the two parts and short to ground. The typical spacing for telephone applications in North America is (0.003 inches). Carbon block suppressors are similar to gas arrestors (GDTs) but with the two electrodes exposed to the air, so their behavior is affected by the surrounding atmosphere, especially the humidity. Since their operation produces an open spark, these devices should never be installed where an explosive atmosphere may develop.
Inductors, line reactors, chokes, capacitors
Inductors, Line Reactors, Chokes and Capacitors are used to limit fault currents and can reduce or prevent overvoltage events. In applications that limit fault currents, inductors are more commonly known as an electrical line reactors or a choke. Line reactors can prevent overvoltage trips, increase the reliability and life of solid state devices, and reduce nuisance trips.
Marshalling cabinet panels with surge protectors
Metal marshalling cabinet panels can allow surge protection device (SPD) failures to be contained remotely from digital devices and electrical controllers. Direct flashes of lightning and lightning surge on secondary systems can cause catastrophic failures of SPDs. Catastrophic failures of SPDs can release fireballs of metal fragments and clouds of conductive carbon soot. Marshalling panels keep such hazards from reaching the digital and control devices that are mounted in the remote main control panels. Marshalling cabinet panels are used for digital system panels (fire alarm, security access control, computer clean power, etc.). Wiring and cables to be protected include both the power supply and any wiring (signaling circuit, initiating device circuit, shields, etc.), which extend beyond the building by underground, overhead or other means, such as walkways, bridges, etc. In addition, it should include the wiring of devices located in high places such as attics, roof levels of parking lots, parking lights, etc. After passing through the SPDs in the marshalling cabinets the wiring can pass through conduits into other remote, nearly adjacent, cabinets that contain the input & output connections to for digital system panels (fire alarm, security access control, computer clean power, programmable logic controllers (PLCs), etc.
Quarter-wave coaxial surge arrestor
Used in RF signal transmission paths, this technology features a tuned quarter-wavelength short-circuit stub that allows it to pass a bandwidth of frequencies, but presents a short to any other signals, especially down towards DC. The passbands can be narrowband (about ±5% to ±10% bandwidth) or wideband (above ±25% to ±50% bandwidth). Quarter-wave coax surge arrestors have coaxial terminals, compatible with common coax cable connectors (especially N or 7-16 types). They provide the most rugged available protection for RF signals above ; at these frequencies they can perform much better than the gas discharge cells typically used in the universal/broadband coax surge arrestors. Quarter-wave arrestors are useful for telecommunications applications, such as Wi-Fi at 2.4 or but less useful for TV/CATV frequencies. Since a quarter-wave arrestor shorts out the line for low frequencies, it is not compatible with systems which send DC power for a LNB up the coaxial downlink.
Series mode (SM) surge suppressors
These devices are not rated in joules because they operate differently from the earlier suppressors, and they do not depend on materials that inherently wear out during repeated surges. SM suppressors are primarily used to control transient voltage surges on electrical power feeds to protected devices. They are essentially heavy-duty low-pass filters connected so that they allow 50 or 60 Hz line voltages through to the load, while blocking and diverting higher frequencies. This type of suppressor differs from others by using banks of inductors, capacitors and resistors that suppress voltage surges and inrush current to the neutral wire, whereas other designs shunt to the ground wire. Surges are not diverted but actually suppressed. The inductors slow down the energy. Since the inductor in series with the circuit path slows the current spike, the peak surge energy is spread out in the time domain and harmlessly absorbed and slowly released from a capacitor bank.
Experimental results show that most surge energies occur at under 100 joules, so exceeding the SM design parameters is unlikely. SM suppressors do not present a fire risk should the absorbed energy exceed design limits of the dielectric material of the components because the surge energy is also limited via arc-over to ground during lightning strikes, leaving a surge remnant that often does not exceed a theoretical maximum (such as 6000 V at 3000 A with a modeled shape of 8 × 20 microsecond waveform specified by IEEE/ANSI C62.41). Because SMs work on both the current rise and the voltage rise, they can safely operate in the worst surge environments.
SM suppression focuses its protective philosophy on a power supply input, but offers nothing to protect against surges appearing between the input of an SM device and data lines, such as antennae, telephone or LAN connections, or multiple such devices cascaded and linked to the primary devices. This is because they do not divert surge energy to the ground line. Data transmission requires the ground line to be clean in order to be used as a reference point. In this design philosophy, such events are already protected against by the SM device before the power supply. NIST reports that "Sending them [surges]
down the drain of a grounding conductor only makes them reappear within a microsecond about 200 meters away on some other conductor." So having protection on a data transmission line is only required if surges are diverted to the ground line.
SM devices tend to be bulkier and heavier than devices utilizing other surge suppression technologies. The initial costs of SM filters are higher, typically and up, but a long service life can be expected if they are used properly. In-field installation costs can be higher, since SM devices are installed in series with the power feed, requiring the feed to be cut and reconnected.
See also
Lightning arrester
Lightning rod
Notes
References
External links
Surge Protection in Low-Voltage AC Power Circuits: An 8-part Anthology A comprehensive compilation of papers and articles published 1963-2003, hosted by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), an agency of the US Commerce Department.
NEMA Surge Protection Institute
Important Points About Surge Protectors. Surgege Protector Tech.
Intro to TVS on AllAboutCircuits
Inductive Load Arc Suppression
Comparison to other transient voltage technologies
Consumer electronics
Computer peripherals
Electric power systems components
Voltage stability
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corey%20Taylor
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Corey Taylor
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Corey Todd Taylor (born December 8, 1973) is an American musician, songwriter, author and actor. He is the lead vocalist of the heavy metal band Slipknot, in which he is designated #8, as well as the lead vocalist, guitarist, lyricist, and sole continuous member of the rock band Stone Sour.
Taylor co-founded Stone Sour with drummer Joel Ekman in 1992, playing in the Des Moines, Iowa area, and working on a demo. He joined Slipknot in 1997 to replace their original lead singer Anders Colsefni and has subsequently released seven studio albums with them. After the first two Slipknot albums went Platinum, Taylor revived Stone Sour to record an album and tour in 2002. His debut solo studio album, CMFT, was released in 2020.
CMF2, is the second solo studio album by American musician Corey Taylor. It was released on September 15, 2023.
He has also worked with several other acts, including Junk Beer Kidnap Band, Korn, Disturbed, Apocalyptica, Code Orange, Anthrax, Steel Panther, Tonight Alive, Falling in Reverse, Soulfly, Damageplan, Tech N9ne, and The Clay People.
Early life
Corey Todd Taylor was born on December 8, 1973, in Des Moines, Iowa. He was mostly raised by his single mother in Waterloo, Iowa, and described it as a "hole in the ground with buildings around it". He is of German, Irish and Native American descent on his father's side, and Dutch and Irish on his mother's side. Taylor along with his mother and sister would often move around the country in search for job prospects. By the time he was 15, he had "already lived in 25 states". Around 1979, Taylor and his mother saw the sci-fi series Buck Rogers in the 25th Century. Before the series, there was a trailer for the 1978 horror film Halloween. Taylor said this "developed some sense of Slipknot in [himself]". While Halloween introduced Taylor to masks and horror themes, Taylor's grandmother introduced him to rock music, showing him a collection of Elvis Presley records from the 1950s to 1970s. He especially found songs like "Teddy Bear", "In the Ghetto", and "Suspicious Minds" to appeal to his interests the most, describing them as "good times". Taylor also began listening to Black Sabbath at a young age, beginning with their early work. He decided he wanted to become a singer when he and his cousin were singing along to Journey's Separate Ways.
In 1983, when he was nine years old, his mother and her boyfriend moved to Fort Lauderdale, Florida to become security guards for Burt Reynolds' ranch. However, as they were driving there, they got stranded in Georgia and lost some of his possessions. By age 15, he had developed a drug addiction and had overdosed on cocaine twice. By this time, he was living in Waterloo, but later set out on his own and ended up at his grandmother's house in Des Moines. She took legal custody of him so that he could continue going to school, and she helped him buy musical equipment. He would later describe his grandmother as his "strongest influence" as well as his "rock, foundation and stability." When Taylor was 18, he left his grandmother's house and went to various places in Iowa, Des Moines being a place to which he frequently returned. Taylor attended Lincoln High School in Des Moines but did not graduate. He later earned his GED.
In 2017, on an episode of Viceland's The Therapist, Taylor revealed that he was sexually abused at the age of 10 by a 16-year-old friend. Taylor stated that he never told anyone about the incident until he was "probably 18" because his abuser "threatened to hurt [him] and threatened to hurt [his] mom". At age 18, when Taylor was living with his grandmother, he attempted suicide by way of overdose. His ex-girlfriend's mother drove him to the hospital in Des Moines and doctors were able to resuscitate him. He describes this as the lowest point in his life. Taylor first met his father when he was 30 years old, and now has a relationship with him, although he said their paths do not cross that often.
Music career
Stone Sour
Taylor is a founding member of American hard rock band Stone Sour. After he formed the band in 1992 with drummer Joel Ekman, Shawn Economaki joined filling in the bass position, leaving the electric guitar position to be filled by Josh Rand. Stone Sour recorded a demo album in 1993, and another in 1994. In 1997, Taylor was approached by the metal band, Slipknot, resulting in him abandoning Stone Sour while they were recording a demo album with Sean McMahon at SR studios. Taylor did not return until five years later to record their debut album, Stone Sour in 2002. Both Taylor and guitarist Josh Rand contacted Jim Root, Slipknot's guitarist, and Shawn Economaki, Stone Sour's original bassist, to begin writing songs for their debut album. Drummer Joel Ekman came back on board as well. This "reformation" later resulted in Stone Sour recording at Catamount Studios in Cedar Falls, Iowa.
Their self-titled debut album was released August 27, 2002, and it debuted at number 46 on the Billboard 200. Their second album, Come What(ever) May debuted at number four on the Billboard 200. It was released August 1, 2006, and charted on several different charts. Live in Moscow is currently their only album specifically released only for download. During the recording of the album, drummer Joel Ekman left the band for personal reasons. As a result, drummer Roy Mayorga was recruited, taking his place. The group released their third studio album, Audio Secrecy, on September 7, 2010.
Later, Corey Taylor announced the release of a concept double album with Stone Sour. The albums are titled "House of Gold & Bones". During the process of making the double album, bassist Shawn Economaki left the band. He was temporarily replaced for touring purposes by Johny Chow. The first part was released in October 2012 and the second part in April 2013. There are 23 songs in total, 11 on the first part and 12 on the second. In addition to these two albums is a four-part comic book series written by Taylor and published by Dark Horse Comics, which went on sale in 2013. With these albums came a story that was written by Taylor that coincide with the album. Fans can also construct a miniature "house of gold and bones" from the packaging design of the physical versions of the two albums. Taylor has also said that he would like to finish off the project by making the story into a movie but nothing has come of this yet.
Slipknot
In Des Moines, Iowa, Joey Jordison, Shawn Crahan, and Mick Thomson approached him asking him to join Slipknot. He agreed to go to one of their practices, and ended up singing in front of them. Of Slipknot's nine members, Corey was the sixth to join the band. Performing with Slipknot, he would also come to be known as "Number Eight", since the band follows a numbering scheme for its members, ranging from 0–8. According to Shawn Crahan, Corey wanted number eight, because it symbolizes infinity.
Feeling he could expand more inside Slipknot than in Stone Sour, Taylor temporarily quit Stone Sour, even though they were recording an album with Sean McMahon. Taylor's first gig with Slipknot was on August 24, 1997, which according to band members did not go well. During his first gig, Taylor was performing with facepaint instead of a mask; however, for his second show on September 12, he wore a mask that resembles his debut album mask.
Taylor has recorded with Slipknot since the release of their second demo album, a self-titled demo used to promote the band to prospective labels and producers. As their permanent vocalist, he recorded with Slipknot at Indigo Ranch in Malibu, California, and released Slipknot, the band's debut album that peaked at number one on the Top Heatseekers chart, went double platinum in the United States, and was included in the 2006 book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die. Taylor was accused of copyright infringement regarding the lyrics of the song "Purity", but no action was taken. Taylor began recording for their second studio album, Iowa, in 2001 at Sound City and Sound Image in Van Nuys, Los Angeles. It was released August 28, 2001, and peaked at number one on the UK Albums Chart, as well as number three on the Billboard 200. While writing Vol. 3: (The Subliminal Verses), Taylor decided to write lyrics that would not warrant an explicit label. It peaked at number two on the Billboard 200. All Hope Is Gone was the first Slipknot album to peak at number one on the Billboard 200.
Other work
Taylor has appeared as a guest musician on albums by Soulfly, Apocalyptica, Damageplan, Steel Panther, and Code Orange. At one point, he was heavily involved in the recording of thrash metal band Anthrax's album, Worship Music, but the sessions remain unreleased. He also contributed to the Roadrunner United all-star album in 2005, providing vocals for the song "Rich Man". Taylor also made a brief appearance in Steel Panther's singles "Death to All but Metal", "Eyes of a Panther", and "Asian Hooker". In 2006, Taylor founded the record company Great Big Mouth Records. Taylor has produced two albums: Facecage's self-titled album and Walls of Jericho's Redemption. Taylor provided guest narration on the track "Repentance" for Dream Theater's 2007 album Systematic Chaos. In an interview with Billboard, Taylor confirmed that on January 13, 2009, he was planning on making a solo album, as well as returning to his side project Stone Sour after Slipknot's All Hope Is Gone World Tour. Taylor has stated that he was writing songs that "don't fit either of his main bands." He describes them as a cross between Foo Fighters, Johnny Cash, and Social Distortion, saying that there's "a country background that comes built-in with living in Iowa".
On March 30, 2009, it was confirmed that Taylor and the Junk Beer Kidnap Band would be performing at Rockfest in 2009. The group performed on April 24, 2009, at People's Court in Des Moines, Iowa, marking Taylor's first official solo show. Taylor performs with his band the Dum Fux with Denny Harvey, who make covers for 1970s punk rock and 1980s hair metal. Taylor also performs with Audacious P, a band that is primarily a Tenacious D cover band. Rapper Tech N9ne confirmed that Taylor was to perform on his album K.O.D., but was removed because Taylor did not submit his vocals in time, though he would later make an appearance on Tech's 2015 album Special Effects, on the song "Wither". Taylor recently admitted that he tried out for the vacant singer spot in the band Velvet Revolver, but said that it just did not work out. However, according to a recent Billboard article, it seems likely that he may in fact become the vocalist for Velvet Revolver, though no official confirmation has been made. Duff McKagan added that they can neither "confirm or deny" Taylor's membership in the band but believes that Taylor is the "real deal". Slash has since ruled Taylor out as the possible new vocalist explaining that "[it] just wasn't right" although he does love him. Taylor has, however, recorded 10 new songs with the band, although drummer Matt Sorum stated it is unlikely they will ever be released. Taylor explained to Mark Hoppus on Hoppus on Music that he and McKagan were writing new music for a possible new supergroup.
On June 21, 2018, Taylor featured on the track "The Hunt" by metallic hardcore band Code Orange, the second track of the three-track EP The Hurt Will Go On. In April 2019, Taylor collaborated on the song "Drugs" by the band Falling in Reverse. In September 2019, he was featured on Nostalgia Critic's parody album of Pink Floyd's The Wall on a cover of the opening theme for SpongeBob SquarePants.
Taylor released his solo album, CMFT, on October 2, 2020, via Roadrunner Records. The first two singles, "Black Eyes Blue" and "CMFT Must Be Stopped", were released on July 29, 2020. Despite charting relatively well, he would later accuse Roadrunner of doing little to promote CMFT.
Taylor mentioned in an October 3, 2020, interview about a followup album entitled CMF2, which would be completed prior to a tour supporting both it and CMFT. He contributed a cover of the Metallica song "Holier Than Thou" to the charity tribute album The Metallica Blacklist, released in September 2021. In May of 2021, Taylor's vocals were featured on a track by Nashville band The Dead Deads, entitled "Murder Ballad II".
Between January 18 and March 6, 2023, Taylor spent time at various studios working on CMF2. On April 27, 2023, Taylor signed a new record deal with BMG Rights Management to distribute CMF2, which will be released through his own imprint label, Decibel Cooper Recordings. The first single from the album, "Beyond", was released on May 16, 2023.
Style and influence
Taylor told Loudwire in 2015 that if it were not for Faith No More, he "wouldn't be here today". While recovering from an attempted suicide, he saw the band perform "Epic" live on the 1990 MTV Video Music Awards and the performance inspired him to begin writing and performing music again. He has also stated that Pearl Jam had hugely influenced and inspired his music, saying that the group was "one of the biggest and best rock bands of all time".
The first two Slipknot albums with Taylor's vocals, Slipknot and Iowa, both contain substantial explicit content. Many critics claimed Taylor relied on profanity, culminating in Slipknot's third album, Vol. 3: (The Subliminal Verses) largely lacking the use of swearing, as such did not warrant the explicit label. Compared with the previous vocalist for Slipknot, Anders Colsefni, Taylor has a vocal style that was characterized by the late, ex-drummer Joey Jordison as "really good melodic singing". Taylor's vocal style, which contains at times melodic singing, growling, screaming, shouting, and rapping, led him to place at number 86 on the Hit Parader's Top 100 Metal Vocalists of All Time and is often compared to other vocalists such as Ivan Moody, John Bush, Phil Anselmo, and Jamey Jasta.
Personal life
On September 17, 2002, Taylor's then-fiancée, Scarlett, gave birth to their son, Griffin. Taylor also has a daughter, Angeline, from an earlier relationship. Taylor and Scarlett married on March 11, 2004, and divorced in 2007. On November 13, 2009, Taylor married Stephanie Luby at the Palms Hotel in Las Vegas. They had a daughter, Rian, but separated in 2017. On April 7, 2019, it was announced on his Instagram page that he became engaged to Alicia Dove, creator of "Cherry Bombs". On October 6, 2019, the pair married.
Taylor has had problems with alcoholism, which Scarlett helped him through as well as keeping him from completing suicide. In 2006, Taylor told MTV that he had attempted to jump off a balcony of the eighth floor of The Hyatt on Sunset Boulevard in 2003, but "somehow [Scarlett] stopped me". This was later recanted by Taylor in an interview with Kerrang! radio and stated that it was, in fact, his friend Thom Hazaert who physically stopped him from jumping. Scarlett then told him that either he would have to get sober or she would annul their marriage. Before Stone Sour started recording Come What(ever) May in January 2006, Taylor was sober.
On August 3, 2009, he co-hosted the 2009 Kerrang! Awards alongside Scott Ian of Anthrax. The following year, they both once again co-hosted The Kerrang! Awards, where Taylor collected the K! Services to Metal award on behalf of Paul Gray, who died after an accidental overdose of morphine and fentanyl.
In early September 2010, Taylor announced that his book, Seven Deadly Sins: Settling The Argument Between Born Bad And Damaged Good, would be released on July 12, 2011, through Da Capo Press.
In August 2021, Taylor tested positive for COVID-19 after the conclusion of a solo tour in support of his album CMFT. He was symptomatic despite being vaccinated, and credited the vaccine for preventing him from becoming seriously ill.
Taylor politically identifies as a centrist and is also strongly opposed to cancel culture.
He divides his time between homes in Des Moines, Iowa and Las Vegas, Nevada.
In 2016, he had to have surgery in his neck after, in his own words, "broke [his] neck a while back [and] didn't realize it".
Feuds
Limp Bizkit
While on tour in April of 1999 promoting Slipknot's upcoming self-titled album release, Taylor expressed his disgust with Korn drummer David Silveria's photo campaign for Calvin Klein. Taylor had noticed multiple magazine issues of Silveria modeling in the campaign, and promptly purchased multiple copies of the magazine issues and publicly burned them during several Slipknot live performances. Limp Bizkit turntablist DJ Lethal and frontman Fred Durst (who was a friend of Silveria's) took offense to the gestures, later making retaliatory remarks directed at Slipknot's fans in May of 1999, referring to them as "fat, ugly kids". Slipknot singer Corey Taylor responded during an appearance in Sydney on Channel V Australia by claiming that the fans of Slipknot "for the most part, enjoy all kinds of music, like Limp Bizkit… maybe." Taylor went on to claim that insulting fans of Slipknot could also be insulting fans of Limp Bizkit. In October of 2000 during a VH1 interview, Durst responded to Taylor's comments with praise toward Slipknot's music but also expressing his desire to quell the hate between the two sides. Taylor acknowledged Durst's comments in June of 2001, but continued to attack Limp Bizkit; telling Much Music: "Fred Durst is a great businessman, but he is NOT an artist. I don't feel that from him, I don't give a fuck if he's got ten-gajillion dollars, he is not an artist to me; and ya know it has nothing to do with him as a person, it is what he is doing, he is pre-packaging, and processing a lot of music that these kids feel".
Taylor and Durst eventually found themselves in a friendlier relationship in 2010, while recording the album Gold Cobra; Durst included a line on the song 90.2.10 shouting out Taylor. According to Taylor during a 2011 interview; Durst's children are allegedly fans of Slipknot's music. Taylor during a 2013 interview claimed he and numerous Slipknot members held strong admiration for Limp Bizkit's Three Dollar Bill, Y'all album. Taylor also claimed that the two bands were on the same bill for the 2009 Download Festival, in which Durst approached him, informing Taylor that his children were fans of Slipknot's music, to which Taylor offered to sign them several autographs. Limp Bizkit was later booked on the 2014 Japanese leg of Slipknot's Knotfest tour along with Korn.
In 2021, following the death of ex-drummer Joey Jordison, Limp Bizkit paid tribute to him at one of their shows in Des Moines.
Nickelback
The feud between Taylor and Nickelback frontman Chad Kroeger extends back to 2002 whilst Stone Sour and Slipknot were under the same label as Nickelback; Roadrunner Records. During a 2002 interview, Taylor expressed his anger towards the label's promotion of Nickelback as opposed to Stone Sour's, claiming "I'm glad they could use our money to make Nickelback happy. That's a very bitter subject for me and if I see any of those fuckers, it's going to be brutal". Despite the comments, Taylor later claimed he had a cordial relationship with the other members of Nickelback during most of the following decade. In 2017 during an interview by Swedish rock website Metal Covenant; Kroeger attacked Taylor after being asked his opinion of Stone Sour, claiming "They're trying to be Nickelback [...] they're okay; they're not as good as Nickelback, they sound like Nickelback-lite", decrying Taylor for attacking him in the press and noting that he was unable to release a number one hit, calling Slipknot's stage image and masks a "Gimmick". During an interview on June 19, 2017; Taylor responded to Kroeger's comments, proclaiming "You know what? I've never said it was easy to write a hit song, I don't know what the hell planet he's living on. Apparently it's Planet Kroeger, and there must be good weed there, 'cause he's an idiot". Taylor later highlighted how he respected the other members of Nickelback but solely harbored animosity towards Kroeger, later referring to him as "Face like a Foot". During Stone Sour's July 2017 performance in Chicago, multiple fans began chanting "Fuck Nickelback" prior to the band's entrance onto the stage. Taylor later humorously addressed the crowd claiming: "I can't take you guys anywhere can I? You guys are fucking insane, Come on, get it out of your system, make some fucking noise out there. Beautiful, crazy bitches. I'll tell you what, we're going to play you a 'non-hit song'".
Machine Gun Kelly
In 2021, Taylor engaged into a feud with rapper Machine Gun Kelly in response to the rapper shifting his public image and musical ambitions to pop punk as opposed to rap following his widely publicized feud with Eminem. During an interview Taylor openly poked fun as Kelly's transition to rock claiming: "I hate all new rock for the most part — well, the artists who failed in one genre and decided to go rock. And I think he knows who he is, but that's another story." During Riot Fest in September 2021, Kelly and Slipknot were scheduled to perform on the same day and time, albeit at different stages. Kelly utilized the opportunity to express retaliatory remarks to Taylor's comments, opening his set by asking the crew to light the audience so he could "see who chose to be here instead of with all the old weird dudes with masks." He later attacked the band again, exclaiming "You wanna know what I'm really happy that I'm not doing? Being 50 years old, wearing a fuckin' weird mask on a fuckin' stage, talking shit."
Shortly afterwards, Kelly revealed on Twitter that Taylor was originally intended to feature on "Can't Look Back", a song off of his 2020 album Tickets to My Downfall, but the collaboration did not come to fruition due to Kelly's dissatisfaction with the verse, calling it "fucking terrible" before claiming Taylor was bitter about being removed as a feature. Taylor responded to the tweet by uploading screenshots of emails between himself and Travis Barker, co-producer of Tickets to My Downfall, highlighting that he respectfully declined to appear on the track due to creative differences with Kelly. In response, Kelly stated that he requested for Taylor to rewrite his verse, reiterating his previous assertion that it was "really bad".
Taylor later addressed the feud during a fan Q&A in January 2022 where he claimed that Kelly instigated the conflict. He went on to insult Kelly's change in musical direction and told him to "suck every inch of my dick."
During an interview in July 2022, Kelly admitted in his Life in Pink documentary that he regretted his feud with Taylor and wished that both of them conducted themselves in situation better than acting "ridiculous".
Solo band members
Current members
Corey Taylor – vocals, guitar (2009–present), piano (2020–present)
Christian Martucci – guitar, backing vocals (2010, 2011, 2015, 2016–2017, 2020–present)
Zach Throne – guitar, backing vocals (2019–2021, 2021–present)
Dustin Robert – drums (2019, 2020–present)
Eliot Lorango – bass (2021–present)
Former members
Nik Sorak – guitar, backing vocals (2009–2010)
Fred Missouri – bass (2009)
Tyson Leslie – keyboard, guitar (2009)
Thomas Doggett – saxophone, wind synthesizer, backing vocals (2009)
Ryan Berrier – drums (2009)
Jason Christopher – bass, backing vocals (2009–2010, 2011, 2019–2021), guitar, backing vocals (2010, 2011–2012, 2015, 2018)
Roy Mayorga – drums (2010, 2011)
Arejay Hale – drums (2011)
Brandon Pertzborn – drums (2019)
Discography
Studio albums
EPs
CMFB ...Sides (2022)
Singles
As lead artist
As featured artist
Guest appearances
Equipment
Filmography
Bibliography
Awards
Revolver Golden Gods Awards
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| 2010 || Corey Taylor || Best Vocalist ||
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| 2013 || Corey Taylor || Best Vocalist ||
Loudwire Music Awards
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| 2015 || Corey Taylor || Rock Titan ||
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| 2017 || Corey Taylor || Best Vocalist ||
Kerrang! Awards
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| 2018 || Corey Taylor || Legend ||
References
Bibliography
External links
Corey Taylor interview
Metal Underground: interview
NY rock: article
IGN: article
Duff McKagan on Corey Taylor in Seattle Weekly
1973 births
American heavy metal singers
American male singers
American male guitarists
American heavy metal guitarists
American baritones
20th-century American singers
21st-century American singers
American people of German descent
American people who self-identify as being of Native American descent
American people of Irish descent
American people of Dutch descent
Grammy Award winners
Musicians from Des Moines, Iowa
Living people
Writers from Des Moines, Iowa
Writers from Waterloo, Iowa
Nu metal singers
Roadrunner Records artists
Slipknot (band) members
Stone Sour members
Singers with a five-octave vocal range
Singers from Iowa
Alternative metal musicians
American hard rock musicians
Male actors from Iowa
Teenage Time Killers members
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andy%20Burnham
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Andy Burnham
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Andrew Murray Burnham (born 7 January 1970) is a British politician who has served as Mayor of Greater Manchester since 2017. He served in Gordon Brown's Cabinet as Chief Secretary to the Treasury from 2007 to 2008, Culture Secretary from 2008 to 2009 and Health Secretary from 2009 to 2010. A member of the Labour Party, Burnham identifies as a socialist and as belonging to the party's soft left. He served as Shadow Home Secretary from 2015 to 2016 and was Member of Parliament (MP) for Leigh from 2001 to 2017.
Born in the Old Roan area of Aintree, Burnham was educated at St Aelred's Catholic High School in Newton-le-Willows and graduated with a degree in English from Fitzwilliam College, Cambridge. He worked as a researcher for Tessa Jowell from 1994 to 1997, then worked for the NHS Confederation in 1997 and as an administrator for the Football Task Force in 1998. He was a special adviser to Culture Secretary Chris Smith from 1998 to 2001. Following the retirement of Lawrence Cunliffe, the Labour MP for Leigh, Burnham was elected to succeed him in 2001.
He served as a Parliamentary Private Secretary from 2003 to 2005. He was promoted by Prime Minister Tony Blair to serve in his Government after the 2005 election as Under-Secretary of State for the Home Department. In 2006, Burnham was reshuffled to become Minister of State for Health. When Gordon Brown became Prime Minister in 2007, Burnham was promoted to the Cabinet as Chief Secretary to the Treasury, a position he held until 2008, when he became Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport. In 2009, he was promoted again to become Secretary of State for Health. In that role, he opposed further privatisation of National Health Service services and launched an independent inquiry into the Stafford Hospital scandal. Following the Labour Party's defeat in the 2010 general election, Burnham was a candidate in the 2010 Labour leadership election, coming fourth out of five candidates. The contest was won by Ed Miliband. Burnham served as Shadow Secretary of State for Health until late 2010, when he was moved by Miliband to become Shadow Secretary of State for Education. He held that role for a year, then returning to the role of Shadow Health Secretary.
Following Miliband's resignation as Labour leader due to the 2015 general election defeat, Burnham launched his campaign to succeed Miliband in the resulting September 2015 leadership election. He finished a distant second behind Jeremy Corbyn, after which he accepted a role in Corbyn's Shadow Cabinet as Shadow Home Secretary. After being selected as Labour's candidate for the new Greater Manchester Mayoralty, Burnham stood down as Shadow Home Secretary in 2016 and an MP at the 2017 general election. Burnham won the 2017 mayoral election, and was re-elected in the delayed election held in May 2021. For his role of securing more money for local Northern communities during the COVID-19 pandemic, he was dubbed the "King of the North" by the media.
Early life and education
Andrew Murray Burnham was born on 7 January 1970 in Aintree, Lancashire (now part of Liverpool City Region, Merseyside). His father, Kenneth Roy Burnham, was a telephone engineer and his mother, Eileen Mary Burnham, was a receptionist. He was brought up in Culcheth and educated at St Lewis Catholic Primary School and St Aelred's Roman Catholic High School, in Newton le Willows, St Helens. He studied English at Fitzwilliam College, Cambridge.
Early political career
Burnham joined the Labour Party when he was 15. From 1994 until the 1997 general election he was a researcher for Tessa Jowell. He joined the Transport and General Workers' Union in 1995. Following the 1997 election, he was a parliamentary officer for the NHS Confederation from August to December 1997, before taking up the post as an administrator with the Football Task Force for a year.
In 1998, he became a special adviser to the Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport, Chris Smith, a position he remained in until he was elected to the House of Commons in 2001.
Member of Parliament
Following the retirement of Lawrence Cunliffe, Burnham successfully applied to be the parliamentary candidate for Leigh in Greater Manchester, then a safe Labour seat. At the 2001 election he was elected with a majority of 16,362, and gave his maiden speech in the House of Commons on 4 July 2001.
Following his election to Parliament, Burnham was a member of the Health Select Committee from 2001 until 2003, when he was appointed Parliamentary Private Secretary (PPS) to the Home Secretary David Blunkett. Following Blunkett's first resignation in 2004, he became PPS to the education secretary Ruth Kelly. Burnham voted for the Iraq War, and consistently voted against holding an inquiry into the war.
In Government (2005–2010)
Burnham was promoted to serve in the Government following the 2005 election as a Parliamentary Under Secretary of State, with responsibility for implementing the Identity Cards Act 2006. In the government reshuffle of 5 May 2006, he was moved from the Home Office and promoted to Minister of State for Delivery and Reform at the Department of Health. In Gordon Brown's first cabinet, announced on 28 June 2007, Burnham was appointed Chief Secretary to the Treasury, a position he held until 2008. During his time at the Treasury, he helped write the 2007 Comprehensive Spending Review.
Brown Cabinet (2008–2010)
In a re-shuffle in January 2008, Burnham was promoted to the position of Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport, replacing James Purnell. In June 2008, he apologised to the director of pressure group Liberty, Shami Chakrabarti, after she threatened to sue him for libel for smearing her reputation in an article Burnham had written for Progress magazine.
In late 2008, Burnham announced government plans to tighten controls on internet content in order to "even up" what he described as an imbalance with TV regulations. The announcement was followed by a speech to the music industry's lobbying group, UK Music, in which he announced "a time that calls for partnership between Government and the music business as a whole: one with rewards for both of us; one with rewards for society as a whole. (...) My job – Government's job – is to preserve the value in the system."
In April 2009 after being heckled at the 20th anniversary of the Hillsborough disaster Burnham used the next day's cabinet meeting in Downing Street to ask then prime minister Gordon Brown if he could raise the issue of Hillsborough in Parliament, and Brown agreed. The eventual result was the second Hillsborough inquiry. In 2014 when Burnham spoke at the 25th anniversary of the Hillsborough disaster he was cheered and applauded by the crowd.
Burnham was again promoted becoming Secretary of State for Health in June 2009. He held the post until the Labour government resigned after the 2010 general election. In July 2009, a month after he became health secretary, Burnham launched an independent inquiry chaired by the QC Robert Francis into unusually high mortality rates at Stafford Hospital. The inquiry found systematic failures at the hospital, and was critical of care provided by the Mid Staffordshire NHS Foundation Trust. A wider public inquiry, also led by Robert Francis, was launched in 2010 by his successor as health secretary, Andrew Lansley. It found serious failings at the hospital but concluded it would be "misleading" to link those failings to a particular number of deaths. After leaving office, reports claimed that Burnham and his predecessor as health secretary, Alan Johnson, had rejected 81 requests for an inquiry sitting in public to examine the high rate of deaths at Stafford hospital. According to The Daily Telegraph, after initial concerns were raised about links between mortality rates and standards of care in 2005, there were up to 2,800 more deaths than expected across 14 NHS trusts highlighted as having unusually high death rates. These figures for deaths were however discredited. A report, the Keogh Review, following an investigation into the 14 NHS trusts by Bruce Keogh, described the use of such statistical measures as "clinically meaningless and academically reckless".
In Opposition (2010–2017)
First leadership campaign (2010)
Burnham became Shadow Secretary of State for Health after May 2010 following the defeat of Gordon Brown's government. Following Brown's resignation as leader of the Labour Party, Burnham declared his intention to stand in the subsequent leadership contest. He launched his leadership campaign in his Leigh constituency on 26 May. Burnham stood on his philosophy of "aspirational socialism", aligning himself with Intern Aware's campaign to end unpaid internships. He made policy commitments including the creation of a national care service and replacing inheritance tax with a land value tax. Burnham finished fourth, eliminated on the second ballot with 10.4% of the vote. The leadership contest was won by Ed Miliband.
Miliband Shadow Cabinet (2010–2015)
In October 2010, Burnham was appointed Shadow Secretary of State for Education and election co-ordinator for the Labour Party. As shadow education secretary, Burnham opposed the coalition government's plans for "free schools". He argued for moving the education system back towards a comprehensive system.
A year later, he was appointed to the role of Shadow Secretary of State for Health, which he held until 2015.
In July 2013 The Daily Telegraph reported that Burnham's staff had edited his Wikipedia page to remove criticisms of his handling of the Stafford Hospital scandal. Burnham's office claimed they had removed false statements that had been drawn to their attention.
Second leadership campaign (2015)
On 13 May 2015, Burnham announced that he would stand to replace Ed Miliband in the 2015 leadership election. He stressed the need to unite the party and country and "rediscover the beating heart of Labour."
He attracted press criticism for claiming £17,000 in expenses to rent a London flat, despite owning another within walking distance of the House of Commons. A spokesperson for Burnham said that renting out the original flat was necessary to "cover his costs" as parliamentary rule changes meant he was no longer able to claim for mortgage interest expenses. Burnham was criticised for jokingly saying that Labour should have a woman leader "when the time is right", with the New Statesman saying that he had "tripped over his mouth again". He also said that he would resign from the Shadow Cabinet if Labour supported leaving NATO, something which Jeremy Corbyn had talked about. Burnham was criticised for refusing to talk to "The Sun" newspaper when it emerged he had been interviewed by "The Sun" in his previous run for the Labour leadership, and had been photographed in the back of a cab for the newspaper. Burnham abstained on the government's welfare bill, despite having previously described the legislation as "unsupportable".
Burnham came second to Jeremy Corbyn in the election, with 19% of the vote in the first round, compared to 59% for Corbyn.
Corbyn Shadow Cabinet (2015–2017)
In September 2015, Burnham accepted an appointment as shadow home secretary in the first Shadow Cabinet of Jeremy Corbyn and remained in the role after the 2016 reshuffle.
Burnham opposes the Prevent counter-terrorism strategy; appearing in 2016 alongside the anti-Prevent organisation MEND, Burnham said: "The Prevent duty to report extremist behaviour is today's equivalent of internment in Northern Ireland."
On 27 April 2016, the day after the Hillsborough inquest verdict that found the 96 Hillsborough deaths had occurred as a result of unlawful killing, Burnham made a speech to the House of Commons calling for those responsible to be held to account. Condemning South Yorkshire Police, which had instigated a cover-up in the aftermath of the tragedy, he described the force as being "rotten to the core" while suggesting that the cover-up had been "advanced in the committee rooms of this House and in the press rooms of 10 Downing Street". The eleven-minute statement drew applause from MPs, a response that is generally against convention at Westminster.
On 25 April 2017, as his final act in Parliament, he delivered an adjournment debate that lasted over an hour on the Contaminated Blood Scandal. Burnham used the debate to present a raft of evidence stating "this scandal amounts to a criminal cover-up on an industrial scale" and that "these are criminal acts". He said that if the Government did not set up an Investigation into the scandal that he would refer his evidence to the police.
Mayor of Greater Manchester (2017–present)
Candidacy and election
On 5 May 2016, a spokesperson for Burnham confirmed that he had been approached by party officials in Greater Manchester, asking him to consider resigning from the Shadow Cabinet of Jeremy Corbyn in order to run in the upcoming mayoral election in 2017. On 18 May 2016, he confirmed that he was running for Mayor. Burnham was selected as the Labour candidate in August 2016. In September 2016, Burnham said that he would resign as Shadow Home Secretary once a replacement had been found, in order to concentrate on his mayoral bid. He was succeeded by Diane Abbott in October. Burnham said, if elected as Greater Manchester's mayor, he would resign his seat as the member of parliament for Leigh. However, the 2017 general election was declared a fortnight before the mayoral election; Burnham did not stand as a candidate.
Burnham was elected to the new role of mayor of Greater Manchester on 5 May 2017. Upon taking office, he became entitled to the style of Mayor. He received 63% of the vote, winning majorities in all ten of Greater Manchester's boroughs. In his mayoral victory speech he said that "[politics] has been too London-centric for too long … Greater Manchester is going to take control. We are going to change politics and make it work better for people."
In the election of 6 May 2021, Burnham was re-elected as mayor, with 67% of the vote on a turnout of 34.7%.
Mayoralty
The issue of homelessness in Greater Manchester was a major focus of Burnham's mayoral campaign. He pledged to donate 15% of his mayoral salary to charities tackling homelessness if elected. After his election he outlined his plan to launch a "homelessness fund", with money going to homeless charities and mental health and rehabilitation services. He pledged to end rough sleeping in Greater Manchester by 2020, however, in November 2019 he admitted he would miss his target.
Public transport
In 2020, Burnham signed off on a new £10 yearly charge for pensioners who wished to continue to use their TFGM travel passes on the regions trains and trams. The charge is said to help fund a London-style bus system. Pensioners in London get free travel on all public transport in London from the age of 60, while Burnham kept the Manchester system linked to the much later state pension age.
Burnham pledged to bring Manchester's bus network back into public ownership by 2025. The Mayor and Authority's plans were legally challenged by bus operators Stagecoach Group and Rotala, but in March 2022 the Mayor and Authority won the case at the High Court. Media analysts commented that the ruling could pave the way for other city regions in England to regulate bus services that had been privatised since the 1980s. Capped fares of £2 for adult single fares were introduced in September 2022, prior to the bus network becoming regulated.
COVID-19 pandemic
In March 2020, Burnham called for clearer advice on slowing the spread of Coronavirus, citing his previous experience as health secretary during the 2009 swine flu pandemic. He welcomed the additional measures implemented across Greater Manchester and Lancashire by Secretary of State for Health and Social Care Matt Hancock in July during the COVID-19 pandemic, in the knowledge that (at the time) some areas across North West England had lower infection rates than the rest of the country. On 15 October 2020 Burnham, along with other North West leaders, backed away from government talks to place Greater Manchester in tier 3 – the most restrictive level – of a new three-tier categorisation. He cited the grants system for businesses and 60% furlough scheme for employees as insufficient, saying they would push people into poverty and destitution which would outweigh the impact of the virus if mitigated correctly. Many of the concerns such as the impact on businesses and employees were shared by local Conservative MPs in Greater Manchester and surrounding areas. For his role of securing more money for local Northern communities during the COVID-19 pandemic, he was dubbed the "King of the North" by the media. However he did not secure as much extra money as he had wanted, being forced to lower his request for £90 million to £65 million.
Political views
Burnham has said that he joined the Labour Party at the age of 15 after having been "radicalised" by the UK miners' strike (1984–85). Ideologically, he identifies as a socialist. In his 2010 leadership bid Burnham emphasised his philosophy of "aspirational socialism", which he described as redistributive, collectivist and internationalist. He is a strong opponent of nationalism, which he has described as an "ugly brand of politics". In 2020, Iain Martin of The Times described Burnham as a "former Blairite" and associated with New Labour. In a 2010 interview with Andrew Marr, Burnham said he was proud of his association with New Labour. As Mayor of Greater Manchester, Burnham has rejected the approach taken by New Labour on housing and transport but has remained committed to New Labour's "tough on crime" approach. Politically, Burnham places himself on the soft left of the Labour Party. His politics have been described as soft left by a number of media outlets, including the Financial Times, the New Statesman, and LabourList.
Burnham supports the use of all-women shortlists for parliamentary candidate selections. He is a supporter of LGBT rights and voted in favour of same-sex marriage in 2013. In an interview in The Daily Telegraph in October 2007, Burnham said: "I think it's better when children are in a home where their parents are married" and "it's not wrong that the tax system should recognise commitment and marriage", creating controversy because his views replicated the policies of the Conservative Party.
In his 2015 leadership bid, Burnham pledged to commit Labour to "a policy of progressive renationalisation of the railway system". Burnham also favours a universal graduate tax to replace student tuition fees, and voted against the most recent increase in fees. He has advocated a National Care Service, integrating care services into the National Health Service. Burnham's key economic policies in his leadership bid included a new levy to fund social care, extending the higher minimum wage to all ages (it currently only applies to those over 25), and banning zero-hour contracts. Burnham described the mansion tax proposed by Ed Miliband as "the politics of envy", saying he knew it would lose votes when his mother phoned and told him it represented a return to the 1970s.
Burnham is a strong supporter of devolving power and, in his 2015 leadership campaign, criticised the "Westminster Bubble", the London-centric focus in British politics and perceived detachment from life outside Westminster. However, some opponents and political commentators accused him of being a part of the same bubble that he criticises. He views devolution of powers to Greater Manchester (including an elected mayor) as an opportunity for urban regeneration. He also called for a focus on Northern identity. After he was elected as Mayor of Greater Manchester, he described the new powers for northern cities as "the dawn of a new era". Burnham feels the government does not invest enough money in the North of England, saying: "Almost five years after the government promised us a northern powerhouse, we learn that public spending in the north has fallen while rising in the south. This has got to stop and it is time that the north came to the front of the queue for public investment".
Burnham voted for Keir Starmer, who went on to win, in the 2020 Labour Party leadership election, saying in an interview with The Guardian that "Keir is a brilliant man. The fact he was a former DPP, and came to work in my shadow Home Office team with no airs and graces says a lot about Keir Starmer."
Burnham is a supporter of an elected House of Lords and for switching elections to the House of Commons to a form of proportional representation.
Personal life
Burnham has a brother, Nick, who is the principal of Cardinal Newman College, Preston. Burnham married Marie-France van Heel, who is Dutch, in 2000, having been in a relationship since university. The couple have a son and two daughters. Burnham was brought up as a Roman Catholic. In the 2015 leadership contest he praised Pope Francis, but urged him to promote a progressive stance on gay rights. In a newspaper interview during the contest he stated that he had been repeatedly at odds with the Catholic Church all the time that he had been an MP and that this had resulted in strained personal relationships.
Burnham is a supporter of rugby league and was the honorary chairman of Leigh Centurions for a short time and is now an honorary vice-president. Burnham was a talented junior cricketer (playing for Lancashire CCC Juniors) and keen footballer, and competed at both sports for his college. He has played for Labour's "Demon Eyes" football team and is a lifelong fan of Premier League football club Everton. In July 2003, Burnham played for Conference club Leigh RMI in a pre-season friendly against Everton. He came on as an 88th minute substitute for Neil Robinson in the 1–1 draw at Hilton Park.
In December 2017 it was announced that Burnham would succeed Dean Andrew as president of the Rugby Football League in July 2018. Burnham was replaced by Tony Adams as president of the league in the summer of 2019.
Burnham was ordered to pay £1,984 in fines, charges, and costs and given six penalty points after he had admitted to speeding in July 2022.
In media
Burnham was portrayed by Matthew McNulty in Anne (2022), an ITV miniseries about the Hillsborough disaster.
References
External links
Audio clips
Interview with GMR after 2005 election BBC Manchester
Video clips
Delivering 18 week NHS target YouTube
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1970 births
Alumni of Fitzwilliam College, Cambridge
British special advisers
British socialists
British feminists
Male feminists
English socialist feminists
English Roman Catholics
Labour Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
Labour Friends of Israel
Living people
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
People from Aintree
Politicians from Liverpool
Secretaries of State for Health (UK)
UK MPs 2001–2005
UK MPs 2005–2010
UK MPs 2010–2015
UK MPs 2015–2017
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for Leigh
Shadow Secretaries of State for Health
Chief Secretaries to the Treasury
Members of the Greater Manchester Combined Authority
Labour Party (UK) mayors
Mayors of places in Greater Manchester
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelly%20Clarkson
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Kelly Clarkson
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Kelly Brianne Clarkson (born April 24, 1982) is an American singer, songwriter, author, and television personality. She rose to fame after winning the first season of American Idol in 2002, which earned her a record deal with RCA Records. Her debut single, "A Moment Like This", topped the US Billboard Hot 100, and became the country's best selling single of 2002. It was included on her debut studio album, Thankful (2003), which debuted atop the Billboard 200. Trying to reinvent her image, Clarkson parted ways with Idol management and shifted to pop rock for her second studio album, Breakaway (2004). Supported by four US top-ten singles – the title track, "Since U Been Gone", "Behind These Hazel Eyes", and "Because of You" – Breakaway sold over 12 million copies worldwide and won two Grammy Awards.
Clarkson took further creative control for her third studio album, My December (2007), co-writing all of its tracks and becoming its executive producer. However, her label was dissatisfied with the album's darker rock music and promoted it reluctantly. Clarkson's fourth and fifth studio albums, All I Ever Wanted (2009) and Stronger (2011), returned to a lighter tone and pop rock sound, with the former becoming her second US number-one album and the latter making her the first artist to win the Grammy Award for Best Pop Vocal Album twice. Both albums spawned a Hot 100 number-one single: "My Life Would Suck Without You", which holds the record for the biggest jump to number one in the chart's history, and "Stronger (What Doesn't Kill You)", which became her best-selling single worldwide. Clarkson then had the best-selling Christmas album of the year with Wrapped in Red (2013). Its single, "Underneath the Tree", was named the ASCAP's most popular Christmas song released in the 21st century. Her seventh studio album, Piece by Piece (2015), debuted at number-one in the US, while its title track reached the top ten. After leaving RCA and signing with Atlantic in 2016, Clarkson released her soul-influenced eighth album, Meaning of Life (2017), her second Christmas album, When Christmas Comes Around... (2021), and her tenth studio album, Chemistry (2023).
Clarkson also served as a coach on The Voice from its fourteenth season to the twenty-first season, and again for the twenty-third season. Since 2019, she has hosted her own talk show, The Kelly Clarkson Show. Among her numerous accolades, she has received three MTV Video Music Awards, three Grammy Awards, four American Music Awards, two Academy of Country Music Awards, five Daytime Emmy Awards, and a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. Clarkson has sold over 25 million albums and 45 million singles worldwide. She has 11 top-ten singles in the US, and nine top-ten singles in the UK, Canada, and Australia. She became the first artist in history to top each of Billboard's pop, adult contemporary, adult pop, country, and dance charts. Billboard has hailed Clarkson as "one of pop music's greatest singers", and honored her with the Powerhouse Award, while VH1 ranked her nineteenth on their list of the 100 Greatest Women in Music.
Early life and career
Kelly Brianne Clarkson was born in Fort Worth, Texas, to Jeanne Ann (née Rose), a first-grade English teacher, and Stephen Michael Clarkson, a former engineer. She has an older brother and sister: Jason and Alyssa. Clarkson also has two younger half-brothers from her father's second marriage. Her parents divorced when she was six years old, whereupon her brother went to live with their father, her sister went to live with an aunt, and she stayed with her mother. Clarkson's mother later married Jimmy Taylor. Clarkson is of English, Welsh, Irish and Greek descent. Her mother is a descendant of Republican state senator Isaiah Rose, whose life story was discussed on Clarkson's episode of Who Do You Think You Are? in 2013. Clarkson was raised Southern Baptist. She has said, "I always grew up in church. I was the leader of our youth group. I've always grown up pretty close to church and with God. But I think I've just gotten a lot closer just because He's the only one I can lean on." She later said of her upbringing, "My family was highly conservative; I had to go to church on Sunday and Wednesday."
Clarkson grew up in Burleson, Texas, and was educated at Pauline Hughes Middle School. In the seventh grade, the school's choir teacher, Cynthia Glenn, overheard her singing in a hallway and asked her to audition for the school choir. Clarkson told her she had never received any professional vocal training. Clarkson graduated from Burleson High School in 2000, where she performed in several musicals, such as Annie Get Your Gun, Seven Brides for Seven Brothers, and Brigadoon. Clarkson started voice training, hoping to secure a college scholarship in music.
After graduating from high school, Clarkson declined full scholarships to the University of Texas at Austin, University of North Texas, and Berklee College of Music. She declined them stating, "I'd already written so much music and wanted to try on my own. And I figured you're never too old to go to college." She worked several jobs to finance a demo, recording material and trying to market it to record labels, but she received little response. Clarkson turned down two recording contracts from Jive Records and Interscope Records, saying, "They would have completely pigeonholed me as a bubblegum act. I was confident enough that something better would come along." In 2001, she traveled to Los Angeles, pursuing a career in music. She appeared as an extra in a few television series such as Sabrina, the Teenage Witch and Dharma & Greg, and briefly worked with musician Gerry Goffin to record five demo tracks in an effort to secure a record deal. According to Clarkson, her early attempts to launch her music career floundered when she was turned down by almost every U.S. record label for sounding "too black". Lack of other career opportunities and a fire incident in her apartment forced Clarkson to return to Burleson, where she promoted Red Bull energy drinks, worked as a telemarketer and as a cocktail waitress in a comedy club.
Career
2002–2003: American Idol, World Idol, and Thankful
Upon returning to Burleson, Clarkson was encouraged by her friends to audition for the inaugural season of the reality television series American Idol: The Search for a Superstar in May 2002. Despite receiving a "golden ticket", a pass to the Hollywood rounds, in the series premiere, Clarkson made her first appearance during the second episode. In an interview in 2012, Clarkson referred to the inaugural season as "ghetto", explaining: "On our season we were like kids in camp. Nobody knew what to do. The show was ever changing every day. They did one season of Pop Idol in the UK, but America is a very different market. They dropped us off in a mall and said 'find some clothes to wear on national television'. I am maybe the closest to white trash you can get. What do I buy? White pants I guess? I definitely looked like a cocktail waitress." Clarkson went on to win the competition on September 4, 2002, at the Kodak Theatre (now Dolby), earning 58% of the votes against runner-up Justin Guarini.
Immediately after winning American Idol, Clarkson was signed to a record deal with RCA Records, 19 Recordings, and S Records by talent manager Simon Fuller, who created American Idol, and music mogul Clive Davis, who was slated to executive-produce her debut album. On September 17, 2002, her debut double-A-side single, "Before Your Love"/"A Moment Like This", was released. Both songs were performed by Clarkson during the season finale of American Idol. After debuting at number 60 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, the single climbed to number 52 the following week, and subsequently ascended to number one. It broke a 38-year-old record set by the British band The Beatles for the biggest leap to number one. It eventually went on to become the best-selling single of 2002 in the United States.
Clarkson's debut album, Thankful, was released on April 15, 2003. The album contained aspects of pop, contemporary R&B, and gospel music, with several established musicians such as Rhett Lawrence, Diane Warren, The Underdogs, and Babyface contributing on to the tracks. Released during a time of urban-R&B dominance, the album was well received by several critics. AllMusic critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine praised the album for its vocal ability: "throughout this record, (Clarkson) makes it seem effortless and charming. She can croon, she can belt out a song, she can be sexy and sassy while still being graceful and as wholesome as the girl next door." Henry Goldblatt of Entertainment Weekly remarked: "Clarkson glides through octaves with the masterful control of someone who's been doing this for decades." Thankful was a commercial success, debuting at number one on the Billboard 200 chart and went on to sell over 4.5 million copies worldwide. It was later certified double platinum by the RIAA, platinum in Canada, and gold in Japan and Australia.
Its lead single, "Miss Independent", became her first international hit, reaching the top ten in five national charts, including the US. It was later certified gold by the RIAA. It earned Clarkson her first Grammy Award nomination for "Best Female Pop Vocal Performance" at the 46th Grammy Awards. It was followed with two moderately successful singles, "Low" and "The Trouble with Love Is"; the latter was used on the soundtrack of British romantic film Love Actually. Her first video album, Miss Independent, was released on November 18, 2003, and was certified gold by the RIAA. To support Thankful, Clarkson and Idol second season runner-up Clay Aiken co-headlined the 2004 Independent Tour throughout the US.
Clarkson made her film debut with Guarini with the release of the musical romantic comedy film From Justin to Kelly in June 2003. The film was poorly received by critics and was unsuccessful at the box office, with Clarkson explaining that she was "contractually obligated" to do the film and didn't like it. In 2002, Clarkson, along with American Idol judges Paula Abdul and Randy Jackson and hosts Brian Dunkleman and Ryan Seacrest, participated in the season premiere of the eighth season of the television comedy series MADtv. She also portrayed Brenda Lee in two episodes of the television drama American Dreams between 2003 and 2004. On December 25, 2003, Clarkson participated in the television special competition World Idol in London, along with the inaugural winners of the several Idol television series around the world. Clarkson was contractually obligated to participate, and she performed Aretha Franklin's "(You Make Me Feel Like) A Natural Woman". She ended up as the runner-up with 97 points, behind the first Norwegian Idol Kurt Nilsen.
2004–2006: New management and Breakaway
Trying to distance herself from her American Idol image, Clarkson decided to part ways with Fuller and 19 Management and hired the services of talent manager Jeff Kwatinetz of The Firm. She reinvented her musical direction by developing a more rock-oriented sound with her second studio album, Breakaway. Davis served as the executive producer for the record, while Clarkson co-wrote six of the tracks with pop and rock songwriters such as former Evanescence band members Ben Moody and David Hodges, Kara DioGuardi, Dr. Luke and Max Martin. Breakaway received critical acclaim, with Erlewine of AllMusic remarking: "What gives Breakaway its spine are the driving, anthemic pop tunes, numbers that sound simultaneously mainstream and youthful, which is a hard trick to pull off, and they are the tracks that illustrate Clarkson is a rare thing in the 2000s: a pop singer who's neither hip nor square, just solidly and enjoyably in the mainstream."
Breakaway was released on November 30, 2004, and became Clarkson's most commercially successful album. After debuting at number three on the Billboard 200, its longevity allowed it to become the third-best-selling album of 2005 in the US and was certified sextuple platinum by the RIAA. The album also enjoyed success throughout the world; it topped the charts in the Netherlands and Ireland, became the world's seventh-best-selling album of 2005 and went on to sell more than twelve million copies worldwide. Clarkson supported Breakaway with the Breakaway Tour, Hazel Eyes Tour, and Addicted Tour which took place from 2005 to 2006.
Five singles were released to promote Breakaway. Its title track, "Breakaway", was originally released in July 2004, as the soundtrack for Disney film The Princess Diaries 2: Royal Engagement and was later re-released as the album's fifth single in May 2006. It became Clarkson's third top-ten single on the Billboard Hot 100 with a peak of number six. It was a major success on adult contemporary radio, topping the Billboard Adult Contemporary for 21 weeks and the Adult Contemporary Audience chart for 28 weeks (her longest number one on any charts). "Since U Been Gone" was released as the album's lead single in November 2004 and became Clarkson's most successful single on the Hot 100 despite peaking at number two. The second and third singles, "Behind These Hazel Eyes" and "Because of You", also followed suit—peaking at number six and number seven on the Hot 100, respectively. "Because of You" became Clarkson's biggest single worldwide, reaching number one on the European Hot 100 Singles chart and the national charts in Brazil, the Netherlands, Denmark, and Switzerland. The fourth single, "Walk Away", peaked at number twelve on the Hot 100. According to Mediabase, Clarkson was the most-played artist of 2006 in the U.S.
Breakaway garnered Clarkson many accolades, including two trophies at the 48th Grammy Awards—the Best Female Pop Vocal Performance for "Since U Been Gone" and the Best Pop Vocal Album. She also won Best Female Video two years in a row, for "Since U Been Gone" and "Because of You", at the MTV Video Music Awards. Clarkson's second video album, Behind Hazel Eyes, was released on March 29, 2005. In 2005, she performed and participated during the thirtieth season of the American sketch-comedy series, Saturday Night Live, and the reality series Damage Control with Simple Plan frontman Pierre Bouvier. She performed "The Star-Spangled Banner" at Game2 of the NBA Finals. She also performed during the festivities All-Star Game and the 2006 Winter Olympics in Torino, Italy; In 2006, Clarkson recorded "Go" as a free download for the Ford Motor Company advertising campaign.
2007–2009: My December and All I Ever Wanted
Clarkson's third studio album, My December, was released on June 22, 2007. The album relied on darker themes and heavier rock music. Clarkson replaced Davis as the executive producer and co-wrote all the tracks. She opted to collaborate with her band members rather than her previous producers and collaborators. Its production and release became a subject of a dispute with RCA, particularly with Davis. He noted the album's lack of professional production input and wanted her to re-record tracks with a more mainstream appeal, which she refused. Clarkson defended herself saying, "I've sold more than 15 million records worldwide, and still nobody listens to what I have to say. I couldn't give a crap about being a star. I've always just wanted to sing and write." The album received positive response, but lack of promotion due to reluctance of RCA led Clarkson to dismiss Kwatinetz and Live Nation to cancel its accompanying tour, the My December Tour, and reschedule it into a smaller scale with supporting acts Jon McLaughlin, Sean Kingston and Mandy Moore. Clarkson later hired talent manager Narvel Blackstock of Starstruck Management. Blackstock was the husband of country artist Reba McEntire, of whom Clarkson is a close friend. Clarkson later issued an apology to Davis, citing him as "a key advisor" in her success.
My December debuted at number two on the Billboard 200 chart and was certified platinum by the RIAA. The album went on to sell over 2.5 million copies worldwide. It featured only one major hit single, "Never Again", which debuted and peaked at number eight on the Billboard Hot 100—her highest debut on the chart ever. On July 7, 2007, Clarkson performed on the American leg of Live Earth concert. Clarkson partnered with NASCAR during their 2007 season, appearing in televised advertisements, performed at pre-race concerts, promoted NASCAR Day, and appeared at the Champions' Banquet in December.
Clarkson collaborated with Reba McEntire in an hour-long CMT Crossroads special at Nashville's Ryman Auditorium on February 22, 2007. Introduced by Dolly Parton, Clarkson performed "Why Haven't I Heard from You" and "Does He Love You" with Martina McBride on the television special CMT Giants: Reba McEntire. She also appeared on an episode of McEntire's sitcom Reba, which aired on January 14, 2007. At the Academy of Country Music Awards on May 16, 2007, Clarkson and McEntire sang a country version of "Because of You", which also became the lead single from the album Reba: Duets. It peaked at number two on the Billboard Hot Country Songs chart and was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Country Collaboration with Vocals. Throughout 2008, Clarkson and McEntire embarked on the 2 Worlds 2 Voices Tour to support Reba: Duets and My December.
Clarkson's fourth album, All I Ever Wanted, was released on March 10, 2009. Clarkson continued to co-write her own material, but this time she returned to a mainstream-oriented sound by reuniting with previous collaborators Dr. Luke, Martin, and DioGuardi, and new collaborators Howard Benson, Claude Kelly, Ryan Tedder, Glen Ballard, Matt Thiessen and Katy Perry in contributing tracks for the album. The release of All I Ever Wanted was met with positive acclaim from music critics for its lighter themes. The album was a commercial success, debuting at number one on the Billboard 200 and remaining there for two weeks. The album has sold over a million copies in the U.S. and garnered Clarkson a nomination for Best Pop Vocal Album at the 52nd Grammy Awards.
Its first single, "My Life Would Suck Without You", became an international hit. It entered the Billboard Hot 100 at number 97 and rose to the top position the following week, breaking the record for the biggest jump to number one in a single week previously held by Britney Spears' "Womanizer". It also topped the charts in the United Kingdom, Canada, and Hungary. It was followed with two more top-twenty singles, "I Do Not Hook Up" and "Already Gone". The release of "Already Gone" became a subject of another dispute between Clarkson and RCA, after she realized its similarities with Beyoncé's song "Halo", both of which were produced by Tedder. Further promotion for the album was abruptly ended with the limited success of its fourth and final singles, "All I Ever Wanted" and "Cry". Clarkson supported All I Ever Wanted with the All I Ever Wanted Tour from 2009 to 2010. She also performed as one of many main artists for the return of VH1 Divas in September 2009. Clarkson became a guest mentor on the Dutch television series X Factor in November 2009.
2010–2012: Stronger, Duets, and Greatest Hits – Chapter One
Clarkson recorded a country duet with Jason Aldean, "Don't You Wanna Stay", for his 2010 album My Kinda Party. It became her first number-one song on the Billboard Hot Country Songs chart and has sold over 2.7 million copies, making it the best-selling country collaboration in history. It received numerous country-related accolades, including a nomination for a Grammy Award for Best Country Duo/Group Performance at the 54th Grammy Awards. Clarkson incorporated a slight country vibe into her fifth studio album, Stronger, which was also influenced by Prince, Tina Turner, Sheryl Crow, and Radiohead. She worked with several producers including Greg Kurstin, Ester Dean, Darkchild, Toby Gad, Steve Jordan, and Howard Benson. Released on October 21, 2011, Stronger debuted at number two on the Billboard 200 and was certified platinum by the RIAA. It was also critically applauded and won the Grammy Award for Best Pop Vocal Album at the 2013 Grammy Awards, making her the first artist to win the award twice.
Strongers lead single, "Mr. Know It All", was released in September 2011. It reached number one in Australia and South Korea and attained a top-ten position in seven countries, including the U.S., where it became her ninth top-ten hit on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. It also became a crossover hit to the country charts, prompting RCA to reissue a country version. "Stronger (What Doesn't Kill You)" served as the second single in January 2012, and topped sixteen Billboard charts, becoming her third number one on the Hot 100. It also reached number one in Poland and Slovakia and reached the top ten in many other charts worldwide. It remains Clarkson's best-selling single, with 4.9 million copies sold in the U.S. alone. The song was nominated for three Grammy Awards—Record of the Year, Song of the Year, and Best Pop Solo Performance. "Dark Side" was released as the third and final single in June 2012, and it achieved a modest success. It became her eleventh top-ten hit on the Billboard Adult Pop Songs chart, and she surpassed Sheryl Crow and Katy Perry as the female artist with the most top-ten songs on the chart.
The release of Stronger was accompanied by two EPs, The Smoakstack Sessions and iTunes Session. The latter debuted at number 85 on the Billboard 200, and it was promoted by its only single, a cover of "I'll Be Home For Christmas". Clarkson co-wrote "Tell Me a Lie", which was recorded by British boy band One Direction for their debut album, Up All Night (2011). Clarkson promoted Stronger with two concert tours, the Stronger Tour and the co-headlining the Kelly Clarkson / The Fray Tour with the alternative rock band The Fray. On February 5, 2012, she performed "The Star-Spangled Banner" at Super Bowl XLVI to widespread critical acclaim. She later released a promotional single, "Get Up (A Cowboys Anthem)", for use in Pepsi's NFL advertising campaign.
Clarkson served as a mentor and judge, alongside John Legend, Jennifer Nettles, and Robin Thicke, on the ABC television show Duets, which premiered on May 24, 2012. The show concluded on July 19, 2012, with Clarkson's contestant Jason Farol finishing as the second runner-up. She also became a guest mentor to Blake Shelton's team on second season on The Voice. The two later collaborated on a cover of "There's a New Kid in Town" for Shelton's 2012 Christmas album, Cheers, It's Christmas.
Commemorating the 10th anniversary of her career in music, Clarkson released her first greatest hits album, Greatest Hits – Chapter One, on November 19, 2012. Three new songs recorded for the compilation—"Catch My Breath", "Don't Rush" (featuring country musician Vince Gill) and "People Like Us"—were all released as singles. "Catch My Breath" became her 14th top-twenty hit on the Hot 100 chart as well as her 13th million-selling single in the United States. According to Billboard, it was the third biggest adult contemporary song of 2013. However, its follow-up singles performed moderately well on the charts. Clarkson earned more nominations from the country music industry, including Best Country Duo/Group Performance for "Don't Rush" at the 56th Annual Grammy Awards and Female Vocalist of the Year at the 2012 Country Music Association Awards. Chapter One was eventually certified gold in Australia, the UK and the U.S.
2013–2015: Wrapped in Red and Piece by Piece
In January 2013, Clarkson performed "My Country, 'Tis of Thee" at the second inauguration of U.S. President Barack Obama. Her live rendition was acclaimed by critics, who contrasted it with Beyoncé's pre-recorded performance during the same event. In February 2013, she performed "Tennessee Waltz" and "(You Make Me Feel Like) A Natural Woman" at the 55th Annual Grammy Awards as a tribute to Patti Page and Carole King. She also released a non-album single, "Tie It Up", exclusively to country music stations in June 2013. Clarkson and Maroon 5 performed at 24 concerts as part of the 12th Annual Honda Civic Tour, starting on August 1, 2013, and ending on October 6, 2013. She was featured on the re-recorded version of "Foolish Games" for Jewel's first compilation, Greatest Hits (2013). Clarkson also collaborated with singer Robbie Williams on the song "Little Green Apples" for his 2013 album Swings Both Ways.
Clarkson's sixth studio album and first Christmas record, Wrapped in Red, was solely produced by Greg Kurstin. She co-wrote all five original songs and recorded eleven cover versions of Christmas standards and carols. Released on October 25, 2013, the album debuted at number one on the Billboard Top Holiday Albums and at number three on the Billboard 200 chart. By December 2013, Wrapped in Red had already been certified platinum by the RIAA and eventually became the best-selling holiday album of the year. The album's lead single, "Underneath the Tree", was an adult contemporary number-one hit in both the U.S. and Canada. Clarkson subsequently became Billboards ninth top adult contemporary act of 2013. On December 11, 2013, her first Christmas special debut, Kelly Clarkson's Cautionary Christmas Music Tale, garnered over 5.3 million viewers. In December 2013, Citizen Watch Co. announced Clarkson as their newest Brand Ambassador. Retaining her relationship with country music acts in 2014, Clarkson collaborated with Martina McBride on "In the Basement" (originally by Etta James and Sugar Pie DeSanto) for McBride's album Everlasting and with Trisha Yearwood on "PrizeFighter" for Yearwood's compilation PrizeFighter: Hit After Hit. Clarkson also performed a rendition of "All I Ask of You" with Josh Groban on his seventh studio album, Stages, and its companion television special. She was featured on Ben Haenow's "Second Hand Heart", the lead single from his debut studio album.
In February 2015, Clarkson released Piece by Piece, her seventh and final studio album under her recording contract with RCA Records. Musically, it is an electropop and dance album, featuring collaborations with Kurstin, Jesse Shatkin, Sia, John Legend, and Shane McAnally, among others. Piece by Piece received a reasonably positive response from music critics and became her third album to debut at the top of the Billboard 200 chart. To promote the album, Clarkson appeared in several televised performances, including the fourteenth season of American Idol, where she became the only alumnus ever to be dedicated with a competing week featuring her discography. She also supported the Piece by Piece Tour throughout 2015, which was cut short of its worldwide visits following medical recommendations for a vocal rest during the year.
Piece by Piece spawned three singles. The first one, "Heartbeat Song", peaked at number 21 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and became a top-ten hit in the UK, Austria, Poland, and South Africa. However, Clarkson failed to achieve a similar success with the second single, "Invincible". The third and final single, "Piece by Piece", debuted and peaked at number eight on the Hot 100 chart, following Clarkson's emotional performance on the fifteenth season of American Idol. It became her eleventh U.S. top-ten hit and matched "Never Again" as her highest debut on the chart. At the 58th Annual Grammy Awards, the album and "Heartbeat Song" were nominated for Best Pop Vocal Album and Best Pop Solo Performance, respectively. At the following year, the title track also received a nomination for Best Pop Solo Performance.
2016–2018: Children's books, Meaning of Life, and The Voice
In February 2016, it was announced that Clarkson had signed a book deal with HarperCollins. Her first children's book, River Rose and the Magical Lullaby was released on October 4, 2016. The book features an original lullaby written and performed by Clarkson. On the possibility of writing any more books in the future, Clarkson told Publishers Weekly, "I've got a few ideas – there could be a lullaby for each book. We've got a plethora of stories, and I've already written seven songs, full out, so we'll just have to see which ones might pan out to be a book. But yes, there will definitely be more." The second book featuring River Rose, River Rose and the Magical Christmas, was released on October 24, 2017, and included an original song written and sung by Clarkson, "Christmas Eve".
On March 15, 2016, First Lady Michelle Obama released "This Is for My Girls", a collaborative track featuring vocals from Clarkson, Janelle Monáe, Kelly Rowland, Lea Michele, Zendaya, and Missy Elliott to coincide with Barack Obama's SXSW speech and to promote the First Lady's third-world educational initiative Let Girls Learn. Clarkson recorded a solo version of "It's Quiet Uptown" for The Hamilton Mixtape. Her version was released on November 3, 2016, as a promotional single for the album. She also recorded a duet called "Love Goes On" with Aloe Blacc for the original soundtrack of The Shack, which was released in the United States on March 3, 2017. On May 11, 2017, it was announced that Clarkson would join The Voice as a coach for the series' fourteenth season.
On June 24, 2016, Clarkson announced she had signed a long-term worldwide deal with Atlantic Records, with the intentions of releasing a soul-influenced eighth studio album in 2017. Her lead single "Love So Soft", was released on September 7, 2017, along with the song "Move You". On September 6, 2017, Clarkson announced that her album, Meaning of Life, would be released on October 27, 2017. Clarkson opened the 45th American Music Awards with P!nk, and together they performed R.E.M.'s "Everybody Hurts" to honor first responders. Later in the show, she performed "Miss Independent" and "Love So Soft". "Love So Soft" was nominated for Best Pop Solo Performance at the 60th Annual Grammy Awards, giving her the record for the most nominations in that category with four. With the release of Meaning of Life, Clarkson revealed that she had discussions with Atlantic Records about the sound of the follow-up record and has expressed interest in venturing deeper into R&B and soulful pop music.
Clarkson lent her voice in the computer-animated film The Star, alongside Oprah Winfrey, Steven Yeun, Tyler Perry, and others. The film is based on the Nativity of Jesus. Developed by Sony Pictures Animation, the film was released on November 17, 2017. This was the first film in which Clarkson performed a voice role. Clarkson also had a guest voice role in the Netflix animated series Home: Adventures with Tip & Oh, portraying herself in the series' 2017 animated Christmas special, Home for the Holidays, alongside Ben Schwartz. In March 2018, Clarkson released "I've Loved You Since Forever", a ballad version of the children's book by Hoda Kotb. Clarkson hosted and performed at the 2018 Billboard Music Awards on May 20, 2018. In the fourteenth season of The Voice, Brynn Cartelli was crowned the winner, giving Clarkson her first victory. In the fifteenth season of The Voice, Chevel Shepherd was crowned the winner, giving Clarkson her second consecutive victory and making her the first female coach to win multiple seasons.
2019–2022: The Kelly Clarkson Show and When Christmas Comes Around...
On February 28, 2019, it was announced that she would return to host the 2019 Billboard Music Awards, which aired on May 1, 2019. Clarkson voiced Moxy and provided original songs in the animated musical comedy film UglyDolls, which was released on May 3, 2019. On March 27, 2019, she released "Broken & Beautiful", the lead single from the UglyDolls: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack. Clarkson also began hosting the daytime variety talk show, The Kelly Clarkson Show, which premiered on September 9, 2019. In December 2019, Jake Hoot was crowned the winner of the seventeenth season of The Voice, giving Clarkson her third victory as a coach in four seasons.
In November 2019, Clarkson announced a Las Vegas residency, Kelly Clarkson: Invincible. The residency was due to take place at the Zappos Theater. It was supposed to run from April to September 2020, but it was postponed indefinitely due to the coronavirus pandemic. Also in November 2019, Clarkson made an appearance on the Apple TV+ drama series The Morning Show as herself, performing her song "Heat" and interacting with the fictional hosts of the show. In February 2020, Clarkson became a brand ambassador for Wayfair. In addition, Wayfair released "an 'exclusive' collection of furniture and decor inspired by Clarkson and her Texan roots." On April 10, 2020, Trolls World Tour, which featured a character voiced by Clarkson, was released. On April 16, 2020, Clarkson released the standalone single "I Dare You" in English, as well as duets in five different languages with five native-speaking artists. In May 2020, The Kelly Clarkson Show earned seven nominations, the most for any talk show, with Clarkson winning in the category Outstanding Entertainment Talk Show Host.
In June 2020, it was announced that she would receive a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 2021, being inducted into the category of Recording. In May 2021, NBC announced that Clarkson's show would take over the time slot of The Ellen DeGeneres Show after it ends in 2022. In June 2021, Clarkson won two Daytime Emmy Awards, including Outstanding Talk Show Entertainment and a second consecutive win for Outstanding Entertainment Talk Show Host.
On September 23, 2021, Clarkson released "Christmas Isn't Canceled (Just You)", the lead single off her ninth studio album and second Christmas album, When Christmas Comes Around... The album was released on October 15, 2021, to positive reviews and earned Clarkson a nomination for the Grammy Award for Best Traditional Pop Vocal Album. In November 2021, Clarkson performed at the second annual iHeartRadio Holiday Special. She hosted her second Christmas special, Kelly Clarkson Presents: When Christmas Comes Around, which premiered on December 1, 2021. Also in December 2021, Girl Named Tom were crowned winners of the twenty-first season of The Voice. They are the first group act to win an American season & secured Clarkson's fourth victory as a coach.
In February 2022, Clarkson and Snoop Dogg were named co-hosts of the singing competition series American Song Contest. It is an adaptation of the popular international songwriting competition Eurovision Song Contest. The series premiered on March 21, 2022.
On June 9, 2022, Clarkson released Kellyoke, an EP consisting of six cover songs that Clarkson covered during her "Kellyoke" segment on her talk show. She also revealed that her tenth studio album and follow-up to 2017's Meaning of Life and 2021's Christmas album When Christmas Comes Around... was complete, but Clarkson wanted more time to prepare for the promotion and release of the collection.
In June 2022, Clarkson won two Daytime Emmys, including Outstanding Talk Show Entertainment for the second consecutive year and Outstanding Entertainment Talk Show Host for the third consecutive year. Clarkson received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame on September 19, 2022. Clarkson appeared on the Kelsea Ballerini song, "You're Drunk, Go Home" along with Carly Pearce, which was released in September 2022.
2023: Chemistry
Clarkson hosted the 12th Annual NFL Honors on February 9, 2023. After taking the twenty-second season of The Voice off, it was announced in October 2022, that Clarkson would return for the twenty-third season in 2023.
Clarkson covered the Cole Porter song, "Don't Fence Me In" on
Jeff Goldblum and The Mildred Snitzer Orchestra's EP, Play Well with Others, which was released in March 2023.
On March 26, 2023, she announced her tenth studio album, Chemistry, which was released on June 23, 2023. The album's double A-side lead singles, "Mine" and "Me" were released on April 14, 2023. On March 27, 2023, Clarkson announced a ten night Las Vegas residency, Chemistry: An Intimate Evening with Kelly Clarkson, which ran from July 28 to August 19, 2023, at the Bakkt Theater. Four additional dates were added for December 2023, and February 2024. In October 2023, Clarkson relocated and moved production of The Kelly Clarkson Show from Los Angeles to New York City to start its fifth season.
Artistry
Voice
Critics have described Clarkson as having a soprano voice. Describing Clarkson's voice, Arion Berger of Rolling Stone wrote that "her high notes are sweet and pillowy, her growl is bone-shaking and sexy, and her mid-range is amazingly confident." In reviewing a live performance of Clarkson's, Jon Caramanica of The New York Times said she "showed off a voice that moved in all sorts of ways, without ever appearing to strain", continuing "Ms. Clarkson, who has a malleable voice and a boatload of vocal confidence, might be a soul siren in the making". However, in a separate review of Stronger, Caramanica said Clarkson's voice is "too huge, too violent" for warmer and sweeter vocal stylings, stating "she's on a par with Taylor Swift when it comes to vengeance, and she'll do it louder and with more brutality in comparison to her contemporary." In a live review as part of her Stronger Tour, Sophie Sinclair of Hit The Floor said "Kelly's strong and powerful voice was flawless throughout the night, and some may even say she sounds better live than she does on her albums". Mark Deming from Phoenix New Times stated that "in an era when pop music means over-singing a song into a bloody pulp, Clarkson has consistently displayed both charisma and a welcome sense of restraint, knowing how to sound passionate and heartfelt without forgetting where the melody and the root note is supposed to go."
Dr. Luke, who produced some of Clarkson's hits, said "She has powerful lungs. She's like the Lance Armstrong of vocal cords."
In an interview with Good Morning America, Simon Cowell was asked of the then six American Idol winners, who he thought had the best voice. Cowell immediately answered that Clarkson did "by a mile", noting that she was "up there" with other great singers such as Celine Dion. Esquire wrote that Clarkson has "the best voice in the history of pop music". Reviewing Stronger, Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone states, Clarkson has "one of music's most remarkable voices." Jason Lipshutz from Billboard considered Clarkson as one of the greatest singers in pop music. Regarding the controversial practice of lip-syncing, Clarkson says she never has and never will lip-sync, elaborating in an interview with Cory Myers, "I've actually never done that because I'm terrified; if I ever did that, something horrible would happen, the track would skip. I have a really unhealthy fear about it. So no, I've never done that". Clarkson has earned the title "Queen of Covers" for her ability to perform songs from artists of various genres.
Influences
At age eight, Clarkson was first inspired to venture into music during a visit to an African-American church in Fort Worth, Texas. She recalled: "I was like, 'Wow, whatever they're feeling, I want to feel it too'." Clarkson has been influenced by musicians across various genres. She cited soul singer Aretha Franklin as her major influence. Many of her chosen Idol numbers were Aretha Franklin covers, including "(You Make Me Feel Like) A Natural Woman", which is considered her breakout moment during the competition. Other soul acts who influenced Clarkson were Whitney Houston, Mariah Carey, Etta James and Stevie Wonder. Clarkson was also influenced by rock acts such as Radiohead, Garbage, Aerosmith, and Jimi Hendrix, as well as Reba McEntire, Bette Midler, and Rosemary Clooney. Regarding her musical influence, Clarkson explained:
I grew up with three totally different parents that were into different music. My stepfather is into Willie Nelson and Elvis and all that kind of stuff. And my real father is into Whitney and Mariah, and Aretha, all those soulful singers. My mom is into more, like, adult contemporary—Celine Dion, Barbra [Streisand], Bette Midler, all those types of things. And then my brother is a big influence on me. He's like ten years older than me, so you always wanna be around your cool brother and hang out, so I grew up loving Guns N' Roses. I was all about Metallica. I was all about all those bands, and I still am. I love Aerosmith and No Doubt. I have so many influences on me that are so different. And even country. I love Reba McEntire. I could listen to her all the time.
Impact
Clarkson has scored over 100 number ones on the Billboard charts and sold over 25 million albums and 45 million singles worldwide, including 14 million albums and 35 million digital singles in the United States alone. She became the first artist to top each of Billboards pop, adult contemporary, adult pop, country and dance charts. She was ranked nineteenth on VH1's list of 100 Greatest Women in Music. Television channel Fuse included Clarkson among "30 Greatest Musicians to Come From Singing Competitions" list. Music executive Simon Cowell believed that "What [Clarkson] sold in the UK, Europe, Asia had nothing to do with American Idol. It had everything to do with the fact that she made a great record and she's got an incredible voice. She's not a girl who got lucky in a talent competition; we got lucky to find her." According to The Hollywood Reporter, Clarkson is "the embodiment of the perfect pop star. Her unmistakable pipes are a powerful presence in top 40 and country, with forays into anthemic rock and dance." Nolan Feeney from Time asserted that Clarkson "has had more of a lasting impact on the pop music landscape than casual listeners might realize."
According to Billboard, Clarkson was a "phenomenon" who "helped legitimize" the impact of talent shows. The Washington Post wrote that "Clarkson's powerhouse voice and dynamic presence signaled that the music industry should take these reality show contestants seriously: Her first two albums, Thankful and Breakaway, sold about ten million copies combined, and her pop tunes became empowerment anthems across the globe." Glenn Gamboa of Newsday believed Clarkson "has set the standard for all singing competition contestants with her savvy mix of pop, rock and country."
Fox Broadcasting Company said that Clarkson gave "lasting credibility" to American Idol and "in so many ways she cleared a road" for all of the next contestants." George Varga from The San Diego Union-Tribune underlined the difference of Clarkson from most other talent show contestants is that she "writes or co-writes a fair number of [her] own songs. She is also the only one whose quest to follow her artistic instincts—the better to rock out and break free from the Idol cookie-cutter pop mold—prompted her to fire her management team and engage in a prolonged public battle with her record company, RCA."
Jon Lisi from PopMatters cited Clarkson as one of the forces of female domination in pop music of the 2000s. He explained that "Clarkson's anti-sexual image appealed to those who were uncomfortable with Britney Spears' overt exhibitionism. When Clarkson performed "Since U Been Gone" at the 2005 MTV Video Music Awards, for instance, she only showed her midriff, and it was clear that she was marketing herself to an alternative group of young females who liked pop music's conventional sound but didn't want to be confronted with sexual imagery." Mickey Rapkin of Billboard magazine, who called Clarkson a role model and compared her vocals to golden-era Aretha Franklin, stated that Clarkson "has never shied away from speaking her mind, whether in her propulsive pop anthems or on her filter-free Twitter feed." Clarkson has been an influence on other artists, including Vanessa Hudgens, Demi Lovato, Ava Max, Jordin Sparks, Ashley Tisdale, Avril Lavigne,
as well as country music singers such as Kelsea Ballerini and Priscilla Block.
Personal life
In 2012, Clarkson began dating talent manager Brandon Blackstock, son of her former manager Narvel Blackstock and former stepson of Reba McEntire. She and Blackstock married on October 20, 2013, at Blackberry Farm in Walland, Tennessee. During their marriage, Brandon was her manager. Together, they have a daughter, River Rose born in June 2014, and a son, Remington "Remy" born in April 2016. In June 2020, Clarkson filed for divorce from Blackstock, citing irreconcilable differences. In March 2022, it was reported their divorce had been finalized.
In October 2019, Clarkson said that she has been managing an autoimmune condition and a thyroid condition since 2006, a fact which she had previously addressed on Today in 2018.
In February 2022, Clarkson officially changed her legal name to Kelly Brianne. In an interview, she revealed the name change was for her personal life, while her public name would remain the same. Clarkson stated the reason behind her name change was due to a strained relationship with her late father.
Philanthropy
In April 2007, Clarkson took part in "Idol Gives Back", a fundraiser for people in poverty in both Africa and the U.S., performing "Up to the Mountain" along with Jeff Beck. She would also perform a five-song set later that year on the American leg of Live Earth concerts opting for environmental awareness about climate change. She has served as ambassador for the March of Dimes since she was on American Idol, raising money regularly and assisting in volunteer service, having walked for "March for Babies", for the cause of improvement of the health of mothers and babies. Clarkson, additionally, got involved in the organization "Houses of Hope", who take care and build orphanages for children in South Africa who have been affected by HIV/AIDS, abuse and poverty. She has visited those children and also participated in "A Night for Hope" fund-raiser concert (held by Clarkson's background vocal singers, Jill and Kate), where she performed a song she wrote after her trip to South Africa, "You Still Won't Know What It's Like". Clarkson also supports the charities Save the Children, UNICEF, "Do Something" and "STOMP Out Bullying" and music causes like the Save the Music Foundation.
Clarkson had a ranch in Texas for unwanted animals, which included amputee goats, blind dogs, and horses that survived colic; there are more than 80 animals at the sanctuary. She helped provide veterinary care for them and found them an adoptive family. Clarkson performed in a benefit concert on March 1, 2013, supporting the Omaha based Opportunity Education Foundation, an organization that provides access to education for children around the world, stating "Education was a key part of my childhood, and I am better for it. Anything for education I am really into and especially for kids. A lot of people don't have computers, and they can't afford them. Without education, you get far behind. As long as they have a chance, you know, I think that's important. I want every kid to have a chance." In 2013, Clarkson teamed up with State Farm Insurance to support teen safe driving as a part of Celebrate My Drive program. In 2013, Clarkson supported Feeding America, The Ad Council and their Child Hunger PSA Campaign, which provides food for children facing hunger. Also in 2013, Clarkson participated in Green Mountain Coffee's Great Coffee, Good Vibes, Choose Fair Trade campaign by traveling to coffee farms in Peru to draw attention to the importance of being Fair Trade Certified.
Discography
Studio albums
Thankful (2003)
Breakaway (2004)
My December (2007)
All I Ever Wanted (2009)
Stronger (2011)
Wrapped in Red (2013)
Piece by Piece (2015)
Meaning of Life (2017)
When Christmas Comes Around... (2021)
Chemistry (2023)
Tours
Headlining
The Breakaway Tour (2005–2006)
Hazel Eyes Tour (2005)
Addicted Tour (2006)
My December Tour (2007–2008)
All I Ever Wanted Tour (2009–2010)
Stronger Tour (2012)
Piece by Piece Tour (2015)
Meaning of Life Tour (2019)
Co-headlining
American Idols LIVE! Tour 2002 (2002) (with the American Idol season one finalists)
Independent Tour (2004) (with Clay Aiken)
2 Worlds 2 Voices Tour (2008) (with Reba McEntire)
Kelly Clarkson / The Fray Tour (2012) (with The Fray)
12th Annual Honda Civic Tour (2013) (with Maroon 5)
Residencies
Chemistry: An Intimate Evening with Kelly Clarkson (2023–2024)
Filmography
Films starred
From Justin to Kelly (2003)
The Star (2017)
UglyDolls (2019)
Trolls World Tour (2020)
Television series
American Idol (2002)
Duets (2012)
The Voice (2018–2021, 2023)
The Kelly Clarkson Show (2019–present)
American Song Contest (2022)
Bibliography
See also
List of artists who reached number one on the Australian singles chart
List of artists who reached number one on the UK Singles Chart
List of Idols winners
Notes
References
Further reading
Phares, Heather. [ "Kelly – Biography"]. Allmusic.
Lamb, Bill. "Kelly Clarkson – Profile" . About.com. Retrieved February 11, 2006.
Phares, Heather. "Kelly Clarkson – Biography". Yahoo LAUNCHcast. Retrieved February 11, 2006.
Kelly Gets Cocky . Idol winner fires Simon Fuller. PopSugar.com. Blog Archives. Retrieved February 25, 2006.
Croatto, Pete. From Justin to Kelly. [Watching From Justin to Kelly, one question looms over the entire production: Why was this movie made?] Retrieved May 4, 2006.
External links
1982 births
19 Recordings artists
21st-century American women singers
21st-century American singer-songwriters
Actresses from Texas
American Christians
American children's writers
American women pop singers
American film actresses
American Idol winners
American people of English descent
American people of Greek descent
American people of Irish descent
American people of Welsh descent
American pop rock singers
American soul singers
American sopranos
American television talk show hosts
American voice actresses
American women philanthropists
American women record producers
American women singer-songwriters
American women television personalities
Atlantic Records artists
Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Talk Show Host winners
Daytime Emmy Award winners
Feminist musicians
Grammy Award winners
Judges in American reality television series
Living people
MTV Video Music Award winners
Participants in American reality television series
People from Burleson, Texas
Musicians from Fort Worth, Texas
RCA Records artists
Singers from Texas
Singers with a three-octave vocal range
Songwriters from Texas
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mad%20TV
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Mad TV
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Mad TV (stylized as MADtv) is an American sketch comedy television series created by David Salzman, Fax Bahr, and Adam Small. Loosely based on the humor magazine Mad, Mad TV'''s pre-taped satirical sketches were primarily parodies of popular culture and occasionally politics. Many of its sketches featured the show's cast members playing recurring original characters and doing celebrity impressions. The series premiered on Fox on October 14, 1995, and ran for 14 seasons. Its final episode aired on May 16, 2009.
Salzman created Mad TV with record producer Quincy Jones after they purchased the rights to Mad in 1995. Salzman brought on Bahr and Small, who had formerly written for the sketch comedy television series In Living Color, as showrunners. The show was intended to compete with fellow sketch comedy series Saturday Night Live (SNL), which was experiencing declining viewership and poor critical reception. Critics noted that Mad TV had a more diverse cast than SNL and dealt with edgier, more lowbrow humor.Fox made few efforts to promote Mad TV, which typically fell behind SNL in ratings. Throughout its run, the network continually cut the series' budget before eventually canceling it in 2009. It was nominated for numerous awards, including 43 Primetime Emmy Awards, five of which it won. Critical reception of the series was mostly negative during its run and its sketches attracted notable controversy. Since its cancellation, it has appeared on several critics' lists of the best sketch comedy television series of all time.
A 20th anniversary reunion special aired on The CW on January 12, 2016. The CW also rebooted the series for a 15th and final season, which premiered on July 26, 2016.
Development
William Gaines, who owned EC Comics and published the American humor magazine Mad from 1950 until his death in 1992, refused to sell the rights to the magazine as he disliked television. In 1995, three years after Gaines's death, EC Comics sold the rights to Mad to record producer Quincy Jones and TV producer David Salzman. The two launched Mad TV through their joint venture, QDE.
Fax Bahr and Adam Small were hired as the showrunners of Mad TV alongside Salzman. They had previously worked as staff writers on the sketch comedy television series In Living Color since 1992. The two left the show in its third season. The series began with 12 writers, including Patton Oswalt, Blaine Capatch, and writers from The Ben Stiller Show. Its pilot episode premiered on October 14, 1995, at 11 p.m. on Fox. The network approved of the pilot and ordered 12 episodes for its first season, which was heavily inspired by the eponymous magazine. It was pre-taped and contained a combination of short live-action sketches, movie parodies, and animated sketches. Animated segments of Spy vs. Spy, a wordless comic strip originally featured in Mad and created by Antonio Prohías, appeared on the first four seasons of Mad TV. The show's theme song was created by American hip hop group Heavy D & The Boyz, who had previously created the theme song for In Living Color, and composed by Greg O'Connor and Blake Aaron, the latter of whom was Mad TV's guitarist. Filming took place in Hollywood at Hollywood Center Studios and later at Sunset Bronson Studios.
The series satirized popular culture, with sketches parodying film, television and music. Sketches often featured celebrity impressions and occasionally contained political satire, and Fox executive Joe Earley called the series "an equal opportunity offender". Bruce Leddy became the show's director and supervising producer starting in 2000. After Mad TVs first season, Fox rarely promoted the series and frequently made budget cuts, with cast and crew members such as Debra Wilson and Bahr referring to the series as the "redheaded stepchild" of Fox. The Hollywood Reporters James Hibbard wrote prior to its cancellation that Mad TV had been "like a distant cousin of [Fox's] other programming" during its runtime; David Nevins, Fox's former executive vice president of programming, attributed the lack of promotion to Fox focusing on advertising its new prime time series instead. Fox executives and Mad TVs showrunners often shot down sketch ideas that were viewed admirably by the staff writers, who wanted the show to be "edgy". Mad TV was partially intended to compete with fellow late-night sketch comedy series Saturday Night Live, which, at the time of Mad TVs debut, was being poorly received by critics. However, SNL quickly bounced back and Mad TV typically trailed behind the show in ratings.
In November 2008, Fox confirmed that Mad TVs 326th episode during its shortened 14th season would be its last, telling Salzman that the show was too expensive considering its ratings and time slot. By this point, it was the fourth longest-running Fox series after The Simpsons, Cops, and America's Most Wanted. Salzman said that he would be exploring the continuation of the show on another channel, possibly cable. In early 2009, the show was briefly moved to air after Talkshow with Spike Feresten, the show that normally followed MADtv, before being moved back. The series finale aired on May 16, 2009. It featured both new and old sketches and revolved around a fictional telethon called "Mad TV Gives Back".
Reunion specialMad TV had a one-hour-long 20th anniversary reunion special, titled MADtv 20th Anniversary Reunion. It was executive produced by Salzman, directed by Bruce Leddy, and produced by Telepictures and Epicenter Ventures. It aired on The CW on January 12, 2016, at 8 p.m. and garnered 1.7 million viewers. Its plot involved 19 returning cast members going to an awards show where things go awry.
Cast and characters Mad TVs cast was considered diverse by critics, especially compared to that of SNL. According to casting director Nicole Garcia, the showrunners sought a diverse cast from the beginning of the series. Its first season starred Debra Wilson, Nicole Sullivan, Phil LaMarr, Artie Lange, Mary Scheer, Bryan Callen, Orlando Jones, and David Herman.
Wilson was the first cast member hired for Mad TV. She starred in the first eight seasons of the series from 1995 to 2003, making her the longest-running original cast member and the only Black female cast member during her time on the show. She later stated that she left the series in 2003 after learning that she received a lower salary than a white male cast member who had joined after her, and that her salary negotiations had failed. Sullivan was added to the cast because, according to her, Bahr and Small wanted someone on the show who "the audience would like to have dinner with". She starred on the show from 1995 to 2001 and left to star in the ABC sitcom Me and My Needs, which was not picked up by the network after its pilot episode. Herman starred in the short-lived Fox sketch comedy series House of Buggin' before appearing on Mad TV, while Jones had written for the Fox series Roc. Jones, Callen, and Lange all left the show after its second season.
Michael McDonald starred on Mad TV for ten seasons starting in 1997 and was the show's longest-running and oldest cast member, also occasionally directing segments. The show's second longest-running cast member was Aries Spears, who appeared in 198 episodes from its third season in 1997 until its tenth season in 2005. Other popular cast members included Alex Borstein, who starred on the show for five seasons from 1997 to 2002; Ike Barinholtz, who joined in 2002 and left in 2007; Will Sasso, who joined the show in its third season; Mo Collins, who joined in 1998 and left in 2004; Stephnie Weir, who starred on the show for six years; Nicole Parker, who appeared on six seasons of the show; and Bobby Lee, who appeared on eight seasons of the show from 2001 to 2009. Other cast members, such as Andy Daly, Simon Helberg, and Taran Killam, the last of whom was the youngest person ever to be cast on the show, found fame after brief tenures on Mad TV. Comedians Jordan Peele and Keegan-Michael Key met after being cast on Mad TV in 2004 for its ninth season, and the two would later star together in the Comedy Central sketch comedy series Key & Peele. Peele left the series in 2008, while Key stayed until the show's final season.
Borstein and Peele were both kept from leaving Mad TV to pursue other roles due to their contracts, with Borstein having to turn down a role as Sookie on the CW series Gilmore Girls and Peele turning down a role playing Barack Obama for SNL.
Recurring characters
Numerous characters and sketches on Mad TV became notable for their frequent appearances. Michael McDonald played Stuart Larkin, an overgrown, spoiled child with a bowl cut, bright red cheeks, and a rainbow plaid shirt. His overbearing single mother, Doreen (played by Mo Collins), has a strong Wisconsin accent and was inspired by McDonald's own mother. Sketches with Stuart often involve him and his mother visiting various businesses where he frustrates the employees with his antics. He has a number of catch phrases, including "Look what I can do!", "I don't wanna say," "Let me do it!", and "Dooooon't!", while his mother always mentions that Stuart's father left on Tuesday. Stuart appeared in 38 sketches in nine seasons from 1998 to 2008. He was described by Megh Wright of Vulture as the show's most memorable character and by Thomas Attila Lewis of LAist as "incredibly popular".
Alex Borstein appeared in 44 sketches as the popular recurring character of Bunny Swan, better known as Ms. Swan, an immigrant nail salon owner and manicurist with a strong, exaggerated accent who annoys others by not being able to answer simple questions. She has a bowl cut and wears a muumuu and a rainbow plaid jumper; she also has catch phrases such as "He look-a like-a man". Although Ms. Swan was presumed by audiences to be Asian, the series identifies her as hailing from Kuvaria, the home of Santa Claus, while Borstein stated that her inspirations for the character were her Hungarian grandmother and Icelandic singer Björk. Elahe Izadi of the Washington Post included the Ms. Swan sketches on a list of the "20 defining comedy sketches of the past 20 years" in 2019, writing that they were "among the most widely remembered of Mad TVs work". Borstein briefly reprised the role outside of Mad TV for a parody of the trailer for the 2010 film Black Swan and for a video about the 2016 United States presidential election.
The Vancome Lady, an emotionally abusive, racist woman who struggled to keep a job due to her ignorant remarks, was played by Nicole Sullivan and made over 25 appearances on the show, starting with its pilot episode. She was described by Candace Amos of the New York Daily News as "one of the characters fans loved to hate". A sketch featuring cast member Anjelah Johnson as the irritable Latina fast food worker Bon Qui Qui became popular on YouTube. Johnson has frequently reprised the character since, releasing the album Gold Plated Dreams as the character in 2015 through Warner Records.
Many of the show's recurring characters were parodies of celebrities such as Will Sasso's portrayal of singer Randy Newman and Aries Spears's portrayal of Bill Cosby. Debra Wilson and Aries Spears frequently appeared on the show as married singers Whitney Houston and Bobby Brown, who they portrayed as drug-addled, frantic, and "ghetto". Along with her impression of Houston, Wilson also earned fame and acclaim for her impression of Oprah Winfrey on the show, with Vanity Fairs Yohana Desta describing Wilson's impression of Winfrey as "the gold standard" and HuffPosts Pollo Del Mar writing that Wilson's impressions of Winfrey and Houston were "as iconic as they were scathing". Wilson went on to play Winfrey on the animated sitcom The Proud Family and in the 2006 parody film Scary Movie 4. Other frequent celebrity impressions included Sasso's impressions of actors Robert De Niro and James Gandolfini, Lee's impression of newscaster Connie Chung, and Frank Caliendo's impressions of John Madden and George W. Bush.
Release
Episodes
Broadcast and syndication Mad TV was owned by Warner Bros. and broadcast every Saturday at 11 p.m. on Fox until its final episode in 2009. Reruns also aired on Fox during prime time starting in 1999. TNN aired reruns of the series after acquiring the nonexclusive cable TV rights to it in 2000, while Comedy Central acquired the rights to the show's first nine seasons in 2004 and aired reruns until 2008.
Home media and streaming services
A DVD set of the first season of Mad TV, entitled Mad TV: The Complete First Season, was released in 2004 by Warner Bros. It includes a blooper reel, unaired sketches, and the show's 200th episode from 2003. It was reviewed positively by Chris Hicks of the Deseret News, who said that it "demonstrates that the show is frequently very funny, in its own subversive way." Warner Bros. also released a "best of" DVD for seasons eight, nine, and ten on October 25, 2005.
Episodes of the series were also made available to stream on The WB's website, TheWB.com, after its launch in 2008, and on The CW's streaming service, CW Seed, after the announcement of the show's 2016 reboot. , the series was also available to stream on HBO Max.
Reception
ViewershipMad TV was particularly popular among teenage viewers, who, according to Fox executives, watched the show more than SNL by 2001. Former cast members have stated that teenagers often made up the majority of the show's studio audience. In 2000, 59 percent of Mad TVs audience was between the ages of 18 and 49. By late 2003, Mad TV averaged 4.4 million viewers per week. Upon the series's cancellation in 2008, the series was averaging 2.6 million viewers, which was a 6 percent decrease from the previous year.
Critical reception
In a review of Mad TVs pilot, the Orlando Sentinel called SNL "a corpse trying to reanimate itself" while praising Mad TV as "promising". Another review of Mad TVs pilot in the Hartford Courant by James Endrst stated that Mad TV was "only occasionally terrible". A review of the pilot episode by Tom Shales in The Roanoke Times wrote that Mad TV was "bad TV", criticizing it as tasteless and unintelligent. For People, Craig Tomashoff gave the pilot a C-, stating that it was "pretending to be daring and irreverent" despite being "just unimaginative". In 1996, Mad TV was reviewed favorably by Steve Johnson of the Chicago Tribune, who wrote that it "looked consistently fresh, with more energy, imagination and edge [than SNL]" and "rewards the effort of tuning it in". Ginia Bellafante of Time also wrote in 1996 that "it has steadily improved since its unpromising early episodes", but that many of its politically incorrect sketches were "so heavy-handed" that they were "virtually unwatchable". After the end of the show's fourth season, Terry Kelleher of People wrote that Mad TV was "not a bad product" but had a "policy of putting recurring characters through the same tired paces". Entertainment Weeklys Alynda Wheat was critical of the show's finale, writing that "maybe it was time for Mad TV to go" due to "how thin its material has grown".The A.V. Clubs John Hugar called Mad TV "eh" with "some memorable recurring characters" such as Stuart that relied on "excessively broad comedy". In 2016, Jesse Thorn of The A.V. Club retrospectively described Mad TV as "long-running" and "critically maligned", and The A.V. Clubs Chris O'Connell wrote in 2010 that it was "the worst sketch-comedy show on television". The Detroit Free Presss Julie Hinds wrote that the show "wasn't the most consistent vehicle", and that it "sometimes went too far with a joke but could still crack you up regularly". Common Sense Media's Lucy Maher gave the series three out of five stars, stating that it "purposely pushes the limits of decency to the breaking point" but that it had "moments of brilliance". In a retrospective review of the show, Carleton Atwater of Vulture criticized it as "so lazy and unambitious" and wrote that it "appeals to the lowest common denominator". Aisha Harris of Slate wrote that the show "could so often be joke-writing at its laziest", but that it "could also occasionally be very good and smart" when it struck a balance between "titillation, insight, and hilarity". For The New Yorker, Zadie Smith wrote that Mad TVs humor was "broad—and too reliant on celebrity subjects".
Saturday Night Live comparisonsMad TV has frequently been compared to Saturday Night Live. Rolling Stone described Mad TV as a "more cultish weekend cousin to Saturday Night Live aimed squarely at teens", while the Detroit Free Presss Julie Hinds called it "a boisterous second cousin" of SNL. Slates Aisha Harris called Mad TV "a scrappy, less sophisticated cousin of SNL", and IGN called Mad TV "the young, scrappy upstart to SNLs elder statesman brand of sketch comedy". Luke Winkie of Vulture wrote that, despite not having the "live kinetic energy" or "the all-star glitz" of SNL, "most children of the '90s have a special place in our hearts for MADtv". Terry Kelleher of People wrote, "It would be easy to dismiss [Mad TV]... as the poor man's Saturday Night Live. But basically Mad TV has everything SNL has—the virtues and the defects."
Cast and crew members later stated that Mad TV lacked the "cool factor" and "hipness" that SNL had, but noted that it instead appealed more to "the average person" and to middle-class people of color. Ginia Bellafante of Time wrote in 1996 that Mad TV had a "more balanced cast" than SNL and "an edginess that Lorne Michaels' once revolutionary show has long lacked". Salzman stated that Mad TVs racially diverse cast and "urban sensibility" set it apart from SNL. Mad TVs former video researcher Asterios Kokkinos, who was fired in 2007 after helping to shut down a Mad TV shoot as part of the Writers Guild of America Strike, wrote for Paste that the show was "a cheaper copy of [SNL]" that "nobody seemed to care about".
Controversies
Some celebrities and organizations have spoken out against parodies of themselves on Mad TV. Bobby Brown said in 2022 that the show's parodies of him and Whitney Houston "really offended" him, while Rosie O'Donnell shared on her self-titled talk show that she was offended by the show's parody of her, in which Borstein portrayed her as a closeted lesbian. In 2003, the United States Postal Service and the National Association of Letter Carriers both publicly called on all of their employees to protest Mad TV over a then-upcoming sketch about a group of gun-wielding postal workers arguing over who should be able to "go postal" first. The Postal Service's then-vice president of public affairs, Azeezaly S. Jaffer, called the sketch "ugly", "untrue", and "an insult to every man and woman in the Postal Service".
The show was also criticized by audiences and critics for relying on stereotypes. Borstein's character Ms. Swan in particular has frequently been identified by journalists and by Asian activists such as Guy Aoki and Margaret Cho as an example of yellowface. The character was protested by Aoki's organization Media Action Network for Asian Americans (MANAA). In 2019, the Washington Posts Elahe Izadi called Ms. Swan an example of "the kind of 'problematic' stuff TV networks used to air" and "'edgy' comedy from the early aughts that more overtly trafficked in racial stereotypes". Candace Amos of New York Daily News wrote that Ms. Swan would "both anger and delight fans" and "was often called out for being racist", and Lara Zarum of Flavorwire wrote that "we're all in agreement that Ms. Swan, the nail-salon-owning, squinty-eyed, walking Asian stereotype[,] is a problem".Mad TV also featured two instances of blackface: one in which Bobby Lee plays George Foreman's fictional half-Asian son, and another wherein Michael McDonald plays a magical busboy from a foreign island.
Accolades
Rotten Tomatoes, Rolling Stone, and Screen Rant all placed Mad TV on their lists of the greatest sketch comedy TV series of all time, with Rolling Stone writing that it was "beholden to no one and often about as subtle as Artie Lange laughing at a fart" and a "ceaseless roast". The Black Spy and the White Spy from Mad TVs animated Spy vs. Spy sketches were listed as two of the best TV spies of all time by Entertainment Weekly in 2014.Mad TV was nominated for 43 Primetime Emmy Awards, all of which were for technical achievements, and won five of them. It won the Emmys for Outstanding Hairstyling for a Series in 2001, for Outstanding Costumes for a Variety or Music Program in 2005 and in 2006, for Outstanding Music and Lyrics for the song "A Wonderfully Normal Day" in 2006, and for Non-Prosthetic Makeup for a Multi-Camera Series in 2009. In 2007, Mad TVs Emmys campaign, VoteMadTV.com, allowed Emmys voters to view clips of the series online rather than being shipped DVD screeners in an attempt to be more eco-friendly. Anjelah Johnson was nominated for an ALMA Award for her performance on Mad TV in 2008.
2016 reboot
A reboot of Mad TV, which was produced by Telepictures, created by Salzman, and executive produced by him, John R. Montgomery, and Mark Teitelbaum, premiered on The CW on July 26, 2016. It ran for eight hour-long episodes on Tuesday nights and starred eight new cast members: Carlie Craig, Chelsea Davison, Jeremy D. Howard, Amir K, Lyric Lewis, Piotr Michael, Michelle Ortiz and Adam Ray. Cast members from the original series such as Sullivan, Sasso, Collins, Lee, Barinholtz, and Wilson, hosted. The reboot placed a greater emphasis on political comedy than its predecessor and included parodies of former U.S. Presidents such as then-candidate Donald Trump and Bill Clinton, the latter of whom had been spoofed in the original series several times during the late 1990s.
The reboot received mostly negative reviews from critics. Ray Rahman of Entertainment Weekly wrote that it was "inconsistent and lack[ed] any urgency" while "fail[ing] to justify its existence", calling its humor "not just lame, but also stale". Aisha Harris of Slate similarly wrote, "In its new, blander incarnation, it’s hard to imagine why MadTV needs to exist at all." IGNs Jesse Schedeen gave the revival a score of 3.2 out of a 10, writing that it had a "simplistic, toothless brand of humor" and failed "to recapture any of the show's old spark". The A.V. Clubs John Hugar gave the premiere a C- and wrote that "the new Mad TV can't help but seem like an off-brand version of the original, which was an off-brand SNL to begin with". The Guardian''s Brian Moylan praised the diversity of the new cast but wrote that it was mostly not funny, while Common Sense Media's Melissa Camacho gave it three out of five stars and wrote, "Fans of the original show will find it funny, but its irreverent humor isn't for everyone."
See also
Mad (TV series)
References
External links
1990s American late-night television series
1990s American parody television series
1990s American satirical television series
1990s American sketch comedy television series
1990s American surreal comedy television series
1990s American variety television series
1995 American television series debuts
2009 American television series endings
2016 American television series debuts
2016 American television series endings
American television series with live action and animation
The CW original programming
English-language television shows
Fox late-night programming
Mad (magazine)
American television series revived after cancellation
Primetime Emmy Award-winning television series
Television shows based on DC Comics
Television shows based on magazines
Television series by Warner Bros. Television Studios
Television series by Telepictures
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/America%27s%20Funniest%20Home%20Videos
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America's Funniest Home Videos
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America's Funniest Home Videos, also called America's Funniest Videos (abbreviated as AFV), is an American video clip television series on ABC, based on the Japanese variety show Fun TV with Kato-chan and Ken-chan (1986–1992). The show features humorous homemade videos that are submitted by viewers. The most common videos feature unintentional physical comedy, pets or children and some staged pranks.
Originally airing as a special in 1989, it later debuted as a regular weekly series in 1990. The show was hosted by comedian Bob Saget for the 1989 special and the first eight seasons of the series incarnation. After Saget's retirement from hosting in 1997, John Fugelsang and Daisy Fuentes later took over as co-host for its ninth and tenth seasons. After two years of being shown as occasional specials, hosted by various actors and comedians such as D. L. Hughley, Richard Kind, Stuart Scott, Steve Carell, Mike Kasem and Kerri Kasem, ABC brought the series back on Friday nights in 2001 with Tom Bergeron, who hosted the show for fifteen seasons. Season 19 champion and co-host of Dancing with the Stars, Alfonso Ribeiro took over as host in 2015 after Bergeron's retirement. On October 29, 2018, ABC renewed AFV for two more seasons, bringing to its 30th (which premiered on Sunday, September 29, 2019) and 31st (which premiered on Sunday, October 18, 2020) seasons. During the COVID-19 pandemic, host segments of episodes were filmed outside of the studio. These episodes featured quarantined individuals dealing with the lockdown and social distancing, and were called AFV@Home. The last episodes of the thirtieth season featured Ribeiro in an empty studio communicating via the large monitor with virtual audience members, which would be the format used in the 31st season. On May 13, 2021, ABC renewed AFV for a 32nd season which premiered on October 3 of the same year.
On May 13, 2022, ABC renewed AFV for a 33rd season which premiered on October 2 of the same year. For this season, a portion of the live audience would return and the weekly prize money would be doubled.
On May 16, 2023, ABC renewed AFV for a 34th season which premiered on October 1 of the same year.
Premise
AFV is based on the Tokyo Broadcasting System program Fun TV with Kato-chan and Ken-chan, which featured a segment in which viewers were invited to send in video clips from their home movies; ABC, which owns half the program, pays a royalty fee to the Tokyo Broadcasting System for the use of the format (although the original parent show left the air in 1992). Contestants can submit their videos by uploading them on the show's official website, AFV.com, on the AFV applications for Android or iOS or on the AFV Official Facebook fan page, or by sending them via mail to a Hollywood, California post-office box address. The majority of the video clips are short (5–30 seconds) and are mostly related to the host's monologues. Videos usually feature people and animals getting into humorous accidents and incidents caught on camera; while others include clever marriage proposals, people and animals displaying interesting talents (such as pets that sound like they speak certain words or phrases, or genius toddlers with the ability to name all past U.S. presidents), and practical jokes. As of 1989, the show's production process featured a group of screeners viewing the submitted tapes and grading them on a 1–10 scale based on how humorous they were. The videos graded the highest were sent to the show's producers, and then to Di Bona and another producer for final approval. Videos that feature staged accidents, people being seriously injured, the abuse of animals, or otherwise do not meet ABC network standards and practices are generally not accepted for broadcast.
Every week, the producers choose three videos to participate in a tournament that the studio audience will vote on. The winner wins $10,000 ($20,000 starting with the 33rd season), advancing to the semifinals and is in the running for the $100,000 prize at the end of a block of episodes, while the runner-up receives $3,000 (later $6,000) and the third place video receives $2,000 (later $4,000). The winners of the $100,000 prize in the semifinals then advance to the grand finals and will compete for a grand prize in the grand finals (starting in the 12th season; which is now an annual tradition starting in the 17th season), supplied by DisneyParks, Disney Cruise Line, Adventures by Disney, or Disney Vacation Club, and the title of "America's Funniest Home Video". The program's studio segments are taped in front of a studio audience (although the specials that aired in 1999 and 2000 only featured pre-recorded audience responses). Audience members are asked to dress in "business casual or nicer".
Show creator Vin Di Bona has produced two similar programs: America's Funniest People (1990–1994) and World's Funniest Videos (1996). Di Bona also created the syndicated series That's Funny, featuring home videos that were largely culled from those seen on AFHV and America's Funniest People: (2004–2006) In 2019, Di Bona also created a spinoff Videos After Dark with more adult material. Several local television stations, even those not affiliated with ABC, also developed special funny home video segments in their newscasts during the early 1990s, and or local spinoffs, inspired by the series. As noted in the closing credits of each episode, most of the videos have been edited for length due to time constraints. In addition, according to the contest plugs, family members (both immediate or relatives) of employees of Vin Di Bona Productions, ABC, Inc., its corporate parent the Walt Disney Company (and for a good portion of Saget's hosting tenure, its legal predecessor, Capital Cities/ABC) and their related subsidiaries are ineligible for the show's contests and prizes.
Series overview
History
1989–1997: Bob Saget
The show debuted on November 26, 1989, as an hour-long special, produced by Vin Di Bona and Steve Paskay, with actor/comedian Bob Saget (then starring in the ABC sitcom Full House) as its host. Saget was assisted in hosting the special by actress Kellie Martin, then the star of fellow ABC series A Pup Named Scooby-Doo (as the voice of Daphne Blake) and family drama Life Goes On (as Becca Thatcher), which would serve as the lead-in program to AFHV for the latter show's first four seasons. Prior to the airing of the initial special, during the fall of 1989, Vin Di Bona Productions took out ads in national magazines (such as TV Guide) asking people to send in their home videos featuring funny or amazing moments.
John Ritter was Vin Di Bona's first choice as host of the program, but was unavailable. Los Angeles sports reporter Fred Roggin of KNBC was also approached, as well, but due to his contract negotiations with NBC, he was unable to, though Roggin would eventually host a similar show of his own called Roggin's Heroes airing in syndication from 1991–1993. Originally intended as a one-off special, it became an unexpected hit, causing ABC to place an episode order for the show turning it into a regular weekly half-hour primetime series; it made its debut as a regular series on January 14, 1990, with Saget hosting solo. Ernie Anderson, the longtime voice of ABC, was the program's original announcer. He was replaced by radio and television actor Gary Owens in 1995, who stayed in that role until Saget left, but Anderson briefly returned via archived recordings, the final episode he appeared in airing in March 1997. Charlie O'Donnell occasionally substituted for Anderson during some season one episodes. Besides hosting the series, Saget also served as a member of its writing staff, alongside Todd Thicke and Bob Arnott. The success of AFHV led to a spinoff called America's Funniest People, hosted by Saget's Full House co-star Dave Coulier (and co-hosted by actress/producer Arleen Sorkin for the first two seasons, then model Tawny Kitaen for the final two), focusing on videos featuring people intentionally trying to be funny by doing celebrity impressions, committing pranks, and performing short amateur comedy routines, among other things.
During the show's first four seasons, America's Funniest Home Videos aired on Sunday nights at 8:00 p.m. Eastern Time; beginning with the fifth season, the show started the Sunday primetime lineup on ABC, airing at 7:00 p.m., followed by America's Funniest People at 7:30 p.m. as part of an hour-long block of funny home videos. In season five, an animated sidekick was introduced named "Stretchy McGillicuddy" (voiced by Danny Mann), who was known for trying to tease Saget and doing other crazy things. In one episode, he was shown on the two large TV monitors on both sides of the set and Bob had to turn him off with a remote. Stretchy's catchphrase was: "Don't get a little touchy, Bob, I'm just a little stretchy!" The character was dropped from the show after said season.
In 1994, ABC canceled America's Funniest People after four seasons due to declining ratings and had to decide what to do with its Sunday night 7:30 p.m. timeslot. After trying out the short-lived sitcom On Our Own in the timeslot after AFHV during the 1994–1995 season, ABC then later chose to expand America's Funniest Home Videos to one hour with back-to-back airings, with that week's new episode being shown in the first half-hour, followed by a repeat from a previous season to fill the remaining time.
On February 1, 1996, another spinoff of AFHV debuted called World's Funniest Videos, which was taped at Walt Disney World in Lake Buena Vista, Florida; this series was also hosted by Coulier, along with actress Eva LaRue. Paired with a weekly version of the popular Before They Were Stars specials on Thursday nights, World's Funniest Videos focused on funny and amazing home videos from around the world. However, due to low ratings, ABC put it on hiatus a few weeks after its debut, before cancelling the series outright after only one season and burning off the remaining episodes that summer. For Saget's final season on AFHV, most nights would have two new episodes air back-to-back, which caused the season to have 30 episodes produced.
Numerous comedy skits were performed on the set during Saget's tenure as host. The set consisted of a living room design (the main set, originally a three-wall design with a bay window, was remodeled for the 1992–1993 season as a flatter frame outline with translucent walls – though the furniture featured on the original set remained). The beginning of each episode was tied in with a skit just before the transition was made from the introduction to Saget. This usually consisted of several actors in a fake room (usually in the upper part of the audience section or in another soundstage) pretending to get excited watching America's Funniest Home Videos. Sometimes, Saget would visit these actors and pretend to watch America's Funniest Home Videos (with a pre-recording of Saget appearing on the TV) with them and would also attempt to interact with them. This technique that was scrapped after the fifth season. Saget always ended each episode by saying "Keep those cameras safely rolling" and then saying something to his wife who was implied to be watching the show at home.
Saget himself soon grew tired of the repetitive format and was eager to pursue other projects as a comedian, actor and director. Producer Di Bona held him to his contract, resulting in a frustrated Saget listlessly going through the motions, constantly getting out of character and making pointed remarks on the air during his last two seasons. Saget's contract expired in May 1997 and he decided to leave the show afterward. However, according to Di Bona, the producers felt a change (and change of hosts) was needed for AFV as a result of ABC going through a change of leadership (hence ABC's ownership transition from Capital Cities to Disney). His former Full House castmates (except for Mary-Kate and Ashley Olsen) were present in the episode aired prior to the $100,000 season finale, which was his final episode. The final Saget episodes to air on ABC were the Full House Reunion (albeit without the 3D effects) and his finale, which both aired on September 21, 1997. The following era began taping the day after.
Saget returned to America's Funniest Home Videos on three different occasions—first, to co-host a 20th anniversary special edition episode alongside future host Tom Bergeron, which aired on November 29, 2009 (which was three days shy of AFVs actual 20th anniversary date of its premiere on the air on November 26, 1989); a cameo appearance at the end of Bergeron's final episode on May 17, 2015, where he was driving a golf cart and to co-host a 30th anniversary special edition episode ("AFV: America... This Is You") alongside Bergeron and current host Ribeiro, which aired on December 8, 2019. Saget died almost 2 years later in early January 2022, and the episodes of the show airing in the corresponding time had small dedications and tributes for him afterwards.
1997–1999: John Fugelsang & Daisy Fuentes
After Saget's departure from the series, ABC sidelined America's Funniest Home Videos from the network's 1997–1998 fall schedule, choosing to bring it back as a mid-season replacement for Timecop. The show began to be alternately called AFV at this point (though the show officially continued to be titled America's Funniest Home Videos). After a TGIF sneak peek on November 21, 1997, the series returned for season nine on January 5, 1998, with new hosts, an overhauled look and a new rendition of the theme song, which remained in use with the guest hosts on the specials in 2000, with all episodes of Bergeron's run as host and was still heard on Ribeiro's audition tape as the new host of AFV in 2015. Comedian John Fugelsang and model-turned-television personality Daisy Fuentes took over as co-hosts of the show. An unknown announcer succeeded Owens, whom did not last long, and in the 10th season, he was replaced by Jess Harnell, who still holds this position to this day. They humorously narrated the clips they showed. With the Sunday night 7:00 p.m. Eastern timeslot occupied by Disney films aired as part of The Wonderful World of Disney, the show constantly changed timeslots, moving from Monday nights to Thursday nights to Saturday nights. The ratings for the show suffered during this period and both Fuentes and Fugelsang left the show after two seasons in 1999. Their last original new episode—which aired on August 28, being delayed from the prior episode which aired April 29—was taped at the House of Blues in West Hollywood, California. Until "AFV: America... This Is You," showcasing footage from Fugelsang and Fuentes' tenure, as well as all of the other AFV hosts, the only honorable mention of Fugelsang, Fuentes and segments showcasing their run was the 2-part 300th episode AFV special in November 2003 during the early years of the Bergeron run, which also showcased Saget's run of episodes in select segments as well. While Fugelsang has not been seen in new recent never-before-seen footage on the road or in the studio on AFV since leaving the show in May 1999 after only two years co-hosting it together, Fuentes made a few brief cameo appearances in interview segments likely taking place at her house speaking on behalf of her and Fugelsang (and AFV; especially during their tenure) on the "AFV: America... This Is You" special, and both Fugelsang and Fuentes appeared in further interview segments on the "AFV: America This Is You!" podcast.
1999–2000: Specials
In May 1999, ABC announced that it would discontinue America's Funniest Home Videos as a regular weekly series, but the show returned occasionally as a series of specials hosted by various ABC sitcom stars including The Hughleys star D. L. Hughley and Spin City co-star Richard Kind. Also during this period, a season was taped with Kerri and Mike Kasem as hosts for foreign markets. Future AFV host Tom Bergeron also hosted a special during this era. The show moved to a much smaller soundstage and the set featured various video screens and monitors (resembling iMac computers) placed on shelves. A special sports version of the show called AFV: The Sports Edition, which aired in 2005, that was hosted by ESPN anchor Stuart Scott, was rebroadcast every New Year's Day and aired occasionally before NBA playoff games with a post 8:30 p.m. Eastern Time tip-off until 2008. A special entitled America's Funniest Home Videos: Deluxe Uncensored (which was released only on home video and featured somewhat more risqué content than that allowed on the television broadcasts) was hosted by Steve Carell and taped on the set used from the 1997–1999 seasons. These specials (except for the special sports edition) were not taped in front of a live studio audience, with pre-recorded applause and laugh tracks were used during commercial bumpers and just before, during, and after video packages being used instead.
2001–2015: Tom Bergeron
In October 2000, ABC announced its decision to return America's Funniest Home Videos as a regular weekly series, ordering 13 new episodes. On February 3, 2001, the show returned in its third format, this time with Bergeron, who was also hosting Hollywood Squares at the time, as it's host. The show was expanded to a single full hour-long episode, instead of two consecutive half-hour episodes, and was shown Friday nights at 8:00 p.m. Eastern; however, it went on hiatus for two months due in part to the September 11 attacks and also because of ABC airing specials and trying a new Friday night lineup (The Mole II: The Next Betrayal, Thieves and Once and Again), which was ultimately short-lived (Thieves ended after only ten episodes, the first eight of which aired) and the show returned to the schedule in December 2001. In his first episode, titled "Matrimony Mania", Bergeron used the set (with the bulky see-through iMac computers) from the AFV specials that aired in 2000. A new set (with a studio audience) was introduced featuring a pillar with several monitors when his first season began. In September 2003, the show returned to its former Sunday 7:00 p.m. Eastern timeslot, still an hour long (though special episodes occasionally aired on Friday nights until 2007). Unlike Saget, who provided voice-overs to the clips, Bergeron humorously narrated them, though he did lend his voice to some clips from time to time. Changes of the set were replacement of the round video wall by a curved video wall, changing the color of the pillars to blue (sometimes other colors), addition of curved light borders hanging through the set, lights under the center with return of the letters "AFV."
Starting with the 2007–2008 season, the series began allowing viewers to upload their funny home videos online at ABC.com, but has since the 2012–2013 season; launched their own website that same year and has viewers upload their videos instead to AFV.com, in addition to sending their videos via standard mail. During the 2011–2012 season, the AFV iOS app was released on the App Store, allowing users of Apple mobile devices to record and upload videos for submission to the show; a version of the app was released for Android devices the following season. In the final six seasons of Bergeron's run as host, the show started its "Funny Since 1989" campaign in 2009 and had two anniversary seasons. Season 20, in 2009, had a special 20th anniversary episode that aired on November 29, with Saget returning to AFV for the first time in 12 years as a guest. Both Saget and Bergeron ended that episode with a pinata party skit and a nod to the Star Wars lightsaber fight scenes when the credits started rolling. The pinatas resembled the looks of the two hosts. On March 7, 2014, Bergeron announced on his Twitter account that his tenure as host of AFV would end after season 25. AFV aired a 25th Anniversary Celebrity Celebration special in February 2015. Bergeron's final new episode from his in-studio stage home of 15 years (which was really his second to final episode) aired on May 10, 2015 (and for the final time in rerun form on September 13, 2015) and was the final (and season 25's second) $100,000 show of his tenure and featured at different times of the episode a look back at classic and modern funny home videos that defined the show's then-25-year run. Bergeron's "real" final new episode aired on May 17, 2015, the season finale, ending his run as host after 15 seasons (the longest hosting tenure for the series to date). The episode—taped on-location at Disneyland for that season's edition of the annual "Grand Prize Spectacular," AFVs 25th anniversary and the Disneyland Resort's 60th Anniversary Diamond Celebration that began on May 22, 2015 (which has appeared in various formats since 2005, in which one of the two (formerly three) $100,000 winners from the current season wins a Walt Disney Parks and Resorts, or in earlier seasons, an Adventures by Disney vacation package)-- featured an auto-tuned montage of clips and outtakes from Bergeron's run as host and closed with him being escorted after walking off the outdoor stage near Sleeping Beauty Castle following the grand prize presentation on a golf cart driven by Saget in a special cameo appearance. Bergeron made his first guest appearance in the studio on the season 26 "Grand Prize Spectacular" finale of Ribiero's AFV on May 22, 2016, and played the show's final on-air audience participation game "Who Breaks It?" and won an Ribiero AFV pillow and socks. Bergeron made his second AFV guest appearance alongside Ribeiro, Saget and (from the John and Daisy-era) Fuentes for an AFV 30th anniversary special called "AFV: America...This Is You" on Sunday, December 8, 2019, to celebrate AFVs 30th anniversary.
2015–present: Alfonso Ribeiro
On May 19, 2015, two days after Bergeron's final episode aired, ABC announced that Alfonso Ribeiro (known for playing Carlton Banks on The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air) would take over as host of AFV beginning with the season 26 premiere on October 11, 2015. Bergeron formally introduced Ribeiro's new role as host during the latter's guest performance on the season 20 finale of Dancing with the Stars (Ribeiro appeared as a DWTS competitor and won the previous season). Before becoming the current host of the show, Ribeiro made his only guest appearance in the studio on a season 25 episode of AFV playing one of the show's audience participation games with then-host Bergeron called "Who's Makin' That Racket?". While some of the Bergeron-era clip segments, the in-studio audience and background parts of the Bergeron-era set props remained intact and/or continued to air for all five years of Ribiero's tenure as host, the stage featured a metal floor layout and stairway connected to a cube screen put together like a puzzle using smaller sized flat-panel TV screens and new segments (especially for Ribiero's run) continued to be added and aired on the show. The show also introduced the Squares-era (probably in reference to the cube screen) with Ribiero's entrance as host in 2015. Additional set props like the arrow screens with flat-panel monitors on them and light-up color-changing versions of the tables where some of the studio audience sit when not in the bleacher areas made their debut to the AFV set starting in 2019. Ribeiro also humorously narrates the clip, much like his predecessor, though he makes extensive use of rhyming in his speeches.
In May 2017, ABC renewed AFV for a 28th season and, in June 2017 (and continuing that summer scheduling format even in 2018), started airing summer reruns of current season episodes of AFV on Saturday nights at 8/7 central (until college football starts up in the fall) and Sunday nights at 7/6 central. For the start of the season on October 8, 2017, instead of leading off Sunday nights, it aired Sunday nights at 8 p.m. ET/7 p.m. CT and was led into at the start of the season by The Toy Box. During some parts of the holiday season starting on November 26, 2017, and remaining that way for almost the first two months of 2018 through January 21, 2018 (and final 'repeat/repeat' on February 4, 2018), AFV aired in a 'repeat/new episode' scheduling format. AFV returned with new episodes in the 7/6 central time slot (still an hour-long on Sunday nights) due to holiday movie presentations and specials airing on ABC on Sunday nights at 8/7 central during the holiday season on December 10, 2017, and then permanently starting on February 11, 2018. ABC repeated the 'repeat/new episode' scheduling format for AFV on January 6, 2019, with new episodes returning to the 7/6 central time slot on March 3, 2019, when American Idol premieres with AFV likely to be pre-empted in some time zones when American Idol airs the live (in all time-zones) finale episodes in May 2019. ABC renewed AFV for a 29th season on March 13, 2018, which premiered at its regular 7/6 central Sunday night timeslot (and was the lead-off starting on October 7, 2018, to Dancing With The Stars Juniors) on September 30, 2018.
On Sunday, December 8, 2019, at 8:00pm local times, AFV: America, This is You! aired, a 30th anniversary special episode, with Ribeiro joined by Bob Saget (which was his final appearance on the show before his death in 2022), Daisy Fuentes and Tom Bergeron.
On Sunday, May 17, 2020, at 7:00pm local times, AFV@Home aired, a quarantine themed special, with videos impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic stay-at-home quarantine isolation and socially distanced videos. The on-set segment was replaced by filming at Ribeiro's house.
The 31st season premiered on October 18, 2020. Instead of hosting a physical audience, episodes were shot in studio with a virtual audience displayed on video screens on set. This technique was used for the last three episodes of season 30. In June 2021, AFV: Animal Edition premiered on Nat Geo Wild. On May 13, 2021, ABC renewed AFV for a 32nd season. The 32nd season premiered on October 3, 2021. The end of the January 9, 2022 episode was interrupted by a special report from ABC News about Saget's death. The January 16, 2022 episode opened with Alfonso Ribeiro's dedication to him, clips of Saget's tenure as host, and a brief discussion between Bob Saget and Tom Bergeron from the 2009 20th anniversary special. A standard pre-credits dedication was also featured. Clips of Saget's shows were put in the rest of the 2021–22 season.
On May 13, 2022, ABC renewed AFV for a 33rd season. This season marked the return of the studio audience in person, after not having them for 2 years.
On May 16, 2023, ABC renewed AFV for a 34th season. The 34th season premiered on October 1, 2023.
$100,000 show
After every half of the season, the winners from the preceding episodes are brought back to participate in a contest to win an additional $100,000 in the semifinals. (Previously, there would be three $100,000 shows per season, after runs of shows consisting of either 5, 6, or 7 episodes. Beginning with the 24th season, the format changed to two $100,000 shows, each one after a 9-or-10-episode run. This format was also used in season 9, as well as seasons 12–14.) Two $100,000 contests air each season (the final $100,000 episode originally aired as the season finale until the 15th season, at which point it begin airing as the episode before each season's final episode), though only one aired in the first and eleventh season. This format was used until 2002. Due to COVID-19, the 2020 season did not feature the traditional confetti, streamers, or live audience (although the virtual audience is shown instead; however a small amount of the live audience, now sitting in tables and not voting for the winner, and finalists standing up on the stage in a rock stone and gate, returned in Season 33), and the winner was chosen by remote video chat (the top three $20,000 winners in the $100,000 show, and the two $100,000 winners in the Grand Prize Spectacular are allowed to appear on stage in Season 33).
Voting
1989–1997 (Saget era): ABC stations (5 in season one, 3 from 1989 to 1993, and 2 from 1993 onward) around the country are joined via satellite to cast their votes along with the Los Angeles studio audience (the final $100,000 show of season two was decided by a telephone vote).
1997–present (post-Saget era): Three formats have been used at various times:
The Los Angeles studio audience votes to determine the winner.
Viewers log onto the show's website to cast their votes.
The show declares the winner by going to the Disney Parks and asking park-goers, as well inviting characters like Mickey Mouse, Minnie Mouse, Donald Duck and Goofy, to determine the $100,000 or the grand prize winning clip.
Other contests
2002: "Battle of the Best": The Quad Squad: $25,000 and trip to Maui
2005: Disney Dream Vacation: Dog Eat Dog: $100,000 and free vacations to all 11 Disney theme parks around the world
2006: AFV Goes On Vacation: Dancing Machine: $100,000 and free vacations to 500+ places for 48 years
2006: Top 20 Countdown: The Quad Squad: $250,000 and The Funniest Video of All Time
2007: Grand Prize Spectacular: Plugged in Pug: Disney Dream Vacation
2008: Grand Prize Spectacular: Not So Thrilled Ride: Adventures by Disney vacation to one of 10 places around the world
2009: Grand Prize Spectacular: Birthday Blowout: $100,000 and free vacations to 500+ places for 50 years
2010: Grand Prize Spectacular: The Great Escape: Trip to the Walt Disney World Resort with exclusive private time at Magic Kingdom Park
2010: Top 20 Videos that Changed the World: Chainsaw Brothers: Disney Cruise Line vacation
2011: Grand Prize Spectacular: Crying Camera Kid: Disney Vacation of a Lifetime
2012: Grand Prize Spectacular: Recovery Room Rambler: $100,000 Disney Vacation Club Membership for 40 years
2013: Grand Prize Spectacular: Accidental Cup Crime: Disney theme parks & Adventures by Disney
2014: Grand Prize Spectacular: Mail Slot Menace: Trip to Disneyland in California and Walt Disney World in Florida
2015: Grand Prize Spectacular: H2O No-No: Trip to Disneyland for 60 people (to celebrate Disneyland's 60th Anniversary Diamond Celebration)
2016: Grand Prize Spectacular: Donkey Delights Lil' Dude: Trip to the Walt Disney World Resort in Florida and the new Shanghai Disney Resort in China
2017: Grand Prize Spectacular: Sedated & Elated: Collection of Disney Family Vacations
2018: Grand Prize Spectacular: Sedated Saber Skirmish: Trip to the Walt Disney World Resort to experience Toy Story Land at Disney's Hollywood Studios
2019: Grand Prize Spectacular: Blast with the Laughing Gas: Trip to the Aulani Disney Resort & Disneyland Paris
2020: Grand Prize Spectacular: Shallow Show Stealer: Adventures by Disney river cruise
2021: Grand Prize Spectacular: Rambling About Ambling: Disney Cruise Line vacation
2022: Grand Prize Spectacular: Camera Confuses Canines: Trip to Walt Disney World for 10 people (to celebrate Walt Disney World's 50th Anniversary)
2023: Grand Prize Spectacular: The Running of the Bulldog: Disney Cruise Line vacation to the Bahamas for 4 people aboard the Disney Wish
2024: Grand Prize Spectacular: TBA: Trip to Disney's Rivera Resort, The Villas at Disneyland Resort or Aulani Disney Vacation Club Villas for 6 people
Ratings
Season averages
America's Funniest Home Videos became an instant hit with audiences, with the original special in November 1989 averaging a 17.7 rating and 25 share, finishing at ninth place in the Nielsen ratings that week. When it debuted as a weekly Sunday night series in January 1990, the show averaged an 18.0 rating/27 share, finishing at 16th place. It placed within Nielsen's Top 5 highest-rated weekly series within weeks of its debut; by March 1990, AFHV became the No. 1 primetime series for a short time. AFHV finished the 1989–90 season in the Top 10 most watched shows, with an approximate average of 38 million viewers for each episode. AFHV finished the 2009–10 season in 55th place, with an approximate average of 7.52 million viewers and finished in 69th in viewers 18–49, with 2.0/6. In 2016, a study by The New York Times of the 50 TV shows with the most Facebook Likes found that "if you could pick a safe show that appeals to almost everyone, this might be it".
Broadcast format
Beginning with the show's 21st-season premiere on October 3, 2010, America's Funniest Home Videos began broadcasting in high definition. Many viewer-submitted videos were recorded in standard definition and were subsequently stretched horizontally to fit 16:9 screens. Since the 2012–13 season, videos recorded in 4:3 standard definition are carried in their original format with side pillarboxing. This continued to be the case for videos recorded on mobile devices recorded at a vertical angle. Since the conversion to HD, the series features advisories to viewers to tilt their mobile devices horizontally when recording in order for clip submissions to fit 16:9 screens without reformatting.
In 2014, all Tom Bergeron era episodes of the show originally produced in standard definition were remastered for widescreen and high definition broadcast compatibility, which involved cropping and stretching, with certain parts, such as the end credits switching to its original 4:3 aspect ratio after the first few seconds, and production logos, remaining in its original 4:3 aspect ratio. Video clips recorded in standard definition and airing since the show began broadcasting in high definition are also reformatted and stretched for widescreen compatibility.
Syndication
Repeats of the show began airing in broadcast syndication in September 1995.
The initial off-network syndication package consisted of the entirety of seasons 1-5, and the first 12 episodes of season 6, and was distributed by MTM Enterprises. This package aired on various local channels, TBS from October 2, 1995 – 1998, and USA Network from 1998 to 2001. 20th Television then assumed syndication rights from their purchase of MTM Enterprises in 1997, and continued on with the initial package, and issuing a new package with the remainder of seasons 6 through 8. Hallmark Channel notably aired both packages from August 5, 2001 – 2003, and various other channels carried the new package as well, but most stuck to the initial 5 1/2 season deal. Seasons 6–8 aired on ABC Family (now Freeform) from January 2002 to October 2007, usually on Tuesday through Saturday mornings, and occasionally on Sunday nights if a movie was not shown, being the last to air said seasons. After 2001, Buena Vista Television began distributing the show, and with it came two revamped packages: seasons 1-5 and 6-8. The first 5 seasons aired among networks such as PAX TV (now Ion Television) every Monday through Thursday night (later Monday through Friday night) from October 6, 2003 to 2005, and Nick at Nite for a short time from April 30 to October 2007. The Saget era continued in local syndication for some time, finally ending up again on Hallmark Channel beginning on January 4, 2010. They were due to air all 8 seasons of the Saget run, but due to constantly changing timeslots, never got past the tail end of season 5. The Saget era ceased its syndication run in February 2010. Internationally, all 8 seasons aired on DTV in Russia, TVB Pearl in Hong Kong, and the 5 season package aired on networks including SUN TV, Omni, CMT and TVTropolis in Canada.
The John and Daisy seasons (seasons 9-10) aired on WGN America (now NewsNation) from 2006 to 2014. The guest specials specials from the 1999-2001 period are known to have been syndicated on WGN as well. Both eras were never offered in off-network syndication, and the foreign market Kasem season was not syndicated abroad. Internationally, all 3 eras aired on various networks, including the Kasem season on TVNorge, and the John/Daisy seasons on DTV in Russia.
The Tom Bergeron seasons began airing on both WGN and ABC Family in fall 2004, with seasons 15-19 gradually being added to syndication as they completed their original runs on ABC. WGN continuing its run until 2018, and ABC Family replacing the Saget run with the Bergeron run in October 2007, airing it until 2014 on Tuesday through Saturday mornings, and occasionally on Sunday nights if a movie was not shown. Disney-ABC Domestic Television (the successor of Buena Vista Television) began offering seasons 11-19 in off-network syndication in 2009, airing on select Fox, MyNetworkTV, The CW, and various independent stations. Various local stations replaced the Saget run with this run as well. In 2014, after the introduction of the widescreen remasters, a new packaged was introduced, with all 15 seasons of the Bergeron run. WGN aired seasons 11-19 from this package, TBS began reairing the show with seasons 18-23 and 25 from 2014-2017, and UPtv then picked up seasons 20-25 in 2016. UPtv's last airing was on December 31, 2019, marking the end of the Bergeron years in syndication. Internationally, hour long episodes in the USA and Canada are split into two half hour parts, with a new opener and closing taped for each part. All references to the show being an hour long are also edited out. This practice continues into the Ribeiro years. This era has aired among networks such as RTL Klub in Hungary, TVB Pearl in Hong Kong, DTV in Russia, and it currently airs on PRVA Plus in Serbia, along with the Ribeiro era. In Canada, seasons 11–25 aired on ABC Spark, CMT, DejaView, YTV and Yes TV in some capacity until 2022. Since September 16, 2023, reruns of seasons 11-13 are now being shown on GameTV.
The Alfonso Ribeiro seasons (seasons 26–31) began airing on TeenNick on September 12, 2022, and finished airing in April 2023. This era aired internationally on TVB Pearl, and currently airs on PRVA Plus in Serbia, along with the Bergeron years.
Generally, a few to most AFV episodes from seasons 11-25 are available on Disney+ and Hulu, i.e., the Bergeron run in its remastered form, with availability varying at random based on platform's publishing decisions.
Merchandise
VHS/DVD
ABC, Shout! Factory, and Slingshot Entertainment have released numerous compilation releases of America's Funniest Home Videos on VHS and DVD in Region 1 (North America).
Games
Parker Brothers released a board game in 1990. Graphix Zone released a hybrid CD-ROM titled America's Funniest Home Videos: Lights! Camera! InterAction! in 1995. Imagination Games released a DVD game in 2007.
Toys
An America's Funniest Home Videos micro movie viewer was released in 1990.
International versions
AFV has been broadcast around the world from many countries. Here is a list of international versions:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! style="width:13em;"| Country/Region
! style="width:15em;"| Network(s)
! style="width:15em;"| Date
! style="width:13em;"| Aired as
|-
|
| Super RTL
| 2005–2018
| Upps! – Die Pannenshow
|-
|
| ITV
| 1990–2022
| You've Been Framed|-
|
| TVP1
| 1994–2009
| Śmiechu Warte|-
|
| TVE1
| 1990–1998
| Videos de Primera|-
|
| TV3
| 1991–1997
| Låt kameran gå|-
|
| Nine Network
| 1990–2014
| Australia's Funniest Home Videos|-
|
| TF1
| 1990–2008
| Video Gag|-
|
| TROS
| 1990–2004
| De Leukste Thuis|-
|
| VTM
| 1990–2004
| Videodinges|-
|
| SBS 6
| 2002–present
| Lachen om Home Video's|-
|
| Canale 5
| 1990-2013
| Paperissima|-
|
| Czech Television
| 1995-2010
| Tak neváhej a toč!|-
| Chile
| Canal 13
| 1991-2002
| Video Loco|-
|}
See also
America's Funniest People (1990–1994), people intentionally being humorous, also produced by Vin Di Bona
Australia's Funniest Home Video Show, 1990–2004 show created by Di Bona
Australia's Funniest Home Videos, post-2005-2013 show created by Di Bona
Australia's Naughtiest Home Videos, a 1992 similar show and now-infamous event created by Di Bona
It Only Hurts When I Laugh, a truTV series
New Zealand's Funniest Home Videos (1990–1999) (later The Kiwi Video Show)
Ridiculousness (2011–present), an MTV series using internet videos
The Planet's Funniest Animals, an Animal Planet series
The World's Funniest Moments (2008–present), a syndicated series
The World's Funniest!, a 1997–2000 series on FOX
Video Gag (1990–2008), the French equivalent of AFHV You've Been Framed! (1990–2022), the British equivalent of the show
Juoko įvykiai, Lithuanian equivalent of the show
Video Loco (1991–2002), Chilean equivalent of the show
Fórky a Vtipky programs in Slovakia on Plus
Nejzábavnější domácí videa Ameriky, in Czech Republic programs
Paperissima (1990-2013), Italian equivalent of the show
Drôle de vidéo, French-Canadian equivalent of the show airing on TVA
Isto Só Video, Portuguese equivalent of the show
Сам Себе Режиссёр (1992–2019), Russian equivalent of the show
Det' Ren Kagemand, Danish equivalent of the show
Ay, caramba!, Mexican equivalent of the show
Csíííz! (1998–2001), Hungarian equivalent of the show
Süper Matrak (2007–2022) , Turkish equivalent of the show aired on Disney Channel Turkey
Tak neváhej a toč! (1995–1999) and Natočto!'' (1999–present), Czech equivalents of the show
References
External links
America's Funniest Home Videos on Shout! Factory
America's Funniest Home Videos on ABC.com
1980s American comedy television series
1989 American television series debuts
1990s American video clip television series
2000s American video clip television series
2010s American video clip television series
2020s American video clip television series
American Broadcasting Company original programming
American television series based on Japanese television series
English-language television shows
Television franchises
Television series by Disney–ABC Domestic Television
Comedy franchises
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menzoberranzan
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Menzoberranzan
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Menzoberranzan, the "City of Spiders", is a fictional city-state in the world of the Forgotten Realms, a Dungeons & Dragons campaign setting. The city is located in the Upper Northdark, about two miles below the Surbrin Vale, between the Moonwood and the Frost Hills (north of the Evermoors and under the River Surbin). It is famed as the birthplace of Drizzt Do'Urden, the protagonist of several series of best-selling novels by noted fantasy author R. A. Salvatore. Menzoberranzan has been developed into a video game (of the same name) and a tabletop RPG setting. Menzoberranzan has been described as "a perfect unjust state" and compared to Glaucon's vision of a state that is held together only by the fear of retribution.
Creative origins
In 1988, the character Drizzt Do'Urden was created by author R. A. Salvatore as a supporting character in the Icewind Dale Trilogy and referenced the character's "years in Menzoberranzan". The prequel series, The Dark Elf Trilogy, features the origin of Drizzt Do'Urden and the main setting is his home city of Menzoberranzan. Salvatore went through old Dungeons & Dragons adventure modules, such as Descent to the Depths of the Earth, Vault of the Drow, and Queen of the Demon Web Pits, for references on the Drow but the Drow were not defined outside of a matriarchal society in the Underdark. Salvatore was given carte blanche to create the entire society within the city. Mario Puzo's The Godfather and the Five Families of New York greatly influenced Salvatore when he created the "super-structure" of the city and helped him create a "logical consistency" for the society.
In 2018, Salvatore said:Look, I grew up in a sexist, racist society. I grew up in an Italian neighborhood. Have you ever watched The Sopranos? That was my neighborhood. Only without the mob, but that was my neighborhood. It had the same attitudes about life. I grew up with five older sisters, and I saw what they had to endure. And they’re also where I got the idea for the bad matriarchal society of Menzoberranzan. [...] I love my sisters dearly. It’s funny, because they’ll always come up to me and say, “I’m Vierna, right?”
Publication history
Forgotten Realms Novels
The Icewind Dale Trilogy
Menzoberranzan was introduced in The Crystal Shard (1988) as part of the background for Drizzt Do'Urden. Shannon Appelcline (author of Designers & Dragons) wrote that "from the time of that first book of Salvatore’s Icewind Dale trilogy, Drizzt was a breakout success, due in no small part to his mysterious origins and his 'years in Menzoberranzan, or in the wilds of the Underdark . . .' With that one sentence, Salvatore ensured that the Underdark would rise up to unseat Deepearth as the collective name for D&D’s underground realms—and that fans would want to know more about those realms".
The Dark Elf Trilogy
In September 1990, Salvatore's novel Homeland was released. This was the first novel in the prequel series and was followed by Exile, in December 1990, and then Sojurn, in May 1991. Homeland shows the life and society of Menzoberranzan as Drizzt Do'Urden grows up there. It explores the complex Drow house system in Menzoberranzan along with education system, called the Academy. Cindy Speer, for the SF Site, wrote "the city is beautifully rendered, a place of danger, as beautiful as a poisonous snake, and the rules of this society are chilling".
Pornokitsch, in their review of Homeland, wrote "Menzoberranzan is a stunning metropolis - svelte architecture, omnipresent magic and an atmosphere of choking paranoia. [...] It is important to note that the Forgotten Realms are a place of extremely high fantasy [...]. Menzoberranzan is high fantasy to another order of magnitude. Every drow can use magic and their city glows with eldritch power".
While at the end of Homeland Drizzt leaves Menzoberranzan, the city continues to be a secondary location in the trilogy and follows other characters still in the city.
Legacy of the Drow series
The Legacy of the Drow series, by R. A. Salvatore, was written after the Dark Elf trilogy but chronologically it follows the Icewind Dale trilogy. Menzoberranzan is a secondary location in the first novel, The Legacy (1992) and a major location in the second and third novels, Starless Night (1993) and Siege of Darkness (1994). In The Legacy, this "is the first time Salvatore has 'gone home' so to speak since Drizzt left the Underdark at the end of Exile. [...] The chaotic city of Menzoberranzan hosts part of the story with the unexpected return of a member (or two) of the Do’Urden family. This is the catalyst for the hunt for the blasphemous Ranger who turned his back on his family, race and the Spider Queen".
In Starless Night, Drizzt returns to Menzoberranzan to try to prevent an attack on Mithral Hall. In Siege of Darkness, while Menzoberranzan is heavily impacted by the Time of Troubles and magic going awry, the Drow still plan and then launch an attack on Mithral Hall.
Starlight and Shadows Trilogy
In September 1995, Elaine Cunningham's novel Daughter of the Drow was released and it is set 21 years after Salvatore's novel Sojurn. Unlike Drizzt Do'Urden, the main character Liriel Baenre is prized member of the top house in Menzoberranzan. Similarly to Homeland, it follows Liriel Baenre's early life and her process of escaping the city.
Menzoberranzan continues to be a secondary location in the rest of the trilogy, Tangled Webs (April 1996) and Windwalker (April 2003).
War of the Spider Queen series
Menzoberranzan appears prominently in the War of the Spider Queen series, particularly as the setting of the first novel in the series Dissolution (2002), as well as Condemnation (2003), Extinction (2004), Annihilation (2004), and Resurrection (2005). The War of the Spider Queen series is written by six authors with two editors; Philip Athans and R. A. Salvatore. The series "returns to Drizzt Do’Urden’s homeland, the Underdark, to spin a tale of a ragged band of four dark elves on a desperate quest to find , drow goddess and the demon Queen of Spiders, and save their subterranean city of Menzoberranzan and the entire dark elf race".
Neverwinter Saga
Menzoberranzan appears as a secondary location in Charon's Claw (2012), the third novel of the Neverwinter Saga. "At the beginning of the book, the Drow from Menzoberranzan are plotting to take Gauntylgyrm and the ancient fire being under their own power and have sent out forces to do just that". The release of this book was part of the Wizards of the Coast coordinated marketing campaign called "Rise of the Underdark". A few weeks after Charon's Claw was published, a Dungeons & Dragons sourcebook on the city (Menzoberranzan: City of Intrigue) was also released as part of this campaign.
Salvatore said he came to understand that Artemis Entreri, a main character in the book, "was who Drizzt might have become had he remained in Menzoberranzan. Entreri sees the surface world as wretched and evil as Drizzt viewed his homeland, except for Entreri, there was no escape. So he gave in to cynicism and hopelessness".
Companions Codex
Menzoberranzan appears prominently in the Companions Codex series by R. A. Salvatore, particularly in the first novel in the series Night of the Hunter (2014). The Drow of Menzoberranzan and Q'Xorlarrin, a settlement in Gauntylgyrm founded by the Menzoberranzan Drow from House Xorlarrin, are plotting war against the surface world because Menzoberranzan is on the brink of civil war and the Drow goddess Lolth is angry at the city. This leads to a conflict called the War of the Silver Marches which continues throughout the rest of the series, Rise of the King (2014) and Vengeance of the Iron Dwarf (2015).
Salvatore said "The War of the Silver Marches seems straightforward from afar - the orcs of Many Arrows, prodded by the drow, have decided to take on the alliance known as the Kingdoms of Luruar. Up close, however, it gets much more complicated, as the drow tease the frost giants to the side of the orcs, then throw in a couple of dragons (who have their own ulterior motives) for good measure. And of course, at a higher level, we've got a feud between a pair of goddesses, Lolth and Mielikki, kicking up the dust as well".
Homecoming Trilogy
Menzoberranzan appears prominently in the Homecoming series by R. A. Salvatore, particularly in the first two novels Archmage (2015) and Maestro (2016). At the start of the series the War of the Silver Marches is over but the fate of Gauntylgyrm, a satellite settlement of Menzoberranzan, has yet to be decided. "The dwarven kings and their allies are marching to reclaim Gauntlgrym, a dwarven stronghold lost some decades past. [...] Meanwhile, the drow of Menzoberranzan, led by their scheming Matron Mother, Quenthel Baenre, are planning the defence of Gauntlgrym, which they’ve claimed for their own. The first half of the book deals with what happens before the dwarfs reach Gauntlgrym, and the second half deals with what occurs when the two sides come into conflict. Weaving throughout this tale are a number of disaffected drow, of particular note are Jaraxle, of the Bregan D’aerthe mercenary company, and the eponymous Archmage, Gromph of House Baenre".
Archmage highlights the politics of Menzoberranzan with a focus on the Archmage Gromph Baenre. The events of the book setup the Dungeons & Dragons "Rage of Demons" storyline and the adventure Out of the Abyss (2015) as at the end of the novel, Archmage Gromph Baenre accidentally summons Demogorgon, the Prince of Demons, to Menzoberranzan. The second book, Maestro, deals with the fallout of the "Rage of Demons" storyline in Menzoberranzan with a particular focus on Drizzt Do'Urden returning to the city and the story concludes in Hero (2016).
Generations Trilogy
The Generations series by R. A. Salvatore follows the Homecoming trilogy. In the first novel, Timeless (2018), Menzoberranzan is one of the main locations and "it follows the tumultuous life of Drizzt’s father, mentor figure, and idol Zaknafein, both in the past, when his friendship with the infamous mercenary captain Jarlaxle opened the door for his heresy, and in the present, after he is resurrected and reunited with his son". The series continues in Boundless (2019) and will be concluded in Relentless (2020).
Salvatore said "I can tell you that for many years, and a lot of readers have agreed with me, I've said I really wanted to write a book about Zaknafein and Jarlaxle, but before Drizzt was born. How did they get to know each other? What was Menzoberranzan like? [...] So half the book takes place back before Drizzt was born, so I can reintroduce people to the dark elf city, through different eyes. Slightly different perspective on the dark elf city".
Dungeons and Dragons
Advanced Dungeons & Dragons 2nd Edition
Ed Greenwood, Salvatore, and Douglas Niles collaborated to release a three-book box set in December 1992 called Menzoberranzan: The Famed City of the Drow. Ashe Collins, for Diehard Gamefan, wrote "originally published by TSR in 1992, following the successful Homeland Trilogy by R. A. Salvatore, which featured the Drow city in great detail there, TSR sought to capitalize on it by providing far more detail to the actual city than they had before for GMs and players, and the Forgotten Realms setting".
The first two books cover the history of the fictional setting, while the final book serves as an adventure module.
Book One: The City
Book Two: The Houses
Book Three: The Adventure
John ONeill, for Black Gate, wrote "one of my favorite RPG settings of all time is Menzoberranzan, the 1992 boxed set from TSR that drew liberally from R. A. Salvatore’s best-selling Drizzt Do’Urden novels. [...] Packed with 20,000 drow inhabitants, hundreds of thousands of humanoid slaves, and countless secrets and simmering rivalries, the home of the drow was an ideal adventure site for intrepid (and suitably high level) players".
Author Jeff LaSala, on the influence of Salvatore's novels, wrote that at a signing he attended in the early 1990s "with my hard-earned and very limited money I also bought the Menzoberranzan boxed set (ahh, back when they still made boxed sets regularly), which detailed the city of Drizzt’s origin. Now Dungeon Masters and players alike could fill their campaigns with feuding noble houses, evil matron mothers, and vile plots, but this time with actual maps of the city and ready-made NPCs. [...] Never mind that I was never able to use much of this stuff in my nerdy Stranger Things-but-in-the-90s D&D group. But that’s okay—I still had innumerable hours of thinking up drow-based adventures ahead, whether I’d use them or not".
In November 1999, Drizzt Do'Urden's Guide to the Underdark (1999), by Eric L. Boyd, was released. Appelcline wrote that it "is the single-most comprehensive sourcebook on the realms of the Underdark that lie beneath the Sword Coast. It talks about the major peoples of the Underworld and details dozens of cities, including Menzoberranzan" and that "Boyd's extensive research results in Underdark being full of tiny references. For example, drow cities are drawn from the list in Drow of the Underdark and from obscure references in Menzoberranzan".
A review for Pyramid identifies Menzoberranzan as one of "the most famous pieces of the Realms".
3rd Edition & 3.5
Menzoberranzan is briefly described in the Forgotten Realms Campaign Setting (2001).
4th Edition
In the 4th edition Forgotten Realms Campaign Guide (2008), Menzoberranzan is described as a key settlement in the Underdark and features an updated map.
In August 2012, Menzoberranzan: City of Intrigue (2012), by Brian R. James and Eric Menge, was published. This was an edition-neutral campaign setting book and was announced as part of the Rise of the Underdark event. Appelcline wrote that the book includes reprinted material from earlier sources "covering the setting of Menzoberranzan, the houses of Menzoberranzan, and the drow of the Realms" and it "also advances the timeline of the city. This includes details on how the War of the Spider Queen (2002-2005) changed the city and totally new material on the Spellplague. The result turns the system-neutral Menzoberranzan supplement into an era-neutral supplement that allows players to run Menzoberranzan in any era, from its 2e origins to the 4e present-day".
Ed Grabianowski, for Io9, "the most famous of drow cities hasn't received the splatbook treatment since 2nd Edition. [...] Plus, physically, Menzoberranzan is one of the coolest, most unique fantasy cities ever".
John ONeill, for Black Gate, wrote "released nearly 20 years ago for second edition AD&D, Menzoberranzan has not seen an update since and has been out of print for over 15 years. It was featured in the popular Menzoberranzan PC game from SSI/DreamForge, part of their Forgotten Realms product line, in 1994, and very prominently in the six volume War of the Spider Queen novels, but it’s been far too long since my favorite underdark city-state appeared in a new edition".
Alex Lucard, for Diehard Gamefan, wrote "All in all, if you even remotely interested in the Drow as a race, Menzoberranzan: City of Intrigue is a book well worth picking up. It has a ton of helpful information, beautiful artwork and it strives to be friendly to all four versions of Dungeons & Dragons. [...] I’m not the least bit interested in the Drow as a race, but I have to admit I was pretty impressed by this book. It may not be for me, but I can’t deny how well written and designed this campaign supplement is". Wired included the book on a seasonal gift guide and wrote "it's a wicked underground city packed full of scheming dark elves and their henchmen and slaves. The illustrations of the noble families are particularly excellent, and you really get a sense of the personalities of these houses. [...] This book is just the resource you need to run a campaign in the city or to inspire you to create your own evil city".
5th Edition
In September 2015, Menzoberranzan received a dedicated chapter in the 5th edition book Out of the Abyss (2015). Henry Glasheen, for SLUG Magazine, wrote that the adventure "leads through some of the most famous locations in The Underdark—if such places can be said to be famous. Many players will remember Menzoberranzan, the City of Spiders, but even lesser-known areas such as Blingdenstone and Gracklstugh are fully developed and ready to be explored".
Fictional description
Menzoberranzan is an underground city populated by the drow, and ruled over by the priestesses of Lolth. The city has 20,000 drow inhabitants and hundreds of thousands of humanoid slaves such as goblins, kobolds, bugbears, duergar, svirfnebli, orcs, ogres, minotaurs, and giants, as well as herds of rothé kept as livestock. The city trades poisons, mushrooms, riding lizards, spell scrolls, wine, and water. The worship of Lolth is prevalent, and the city has the clerical academy Arach-Tinilith, a spider-shaped building where priestesses are trained. Arach-Tinilith is one of the three branches of the city's Academy in the Tier Breche section of the city. Arach-Tinilith is neighbored by the warrior school Melee-Magthere, and Sorcere tower where arcane spellcasters are sent to study. These academies are the quarters of some of the most powerful clerics, fighters and wizards, respectively, and the title of master of an academy is coveted, since being the master of Sorcere or Melee-Magthere is as high as the power ladder goes for some houseless drow or even noble males.
On one edge of the city the family houses are located in their glory, while the edge near the lower level Drow houses there is a lake used to water the rothé. An island in the center is used to as an outlook post to help defend the city.
Founding
Menzoberranzan was founded by a priestess of Lolth named Menzoberra the Kinless in −3917 DR. It is ruled by a council of matrons from the eight greatest noble houses; the most powerful House in the city is House Baenre, until recently led by Matron Yvonnel Baenre—a drow cleric who was the single most powerful political figure in Menzoberranzan for about two thousand years. She has been succeeded by her daughter Triel. A separate council of mages deals with affairs of the arcane—but as its members are all male, it is wholly within the grip of the matrons.
History
Menzoberra the Kinless, a powerful priestess of Lolth, founded the city that bears her name in −3917 DR. By the wishes of Lady Lolth, she led seven drow families into the Northdark from the southerly drow holdings of Great Bhaerynden. The drow families, having no immediate external enemy, fell to attacking and undermining one another, as was drow nature, to the greater glory of their evil goddess, who so loved chaos. Only fifty years after the city's founding, in −3864 DR, a great and terrible battle between the two most powerful Houses, House Nasadra and House S'sril, occurred. This battle led to the exile of House Nasadra (which later founded the city of Ched Nasad, and was the First House until the city's recent destruction) and to the rise of House Baenre as the First House of Menzoberranzan.
The city's internal machinations have continued unabated for millennia. The Houses that grow weak are destroyed, and newer Houses rise up to find Lolth's favor. The full history of each House would constitute a nearly endless logbook of treachery, spite, and unceasing ambition. Within the last century, this pattern seems to have accelerated. House Do'Urden ascended from the Tenth House to the Ninth House by destroying the Fourth House, House DeVir. It then ascended to the Eighth House with the much-needed help of Jarlaxle's mercenary band Bregan D'aerthe by destroying the Fifth House, House Hun'ett. House Do'Urden lost the favor of Lolth, however, when Matron Malice Do'Urden turned Zaknafein into a spirit-wraith by using Lolth's dread Zin-Carla ritual and failed to kill Drizzt Do'Urden with him. This resulted in House Baenre utterly destroying House Do'Urden.
In 1359 DR, during the Time of Troubles, House Oblodra, the Third House, aspired to be the First House of Menzoberranzan. Menzoberranzan was caught in a magic dead zone, so magic did not work there. House Oblodra, however, was gifted in the rare art of psionics and seized upon this opportunity to strike at the other Houses. The matron of House Oblodra nearly reached her goal, but an avatar of Lolth answered Matron Baenre's pleas for help and came to Menzoberranzan after the Time of Troubles had ended. (The drow thought that she herself had restored all magic, but that is not true.) Although she loved chaos, she did not wish to see a House that did not whisper prayer to her to rule the city. Foreseeing her temporary loss of power due to the Time of Troubles, Lolth had asked the demon Errtu to protect her worshippers, should she herself fail to do it. In return, Lolth gave Wulfgar over to Errtu as a prisoner, means by which the mighty demon could gain his revenge on Drizzt. She then opened a portal for Errtu and his host of demons to lay siege to House Oblodra. By the time the Time of Troubles had passed, Lolth was restored to full power and single-handedly crushed House Oblodra, the remains of their stronghold being pushed into a deep chasm known as the Clawrift, and Matron Oblodra's spirit went to Errtu for eternal torment. Thus the ranks of the ruling Houses changed once again. All this she said was done for her greatest high priestess (although it was really done for herself), the two-thousand-year-old Matron Baenre. All Houses in the city witnessed this great miracle and knew that House Baenre was the most favored House of the goddess.
Key factions
There are three types of factions in Menzoberranzan. At the top are the Houses with the eight greatest houses forming the Ruling Council of Menzoberranzan. "The council determines the fate of the city, from the ranking of each house to whether an errant house must be destroyed. Drow factions that more or less uphold the social order of Menzoberranzan are the second category. These include the academy of Tier Breche and the mercenary company of Bregan D'aerthe. [...] The third group of factions consists of various internal and external forces opposed to the social order of Menzoberranzan".
Houses of Menzoberranzan
The Houses "control all aspects of the city, from enforcing its few laws to dominating trade. Menzoberranzan has no standing army. Instead, the house guard of each of the noble houses provides the military might of the city. Their compounds are heavily fortified castles". Menzoberranzan has about 50 Houses which are all vying to increase their power and their ranking in the city as only the top eight Houses are part of the Ruling Council. The Houses all follow the same loose leadership structure: "the house matron mother (the dictatorial ruling female head of the house), first priestess (typically the matron mother's eldest daughter, who supervises the day-to-day operations of the house), house wizard (the leader of the house's arcane spellcasters), house weapon master (who trains and leads the house warriors), and patron (the favored consort of the matron mother, who holds the highest rank possible for a male drow)".
The following are the topmost houses of Menzoberranzan:
Baenre
Barrison Del'Armgo
Oblodra (destroyed by demons serving Yvonnel Baenre and, indirectly, Lolth in DR1358, described in Siege of Darkness)
DeVir (destroyed by Do'Urden in DR1297, described in Homeland)
Hun'ett (destroyed by Do'Urden in DR1338, described in Exile)
Faen Tlabbar
Xorlarrin
Agrach Dyrr (became a vassal of House Baenre in DR1372 in the outcome of the War of the Spider Queen)
Mizzrym
Do'Urden (destroyed by Baenre in DR1340, described in Exile)
Fey-Branche
Tuin'Tarl
Duskryn
Srune'Lett
Horlbar
Kenafin
Druu'giir
Hunzrin
Shobalar
Vandree
Symryvvin
A'Lavallier
Sel'rue
Unknown Ranking
Freth [destroyed in 1319 DR] ("Homeland")
Teken'duis [destroyed in 1319 DR] ("Homeland")
Hekar ("Starless Night")
Catanzaro ("Dragon228")
Despana ("Dissolution")
Pharn ("Realms Personalities")
Coloara ("Realms Personalities")
Simfray [destroyed in DR1018 by Bregan D'aerthe] ("Timeless")
Tr'arach [destroyed in DR1018 by Zaknafein Simfray] ("Timeless")
The Academy
Tier Breche, the famed academy of the dark elves, sits on a high plateau at the western end of the city, protected by guardians and fell magics, the Academy consist of three structures, Arach-Tinilith (The School of Lolth) Sorcere (The School of Wizards) and Melee Magthere (The School of Fighters). Presided over by the Matron Mistress of the Academy, all drow both common and noble are required to attend the academy. Students' length of education is dependent on their sex and occupation. Male Fighters will spend 10 years, male wizards will spend 30, and female priestesses will spend 50 years learning their profession. The majority of time is spent within their specific school; however each student will spend a portion of their last year at each of the other schools, gaining a basic understanding of the strengths and weakness of the other classes.
Melee Magthere
The School of Fighters is a pyramidal structure located on the east side of Tier Breche. Here males learn the art of swordplay, and individual and group fighting tactics. Beginning students spend their first sixty days unarmed under the instruction of The Master of Lore. Here they are indoctrinated against surface elves and non-drow. This racist propaganda provides a 'safety valve'- extra aggression can be turned on the surface folk, rather than (completely) on the Drowish hierarchy. Their junior years are very harsh, but conditions improve as they grow older. Students in their 9th and final year serve as guards for Tier Breche, as well as participating in practice patrols within short distances outside of the city cavern. Each year, in order to establish a hierarchy within the class, the Grand Melee is held. During this event the students are set loose in a maze chamber outside the city cavern, wielding simple wooden poles as imitation weapons. The last male standing wins. In the tenth and final year, fighters will spend their first six months in Sorcere studying magic, and the final six months within Arach-Tinilith learning the precepts of Lolth- most importantly, the inferiority of males in her eyes.
Sorcere
The School of Wizards is housed in a many spired stalagmite tower on the west of Tier Breche. Males will spend 30 years in study of the arcane arts, learning to channel the strange and unique magic of the drow that emanates from the Underdark. Acceptance as a student at Sorcere is highly coveted by young males as magic is the only path to any kind of real power in their matriarchal world. Masters of Sorcere are arguably the most powerful group of males within Menzoberranzan, headed by the city's Archmage. Not only are they responsible for the training of future mages but also for regulating the use of arcane magic for all drow within Menzoberranzan.
Arach-Tinilith
The School of Lolth is one of, if not the most important, holy sites within the church of Lolth. Standing at the center of Tier Breche, the school resembles a giant obsidian spider, sporting eight legs and a large central hall. Female clerics will spend 50 years in study under the Mistresses of Arach-Tinilith, learning the deeper codes, beliefs, and dogma of Lolth's faith. Some of the most powerful holy artifacts of the drow are stored within the halls. It is here that students will undergo the graduation ceremony, often involving demon summoning and sexual orgies between the new clerics and male wizards or fighters, reinforcing the subservient role of drow males. The Matron Mistress of the Academy resides here and serves both as head instructor as well as the leader of the academy. Currently the Academy is presided over by Matron Mistress Quenthel Baenre, who succeeded her sister Matron Triel after the death of their mother.
Bregan D'aerthe
Bregan D'aerthe is a drow mercenary band based in the drow stronghold of Menzoberranzan and appears in many R. A. Salvatore novels. Founded by Jarlaxle Baenre as a means for houseless rogues to survive in Menzoberranzan, the group has thrived and expanded greatly since its inception. Due to its array of skilled soldiers and its many connections with the outside world, Bregan D'aerthe is a valued ally of many powerful drow houses. More than once in various novels, it has been remarked that Jarlaxle is one of the most protected drow in the Underdark due to the competent soldiers he surrounds himself with. This band of societal malcontents consists of approximately 150 members (though at times known to employ many more, having nearly one thousand agents at work with the Calimport initiative), mainly houseless males. Bregan D'aerthe has been very influential in the chaotic happenings of Menzoberranzan and has connections with Blingdenstone and has agents in Ched Nasad as well as major cities on the surface, most notably Luskan, Waterdeep, Calimport, and Heliogabalus. It was led by Jarlaxle Baenre, up until Servant of the Shard and is currently led by the drow psionicist Kimmuriel Oblodra. "...no house desired conflict with Bregan D’aerthe. It was the most secretive of bands, few in the city could even guess at the numbers in the group, and its bases were tucked away in the many nooks and crannies of the wide cavern. The company’s reputation was widespread, though, tolerated by the ruling houses, and most in the city would name Jarlaxle among the most powerful of Menzoberranzan’s males." - Starless Night
"...in Menzoberranzan, Jarlaxle and his spying network, Bregan D’aerthe, had no equal." - Starless Night
Reception
In the Io9 series revisiting older Dungeons & Dragons novels, in his review of Homeland, Rob Bricken says that "where Homeland really shines—what hooked me as a kid, and what I still find fascinating now—is how thoroughly Salvatore examines drow society and the city of Menzoberranzan. From the cult of Lolth, the spider-goddess, to the matriarchal houses constantly scheming to destroy the others, to their equally Machiavellian education system, to the brutal class structure, Salvatore explores it all. He gives equal attention to the architecture and art of Menzoberranzan, and he's gained enough skill to describe it with aplomb. What would look like utter darkness to us is a world of vivid color for the drow, whose nightvision (the D&D term for being able to see the infrared spectrum) is unparalleled. It's augmented by magic and the elves' ability to shape stone into works of art, ornate houses, and more."
In other media
Board games
In 2011, the Legend of Drizzt Board Game was released. The adventure book in the game is inspired by the R. A. Salvatore novels and "the first adventure, Exile, is inspired by the book of the same name and features Drizzt’s journey from Menzoberranzan to the surface".
In 2016, the Tyrants of the Underdark board game was released. Players act as competing Drow houses trying to take control of locations in the Underdark such as Menzoberranzan and Blingdenstone.
Video games
The city was the main location of the video game Menzoberranzan (1994). Dungeons and Desktops: The History of Computer Role-Playing Games said "the last TSR-licensed game SSI published is the infamously wretched (and hard to spell) Menzoberranzan, which appeared in 1994 for DOS. [...] [It] had all the ingredients necessary for a hit. [...] Nevertheless, gamers quickly complained about the endless number of boring battles that drag out the game and ruin its pacing".
In 2015, players in the MMO Neverwinter could accompany Drizzt to Menzoberranzan during its demonic assault in the Underdark Campaign. In 2023, the game's Neverwinter: Menzoberranzan module featured the city as a new adventure zone and campaign.
Miscellaneous
In 2014, Matt Hummel's essay Menzoberranzan: A Perfect Unjust State appears in Dungeons & Dragons and Philosophy a new volume in Wiley-Blackwell's long running Philosophy and Pop Culture series. Hummel "uses the infamous Drow city to discuss notions of justice and injustice".
Sleep Sound (2021) is a poem by R. A. Salvatore which received an animated short to promote the "Summer Of Drizzt" marketing campaign. The short features Menzoberranzan; it was narrated by Benedict Cumberbatch and animated by The Sequence Group.
Dungeons & Dragons: Honor Among Thieves (2023) producer Jeremy Latcham stated that the city seen at distance in the Underdark portion of the film was intended to be Menzoberranzan – Latcham commented that "I don't know if we actually ended up leaving it that on the map, but when we designed it originally, that was going to be Menzoberranzan. There was some controversy about it based on where we were with Dolblunde, which was kind of a made-up place".
See also
Menzoberranzan (video game)
Underdark
References
External links
Poster map of Menzoberranzan created by Mike Schley for Menzoberranzan: City of Intrigue (2012).
Fictional city-states
Dungeons & Dragons populated places
Dungeons & Dragons locations
Underground cities
pl:Lista miast ze świata Forgotten Realms#Menzoberranzan
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fever%20%28Kylie%20Minogue%20album%29
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Fever (Kylie Minogue album)
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Fever is the eighth studio album by Australian singer Kylie Minogue. It was released on 1 October 2001 internationally by Parlophone and later launched in the United States on 26 February 2002 by Capitol Records. Minogue worked with writers and producers such as Cathy Dennis, Rob Davis, Richard Stannard, Julian Gallagher, TommyD, Tom Nichols, Pascal Gabriel and others to create a disco and Europop-influenced dance-pop and nu-disco album. Other musical influences of the album range from synth-pop to club music.
Upon its release, Fever received positive reviews from music critics, many of whom praised its production and commercial appeal. The album was a commercial success, peaking at number one in Australia, Austria, Germany, Ireland, Russia, and the UK. In the US, the album peaked at number three on the Billboard 200 chart, becoming Minogue's highest selling album in the country; it was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). Fever was also certified seven-times platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA), and five-times platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI). It won the International Album accolade at the 2002 Brit Awards ceremony.
Four singles were released from the album. The lead single, "Can't Get You Out of My Head" was released in September 2001 and peaked atop the charts of 40 countries, eventually selling more than six million copies worldwide. The song, which is often recognised as Minogue's signature song, is her highest-selling single. Follow-up singles "In Your Eyes" and "Love at First Sight" also performed well on charts internationally. The last single "Come into My World" won the Grammy Award for Best Dance Recording in 2004. To promote the album, Minogue embarked on her seventh concert tour, the KylieFever2002 tour.
Background and production
In 1998, Minogue was dropped from her label Deconstruction following the poor commercial performance of her sixth studio album Impossible Princess. She instead signed on to Parlophone and released her seventh studio album Light Years. The disco and Europop-inspired album was a critical and commercial success, and was later certified four times-platinum in Minogue's native country Australia for shipment of 280,000 units, and platinum in the UK for shipment of 300,000 units. "Spinning Around" was released as the lead single off the album and was a commercial success, attaining a platinum certification in Australia for shipment of 70,000 units, and a silver certification in the United Kingdom for shipment of 200,000 units. She promoted the album by embarking on the On a Night Like This tour.
Soon after, Minogue began work on her eighth studio album Fever. On the album, she collaborated with producers and writers such as British singer-songwriter Cathy Dennis, who co-wrote two songs out of the three she co-produced, Rob Davis, who co-produced and co-wrote three songs, and Richard Stannard and Julian Gallagher, who co-produced and co-wrote five songs ("Love at First Sight", "In Your Eyes", "Love Affair", "Boy" and "Rendezvous at Sunset"). In the vein of Light Years, Fever is a disco and dance-pop album that contains elements of adult contemporary and club music. The album was recorded at studios such as the Windmill Lane Studios in Dublin, Hutch Studios in Chicago, Olympic Studios in London and Stella Studios.
Music and lyrics
Fever is primarily a dance-pop album, with prominent elements of 1970s-influenced disco and Europop. Jacqueline Hodges from BBC Music wrote that the album is not "pure pop", and is rather characterized by a more adventurous dance-oriented sound. NME critic Alex Needham identified a "filter disco effect", described as "the one that sounds like you've gone under water and then ecstatically come up for air," working on various songs on the album. Needham saw Fever as an "update" from the "frothy disco" of Light Years. Songs like the opening track "More More More" and closing track "Burning Up" are examples of the disco-influenced production of the album. The former is an uptempo song with a "funky" bassline, while the latter was described as a "slow burn" disco song. Teen pop elements appear on songs like "Love at First Sight", which begins with an electric piano intro, and the "aggressive" "Give It to Me".
The lead single "Can't Get You Out of My Head" is a "robotic" midtempo dance and disco song. Many critics felt that various songs on the album, particularly "Come into My World", are similar to "Can't Get You Out of My Head". The title track and "Dancefloor" draw influences from synthpop and club music, respectively. "In Your Eyes" contains hints of disco and techno music. Minor influences of ambient music surface on the "atmospheric" "Fragile". Minogue's vocal delivery ranges from "sensuous" (in "More More More") to "sweet" (in "Your Love"). The latter track contains instrumentation from an acoustic guitar. Jason Thompson from PopMatters commented that Minogue "knows how to express herself through irresistible melodies and seductive emoting", such as on the title track, which makes use of "suggestive panting". Unlike Minogue's previous studio efforts, Fever does not contain any ballads.
The lyrical content of Fever chiefly focuses on themes of love and enjoyment. Thompson described the album to be "all about dancing, fucking, and having a good time". In the song "Love at First Sight", Minogue describes how she fell in love with her partner at "first sight" and how it led to good things happening for her. "Can't Get You Out of My Head" was termed a "mystery" as the singer never mentions who her object of desire in the song is. Lynskey Dorian from The Guardian suggested that Minogue refers to either "a partner, an evasive one-night stand or someone who doesn't know she exists" as her obsession. The production of "Give It to Me" contrasts with its lyrics: Minogue urges her partner to "slow down," but the beat "goes in the opposite direction and tells your body to push it a little more on the dance floor." The lyrics of "Fragile" are simple and aim directly at the "[listener's] heart". "Come into My World" is a "plea for love" as Minogue invites her partner into her life. On the other hand, "Dancefloor" focuses on issues like dealing with an end of a relationship, with Minogue celebrating a break-up by "lose[ing] it in the music".
Artwork and release
Minogue's close friend and stylist William Baker, collaborated with graphic designer Tony Hung to create the artwork's concept of electro-minimalism. On the cover, which was photographed by Vincent Peters and inspired by the cover of Grace Jones' Island Life (1985), Minogue is seen "bound by a microphone cord, literally tied to her craft" and dressed in white leotard designed by Fee Doran, under the label of Mrs Jones, and shoes made by Manolo Blahnik. In her 2012 fashion retrospective book Kylie / Fashion, Minogue commented on the album's theme, saying: "The whole campaign was so strong, sure, ice cool. Willie's [William's] styling was incredible and [Peters'] photography made for a second amazing album cover with him." A new cover was issued for the US version of the album and features a close-up of Minogue biting on a bracelet. The US version cover also served as one of two CD single covers for second single of the album, "In Your Eyes".
Fever was released by Parlophone on 1 October 2001, in Australia, the United Kingdom, and other European countries. In the United States, the album was released by Capitol Records on 26 February 2002, and was Minogue's first album to be released in the country since her second studio album Enjoy Yourself (1989). Thus, Minogue was reintroduced to the US after nearly 13 years of inactivity in the region. A special edition of the album, containing a previously unreleased track entitled "Whenever You Feel Like It", was released on 19 November 2002.
Promotion
Tour
Minogue launched the KylieFever2002 concert tour to promote the album. The tour was split in seven acts and "Can't Get You Out of My Head", "Come into My World", "Fever", "In Your Eyes", "Love at First Sight" and "Burning Up" were the songs from the album to be included on the setlist. For the performances, Minogue wore "skimpy" and skin-tight outfits, and was often seen wearing a glittering silver bikini and skirt coupled with silver boots. The outfits were designed by Italian luxury industry fashion house Dolce and Gabbana, and Minogue went through a total of eight costume changes during the tour. The performances that took place at the Manchester Evening News Arena, England, were filmed for inclusion in the live DVD for the concert tour entitled KylieFever2002: Live in Manchester, which was released on 18 November 2002. The DVD was certified platinum in Canada for sales of 10,000 units, gold in Germany for sales of 25,000 units, and double-platinum in the United Kingdom for shipments of 100,000 units.
Singles
"Can't Get You Out of My Head" was released as the lead single from the album on 8 September 2001. The song was well received by music critics, many of whom complimented its vibe and danceability. Commercially, the single was a massive success and peaked at number one on the charts of every European country (except Finland) and Australia. The song was released in the United States on 18 February 2002 and managed to peak at number seven on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, becoming Minogue's best selling single in the region since "The Locomotion". It was certified triple-platinum in Australia for shipment of 210,000 units, platinum in the United Kingdom for shipment of 600,000 units, and gold in the United States for shipment of 500,000 units. An accompanying music video for the single was directed by Dawn Shadforth and features Minogue and a number of backup dancers dancing in various futuristic backdrops.
"In Your Eyes" was released as the second single of the album on 21 January 2002, but in Europe, the release was delayed to 18 February due to the success of "Can't Get You Out of My Head". It received generally positive reviews from music critics and was praised for its house influences. It became the second consecutive single from the album to peak atop the Australian Singles Chart. The song was also commercially successful internationally and peaked in the top ten of charts in countries like Italy, Finland, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom. It was certified gold in Australia for sales of 35,000 units, and silver in the United Kingdom for sales of 200,000 units. An accompanying music video for the song was again directed by Shadforth, and features Minogue performing a dance routine and striking various poses in a colourful neon-lighted room.
"Love at First Sight" was released as the third single from the album on 3 June 2002. It received positive reviews from music critics, with many favouring its production. The song was a commercial success and peaked in the top ten of charts in countries like Australia, Denmark, Italy, New Zealand and United Kingdom. The song was remixed by Ruff and Jam and this version was released in the United States, where it managed to chart at number 23 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. It was certified gold in Australia for sales of 35,000 units and in New Zealand for sales of 7,500 units. An accompanying music video for the single was directed by Johan Renck and features Minogue dancing in a futuristic environment sporting cargo pants and teal eyeshadow. The song was later nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Dance Recording in 2003.
A re-recorded remixed version of "Come into My World" was released as the fourth and final single off the album on 4 November 2002. It generated a favourable response from music critics, who enjoyed its lyrical content. Commercially, the single performed fairly well and peaked in the top 10 in Australia, Belgium (French-speaking Wallonia region), and the United Kingdom. In the United States, the song peaked at number 91 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. It received a gold certification in Australia for sales of 35,000 units. An accompanying music video for the song was directed by Michel Gondry and features Minogue strolling around a busy street in Paris, France; every time she completes a full circle, a duplicate of her appears through one of the stores, and by the end of the video there are four Minogues present together. The song was later honoured with a Grammy Award for Best Dance Recording during the 2004 ceremony.
Critical reception
Fever received generally favourable reviews from music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, Fever received an average score of 68 based on 15 reviews, indicating "generally favourable reviews". Jason Thompson from PopMatters gave the album an extremely positive review and praised the conception and production of the album, calling it a "perfect album of gorgeous dance music" and claiming that "there probably won't be a better album like it all year long". Chris True from AllMusic also gave it an acclaimed review and enjoyed the simple disco and dancepop music of the album, saying that there is "not one weak track, not one misplaced syrupy ballad to ruin the groove". Alex Needham from NME positively reviewed the album and noted that while the album lacks depth, it is "as effervescent as a foot spa" and that through the album, Minogue "shows the upstarts how it's done". Dominique Leone from Pitchfork gave it a favourable review and praised its simple and "comfortable" composition, terming it a "mature sound from a mature artist, and one that may very well re-establish Minogue for the VH1 generation".
Alexis Petridis from The Guardian praised the commercial nature of the album and called it "a mature pop album only in that it's aimed at the boozy girl's night out rather than the school disco". Jacqueline Hodges favoured the album's consistency and complimented its commercial prospect, predicting that the album is "going to sell bucket loads". Jim Farber from Entertainment Weekly labelled the album "the best guilty-pleasure retro-dance smash since Eiffel 65's "Blue"", but felt that Minogue "milks the formula (of "Can't Get You Out of My Head") dry on the album". Michael Hubbard from MusicOMH enjoyed the fun nature of the album and said that "if you want something to drive to, dance to, play at a house party or cheer your workmates up with, Fever is for you". Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine gave the album a negative review, criticizing Minogue's "painfully precise" vocals and the album's monotony.
Accolades
Fever also brought Minogue a number of accolades and award nominations. At the 2002 ARIA Music Awards ceremony, the album won the awards for Best Pop Release and Highest Selling Album, and garnered a nomination in the category of Album of the Year. At the same ceremony, "Can't Get You Out of My Head" won the awards for Single of the Year and Highest Selling Single, and Minogue won the Outstanding Achievement Award. At the 2002 Brit Awards ceremony, Fever won the award for Best International Album, while Minogue was nominated for Best International Female Solo Artist and Best Pop Act, winning the former. At the 2002 MTV Europe Music Awards ceremony, the album was nominated for Best Album; Minogue was nominated for Best Female Act, Best Dance Act, and Best Pop Act, winning the latter two.
Minogue earned her first Grammy Award nomination when "Love at First Sight" was nominated in the category of Best Dance Recording at the 2003 award ceremony, although it lost to British electronic band Dirty Vegas's song "Days Go By". She eventually won a Grammy Award when "Come into My World" was nominated in the same category at the 2004 award ceremony. It marked the first time an Australian music artist had won at the Grammy Awards show since Australian rock band Men at Work won the award for Best New Artist in 1982, as well as Minogue's only Grammy win to date in her career. In 2015, Fever was ranked 34th on "The 99 Greatest Dance Albums of All Time" by Vice magazine. In December 2021, the album was listed at no. 10 in Rolling Stone Australia’s ‘200 Greatest Albums of All Time’ countdown.
Commercial performance
In Minogue's native country Australia, Fever entered at number one on the Australian Albums Chart on the week of 21 October 2001, and spent a total of five weeks in the position. In this region, Fever was certified seven-times platinum for shipments of 490,000 units by the Australian Recording Industry Association. The success of the album in Australia was such that it was listed in the top-ten highest selling albums of the country in both 2001 and 2002, appearing at numbers five and four, respectively. It also became the best selling dance album in the country in both 2001 and 2002. In the United Kingdom, Fever entered at number one on the UK Albums Chart on the week of 13 October 2001 with sales of 139,000 units, and spent a total of two weeks in the position. The album spent 20 weeks inside the top ten and over 50 weeks inside the top forty of the chart. In this region, the album was certified five-times platinum by the British Phonographic Industry for shipments of 1,500,000 units. Following the album’s 20th anniversary, in October 2021 the album re-entered the UK Albums Chart at number 23, its highest chart position since August 2002.
The album achieved similar success in other regions. In Austria, the album entered at number one on the Austrian Albums Chart and spent a total of 29 weeks on the chart. In this territory, it was certified platinum for sales of 15,000 units by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry. In Denmark, the album entered and peaked at number four on the Danish Albums Chart and spent one week at this position. In this region, it was certified gold by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry. In France, the album entered the French Albums Chart at number 51 and peaked at number 21, spending a total of three weeks at this position. In this region, the album was certified platinum for sales of 100,000 units by the Syndicat National de l'Édition Phonographique. In Germany, the album peaked at number one on the German Albums Chart for two weeks. In this region, it was certified platinum by the Federal Association of Music Industry for shipments of 200,000 units. In Ireland, the album entered the Irish Albums Chart at number two and peaked at number one, spending a total of one week on this position. In New Zealand, the album entered and peaked at number three on the New Zealand Albums Chart, spending a total of one week at this position. In this region, the album was certified double-platinum by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand for shipments of 30,000 units. In Switzerland, the album entered the Swiss Albums Chart at number 12 and peaked at number three, spending a total of one week in the position. In this territory, the album was certified double-platinum by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry for sales of 40,000 units.
In the United States, the album sold 115,000 copies in its first-week and debuted at number three on the Billboard 200 chart, becoming Minogue's highest-charting album in the region to date. In this region, the album was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America for shipments of 1,000,000 units. In Canada, the album peaked at number 10 on the Canadian Albums Chart and spent a total of two weeks on the chart. In this region, the album was certified double-platinum for shipments of 200,000 units by Music Canada. According to the IFPI, Fever was the thirtieth best-selling album globally in the year 2002. Fever has sold over 6 million copies worldwide, becoming Minogue's highest selling album.
Legacy
Fever is considered to be a prominent example of Minogue's constant "reinventions". The image she adopted during this period was described by Baker as "slick, minimalist and postmodern", and it was seen as a step forward from the "camp-infused" tone of Light Years. Larissa Dubecki from The Age used the term "nu-disco diva" to describe Minogue during this period. Andy Battaglia from The A.V. Club opined that Minogue's public image and her persona in her music videos "presented herself as a mechanical muse whose every gesture snapped and locked into place with the sound of a vacuum seal". He further remarked that the singer's "hygienic coo summoned a cool sort of cyborg soul, and her videos showed her gliding through sleek futurescapes, tonguing the sweet-and-sour tang of a techno kiss".
Adrien Begrand from PopMatters felt that the simplicity of the album made it a "classy piece of work" and commented that Minogue's experience and choice of collaborators resulted in "the thirtysomething Minogue upstaging soulless, brainless music by younger American pop tarts like Britney [Spears] and Christina [Aguilera]". Robbie Daw from Idolator pointed out that Britney Spears's recording of her 2004 hit "Toxic", Madonna's comeback album Confessions on a Dance Floor (2005), Paris Hilton's musical debut Paris (2006), and radio stations' shift towards playing "more groove-oriented sounds" all followed the release of Fever, although he admitted that "we have no way of knowing whether Kylie Minogue's eighth studio album was directly responsible for these pop happenings".
Chris True from AllMusic, in his biography of Minogue, commented that the release of the album and lead single "Can't Get You Out of My Head" cemented her position as an international music icon, saying "Her place in pop music history would be consolidated in 2001, and she would be reintroduced to America after more than a decade as well". The lead single peaked atop charts in 40 countries and sold more than six million copies worldwide, becoming Minogue's highest selling single to date and one of the best-selling singles of all time. The song is notable for being Minogue's biggest and strongest commercial breakthrough in the United States, a region in which Minogue previously had managed to achieve little success. It is also considered to be Minogue's signature song. Due to the single's commercial impact, the album enjoyed similar success in the United States and earned Minogue her only platinum album certification in the region.
Track listing
Notes
"Come Into My World" is replaced by the radio edit version on all album pressings post-2002, including the "Special edition" and all digital and streaming formats.
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Fever.
Musicians
Kylie Minogue – lead vocals ; backing vocals
Ash Howes – programming ; keyboards
Alvin Sweeney – programming
Martin Harrington – programming, guitars ; keyboards
Julian Gallagher – Rhodes ; keyboards
Rob Davis – keyboards, drum programming ; electric guitar ; guitars
Greg Fitzgerald – keyboards, programming, guitar
Phil Larsen – additional programming
Bruce Elliott-Smith – additional programming
Anders Kallmark – additional programming
Cathy Dennis – additional keyboards ; backing vocals
Steve Lewinson – bass
Steve Anderson – arrangement, programming, keyboards
John Thirkell – flute, trumpet
Gavyn Wright – strings lead
Richard "Biff" Stannard – guitars ; backing vocals
Billie Godfrey – backing vocals
Nat' B. – backing vocals
Technical
TommyD – production, mixing
Adrian Bushby – mixing
Richard "Biff" Stannard – production
Julian Gallagher – production
Ash Howes – recording, mixing
Alvin Sweeney – recording
Martin Harrington – recording
Cathy Dennis – production ; mixing
Rob Davis – production ; mixing, engineering
Tim Orford – mix engineering
Greg Fitzgerald – production
Mark Picchiotti – production, mix engineering
Tom Carlisle – mix engineering
Phil Larsen – mixing, engineering
Bruce Elliott-Smith – mixing
Anders Kallmark – engineering
Steve Anderson – production
Paul Wright – engineering, mixing
Pascal Gabriel – production, mixing
Paul Statham – production
Tom Elmhirst – mixing
Tom Nichols – production
Geoff Pesche – mastering at The Town House, London
Artwork
Vincent Peters – photography
Adjective Noun – design
Charts
Weekly charts
Monthly charts
Year-end charts
Decade-end charts
All-time charts
Certifications
14,890,000
See also
List of number-one hits of 2001 (Germany)
List of European number-one hits of 2001
List of number-one albums of 2001 in Australia
List of top 25 albums for 2001 in Australia
List of top 25 albums for 2002 in Australia
List of UK Albums Chart number ones of the 2000s
List of best-selling albums of the 2000s in Australia
List of artists who have achieved simultaneous number-one UK Single and Album
List of UK top-ten albums in 2002
List of UK top-ten albums in 2001
References
External links
Fever at Kylie.com (archived from 2004)
2001 albums
Albums produced by Pascal Gabriel
ARIA Award-winning albums
Brit Award for International Album
Capitol Records albums
Kylie Minogue albums
Mushroom Records albums
Parlophone albums
Europop albums
Albums produced by Richard Stannard (songwriter)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vince%20Cable
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Vince Cable
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Sir John Vincent Cable (born 9 May 1943) is a British politician who was Leader of the Liberal Democrats from 2017 to 2019. He was Member of Parliament (MP) for Twickenham from 1997 to 2015 and from 2017 to 2019. He also served in the Cabinet as Secretary of State for Business, Innovation and Skills from 2010 to 2015.
Cable studied Economics at Cambridge and Glasgow, before working as an economic adviser to the Government of Kenya in the 1960s, and for the Commonwealth Secretariat in the 1970s and 1980s. During this period, he also lectured in economics at Glasgow. He later served as Chief Economist for Shell in the 1990s. Initially active in the Labour Party, Cable became a Labour councillor in Glasgow in the 1970s, during which time he also served as a special adviser to then-Trade Secretary John Smith. In 1982, however, he defected to the newly formed Social Democratic Party, which later amalgamated with the Liberal Party to form the Liberal Democrats.
After standing unsuccessfully for Parliament four times, Cable was elected for Twickenham in 1997. He was quickly appointed the Liberal Democrat Treasury spokesperson, and was later elected as Deputy Leader in 2006. Cable resigned from both of these positions in May 2010 after being appointed as Secretary of State for Business, Innovation and Skills in the coalition government. He lost his seat in 2015, although later regained it in 2017. Cable subsequently stood in the leadership election to replace Tim Farron, and was elected unopposed.
In May 2019, Cable led the Liberal Democrats to their best national electoral performance since the 2010 election, gaining fifteen seats in the European Parliament election. This followed a campaign in which the party ran on an anti-Brexit platform. He subsequently announced his intention to retire from politics, and stood down as leader on 22 July 2019, upon the election of Jo Swinson; he stood down from Parliament at the 2019 general election.
On 2 July 2022, Cable was announced as Vice President of the European Movement.
Early life and education
Cable was born in York, to a working class Conservative-supporting family. His father, Len, was a craftsman for Rowntree's, and his mother, Edith, packed chocolates for Terry's. Cable attended Nunthorpe Grammar School where he became Head Boy. He then attended Fitzwilliam College, Cambridge, where he initially studied Natural Sciences and later switched to Economics. He was the President of the Cambridge Union in 1965. He was also a committee member and later President-elect of the Cambridge University Liberal Club, but he resigned from the Liberal Party before taking up the office of President. Whilst at Cambridge, he was a contemporary of the Cambridge Mafia.
In 1966, at the end of his studies at the University of Cambridge, Cable was appointed as an Overseas Development Institute Fellow (ODI Nuffield Fellow) working in Kenya.
He graduated in 1973 with a PhD in Economics from the University of Glasgow on economic integration and industrialisation.
Economics career
Cable lectured for a time at the University of Glasgow and was a visiting research fellow at the Centre for the Study of Global Governance at the London School of Economics, for a three-year period until 2004. In 2016, Cable was made Honorary Professor of Economics at the University of Nottingham.
From 1966 to 1968, he was a Treasury Finance Officer to the Kenyan Government. In 1969, he visited Central America as a researcher on the recently formed Central American Common Market.
From the early to mid-1970s, Cable served as First Secretary under Hugh Carless in the Latin American department of the Foreign Office. He was involved in a CBI trade mission to South America at this time, engaging in six months of commercial diplomacy. In the late 1970s, he was special adviser to John Smith when the latter was Trade Secretary. He was an adviser to the UK Government and then to the Commonwealth Secretary-General Shridath "Sonny" Ramphal in the 1970s and 1980s.
Cable served in an official capacity at the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting of 1983 in Delhi, witnessing "private sessions at first hand" involving Indira Gandhi, then-Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, Lee Kuan Yew, and Bob Hawke among others. He was also present at the summits of 1985, 1987, and 1989. In the same period, he contributed to the Brandt Commission, the Palme Commission, and the UN's Brundtland Commission.
From the 1980s onwards, Cable authored and co-wrote numerous publications in favour of globalisation, free trade, and economic integration such as Protectionism and Industrial Decline, The Commerce of Culture, and Developing with Foreign Investment.
Cable worked for the oil company Royal Dutch Shell from 1990 to 1997, serving as its Chief Economist between 1995 and 1997. His role at Shell came under scrutiny as the company was accused of playing a role in a turbulent era of Nigerian politics during the dictatorship of General Sani Abacha.
In 2017, Cable became a strategic advisor on the World Trade Board for the annual World Trade Symposium co-organised by Misys and FT Live.
Political career
Early years
At university, Cable was a member of the Liberal Party but then joined the Labour Party in 1966. In 1970, he contested Glasgow Hillhead for Labour, but failed to unseat the sitting Conservative MP, Tam Galbraith. The same year, Cable stood for election to the Corporation of Glasgow in the Partick West ward, but failed to be elected. He became a Labour councillor in 1971, representing Maryhill ward, and stood down in 1974. In 1979, he sought the Labour Party nomination for Hampstead, losing to Ken Livingstone, who was unsuccessful in taking the seat.
In February 1982, he defected to the recently created Social Democratic Party (SDP). He was the SDP–Liberal Alliance parliamentary candidate for his home city of York in both the 1983 and 1987 general elections. Following the 1988 merger of the SDP and the Liberal Party, he finished in second place at the 1992 general election to Conservative MP Toby Jessel in the Twickenham constituency, by 5,711 votes.
Member of Parliament (1997–2015)
Cable entered the House of Commons after defeating sitting Conservative MP Toby Jessel in the Twickenham constituency in his second attempt, at the 1997 general election. He subsequently increased his majority at the elections of 2001, 2005 and increased still further in 2010. He lost his seat in 2015, but regained it at the snap election in 2017.
In 2004, Cable was a contributor to the economically liberal Orange Book, which advocated for policies such as greater private sector involvement in higher education and healthcare. However, he has described himself as being a social democrat, as well as an "open markets" liberal, and stated his desire to reconcile "economic liberalism with wider moral values and social justice".
Following the Orange Book, Cable was one of several Lib Dem MPs who oversaw the party's shift towards economic liberalism with the adoption of a more free market approach, a development which was suggested by some as having helped lead to the 2010 coalition with the Conservatives. In 2005, as Liberal Democrat Treasury spokesperson, he suggested the possibility of the party dropping its commitment to a 50p top rate of income tax, supported exempting people on low income from income tax completely, and explored the possibility of a flat tax, with the former two proposals later becoming party policy. Also in 2005, he said that there was no future for the Liberal Democrats to the left of New Labour. He was critical of what he considered the Labour government's slow response to cutting government waste, later accusing Labour of allowing a "writhing nest" of quangos to develop.
Prior to the 2005 Liberal Democrat party conference, Cable did not rule out the possibility that the Lib Dems might form a coalition government with the Conservatives in the event of a hung parliament at the forthcoming general election. However, party leader Charles Kennedy said that the Lib Dems would remain an "independent political force".
In late-2005 or early-2006, Cable presented Charles Kennedy a letter signed by eleven out of the twenty-three frontbenchers, including himself, expressing a lack of confidence in Kennedy's leadership of the Liberal Democrats. On 5 January 2006, because of pressure from his frontbench team and an ITN News report documenting his alcoholism, Charles Kennedy announced a leadership election in which he pledged to stand for re-election. However, he resigned on 7 January. Cable did not run for the party leadership, instead supporting Menzies Campbell's candidacy.
Expenses
A Twickenham resident, Cable commuted by train into Central London daily and so claimed the "London Supplement" instead of the Additional Costs Allowance. However, The Daily Telegraph reported in May 2009 that he had been unaware that he was entitled to the London Supplement and so in 2004 wrote to the Fees Office to ask if he could receive retrospective payments for 2002–03 and 2003–04. The Fees Office refused the request, informing Cable that these accounts were already closed.
When overall MP allowances are ranked, Cable came in 568th for 2007–08 (out of 645 MPs). The Daily Telegraph also noted that he did not take a recent 2.33% salary rise.
Deputy Leadership of the Liberal Democrats (2006–2010)
Cable won plaudits for his repeated warnings and campaigns on the high level of personal debt in Britain. His was a significant voice of criticism during the Northern Rock crisis, calling for the nationalisation of the bank, capitalising on the claimed indecisiveness of both the Labour Government and Conservative Opposition on the issue.
In May 2010, Cable declared his resignation as Deputy Leader to dedicate more time to his Cabinet role as Business Secretary. His responsibilities and authority were somewhat reduced when it was revealed in December 2010 that he had boasted to Daily Telegraph reporters posing as constituents of his "nuclear option" to bring the government down by his resignation. Still worse, he claimed to the reporters that he had "declared war" on Rupert Murdoch of News Corporation despite having the responsibility to impartially arbitrate on the News Corporation bid to acquire the remaining 60.9% of BSkyB it did not already own. Amid cries for his resignation or sacking, all his responsibilities concerning the bid were removed. Cable did not resign.
Acting leader of the Liberal Democrats (2007)
Following the resignation of Sir Menzies Campbell as Party Leader on 15 October 2007, Cable being Deputy Leader automatically succeeded him as Party Leader, pending a leadership election. He declined to stand for leader, reportedly fearing ageism (Campbell's critics were accused of ageism, and Cable was only 2 years his junior).
Cable received significant acclaim during his tenure as Acting Party Leader, with particular praise for his strong performances at Prime Minister's Questions. He was popular in the party and media for his attacks on the government's record over Northern Rock, HMRC's loss of 25,000,000 individuals' child benefit data and the party funding scandal surrounding David Abrahams' secret donations to the Labour Party. The latter attracted for Cable positive media attention for a joke at PMQs describing Gordon Brown's "remarkable transformation in the last few weeks from Stalin to Mr. Bean, creating chaos out of order rather than order out of chaos", called by The Economist, "the single best line of Gordon Brown's premiership".
Views on the financial crisis
Cable is credited by some with prescience of the global financial crisis of 2007–2010. In November 2003, Cable asked Gordon Brown, then-Chancellor, "Is not the brutal truth that ... the growth of the British economy is sustained by consumer spending pinned against record levels of personal debt, which is secured, if at all, against house prices that the Bank of England describes as well above equilibrium level?" Brown replied, "As the Bank of England said yesterday, consumer spending is returning to trend. The Governor said,
"there is no indication that the scale of debt problems have ... risen markedly in the last five years." He also said that the fraction of household income used up in debt service is lower than it was then."
In his book The Storm, Cable writes, "The trigger for the current global financial crisis was the US mortgage market and, indeed, the scale of improvident and unscrupulous lending on that side of the Atlantic dwarfs into insignificance the escapades of our own banks." Cable commented that he had not warned about this: "one of the problems of being a British MP is that you do tend to get rather parochial and I haven't been to the States for years and years, so I wouldn't claim to have any feel for what's been going on there."
In September 2008, Cable praised the-then US President George W. Bush for his response to the financial crisis and for attempting to "save Western capitalism." He compared this with Prime Minister Gordon Brown's response which Cable claimed was to be like a "Fairy Godmother" to the banks, and a "sideshow".
Cable has also been vocal over the bonus culture in the banking system. He has called for bonuses to all bank employees to be frozen.
However, Cable has been criticised by some, mostly Conservatives, for "flip-flopping" on issues in connection with the crisis. For example, he is accused of criticising the Government's policy of Quantitative easing, when in January 2009 he used the phrase "the Robert Mugabe school of economics", while in March 2009 he said, "directly increasing the amount of money flowing into the economy is now the only clear option". The Liberal Democrats also have responded that he was making the point that QE "needed to be managed with a great deal of care".
On the issue of fiscal stimulus, Cable said in October 2008, "it is entirely wrong for the government to assume the economy should be stimulated by yet more public spending rather than tax cuts". In February 2009, however, he said, "we believe – and the Government say that they believe – in the need for a fiscal stimulus. Despite the severe financial constraints on the public sector, we believe that such a stimulus is right and necessary".
On the principle of the independence of the Bank of England, Cable said at the 2008 Liberal Democrat party conference, "The Government must not compromise the independence of the Bank of England by telling it to slash interest rates." The following month, though, he called on the Chancellor to urge the Governor of the Bank to make "a large cut in interest rates". The Liberal Democrats have responded that this in no way changes their policy on Bank of England independence.
Coalition government minister (2010–2015)
At the 2010 general election Cable was again returned as MP for Twickenham. With the election resulting in a hung parliament, Cable was a key figure in coalition talks, particularly the unsuccessful negotiations with the Labour Party. The Liberal Democrats entered a coalition agreement with the Conservative Party on 11 May 2010, and Cable was appointed Secretary of State for Business, Innovation and Skills on 12 May. The Queen approved his appointment as a Privy Counsellor, and he formally joined the Privy council on 13 May 2010.
In May 2010, Cable insisted the coalition government was not split over planned increases to non-business Capital gains tax, which some thought would raise taxes on sales of second homes by 40% or 50%. Senior Conservative MPs attacked the rise as a tax on the middle-classes and a betrayal of Conservative values. Cable said that it was a "key" part of the coalition deal and there was no disagreement over it between the coalition partners. Cable said the changes to Capital Gains Tax would help to fulfill the Lib Dem aim of bringing more "fairness" to the tax system: "It's very important that we have wealth taxed in the same way as income." He continued,
In July 2010, Cable sought to reform credit lines amid a "significant demand" (according to the Forum of Private Business) of smaller firms finding it harder to secure loans. Among a range of proposals published in a green paper, Cable urged banks to limit bonus and dividend payments to "pre-crisis and 2009 levels respectively", the green paper stating that such a move would enable banks to retain £10,000,000,000 of additional capital in 2010 could in turn sustain £50,000,000,000 of new lending.
The left-leaning parts of the British press have been critical of his role in the Coalition Government, from The Guardian to the Morning Star describing him as "the man who started off a Lib Dem and now looks more convincingly Tory than most of the Tory frontbench" for his role in supporting public spending cuts.
Beginning in 2010 and continuing throughout the Conservative-Lib Dem coalition's tenure in office, Cable led the drive for deregulation; notably the "Red Tape Challenge" to reduce existing regulation and the "One In, One Out" rule to limit any future regulation, Cable agreeing with the need for a "bonfire of regulations". The Guardian dubbed this as "neoliberal" while the response from the business community was largely positive.
In September 2010, during a speech at the Liberal Democrat conference, Cable said that bankers present more of a threat to Britain than trade unions.
After the interim report on banking by John Vickers was published in April 2011, Cable said: "I was very impressed with the quality of the analysis. It does address head on the issue of banks that are too big to fail, the dependency on the government guarantee. It makes the case for separation," he added.
In June 2011, Cable said "rewards for failure" were unforgivable at a time when real wages were being squeezed across the country. Speaking at the Association of British Insurers biennial conference, Cable warned he planned to bring "excessive and unjustified" executive pay under control by launching a fresh consultation. He said that although "Britain does have some world-class executives", investors had not seen a return "since the turn of the century" and claimed executive pay was 120 times that of the average UK employee, whereas it was only 45 in 1998. Cable later revealed Government plans that would require companies to publish "more informative remuneration reports" for shareholders. The plans also included binding votes by shareholders on executive pay as well as greater transparency and diversity on boards.
In November 2011, Cable announced the first of several reforms to employment laws. Beginning with changes to the tribunal system, he proposed the introduction of tribunal fees for employees making claims against employers, stating that the current system had become a "major impediment" to small businesses hiring people. The tribunal fees were later ruled unlawful by the Supreme Court in 2017 after a court victory by trade union UNISON.
In an article in May 2012, Cable denounced the "red tape factories" of the European Union, calling for increased deregulation and labour market flexibility, as well as the expansion of the Single Market and scrapping of the Working Time Directive. He revealed that at a recent meeting of European economic ministers, a group of like-minded nations had formed in making these same demands.
In September 2012, Cable and his department colleague Michael Fallon announced a large package of deregulation for businesses, including scrapping 3,000 regulations and implementing exemptions from health and safety inspections for shops, pubs, and offices. Cable claimed that businesses should not be "tied up in unnecessary red tape", but the move was criticised by trade unions. Days later Cable announced further deregulation involving changes to employment laws, proposing to reduce employee compensation for unfair dismissals and allowing employers and employees to agree to an out-of-court 'pay off' for under-performance dismissals. This was also criticised by trade unions.
In January 2013, Cable rejected calls by Labour for the government to intervene in the high street crisis following the collapse of music retailer, HMV, he said: "it is not the job of Government to sort out the problems of competition on the high street. Consumers make their choices and there are consequences." In December 2013, Cable supported the continuation of zero hours contracts after a government review, saying "they have a place in today’s labour market", although admitting there had "been evidence of abuse." His statements were met with negative responses from British trade unions.
In 2014, during the Israel-Gaza conflict, Cable received criticism for his involvement in the signing off of arms deals to Israel, primarily concerning component parts used in the assembly of Hermes drones. Shortly afterwards, he announced that arms exports to Israel would be suspended unless the recently declared ceasefire was upheld, a response which was condemned by Baroness Warsi, and by the CAAT who called it "very weak".
In February 2015, Cable was reportedly a speaker at an event hosted by various arms companies at a London hotel.
In 2015, Cable refused to issue export licences for the sale of Paveway IV laser-guided bomb to the Royal Saudi Air Force over concern about how they might be used in the Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen. Cable came under pressure from then-Prime Minister David Cameron, Defence Secretary Michael Fallon and Foreign Secretary Philip Hammond for the immediate resumption of exports. Cable stated he was then given specific assurances by the Ministry of Defence that the UK would be given oversight of potential bombing targets to minimise the risk of civilian casualties, including involvement in decisions, to a similar level given to the United States. On this understanding, Cable agreed to issue export licences for a £200,000,000 order for the weapons. In 2016, it became apparent the Ministry of Defence did not have this level of oversight, to which Cable responded "That is categorically contrary to what I was told was going to happen." The sale is being investigated by the Committees on Arms Export Controls.
December 2010 Daily Telegraph comments
In late-December 2010, undercover reporters from The Daily Telegraph, posing as constituents, set up a meeting with Cable, who expressed frustration with being in the coalition and compared it to "fighting a war"; he stated he had "a nuclear option... if they push me too far then I can walk out and bring the government down and they know that", and had to "pick" his fights carefully. He also claimed the Liberal Democrats had pressed for a "very tough approach" to the UK's banks, which had been opposed by the Conservatives. He described the coalition's attempt at fast, widespread reforms (including the health service and local governments) as being a "kind of Maoist revolution", and thought "we [the Government] are trying to do too many things... a lot of it is Tory inspired. The problem is not that they are Tory-inspired, but that they haven’t thought them through. We should be putting a brake on them." When his comments appeared in the press, Cable stated, "Naturally I am embarrassed by these comments and I regret them", before reaffirming his commitment to the Coalition Government, stating that "I am proud of what it is achieving".
In part of the Daily Telegraph transcript that it did not disclose, Cable stated in reference to Rupert Murdoch's News Corporation takeover bid for BSkyB, "I have declared war on Mr Murdoch and I think we are going to win." Following this revelation, Cable had his responsibility for media affairs – including ruling on Murdoch's takeover plans – withdrawn from his role as Business Secretary. In May 2011, the Press Complaints Commission upheld a complaint regarding the Telegraph'''s use of subterfuge.
Cable's stature in the Government grew since then, being dubbed "the moral centre of this Coalition" by Peter Oborne, chief political commentator at the Daily Telegraph.
Royal Mail sale
As Business Secretary, Cable oversaw the privatisation of the Royal Mail in 2013. The share price increased by 38% within a day and 70% in a year. The National Audit Office said that the Department for Business, Innovation and Skills was too cautious when setting the sale price, but that a planned postal workers' union strike also affected the government's sale price. Cable refused to apologise, and said that the Government had been right to take a cautious approach, pointing out that the sale had raised £2,000,000,000 for the taxpayer, with a further £1,500,000,000 from the 30% stake in Royal Mail which it had retained. The NAO also noted that some "priority investors", had made significant profits following the sale, having been allocated more shares in the belief that they would form part of a stable and supportive shareholder base. However, almost half of the shares allocated to them had been sold within a few weeks of the sale.
Post-ministerial career
Cable lost his seat, previously considered safe – with a majority of 12,140 – to the Conservative candidate Tania Mathias at the 2015 general election. Mathias won with a majority of 2,017 votes. Cable's elimination from Parliament, combined with the Liberal Democrats' collective defeat at the election, and the formation of a Conservative majority government obliged him to resign as Secretary of State for Business, Innovation and Skills, a position which he held for the majority of its existence. He had also enjoyed the longest tenure as President of the Board of Trade since that of Peter Thorneycroft, which ended in 1957.
Return to parliament
Cable announced on 18 April 2017 his intention to stand for his former seat of Twickenham at the snap general election. In May 2017, Cable urged Liberal Democrat supporters to vote tactically for Ealing Central and Acton Labour candidate Rupa Huq. At the election, he was successful in winning back his former seat, with a majority of 9,762 votes.
In a cross-party effort shortly after the election, Cable along with former Labour Party Leader Ed Miliband and veteran Conservative MP Ken Clarke made a joint submission to Ofcom, opposing 21st Century Fox's takeover bid of Sky.
Following Tim Farron's resignation as leader of the Liberal Democrats, Cable announced his candidacy in the subsequent leadership election.
In July, he called for pro-EU MPs to support and "rally around" Chancellor Philip Hammond.
Leader of the Liberal Democrats
On 20 July 2017, Cable became leader of the Liberal Democrats after facing no competition. He was the oldest leader of a major UK political party since Sir Winston Churchill.
Policies
In a manifesto released upon his ascent to leadership, Cable revealed his policy priorities as Liberal Democrat leader would include tackling inequality, improving public services, opposing Brexit, electoral reform and young people.
In late 2017 Cable revealed that he had become "more interventionist" economically due to experiences while in the Coalition government. Subsequently, Cable has called for the blocking of several foreign takeovers of UK companies in the technology sector, and for the reform of UK takeover laws in the form of the 'Cadbury Clause' that had been suggested by figures within the Conservative Party. Following the leak of the Paradise Papers, Cable commented that direct rule of Crown Dependencies should be threatened if substantial progress was not made in curbing aggressive tax avoidance.
In September 2017 Cable echoed Foreign Secretary Boris Johnson in calling for greater taxation of foreign speculators in the housing market. He has also called for the reform of empty dwelling management orders.
In an 8 November 2017 pre-Budget speech at the City of London, Cable announced the Liberal Democrats under his leadership would seek to revive the fiscal Golden Rule of former Labour Chancellor Gordon Brown.
In early 2018, Cable's leadership saw former Conservative donors Peter J Stringfellow and Charlie Mullins switch and pledge their support to Cable and the Liberal Democrats over Brexit.
On education, Cable has rejected cutting or abolishing university tuition fees. He has instead announced that he would seek to implement lifelong learning accounts which would serve as endowments to all young people to help pay for education or training at any future date, and suggested this endowment could range from £5,000 to £10,000 per head (the average university student debt in England is £50,800 upon graduation as of 2017), costing around £10 billion a year. Cable claimed the policy could be funded from reform of capital gains, inheritance, and property taxes. Also on education, he proposes to abolish the Ofsted inspectorate and reform school league tables to focus on pupil well-being rather than exam results because a “change in emphasis” is needed away from competition. He supported the February 2018 USS strikes, calling for the government to underwrite lecturers' pensions, while refusing to cross a picket line at the Cass Business School.
On 22 March, Cable announced that at an earlier meeting of European liberal parties he had garnered the signed agreements of eight European ALDE Prime Ministers demanding another referendum on the terms of Britain's exit from the European Union. Shortly after, however, in contradiction to Cable's announcement ALDE issued a statement denying that there had been any joint agreement about backing another referendum.
In June, Cable set out plans to create a state land-buying agency to compulsorily purchase land at 40% below market value. Cable also unveiled a proposal to develop a sovereign wealth fund, totalling £100 billion of assets, to be paid for partly by a tax on gifts.
In response to both the 2017 and 2018 Autumn Budget announcements, Cable called for a large increase in public services spending and the end of austerity, attacking the Conservative government's 2018 Autumn Budget for failing to meet his demands on increased spending. He criticised Labour for not voting against a package of Conservative tax cuts which included raising the personal income tax allowance and higher rate income tax threshold, money that he argued would be better used on reversing cuts to benefits.
Commentary
Electorally, Cable asserted that the Liberal Democrats under his leadership would win over substantial numbers of younger Labour voters "when the penny drops" about Labour's stance on Brexit, and that "young supporters will soon notice". Aside from Brexit, he claimed that adopting and pitching policies like higher taxation of wealth would also help in winning over Labour voters. Despite this, the Liberal Democrats under Cable's leadership have drawn observations from numerous political commentators such as Stephen Bush of New Statesman and John Rentoul of The Independent who noted that Liberal Democrat national polling had remained static even with significantly negative public perceptions of both the Labour and Conservative parties. Rentoul, as well as politics historian Glen O'Hara pointed to traditional and once potential Liberal Democrat voters Cable might wish to target as now having become solidly Labour voters. The Times Red Box editor and columnist Matt Chorley, in assessing Cable's leadership, wrote how there was already a "grey-haired nasal leftie running an opposition party" (in reference to Jeremy Corbyn) and therefore Cable was not needed.
Cable has received significant critical commentary surrounding his leadership of the Liberal Democrats in terms of policy proposals and stances. In particular, Cable's support for a second referendum on membership of the European Union and his comment that older Brexit voters were driven by nostalgia were met with negative reactions from the likes of broadcaster Julia Hartley Brewer, government Cabinet member Sajid Javid, and others. However, some in the media have expressed agreement with Cable's position on Brexit. Other policy, such as punitive taxation of foreign housing investors was criticised by the Adam Smith Institute think tank. The Financial Times considered Cable to be part of a "coalition of anti-capitalists" due to his calls for foreign takeovers of British companies to be blocked, and in The Daily Telegraph his policies were likened unfavourably to those of the Labour Party. Political journalist Andrew Rawnsley of The Observer was critical of Cable's general approach but conceded the possibility of Cable's anti-Brexit policy paying off eventually.
On 7 September 2018, Cable announced his intention to resign as leader of the Liberal Democrats. He initially said he would resign once Brexit has been resolved or stopped, and when his proposed party reforms had been accepted, but in March 2019, he said that he would resign in May 2019 after the local elections. Following the 2019 European Parliament election in the United Kingdom, he confirmed on 24 May that he would stand down on 23 July 2019.
Views
Cable has compared himself to centrist French President Emmanuel Macron, saying that as Business Secretary he had worked with Macron (then an economy minister) personally and that they have a "very similar" approach. He believes his party should occupy the "vast middle ground", likening the political conditions of the UK with those of France. Cable asserts that there is an "appetite" for "middle-of-the-road politics" which he claims he can provide, and has decried what he sees as the mistreatment of “middle-of-the-road Brownite type” politicians like Tom Watson by the "hard left" within the Labour Party.
He is a supporter of the Social Liberal Forum, a centre-left group within the Liberal Democrats.
Trade
He supported the proposed Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership trade agreement (TTIP), saying in 2014 that "if you are a true believer in free trade then you want to trade more with the US." To critics such as trade unions he replied that he was "genuinely baffled" about their fears that TTIP would lead to the privatisation of the NHS, adding that TTIP had "nothing to do with allowing the Americans to interfere with our NHS". In 2018, concerning the possibility of US-UK trade deal which might follow the United Kingdom's future exit from the European Union, Cable warned that a trade deal in such circumstances might involve agreeing to open up the NHS to private American healthcare firms. Cable claimed this was unlike TTIP in which public services were to remain protected and therefore he argued the UK should remain in the EU. Cable also warned that a post-Brexit trade deal with the US might lead to accepting lower standards in farming produce, less food being produced in the UK and less employment for farmers.
Cable thinks free trade is not a zero-sum game and that it is mutually beneficial for nations, stating: "Countries are better off when they participate in specialisation, with consumers benefiting from greater choice, higher quality products, and lower prices." He has condemned British and American politicians such as Donald Trump who he claims exploit the "anger and fear" over potential job losses which may result from foreign trade competition.
Human rights
In May 2018, Theresa May welcomed Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan to the United Kingdom for a three-day state visit. Erdoğan declared that the United Kingdom is "an ally and a strategic partner, but also a real friend." Cable denounced the visit, saying that "The UK has a strong, proud history of democracy and human rights, but our reputation on the world stage is in danger of being eroded by this Conservative government’s desire to woo world leaders like [Donald] Trump and Erdoğan. May’s administration appears to have substituted diplomacy for sycophancy in its pursuit of Brexit." Cable said that Erdoğan "is responsible for alarming oppression and violence."
In response to the murder of the Saudi opposition journalist Jamal Khashoggi, Cable said: "This situation gets murkier and murkier. The Government should have already suspended arms export licences to Saudi Arabia given the outrages in Yemen. This reinforces the argument for loosening the bonds to the regime."
Taxation and economy
As an economist, Cable considers Adam Smith and John Maynard Keynes to be his heroes, recommending Smith's The Wealth of Nations and Robert Skidelsky’s Life of John Maynard Keynes to novice economists.
He has been a proponent of greater capital spending, or borrowing to invest, and has made the case for this several times during and after the 2010-2015 coalition government.
Cable has called the demutualisation of building societies "one of the greatest acts of economic vandalism in modern times".
Cable supports the continuation of the Liberal Democrat policy of a hypothecated 1p rise in income tax to pay for improved health and social care, along with proposals for replacing national insurance taxes with a likewise hypothecated new NHS and social care tax . He has also voiced support for a wealth tax to raise £15 billion or the equivalent of “less than one-third of 1pc of household wealth, net of debt” which would be used to address “intergenerational inequality.”
Cable has been critical of the National Living Wage (the UK system of minimum wage), arguing in 2015 that smaller businesses would struggle to pay employees higher rates.
He has called for companies Google, Amazon, and Facebook to be broken up, and supports the introduction of a digital services tax on technology companies.
New party
Cable has held differing views over time on the possibility of a new party emerging which could involve the Liberal Democrats. After the election of Jeremy Corbyn to the Labour leadership in 2015, Cable called on centre-left MPs from Labour and the Liberal Democrats to unite to prevent the Conservatives holding a “monopoly on power.” He made a similar suggestion in the lead up to the 2017 general election, predicting a new party in the event of Labour undergoing electoral collapse. After becoming leader of the Liberal Democrats, however, he rejected a proposal for a new anti-Brexit party by former government adviser James Chapman, insisting that anti-Brexit figures should join the Liberal Democrats instead.
Coalitions and electoral pacts
Cable has taken a sceptical approach to the question of potential coalitions with other parties since 2015. In April 2018, he said that the Liberal Democrats would never form a coalition government with Labour led by Jeremy Corbyn, and previously opposed the idea in 2015 as well where he said working with Labour was "inconceivable" because of Jeremy Corbyn's economic policies. Cable claims he would not work with the Conservatives either, comparing a coalition with the Conservatives to "mating with a praying mantis" where "You get eaten at the end of it." Rather than a coalition or propping up a government, he would prefer to work on "issue-by-issue" instead.
Cable ruled out the idea of electoral pacts in mid-April during the 2017 general election campaign. However, in early May, Cable was recorded suggesting that Liberal Democrat supporters vote for Labour candidates in certain seats where they could stop the Conservatives. Responding to the story on LBC radio, Cable restated that he would not work with Labour and said that the Liberal Democrats had more "common ground" with the Conservatives under David Cameron than with Labour under Jeremy Corbyn. Shortly after, Cable was due to appear and speak at a Compass event in support of a 'progressive alliance' (a proposed electoral pact between the Green Party, the Liberal Democrats, and Labour) but backed out, stating it was "too late" for a progressive alliance because he couldn't work with Labour "in its current form." He had previously spoken at a progressive alliance event by Compass in 2016.
Brexit
Cable believed Brexit might never happen. He maintained that when people saw the economic costs they would turn against it and a cross-party coalition of opponents to Brexit might develop. Cable said, "the whole question of continued membership will once again arise" if people's living standards worsened and unemployment rose.
Cable called for cross-border digital services and a single EU market for Netflix.
On 23 June 2018 Cable appeared at the People's Vote march in London to mark the second anniversary of the referendum to leave the European Union.In his speech he said, "keep fighting, keep hoping, we will win."
Cable maintained it "beggars belief that the army and the police are now being asked to prepare for riots in the chaotic aftermath of a botched Brexit. (...) For the 'true believers' - the fundamentalists - the costs of Brexit have always been irrelevant. Years of economic pain justified by the erotic spasm of leaving the European Union. Economic pain felt - of course - not by them by those least able to afford it. (...) [Theresa May] is dutifully delivering a policy she doesn't really believe in; failing in negotiations; losing public support; and all to appease a dwindling group of angry people in her party who will denounce her as a traitor, whatever she comes up with. (...) Our sympathy can only extend so far, while she puts the interests of the country second to the whims of the extremists in her party."
Tuition fees
In 2017, Cable defended the £9,000 per year university tuition fees cap, claiming it would be "dangerous and stupid" and a "cheap populist gesture" to abolish tuition fees, adding that the "40% of students" who go to university should not be subsidised by the "60% who don't". The comments were criticised on social media by figures on the left, while Conservative MP Jo Johnson voiced support for Cable's stance.
Housing
On housing, he has backed building on green belts as a solution to the housing crisis. He proposes allowing councils to levy up to a 500% council tax on empty homes.
The House of Lords
In 2018, Cable wrote that he had opposed and still opposed the House of Lords, the upper house of the British Parliament, for being made up of unaccountable members. However, he expressed his appreciation for the Lords' "capacity to defeat and embarrass the government" over Brexit legislation, in which he argued the House of Lords were exercising more thorough oversight. Cable declined an offer to be seated in the House of Lords following the 2015 general election.
Personal life
Cable's first wife was Olympia Rebelo, a Kenyan from a Goan Roman Catholic background, whom he met "in the unromantic setting of a York mental hospital where we happened to be working as nurses during a summer holiday." They had three children together and she completed her PhD in history at Glasgow University in 1976. Olympia was diagnosed with breast cancer shortly after the 1987 general election. After apparently successful treatment, the disease returned in the mid-1990s and before the 1997 general election. She died shortly after the 2001 general election.
In 2004, he married Rachel Wenban Smith. When appearing on BBC Radio 4's Desert Island Discs programme in January 2009, Cable revealed that he wears the wedding rings from both of his marriages.
A keen ballroom dancer, Cable long expressed his desire to appear on the BBC's hit television show Strictly Come Dancing; he appeared on the Christmas 2010 edition of the show, partnered by Erin Boag and dancing the Foxtrot. He performed well and scored 36/40 from the judges, including a mark of 10/10 from head judge Len Goodman. Cable was the second politician to appear on the show, after former Conservative MP Ann Widdecombe.
Cable is a patron of MyBigCareer, a career guidance charity for young people, the Polycystic Kidney Disease Charity (PKD), the Changez Charity. and chair of HCT Group, a social enterprise transport operator.
Cable's eldest grandson is social activist and entrepreneur Ayrton Cable.
Cable revealed that he had a minor stroke while leader of the Liberal Democrats in his memoir. The stroke occurred in May 2018.
Honours
He was sworn in as a member of Her Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council in 2010 upon his appointment as Secretary of State for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy and President of the Board of Trade in the coalition government. This gave him the Honorific Title "The Right Honourable" for life.
In David Cameron’s 2015 Dissolution Honours, Cable was appointed a Knight Bachelor for political and public service.
BibliographyThe Chinese Conundrum (Alma Books, 2021) Open Arms Vince Cable (Corvus, 2017)
After the Storm: The World Economy and Britain's Economic Future Vince Cable (Atlantic Books, 2016) Free Radical: A Memoir Vince Cable (Atlantic Books, 2010)
The Storm: The World Economic Crisis and What it Means Vince Cable (Atlantic Books, 2009)
The Orange Book: Reclaiming Liberalism edited by David Laws and Paul Marshall; contributions by Vincent Cable and others (Profile Books, 2004)
Regulating Modern Capitalism (Centre for Reform Papers) Vincent Cable (Centre for Reform, 2002)
Commerce (Liberal Democrat Consultation Papers) Vincent Cable (Liberal Democrat Publications, 2002)
Globalization: Rules and Standards for the World Economy (Chatham House Papers) Vincent Cable, Albert Bressand (Thomson Learning, 2000)
Globalisation & Global Governance Vincent Cable (Thomson Learning, 1999) Preparing for EMU: A Liberal Democrat Response (Centre for Reform Papers) Vincent Cable (Centre for Reform, 1999)
China and India: Economic Reform and Global Integration Vincent Cable (Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1995)
Global Superhighways: The Future of International Telecommunications Policy (International Economics Programme Special Paper) Vincent Cable, Catherine Distler (Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1995)
The World's New Fissures: Identities in Crisis Vincent Cable (Demos, 1994)
Trade Blocs: The Future of Regional Integration edited by Vincent Cable and David Henderson (The Brookings Institution, 1994)
Commerce of Culture: Experience of Indian Handicrafts, Vincent Cable (Lancer International, 1990)
Developing with Foreign Investment edited by Vincent Cable and Bishnodat Persaud (Routledge, 1987)
Economics and the Politics of Protection: Some Case Studies of Industries (World Bank Staff Working Papers Number 569) Vincent Cable (World Bank, 1984)
World Textile Trade and Production Trends Vincent Cable, Betsy Baker (Economist Intelligence Unit, 1983)
Case Studies in Development Economics Vincent Cable (Heinemann Educ., 1982)
The Role of Handicrafts Exports: Problems and Prospects Based on Indian Experience (ODI Working Paper) Vincent Cable (Overseas Development Institute, 1982)
British Electronics and Competition with Newly Industrialising Countries Vincent Cable, Jeremy Clarke (Overseas Development Institute, 1981)
Evaluation of the Multifibre Arrangement and Negotiating Options Vincent Cable (Commonwealth Secretariat, 1981)
British Interests and Third World Development Vincent Cable (Overseas Development Institute, 1980)
Britain's Pattern of Specialization in Manufactured Goods With Developing Countries and Trade Protection (World Bank Staff Working Paper No 425/8 Oct) Vincent Cable, Ivonia Rebelo (World Bank, 1980)
World Textile Trade and Production Vincent Cable (Economist Intelligence Unit, 1979)
South Asia's Exports to the EEC: Obstacles and Opportunities Vincent Cable, Ann Weston (Overseas Development Institute, 1979)
World Textile Trade and Production Vincent Cable (Economist Intelligence Unit, 1979) ISBN B0000EGG8M
Import Controls: The Case Against Vincent Cable (Fabian Society, 1977)
Glasgow: Area of Need Vincent Cable. Essay in 'The Red Paper on Scotland' ed. Gordon Brown. Edinburgh 1975.
Glasgow's Motorways: a Technocratic Blight (New Society, 2 September. 1974)
Whither Kenyan Emigrants? Vincent Cable (Fabian Society, 1969)
Autobiography
(2010) Free Radical: A Memoir. Atlantic Books.
See also
Liberal Democrat Frontbench Team
Opposition to Brexit
References
External links
Vince Cable official site
Vince Cable Twitter profile
Vincent Cable MP official Liberal Democrats profile
Twickenham and Richmond Liberal Democrats
Tracking Vince Cable (universities & research only) at Research Fortnight
News articles
Gold standard?. Third Way Magazine, 11 May 2009
Vince Cable: Beneath the halo New Statesman'', September 2009
Profile of Cable (2009) by Fran Monks; How to Make a Difference
Debrett's People of Today
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Alumni of Fitzwilliam College, Cambridge
Alumni of the University of Glasgow
Knights Bachelor
Leaders of the Liberal Democrats (UK)
Liberal Democrats (UK) MPs for English constituencies
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
Politicians from York
Politics of the London Borough of Richmond upon Thames
Presidents of the Board of Trade
Presidents of the Cambridge Union
Scottish Labour parliamentary candidates
Social Democratic Party (UK) parliamentary candidates
UK MPs 1997–2001
UK MPs 2001–2005
UK MPs 2005–2010
UK MPs 2010–2015
UK MPs 2017–2019
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis%20Maude
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Francis Maude
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Francis Anthony Aylmer Maude, Baron Maude of Horsham, (born 4 July 1953) is a British Conservative Party politician who served as Minister for the Cabinet Office and Paymaster General from 2010 to 2015. He also served in several posts while the Conservatives were in opposition, notably as Shadow Chancellor of the Exchequer, Shadow Foreign Secretary and Chairman of the Conservative Party. Maude was Member of Parliament (MP) for North Warwickshire from 1983 to 1992 and then for Horsham from 1997 to 2015.
Having served over 25 years on the frontbench in the House of Commons, he stepped down at the 2015 general election and became a life peer. He served as Minister of State for Trade and Investment from 2015 to 2016, before stepping down from government service to run his own business; Francis Maude Associates or FMA a consultancy specialising in government efficiency.
Early life
Maude is the son of Angus Maude (1912–1993), a life peer and one-time Conservative cabinet minister. He spent part of his childhood in Sydney, Australia, while his father edited The Sydney Morning Herald. On the family's return to the UK, he was educated at Abingdon School, at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, and at the College of Law. He was called to the Bar at the Inner Temple in 1977, and practised criminal law. He served as a member of Westminster City Council from 1978 to 1984.
Political career
In government, 1983–1992
Maude was first elected to the House of Commons to represent the constituency of North Warwickshire in the Conservative Party's landslide victory at the 1983 general election. In 1984, he became the Parliamentary Private Secretary to the Minister for Employment Peter Morrison. Maude then became an assistant government whip (1985–87) and Minister for Corporate and Consumer Affairs (1987–89), then part of the DTI. A Thatcherite, Maude was appointed in 1989 the Minister for Europe in the Foreign and Commonwealth Office to spearhead the policy outlined in the Bruges Speech, attacking the Delors Plan in order to exclude Britain from an economic and political Union of Europe. In 1992 he acted as deputy for Chancellor of the Exchequer Norman Lamont and was one of the two UK signatories to the Maastricht Treaty.
Maude was one of the first "men in grey suits" to hold discussions with Margaret Thatcher in November 1990 after she failed to win the first round of a leadership election. He told Thatcher that he would support her as long as she went on, but he did not believe she could win the leadership contest.
After John Major became prime minister, Maude was made the Financial Secretary to the Treasury. However, in the 1992 general election he lost his seat to the Labour Party candidate, Mike O'Brien, and was thus forced to vacate his ministerial roles. According to Daniel Finkelstein of The Times the loss came as a 'terrible blow' to Maude; all his peers had managed to cling on and were together forming a government. In the Dissolution Honours that year, he was made a member of the Privy Council.
In a 2006 interview, Maude stated that the introduction of Section 28 legislation whilst he was in Government (which banned Councils from promoting homosexuality and led to the closure of gay support groups) was "a mistake", adding it might have even contributed to the AIDS death of his brother Charles, who was homosexual, among others. In 2012 he expanded further on his views on Section 28, saying "in hindsight, it was very wrong — very wrong. It was a legislative provision that came out of honourable motives. It took me some time to realise what an emblem of intolerance Section 28 had become for gay people. It was the tip of a deep iceberg — the iceberg below the surface being a host of anti-gay social attitudes."
Out of Parliament, 1992–1997
Out of Parliament after the 1992 general election, Maude began a series of business roles. He worked in banking as managing director at Morgan Stanley from 1993 to 1997. He was also appointed a non-executive director of ASDA Group Plc in July 1992, and served as a director of Salomon Brothers from 1992 to 1993. He also chaired the government's Deregulation Task Force from 1994 to 1997. This was preparation as Cabinet Office Minister from 2010, when he was required to highlight areas of expenditure where savings could be made from streamlining the delivery and implementation of policy goals.
Shadow Cabinet, 1997–2010
In the 1997 general election Maude was elected MP for Horsham. Almost immediately he was re-appointed to the Conservative front bench, now the opposition in Parliament. He served as Shadow Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport, Shadow Chancellor of the Exchequer, and Shadow Foreign Secretary until 2001.
Maude managed Michael Portillo's unsuccessful bid for the Conservative leadership in 2001, after which he declined a front bench role under the new Party Leader Iain Duncan Smith. He was considered to be a 'moderniser' and on the centre-left of the party, writing in The Daily Telegraph (24 June 2002), he said that the Conservative Party's electoral problems had been caused by its failure to "look and sound like modern Britain". Norman Tebbit's secretary, Beryl Goldsmith, criticised Maude after this, asking: Outside the Shadow Cabinet, Maude founded Conservatives for Change, CChange, becoming its first chairman. CChange was designed to promote the modernisation of the Conservative Party. Around the same point he also founded Policy Exchange.
Following the 2005 general election, Maude returned to the Shadow Cabinet as Chairman of the Conservative Party. As the so-called Holy Spirit of Conservative modernisation, Maude set the Tory Party on the path to reform which saw David Cameron selected as Party Leader. In his first speech to the Conservative Conference as Party Chairman, Maude presented what he calls his "killer slide". The slide revealed that "voters confronted with the party’s immigration policy neutrally supported it by two to one, but when told that it was a Conservative policy the proportions reversed". The point he was making was not that sound conservative ideas damaged the Conservative Party but that 'The Conservative Party, as it was then seen, was damaging good Conservative policies". During his tenure, alongside newly elected Leader David Cameron, the Conservatives adopted the A-List of parliamentary candidates, with priority being given to women and people from ethnic minorities.
In July 2007, Maude was made Shadow Minister for the Cabinet Office and Shadow Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, with responsibility for preparing the Conservatives for government, with some dubbing him the Party's "enforcer". At the Conservative Party Conference in October 2007 he said: "David (Cameron) has asked me to lead an implementation team that will ensure that we are as well-prepared as any incoming government has ever been. Our priorities rigorously sorted. Our teams armed with the knowledge and capabilities that will enable new ministers to start making a difference from day one." Ahead of the 2010 general election, Maude led attempts by the then-Conservative Opposition to work with the UK Civil Service to prepare for government.
Maude supported Republican John McCain in the 2008 U.S. presidential election. He led the Conservative Party delegation to the 2008 Democratic National Convention.
Return to Government, 2010–2016
Maude was appointed Paymaster General and Minister for the Cabinet Office, with the right to attend Cabinet, on 12 May 2010, following the formation of the Conservative–Liberal Democrat Coalition. As Cabinet Office Minister, Maude was responsible for: public service efficiency and reform groups, Civil Service issues, industrial relations strategy in the public sector, transparency, civil contingencies, civil society and cyber-security.
Efficiency and Reform
In 2010 Maude set up the Efficiency and Reform Group (ERG), in the Cabinet Office to work with HM Treasury with the aim of making government departments more efficient. This work includes stopping wasteful spending; improving the way government buys goods and services; reducing losses from fraud, error and debt; raising money by selling empty buildings and underused properties; and reviewing and reshaping large scale projects.
Savings are difficult to measure, but the work of ERG claims to have contributed to £3.75 billion of savings in 2010–11, £5.5 billion in 2011–12 and an "unprecedented" £10 billion in 2012–13. ERG claims to achieve savings of at least £20 billion in the financial year 2014 to 2015. Cumulatively, by 2015 Maude had delivered more than £50 billion of audited savings during the Cameron–Clegg coalition government.
These savings included include £3.4 billion by reducing the size of the Civil Service and reforming Civil Service pensions; £3.8 billion by linking together departments to buy goods and services and enforcing controls on recruitment and use of consultants; and £0.6 billion by exiting 500,000 square metres of property. In December 2014 Francis Maude set out plans to make a further £10 billion of efficiency savings between 2017 and 2018 and an additional £15 to £20 billion for 2019 to 2020.
Civil Service reform
In June 2012 Maude laid out his plans for reforming the Civil Service. The Reform programme was endorsed by leadership of the Civil Service, the Cabinet Secretary and Head of the Civil Service. The document laid out a series of practical actions including steps to improve the skills, abilities and performance of civil servants; introduce a sharper performance management system; create a modern employment offer for staff; improve IT and flexible working across departments; and tighten the delivery of major projects. A year after the publication of the initial plan, Maude updated Parliament with a One Year On document, setting out successes and failures. This document included various further steps: establishing the principle of Extended Ministerial Offices, and introducing Functional Leadership across Whitehall. However, in November 2013, former Cabinet secretary Lord Butler of Brockwell told the BBC that "Mr Maude and some of his colleagues don't understand leadership." Butler said the relationship between ministers and the Civil Service worked best when there was loyalty on both side and public criticism showed something was wrong. A spokesman for Maude said good leadership required issues to be addressed, not swept under the carpet.
Transparency
Maude oversaw the Government's groundbreaking transparency policy. This work includes making sure that departments include specific open data commitments in their business plans, regularly publishing open data sets on all central and local government spending over £25,000, senior staff salary details and how the government is performing against objectives. Data.gov.uk contains over 9,000 datasets including local crime statistics, sentencing rates, hospital infection rates and GP performance.
Maude also led the UK Government's work with the Open Government Partnership. This work helped make the British government the most open in the world at the time, and led directly to the creation of services such as the Citymapper app and challenger banks like Monzo.
Following Maude's reforms the United Nations rated the UK government as the most open in world.
Government Digital Service and GOV.UK
Maude was responsible for the creation of the Government Digital Service, with the aim to consolidate internal IT and replace government 1,700 various websites with a single web hub, gov.uk. The new consolidated website won Design of the Year 2013 at the Design Museum awards, beating The Shard and the 2012 Summer Olympics and Paralympics cauldron. Its revolutionary single source model inspired government websites around the world, including in the United States, New Zealand and Australia.
The Government Digital Strategy also committed Departments to redesigning all existing government services that serve more than 100,000 users each year. Maude's office estimated that moving services from offline to digital channels could save approximately £1.8 billion a year; at the time digital transactions cost 20 pence each compared to £3 for a phone call and £7 for a physical letter.
In June 2014 Maude warned that elderly people would have to apply for key benefits including Carer's Allowance online. His remarks were criticized by organizations who work with the elderly partly on the grounds that poorer people may not be able to afford computer facilities and, partly because even computer literate people may lose their skills in old age. Whilst critics estimated that over 5 million pensioners have never used the internet, Maude said that 'refuseniks' could be offered a one-off lesson.
Elevation to the Lords
In February 2015, Maude announced he would be standing down at the general election three months later. Following the election, on 14 May 2015 Maude was elevated to the House of Lords and he was created, by letters patent, Baron Maude of Horsham, of Shipley in the County of West Sussex on 26 May 2015. This allowed him to be appointed as Minister of State for Trade and Investment jointly at the Department for Business, Innovation and Skills and the Foreign and Commonwealth Office, replacing Lord Livingston of Parkhead. Nine months later, Maude announced his resignation from this post on 10 February 2016, to be replaced by Mark Price.
Career outside of Parliament: 2016–present
Since leaving his role as Minister for Trade and Investment in March 2016, Maude has begun a number of new business roles, including serving as an advisory board member at OakNorth Bank which deals with business and property finance, and specialises in supporting the UK's growth businesses since September 2016. He has been an advisory board member at Anvest Partners, a real estate investment company since May 2016, and a Senior Adviser with Covington & Burling LLP, a business and corporate law firm since November 2016. He has also been a Non Executive Chairman at Cogent Elliott Group Ltd, an advertising agency, since November 2016.
Maude's primary occupation since leaving politics is his role as the co-founder and chairman of Francis Maude Associates, which he runs with his former special advisor Simone Finn, Baroness Finn. It is a consulting firm specialising in government efficiency and reform around the world, with its work based on Maude's experience as Minister for the Cabinet Office.
Following the resignation of Dominic Raab, Lord Maude suggested the UK Civil Service should alter its rules on impartiality and continuity under different governments.
Controversies
While in the Shadow Cabinet Maude was accused of hypocrisy by promoting a "family-friendly" image while being the non-executive chairman of Jubilee Investment Trust plc, which held 21% of American pornographic actress Jill Kelly's adult DVD business, and chairman of the Mission Marketing Group, which has advertised for WKD drinks and Playboy. Maude, "who has railed against irresponsible lending by banks and mortgage companies", was accused of hypocrisy for receiving more than £100,000 as a director of a company that has profited from sub-prime mortgages. His annual salary was £25,000 from 2002 to 2005, for attending around six meetings a year for the company, and £12,000 a year 2006 to 2008. The company went into liquidation in April 2009.
Maude faced criticism during the expenses scandal. However the Legg Report made no complaint against him and found that he had "no issues". The Daily Telegraph had argued that: two years after the Fees Office rejected a claim for mortgage interest on Maude's Sussex home, Maude purchased a flat in London, close to another house he already owned. He rented out the London house and claimed £35,000 mortgage interest on this flat.
During a discussion on Newsnight on 22 October 2010 Maude stated that ministerial salaries had been reduced by 5% under the new Government. He was accused of comparing this cut to the 'pain' suffered by Britain's poor.
Fuel crisis
On 28 March 2012, during the 2012 United Kingdom fuel crisis, Maude advised people to fill up their vehicles and to store fuel in garages in jerrycans. His remarks were widely criticised, queues up to half a mile long formed outside petrol stations and petrol retailers criticised the Government for causing panic. Matt Wrack, General Secretary of the Fire Brigades Union said that Maude's advice was dangerous and illegal, and could be disastrous in the event of a fire. Brian Madderson, the petrol chairman of the Retail Motor Industry Federation said that the Government appeared to be "intent on creating a crisis out of a serious concern and that drivers should ignore "dangerous advice". Maude denied that it would increase the risk of explosions, however the following day Transport Minister Mike Penning, a former firefighter, confirmed the advice was wrong, saying he didn't think Maude understood how big jerrycans were. On 30 March 2012, the Labour Peer the Lord Harris called for Maude's resignation, after a woman suffered severe burns during an attempt to decant petrol next to a lit gas cooker. Harris believed that Maude's advice helped cause the incident.
Personal life
Maude married Christina Jane Hadfield in 1984, and they have five children. He was on the governing body of Abingdon School from 1988 to 2006 and was Chairman of the Governors from 1995 to 2003.
See also
List of Old Abingdonians
References
External links
Francis Maude MP official constituency website
Profile at the Conservative Party
Profile: Francis Maude BBC News, 10 February 2005
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1953 births
Alumni of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge
Alumni of The University of Law
Chairmen of the Conservative Party (UK)
Conservative Party (UK) life peers
Life peers created by Elizabeth II
Conservative Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
Councillors in the City of Westminster
Living people
Maude family
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
People educated at Abingdon School
People from Abingdon-on-Thames
UK MPs 1983–1987
UK MPs 1987–1992
UK MPs 1997–2001
UK MPs 2001–2005
UK MPs 2005–2010
UK MPs 2010–2015
Governors of Abingdon School
Sons of life peers
Maude
Shadow Chancellors of the Exchequer
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenician%20language
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Phoenician language
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Phoenician ( ) is an extinct Canaanite Semitic language originally spoken in the region surrounding the cities of Tyre and Sidon. Extensive Tyro-Sidonian trade and commercial dominance led to Phoenician becoming a lingua franca of the maritime Mediterranean during the Iron Age. The Phoenician alphabet spread to Greece during this period, where it became the source of all modern European scripts.
Phoenician belongs to the Canaanite languages and as such is quite similar to Biblical Hebrew and other languages of the group, at least in its early stages and therefore mutually intelligible with them.
The area in which Phoenician was spoken includes the northern Levant, specifically the areas now including Syria, Lebanon, Western Galilee, parts of Cyprus, some adjacent areas of Turkey and, at least as a prestige language, Anatolia. It was also spoken in the area of Phoenician colonization along the coasts of the southwestern Mediterranean Sea, including those of modern Tunisia, Morocco, Libya and Algeria as well as Malta, the west of Sicily, southwest Sardinia, the Balearic Islands and southernmost Spain.
In modern times, the language was first decoded by Jean-Jacques Barthélemy in 1758, who noted that the name "Phoenician" was first given to the language by Samuel Bochart in his Geographia Sacra seu Phaleg et Canaan.
History
The oldest testimony documenting words in the Phoenician language (actually of Sidon), is probably from the Late Bronze Age. The Book of Deuteronomy (3, 9) reads: "the Sidonians call – Hermon – Sirion". In other words: Mount Hermon was called "Sirion", in the Phoenician language of Sidon.
The Phoenicians were the first state-level society to make extensive use of the Semitic alphabet. The Phoenician alphabet is the oldest verified consonantal alphabet, or abjad. It has become conventional to refer to the script as "Proto-Canaanite" until the mid-11th century BC, when it is first attested on inscribed bronze arrowheads, and as "Phoenician" only after 1050 BC. The Phoenician phonetic alphabet is generally believed to be at least the partial ancestor of almost all modern alphabets.
From a traditional linguistic perspective, Phoenician was composed of a variety of dialects. According to some sources, Phoenician developed into distinct Tyro-Sidonian and Byblian dialects. By this account, the Tyro-Sidonian dialect, from which the Punic language eventually emerged, spread across the Mediterranean through trade and colonization, whereas the ancient dialect of Byblos, known from a corpus of only a few dozen extant inscriptions, played no expansionary role. However, the very slight differences in language and the insufficient records of the time make it unclear whether Phoenician formed a separate and united dialect or was merely a superficially defined part of a broader language continuum. Through their maritime trade, the Phoenicians spread the use of the alphabet to Northwest Africa and Europe, where it was adopted by the Greeks. Later, the Etruscans adopted a modified version for their own use, which, in turn, was modified and adopted by the Romans and became the Latin alphabet. In the east of the Mediterranean region, the language was in use as late as the 1st century BC, when it seems to have gone extinct there.
Punic colonisation spread Phoenician to the western Mediterranean, where the distinct Punic language developed. Punic also died out, but it seems to have survived far longer than Phoenician, until the 6th century, perhaps even into the 9th century AD.
Writing system
Phoenician was written with the Phoenician script, an abjad (consonantary) originating from the Proto-Canaanite alphabet that also became the basis for the Greek alphabet and, via an Etruscan adaptation, the Latin alphabet. The Punic form of the script gradually developed somewhat different and more cursive letter shapes; in the 3rd century BC, it also began to exhibit a tendency to mark the presence of vowels, especially final vowels, with an aleph or sometimes an ayin. Furthermore, around the time of the Second Punic War, an even more cursive form began to develop, which gave rise to a variety referred to as Neo-Punic and existed alongside the more conservative form and became predominant some time after the destruction of Carthage (c. 149 BC). Neo-Punic, in turn, tended to designate vowels with matres lectionis ("consonantal letters") more frequently than the previous systems had and also began to systematically use different letters for different vowels, in the way explained in more detail below. Finally, a number of late inscriptions from what is now Constantine, Algeria dated to the first century BC make use of the Greek alphabet to write Punic, and many inscriptions from Tripolitania, in the third and fourth centuries AD use the Latin alphabet for that purpose.
In Phoenician writing, unlike that of abjads such as those of Aramaic, Biblical Hebrew and Arabic, even long vowels remained generally unexpressed, regardless of their origin (even if they originated from diphthongs, as in bt 'house', for earlier *bayt-; Hebrew spelling has byt). Eventually, Punic writers began to implement systems of marking of vowels by means of matres lectionis. In the 3rd century BC appeared the practice of using final 'ālep to mark the presence of any final vowel and, occasionally, of yōd to mark a final long .
Later, mostly after the destruction of Carthage in the so-called "Neo-Punic" inscriptions, that was supplemented by a system in which wāw denoted , yōd denoted , 'ālep denoted and , ʿayin denoted and hē and could also be used to signify . This latter system was used first with foreign words and was then extended to many native words as well.
A third practice reported in the literature is the use of the consonantal letters for vowels in the same way as had occurred in the original adaptation of the Phoenician alphabet to Greek and Latin, which was apparently still transparent to Punic writers: hē for and 'ālep for .
Later, Punic inscriptions began to be written in the Latin alphabet, which also indicated the vowels. Those later inscriptions, in addition with some inscriptions in Greek letters and transcriptions of Phoenician names into other languages, represent the main source of knowledge about Phoenician vowels.
Phonology
Consonants
The following table presents the consonant phonemes of the Phoenician language as represented in the Phoenician alphabet, alongside their standard Semiticist transliteration and reconstructed phonetic values in the International Phonetic Alphabet.:
The system reflected in the abjad above is the product of several mergers. From Proto-Northwest Semitic to Canaanite, and have merged into , and have merged into , and , and have merged into . Next, from Canaanite to Phoenician, the sibilants and were merged as , and were merged as , and * and * were merged as *. For the phonetic values of the sibilants, see below. These latter developments also occurred in Biblical Hebrew at one point or another, except that merged into there.
Sibilants
The original value of the Proto-Semitic sibilants, and accordingly of their Phoenician counterparts, is disputed. While the traditional sound values are for , for , for , and for , recent scholarship argues that was , was , was , and was , as transcribed in the consonant table above. Krahmalkov, too, suggests that Phoenician *z may have been [dz] or even [zd] based on Latin transcriptions such as esde for the demonstrative z.
On the other hand, it is debated whether šīn and sāmek , which are mostly well distinguished by the Phoenician orthography, also eventually merged at some point, either in Classical Phoenician or in Late Punic.
Postvelars
In later Punic, the laryngeals and pharyngeals seem to have been entirely lost. Neither these nor the emphatics could be adequately represented by the Latin alphabet, but there is also evidence to that effect from Punic script transcriptions.
Lenition
There is no consensus on whether Phoenician-Punic ever underwent the lenition of stop consonants that happened in most other Northwest Semitic languages such as Biblical Hebrew and Aramaic (cf. Hackett vs Segert and Lyavdansky). The consonant may have been generally transformed into in Punic and in late Phoenician, as it was in Proto-Arabic. Certainly, Latin-script renditions of late Punic include many spirantized transcriptions with ph, th and kh in various positions (although the interpretation of these spellings is not entirely clear) as well as the letter f for the original *p. However, in Neo-Punic, *b lenited to /v/ contiguous to a following consonant, as in the Latin transcription lifnim for *lbnm "for his son".
Vowels
Knowledge of the vowel system is very imperfect because of the characteristics of the writing system. During most of its existence, Phoenician writing showed no vowels at all, and even as vowel notation systems did eventually arise late in its history, they never came to be applied consistently to native vocabulary. It is thought that Phoenician had the short vowels , , and the long vowels , , , , . The Proto-Semitic diphthongs and are realized as and . That must have happened earlier than in Biblical Hebrew since the resultant long vowels are not marked with the semivowel letters (bēt "house" was written bt, in contrast to Biblical Hebrew byt).
The most conspicuous vocalic development in Phoenician is the so-called Canaanite shift, shared by Biblical Hebrew, but going further in Phoenician. The Proto-Northwest Semitic and became not merely as in Tiberian Hebrew, but . Stressed Proto-Semitic became Tiberian Hebrew ( in other traditions), but Phoenician . The shift is proved by Latin and Greek transcriptions like rūs/ρους for "head, cape" 𐤓𐤀𐤔 /ruːʃ/ (Tiberian Hebrew rōš /roːʃ/, ); similarly notice stressed (corresponding to Tiberian Hebrew ) samō/σαμω for "he heard" 𐤔𐤌𐤏 /ʃaˈmoʕ/ (Tiberian Hebrew šāmaʻ /ʃɔːˈmaʕ/, ); similarly the word for "eternity" is known from Greek transcriptions to have been ūlōm/ουλομ 𐤏𐤋𐤌 /ʕuːˈloːm/, corresponding to Biblical Hebrew ʻōlām עולם /ʕoːlɔːm/ and Proto-Semitic ʻālam /ˈʕaːlam/ (in Arabic: ʻālam عالم /ˈʕaːlam/). The letter Y used for words such as 𐤀𐤔 /ʔəʃ/ ys/υς "which" and 𐤀𐤕 /ʔət/ yth/υθ (definite accusative marker) in Greek and Latin alphabet inscriptions can be interpreted as denoting a reduced schwa vowel that occurred in pre-stress syllables in verbs and two syllables before stress in nouns and adjectives, while other instances of Y as in chyl/χυλ and even chil/χιλ for 𐤊𐤋 /kull/ "all" in Poenulus can be interpreted as a further stage in the vowel shift resulting in fronting () and even subsequent delabialization of and . Short in originally-open syllables was lowered to and was also lengthened if it was accented.
Suprasegmentals
Stress-dependent vowel changes indicate that stress was probably mostly final, as in Biblical Hebrew. Long vowels probably occurred only in open syllables.
Grammar
As is typical for the Semitic languages, Phoenician words are usually built around consonantal roots and vowel changes are used extensively to express morphological distinctions. However, unlike most Semitic languages, Phoenician preserved (or, possibly, re-introduced) numerous uniconsonantal and biconsonantal roots seen in Proto-Afro-Asiatic: compare the verbs 𐤊𐤍 kn "to be" vs Arabic كون kwn, 𐤌𐤕 mt "to die" vs Hebrew and Arabic מות/موت mwt and 𐤎𐤓 sr "to remove" vs Hebrew סרר srr.
Nominal morphology
Nouns are marked for gender (masculine and feminine), number (singular, plural and vestiges of the dual) and state (absolute and construct, the latter being nouns that are followed by their possessors) and also have the category definiteness. There is some evidence for remains of the Proto-Semitic genitive grammatical case as well. While many of the endings coalesce in the standard orthography, inscriptions in the Latin and Greek alphabet permit the reconstruction of the noun endings, which are also the adjective endings, as follows:
In late Punic, the final of the feminine was apparently dropped: "son of the queen" or "brother of the queen" rendered in Latin as HIMILCO. was also assimilated to following consonants: e.g. 𐤔𐤕 "year" for earlier 𐤔𐤍𐤕 .
The case endings in general must have been lost between the 9th century BC and the 7th century BC: the personal name rendered in Akkadian as ma-ti-nu-ba-a-li "Gift of Baal", with the case endings -u and -i, was written ma-ta-an-baa-al (likely Phoenician spelling *𐤌𐤕𐤍𐤁𐤏𐤋) two centuries later. However, evidence has been found for a retention of the genitive case in the form of the first-singular possessive suffix: 𐤀𐤁𐤉 /abiya/ "of my father" vs 𐤀𐤁 /abī/ "my father". If true, this may suggest that cases were still distinguished to some degree in other forms as well.
The written forms and the reconstructed pronunciations of the personal pronouns are as follows:
Singular:
1st: // 𐤀𐤍𐤊 (Punic sometimes 𐤀𐤍𐤊𐤉 ), also attested as //
2nd masc. // 𐤀𐤕
2nd fem. // 𐤀𐤕
3rd masc. // 𐤄𐤀 , also [] (?) 𐤄𐤉 and // 𐤄𐤀𐤕
3rd fem. // 𐤄𐤀
Plural:
1st: // 𐤀𐤍𐤇𐤍
2nd masc. // 𐤀𐤕𐤌
2nd fem. unattested, perhaps // 𐤀𐤕𐤍
3rd masc. and feminine // 𐤄𐤌𐤕
Enclitic personal pronouns were added to nouns (to encode possession) and to prepositions, as shown below for "Standard Phoenician" (the predominant dialect, as distinct from the Byblian and the late Punic varieties). They appear in a slightly different form depending on whether or not they follow plural-form masculine nouns (and so are added after a vowel). The former is given in brackets with the abbreviation a.V.
Singular:
1st: // , also 𐤉 (a.V. // )
2nd masc. // 𐤊
2nd fem. // 𐤊
3rd masc. // , Punic 𐤀 , (a.V. // )
3rd fem. // , Punic 𐤀 (a.V. // )
Plural:
1st: // 𐤍
2nd masc. // 𐤊𐤌
2nd fem. unattested, perhaps // 𐤊𐤍
3rd masc. // 𐤌 (a.V. // 𐤍𐤌 )
3rd fem. // 𐤌 (a.V. // 𐤍𐤌 )
In addition, according to some research, the same written forms of the enclitics that are attested after vowels are also found after a singular noun in what must have been the genitive case (which ended in , whereas the plural version ended in ). Their pronunciation can then be reconstructed somewhat differently: first-person singular // 𐤉 , third-person singular masculine and feminine // 𐤉 and // 𐤉 . The third-person plural singular and feminine must have pronounced the same in both cases, i.e. // 𐤍𐤌 and // 𐤍𐤌 .
These enclitic forms vary between the dialects. In the archaic Byblian dialect, the third person forms are 𐤄 h and 𐤅 w // for the masculine singular (a.V. 𐤅 w //), 𐤄 h // for the feminine singular and 𐤅𐤌 hm // for the masculine plural. In late Punic, the 3rd masculine singular is usually // 𐤌 .
The same enclitic pronouns are also attached to verbs to denote direct objects. In that function, some of them have slightly divergent forms: first singular // 𐤍 and probably first plural //.
The near demonstrative pronouns ("this") are written, in standard Phoenician, 𐤆 z [za] for the singular and 𐤀𐤋 [ʔilːa] for the plural. Cypriot Phoenician displays 𐤀𐤆 [ʔizːa] instead of 𐤆 z [za]. Byblian still distinguishes, in the singular, a masculine [zan] / [za] from a feminine 𐤆𐤕 [zuːt] / 𐤆𐤀 [zuː]. There are also many variations in Punic, including 𐤎𐤕 st [suːt] and 𐤆𐤕 zt [zuːt] for both genders in the singular. The far demonstrative pronouns ("that") are identical to the independent third-person pronouns. The interrogative pronouns are or perhaps 𐤌𐤉 "who" and 𐤌 "what". Indefinite pronouns are "anything" is written 𐤌𐤍𐤌 mnm (possibly pronounced [miːnumːa], similar to Akkadian [miːnumːeː]) and 𐤌𐤍𐤊 mnk (possibly pronounced [miːnukːa]). The relative pronoun is a 𐤔 [ʃi], either followed or preceded by a vowel.
The definite article was , and the first consonant of the following word was doubled. It was written 𐤄 h but in late Punic also 𐤀 and 𐤏 because of the weakening and coalescence of the gutturals. Much as in Biblical Hebrew, the initial consonant of the article is dropped after the prepositions 𐤁 b-, 𐤋 l- and 𐤊 k-; it could also be lost after various other particles and function words, such the direct object marker 𐤀𐤉𐤕 and the conjunction 𐤅 w- "and".
Of the cardinal numerals from 1 to 10, 1 is an adjective, 2 is formally a noun in the dual and the rest are nouns in the singular. They all distinguish gender: 𐤀𐤇𐤃, 𐤀𐤔𐤍𐤌/𐤔𐤍𐤌 (construct state 𐤀𐤔𐤍/𐤔𐤍 ), 𐤔𐤋𐤔 , 𐤀𐤓𐤁𐤏, 𐤇𐤌𐤔 , 𐤔𐤔 , 𐤔𐤁𐤏 , 𐤔𐤌𐤍/𐤔𐤌𐤍𐤄 , 𐤕𐤔𐤏 , 𐤏𐤔𐤓/𐤏𐤎𐤓 vs 𐤀𐤇𐤕, unattested, 𐤔𐤋𐤔𐤕 , 𐤀𐤓𐤁𐤏𐤕 , 𐤇𐤌𐤔𐤕 , 𐤔𐤔𐤕 , 𐤔𐤁𐤏𐤕 , 𐤔𐤌𐤍𐤕 , unattested, 𐤏𐤔𐤓𐤕 . The tens are morphologically masculine plurals of the ones: 𐤏𐤔𐤓𐤌/𐤏𐤎𐤓𐤌 , 𐤔𐤋𐤔𐤌 , 𐤀𐤓𐤁𐤏𐤌 , 𐤇𐤌𐤔𐤌 , 𐤔𐤔𐤌 , 𐤔𐤁𐤏𐤌, 𐤔𐤌𐤍𐤌 , 𐤕𐤔𐤏𐤌 . "One hundred" is 𐤌𐤀𐤕 , two hundred is its dual form , whereas the rest are formed as in 𐤌𐤀𐤕𐤌 (three hundred). One thousand is 𐤀𐤋𐤐. Ordinal numerals are formed by the addition of *iy 𐤉 . Composite numerals are formed with w- 𐤅 "and", e.g. 𐤏𐤔𐤓 𐤅𐤔𐤍𐤌 for "twelve".
Verbal morphology
The verb inflects for person, number, gender, tense and mood. Like for other Semitic languages, Phoenician verbs have different "verbal patterns" or "stems", expressing manner of action, level of transitivity and voice.
The perfect or suffix-conjugation, which expresses the past tense, is exemplified below with the root 𐤐𐤏𐤋 p-ʻ-l "to do" (a "neutral", G-stem).
Singular:
1st: // 𐤐𐤏𐤋𐤕𐤉
2nd masc. // 𐤐𐤏𐤋𐤕
2nd fem. // 𐤐𐤏𐤋𐤕
3rd masc. // 𐤐𐤏𐤋
3rd fem. // 𐤐𐤏𐤋𐤕 , also 𐤐𐤏𐤋 , Punic 𐤐𐤏𐤋𐤀
Plural:
1st: // 𐤐𐤏𐤋𐤍
2nd masc. // 𐤐𐤏𐤋𐤕𐤌
2nd fem. unattested, perhaps // 𐤐𐤏𐤋𐤕𐤍
3rd masc. // 𐤐𐤏𐤋 , Punic 𐤐𐤏𐤋𐤀
3rd fem. // 𐤐𐤏𐤋 , Punic 𐤐𐤏𐤋𐤀
The imperfect or prefix-conjugation, which expresses the present and future tense (and which is not distinguishable from the descendant of the Proto-Semitic jussive expressing wishes), is exemplified below, again with the root p-ʻ-l.
1st: // 𐤀𐤐𐤏𐤋
2nd masc. // 𐤕𐤐𐤏𐤋
2nd fem. // 𐤕𐤐𐤏𐤋𐤉
3rd masc. // 𐤉𐤐𐤏𐤋
3rd fem. // 𐤕𐤐𐤏𐤋
Plural:
1st: // 𐤍𐤐𐤏𐤋
2nd masc. // 𐤕𐤐𐤏𐤋 , Punic 𐤕𐤐𐤏𐤋𐤀
2nd fem. // 𐤕𐤐𐤏𐤋𐤍
3rd masc. // 𐤉𐤐𐤏𐤋
3rd fem. *// 𐤉𐤐𐤏𐤋𐤍
The imperative endings were presumably , and for the second-person singular masculine, second-person singular feminine and second-person plural masculine respectively, but all three forms surface in the orthography as // 𐤐𐤏𐤋 : . The old Semitic jussive, which originally differed slightly from the prefix conjugation, is no longer possible to separate from it in Phoenician with the present data.
The non-finite forms are the infinitive construct, the infinitive absolute and the active and passive participles. In the G-stem, the infinitive construct is usually combined with the preposition 𐤋 l- "to", as in 𐤋𐤐𐤏𐤋 "to do"; in contrast, the infinitive absolute 𐤐𐤏𐤋 (paʻōl) is mostly used to strengthen the meaning of a subsequent finite verb with the same root: 𐤐𐤕𐤇 𐤕𐤐𐤕𐤇 "you will indeed open!", accordingly /𐤐𐤏𐤋 𐤕𐤐𐤏𐤋 / "you will indeed do!".
The participles had, in the G-stem, the following forms:
Active:
Masculine singular // later // 𐤐𐤏𐤋 , plural // or // 𐤐𐤏𐤋𐤌
Feminine singular 𐤐𐤏𐤋𐤕 , plural 𐤐𐤏𐤋𐤕
Passive:
Masculine singular // or // 𐤐𐤏𐤋 , plural // 𐤐𐤏𐤋𐤌
Feminine singular // 𐤐𐤏𐤋𐤕 , plural // 𐤐𐤏𐤋𐤕
The missing forms above can be inferred from the correspondences between the Proto-Northwest Semitic ancestral forms and the attested Phoenician counterparts: the PNWS participle forms are *.
The derived stems are:
the N-stem (functioning as a passive), e.g. // 𐤍𐤐𐤏𐤋 npʻl, the N-formant being lost in the prefix conjugation while assimilating and doubling the first root consonant 𐤉𐤐𐤏𐤋 (ypʻl).
the D-stem (functioning as a factitive): the forms must have been 𐤐𐤏𐤋 /piʻʻil/ in the suffix conjugation, 𐤉𐤐𐤏𐤋 /yapaʻʻil/ in the prefix conjugation, 𐤐𐤏𐤋 /paʻʻil/ in the imperative and the infinitive construct, 𐤐𐤏𐤋 /paʻʻōl/ in the infinitive absolute and 𐤌𐤐𐤏𐤋 /mapaʻʻil/ in the participle. The characteristic doubling of the middle consonant is only identifiable in foreign alphabet transcriptions.
the C-stem (functioning as a causative): the original 𐤄 *ha- prefix has produced 𐤉 *yi- rather than the Hebrew ה *hi-. The forms were apparently 𐤉𐤐𐤏𐤋 /yipʻil/ in the suffix conjugation 𐤀𐤐𐤏𐤋(/ in late Punic), 𐤉𐤐𐤏𐤋 /yapʻil/ in the prefix conjugation, and the infinitive is also 𐤉𐤐𐤏𐤋 /yapʻil/, while the participle was probably 𐤌𐤐𐤏𐤋 /mapʻil/ or, in late Punic at least, 𐤌𐤐𐤏𐤋 /mipʻil/.
Most of the stems apparently also had passive and reflexive counterparts, the former differing through vowels, the latter also through the infix 𐤕 -t-. The G stem passive is attested as 𐤐𐤉𐤏𐤋 pyʻl, < *; t-stems can be reconstructed as 𐤉𐤕𐤐𐤏𐤋 ytpʻl /yitpaʻil/ (tG) and 𐤉𐤕𐤐𐤏𐤋 yptʻʻl /yiptaʻʻil/ (Dt).
Prepositions and particles
Some prepositions are always prefixed to nouns, deleting, if present, the initial of the definite article: such are 𐤁 b- "in", 𐤋 l- "to, for", 𐤊 k- "as" and 𐤌 m- // "from". They are sometimes found in forms extended through the addition of 𐤍 -n or 𐤕 -t. Other prepositions are not like that: 𐤀𐤋 "upon", .𐤏𐤃 "until", 𐤀𐤇𐤓 "after", 𐤕𐤇𐤕 "under", 𐤁𐤉𐤍, 𐤁𐤍 "between". New prepositions are formed with nouns: 𐤋𐤐𐤍 lpn "in front of", from 𐤋 l- "to" and 𐤐𐤍 pn "face". There is a special preposited marker of a definite object 𐤀𐤉𐤕 (//?), which, unlike Hebrew, is clearly distinct from the preposition את (//).
The most common negative marker is 𐤁𐤋 (//), negating verbs but sometimes also nouns; another one is 𐤀𐤉 (//), expressing both nonexistence and the negation of verbs. Negative commands or prohibitions are expressed with 𐤀𐤋 (//). "Lest" is 𐤋𐤌 . Some common conjunctions are 𐤅 (originally perhaps //, but certainly // in Late Punic), "and" 𐤀𐤌 (), "when", and 𐤊 (), "that; because; when". There was also a conjunction 𐤀𐤐/𐤐 ("also". 𐤋 (//) could (rarely) be used to introduce desiderative constructions ("may he do X!"). 𐤋 could also introduce vocatives. Both prepositions and conjunctions could form compounds.
Syntax
The basic word order is verb-subject-object. There is no verb "to be" in the present tense; in clauses that would have used a copula, the subject may come before the predicate. Nouns precede their modifiers, such as adjectives and possessors.
Vocabulary and word formation
Most nouns are formed by a combination of consonantal roots and vocalic patterns, but they can be formed also with prefixes (𐤌 , expressing actions or their results, and rarely 𐤕 ) and suffixes . Abstracts can be formed with the suffix 𐤕 -t (probably , ). Adjectives can be formed following the familiar Semitic nisba suffix 𐤉 y 𐤑𐤃𐤍𐤉 (e.g. ṣdny "Sidonian").
Like the grammar, the vocabulary is very close to Biblical Hebrew, but some peculiarities attract attention. For example, the copula verb "to be" is 𐤊𐤍 kn (as in Arabic, as opposed to Hebrew and Aramaic היה hyh) and the verb "to do" is 𐤐𐤏𐤋 pʿl (as in Aramaic פעל pʿl and Arabic فعل fʿl, as opposed to Hebrew עשה ʿśh, though in Hebrew פעל pʿl has the similar meaning "to act").
Survival and influences of Punic
The significantly divergent later form of the language that was spoken in the Tyrian Phoenician colony of Carthage is known as Punic and remained in use there for considerably longer than Phoenician did in Phoenicia itself by arguably surviving into Augustine of Hippo's time. Throughout its existence, Punic co-existed with the Berber languages, which were then native to Tunisia (including Carthage) and North Africa. It is possible that Punic may have survived the Muslim conquest of the Maghreb in some small isolated area: the geographer al-Bakri describes a people speaking a language that was not Berber, Latin or Coptic in the city of Sirte in rural Ifriqiya, a region in which spoken Punic survived well past its written use. However, it is likely that arabization of the Punics was facilitated by their language belonging to the same group (both being Semitic languages) as that of the conquerors and thus having many grammatical and lexical similarities.
The ancient Libyco-Berber alphabet that is still in irregular use by modern Berber groups such as the Tuareg is known by the native name Tifinagh, possibly a derived form of a cognate of the name "Punic". Still, a direct derivation from the Phoenician-Punic script is debated and far from established since the two writing systems are very different. As far as language (not the script) is concerned, some borrowings from Punic appear in modern Berber dialects: one interesting example is agadir "wall" from Punic gader.
Perhaps the most interesting case of Punic influence is that of the name of Hispania (the Iberian Peninsula, comprising Portugal and Spain), which, according to one of the theories, is derived from the Punic I-Shaphan meaning "coast of hyraxes", in turn a misidentification on the part of Phoenician explorers of its numerous rabbits as hyraxes. Another case is the name of a tribe of hostile "hairy people" that Hanno the Navigator found in the Gulf of Guinea. The name given to those people by Hanno the Navigator's interpreters was transmitted from Punic into Greek as gorillai and was applied in 1847 by Thomas S. Savage to the western gorilla.
Surviving examples
Phoenician, together with Punic, is primarily known from approximately 10,000 surviving inscriptions, supplemented by occasional glosses in books written in other languages. In addition to their many inscriptions, the Phoenicians are believed to have left numerous other types of written sources, but most have not survived.
Roman authors, such as Sallust, allude to some books written in the Punic language, but none have survived except occasionally in translation (e.g., Mago's treatise) or in snippets (e.g., in Plautus' plays). The Cippi of Melqart, a bilingual inscription in Ancient Greek and Carthaginian discovered in Malta in 1694, was the key which allowed French scholar Jean-Jacques Barthélemy to decipher and reconstruct the alphabet in 1758. Even as late as 1837 only 70 Phoenician inscriptions were known to scholars. These were compiled in Wilhelm Gesenius's Scripturae linguaeque Phoeniciae monumenta, which comprised all that was known of Phoenician by scholars at that time.
Some key surviving inscriptions of Phoenician are:
Ahiram sarcophagus
Bodashtart inscriptions
Çineköy inscription
Cippi of Melqart
Mdina Steles
Sarcophagus of Eshmunazar II
Karatepe
Kilamuwa Stela
Nora Stone
Pyrgi Tablets
Temple of Eshmun
Since bilingual tablets with inscriptions in both Etruscan and Phoenician dating from around 500 BC were found in 1964, more Etruscan has been deciphered through comparison to the more fully understood Phoenician.
See also
Punic language
Phoenician alphabet
Extinct language
List of extinct languages of Asia
Phoenician-Punic literature
References
Sources
Further reading
Fox, Joshua. "A Sequence of Vowel Shifts in Phoenician and Other Languages." Journal of Near Eastern Studies 55, no. 1 (1996): 37–47. https://www.jstor.org/stable/545378.
Holmstedt, Robert D., and Aaron Schade. Linguistic Studies In Phoenician: In Memory of J. Brian Peckham. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2013.
Krahmalkov, Charles R. A Phoenician-Punic Grammar. Leiden: Brill, 2001.
Schmitz, Philip C. "Phoenician-Punic Grammar and Lexicography in the New Millennium." Journal of the American Oriental Society 124, no. 3 (2004): 533–47.
Segert, S. A Grammar of Phoenician and Punic. München: C.H. Beck, 1976.
Tomback, Richard S. A Comparative Semitic Lexicon of the Phoenician and Punic Languages. Missoula, MT: Scholars Press for the Society of Biblical Literature, 1978.
Tribulato, Olga. Language and Linguistic Contact In Ancient Sicily. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012.
Woodard, Roger D. The Ancient Languages of Syria-Palestine and Arabia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008.
Phoenician inscriptions
Canaanite languages
Extinct languages of Asia
Languages attested from the 11th century BC
Languages extinct in the 5th century BC
Languages with own distinct writing systems
Languages of Sicily
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riley%20Motor
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Riley Motor
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Riley
was a British motorcar and bicycle manufacturer from 1890. Riley became part of the Nuffield Organization in 1938 and was merged into the British Leyland Motor Corporation in 1968. In July 1969 British Leyland announced the immediate end of Riley production, although 1969 was a difficult year for the UK automotive industry and many cars from Riley's inventory may have been first registered in 1970.<ref name=Motor196911>{{cite magazine| first = Harold | last = Hastings| title ='Renowned since '98|magazine=Motor| number = 3515| pages =19–22 |date = 1 November 1969}}</ref>
Today, the Riley trademark is owned by BMW.
Riley Cycle Company
The business began as the Bonnick Cycle Company of Coventry, England. In 1890 during the pedal cycle craze that swept Britain at the end of the 19th century William Riley Jr. who had interests in the textile industry purchased the business and in 1896 incorporated a company to own it named The Riley Cycle Company Limited. Later, cycle gear maker Sturmey Archer was added to the portfolio. Riley's middle son, Percy, left school in the same year and soon began to dabble in automobiles. He built his first car at 16, in 1898, secretly, because his father did not approve. It featured the first mechanically operated inlet valve. By 1899, Percy Riley moved from producing motorcycles to his first prototype four-wheeled quadricycle. Little is known about Percy Riley's first "motor-car". It is, however, well attested that the engine featured mechanically operated cylinder valves at a time when other engines depended on the vacuum effect of the descending piston to suck the inlet valve(s) open. That was demonstrated some years later when Benz developed and patented a mechanically operated inlet valve process of their own but were unable to collect royalties on their system from British companies; the courts were persuaded that the system used by British auto-makers was based on the one pioneered by Percy, which had comfortably anticipated equivalent developments in Germany. In 1900, Riley sold a single three-wheeled automobile. Meanwhile, the elder of the Riley brothers, Victor Riley, although supportive of his brother's embryonic motor-car enterprise, devoted his energies to the core bicycle business.
Riley's founder William Riley remained resolutely opposed to diverting the resources of his bicycle business into motor cars, and in 1902 three of his sons, Victor, Percy and younger brother Allan Riley pooled resources, borrowed a necessary balancing amount from their mother and in 1903 established the separate Riley Engine Company, also in Coventry. A few years later the other two Riley brothers, Stanley and Cecil, having left school joined their elder brothers in the business. At first, the Riley Engine Company simply supplied engines for Riley motorcycles and also to Singer, a newly emerging motorcycle manufacturer in the area, but the Riley Engine Company soon began to focus on four-wheeled automobiles. Their Vee-Twin Tourer prototype, produced in 1905, can be considered the first proper Riley car. The Riley Engine Company expanded the next year. William Riley reversed his former opposition to his sons' preference for motorised vehicles and Riley Cycle halted motorcycle production in 1907 to focus on automobiles. Bicycle production also ceased in 1911.
In 1912, the Riley Cycle Company changed its name to Riley (Coventry) Limited as William Riley focused it on becoming a wire-spoked wheel supplier for the burgeoning motor industry, the detachable wheel having been invented (and patented) by Percy and distributed to over 180 motor manufacturers, and by 1912 the father's business had also dropped automobile manufacture in order to concentrate capacity and resources on the wheels. Exploitation of this new and rapidly expanding lucrative business sector made commercial sense for William Riley, but the abandonment of his motor-bicycle and then of his automobile business which had been the principal customer for his sons' Riley Engine Company enforced a rethink on the engine business.
Riley (Coventry) Limited
In early 1913, Percy was joined by three of his brothers (Victor, Stanley, and Allan) to focus on manufacturing entire automobiles. The works was located near Percy's Riley Engine Company. The first new model, the 17/30, was introduced at the London Motor Show that year. Soon afterwards, Stanley Riley founded yet another business, the Nero Engine Company, to produce his own 4-cylinder 10 hp (7.5 kW) car. Riley also began manufacturing aeroplane engines and became a key supplier in Britain's buildup for World War I.
In 1918, after the war, the Riley companies were restructured. Nero joined Riley (Coventry) as the sole producer of automobiles. Riley Motor Manufacturing under the control of Allan Riley became Midland Motor Bodies, a coachbuilder for Riley. Riley Engine Company continued under Percy as the engine supplier. At this time, Riley's blue diamond badge, designed by Harry Rush, also appeared. The motto was "As old as the industry, as modern as the hour."
Riley grew rapidly through the 1920s and 1930s. The Riley Engine Company produced 4-, 6-, and 8-cylinder engines, while Midland built more than a dozen different bodies. Riley models at this time included:
Saloons: Adelphi, 'Continental'(Close-coupled Touring Saloon), Deauville, Falcon, Kestrel, Mentone, Merlin, Monaco, Stelvio, Victor
Coupes: Ascot, Lincock
Tourers: Alpine, Lynx, Gamecock
Sports: Brooklands, Imp, MPH, Sprite
Limousines: Edinburgh, Winchester
Introduced in 1926 in a humble but innovatively designed fabric bodied saloon, Percy Riley's ground-breaking Riley 9 engine- a small capacity, high revving unit- was ahead of its time in many respects. Having hemispherical combustion chambers and inclined overhead valves, it has been called the most significant engine development of the 1920s. With twin camshafts set high in the cylinder block and valves operated by short pushrods, it provided power and efficiency without the servicing complexity of an OHC (overhead camshaft) layout. It soon attracted the attention of tuners and builders of 'specials' intended for sporting purposes. One such was engineer/driver J.G. Parry-Thomas, who conceived the Riley 'Brooklands' (initially called the '9' Speed Model) in his workshops at the banked Surrey circuit. After Parry-Thomas was killed during a land speed record attempt in 1927, his close collaborator Reid Railton stepped in to finish the job. Officially backed by Riley, the Brooklands, along with later developments and variations such as the 'Ulster' Imp, MPH, and Sprite, proved some of the most successful works and privateer racing cars of the late 1920s and early 1930s. At Le Mans in 1934, Rileys finished 2nd, 3rd, 5th, 6th, and 12th, winning the Rudge-Whitworth Cup, the Team Prize, two class awards, and the Ladies' Prize. Rileys also distinguished themselves at the Ulster TT, at Brooklands itself, and at smaller events like hill climbs, while providing a platform for the success of motorsports' first women racing drivers such as Kay Petre, Dorothy Champney and Joan Richmond.Collection Explorer, National Museum of Australia- Joan Richmond collectionsearch.nma.gov.au, accessed 11 July 2019 Another engineer/driver, Freddie Dixon, was responsible for extensive improvements to engine and chassis tuning, creating a number of 'specials' that exploited the basic Riley design still further, and contributed greatly to its success on the track.
For series production, the engine configuration was extended into a larger 12 horsepower '4', six-cylinder and even V8 versions, powering an increasingly bewildering range of touring and sports cars. The soundness and longevity of the engine design is illustrated by Mike Hawthorn's early racing success after WW2 in pre-war Rileys, in particular his father's Sprite. By about 1936, however, the business had overextended, with too many models and few common parts, and the emergence of Jaguar at Coventry was a direct challenge. Disagreements between the Riley brothers about the future direction of the enterprise grew. Victor Riley had set up a new ultra-luxury concern, Autovia, to produce a V8 saloon and limousine to compete with Rolls-Royce. By contrast, Percy, however, did not favour an entry into the luxury market, and the Riley Engine Company had been renamed PR Motors to be a high-volume supplier of engines and components. Although the rest of the Riley companies would go on to become part of Nuffield and then BMC, PR Motors remained independent. After the death of Percy Riley in 1941, his business began producing transmission components and still exists today, producing marine and off-highway vehicle applications, as PRM Newage Limited based in Aldermans Green, Coventry. Percy's widow Norah ran his business for many years and was Britain's businesswoman of the year in 1960.
Nuffield Organization
By 1937, Riley began to look to other manufacturers for partnerships. A contract with Briggs Motor Bodies of Dagenham to provide all-steel bodies for a cheaper, more mass-market saloon had already turned sour, with dozens of unsold bodies littering the factory. It had withdrawn from works racing after its most successful year, 1934, although it continued to supply engines for the ERA, a voiturette (Formula 2) racing car based on the supercharged 6-cylinder 'White Riley', developed by ERA founder Raymond Mays in the mid-thirties. BMW of Munich, Germany was interested in expanding its range into England. But the Riley brothers were more interested in a larger British concern, and looked to Triumph Motor Company, also of Coventry, as a natural fit. In February 1938, all negotiations were suspended. On 24 February the directors placed Riley (Coventry) Limited and Autovia in voluntary receivership. On 10 March the Triumph board announced merger negotiations had been dropped.
It was announced on 9 September 1938 that the assets and goodwill of Riley Motors (Coventry) Limited had been purchased from the receiver by Lord Nuffield and he would on completion transfer ownership to Morris Motors Limited "on terms which will show very considerable financial advantage to the company, resulting in further consolidation of its financial position". Mr Victor Riley then said this did not mean that the company would cease its activities. On 30 September Victor Riley announced that Riley (Coventry) Limited would be wound up but it would appear that the proceeds of liquidation would be insufficient to meet the amount due to debenture holders.Riley Motors Limited, Company no. 00344156 was incorporated 8 September 1938—and changed its name in 1994 to BLMC Engineering Limited. Curiously the name Riley (Coventry) Limited continued to be used in all Nuffield group advertising until 1946 as if the original company had not been liquidated but continued to survive.Riley Motors Limited was used in all advertising between 1950 and July 1960 Nuffield paid £143,000 for the business and a new company was formed, Riley Motors Limited. However, in spite of the announced intention to wind-up Riley (Coventry) Limited, perhaps for tax reasons, continued under the management of Victor Riley presumably with the necessary consents of debenture holders (part paid) creditors (nothing) and former shareholders (nothing). Nuffield passed ownership to his Morris Motors Limited for £100. Along with other Morris Motors subsidiaries Wolseley and MG, Riley would later be promoted as a member of the Nuffield Organization. Riley Motors Limited seems to have begun trading at the end of the 1940s when Riley (Coventry) Limited disappeared..
Nuffield took quick measures to firm up the Riley business. Autovia was no more, with just 35 cars having been produced. Riley refocused on the 4-cylinder market with two engines: A 1.5-litre 12 hp engine and the "Big Four", a 2.5-litre 16 hp unit (The hp figures are RAC Rating, and bear no relationship to bhp or kW). Only a few bodies were produced prior to the onset of war in 1939, and some components were shared with Morris for economies of scale. Though they incorporated a number of mechanical improvements- notably a Nuffield synchromesh gearbox- they were essentially interim models, suffering a loss of Riley character in the process. The new management responded to the concerns of the marque's loyal adherents by re-introducing the Kestrel 2.5 litre Sports Saloon in updated form, but as the factory was turned over to wartime production this was a short-lived development.
After World War II, Riley took up the old engines in new models, based in concept on the 1936-8 'Continental', a fashionable 'notchback' design whose name had been changed prior to release to 'Close-Coupled Touring Saloon' owing to feared objections from Rolls-Royce. The RMA used the 1.5-litre engine, while the RMB got the Big Four. Both engines, being derived from pre-war models, lent themselves as power units for specials and new specialist manufacturers, such as Donald Healey.The RM line of vehicles, sold under the "Magnificent Motoring" tag line, were to be a re-affirmation of Riley values in both road behaviour and appearance. 'Torsionic' front independent suspension and steering design inspired by the Citroën Traction Avant provided precise handling; their flowing lines were particularly well-balanced, marrying pre-war 'coachbuilt' elegance to more modern features, such as headlamps faired into the front wings. The RMC, a 3-seater roadster was an unsuccessful attempt to break into the American market, while the RMD was an elegant 4/5-seater two-door drophead, of which again few were made. The 1.5-litre RME and 2.5-litre RMF were later developments of the saloon versions, which continued in production into the mid-fifties.
Victor Riley was removed by Nuffield in 1947. In early 1949 the Coventry works were made an extension of Morris Motors' engine branch. Riley production was consolidated with MG at Abingdon. Wolseley production was moved to Cowley. Nuffield's marques were then organised in a similar way to those of General Motors: Morris was the value line, and Wolseley the luxury marque. Aside from their small saloons MG largely offered spartan performance, especially with their open sports cars, while Riley sought to be both sporty and luxurious. With Wolseley also fighting for the top position, however, the range was crowded and confused.
British Motor Corporation
The confusion became critical in 1952 with the merger of Nuffield and Austin as the British Motor Corporation. Now, Riley was positioned between MG and Wolseley and most Riley models would become, like those, little more than badge-engineered versions of Austin/Morris designs.
The first all-new Riley under BMC, however, was designated the RMH, and because of its distinctive engine and suspension design, has been called 'the last real Riley'. This was the Pathfinder, with Riley's familiar 2.5-litre four developed to produce 110 bhp. (The RMG 'Wayfarer', a projected 1.5-litre version, was rejected as underpowered). The Pathfinder body was later reworked and, with a different engine and rear suspension, sold as the Wolseley 6/90. The Riley lost its distinct (though externally subtle) differences in 1958, and the 6/90 of that year was available badge engineered as a Riley Two-Point-Six. Although this was the only postwar 6-cylinder Riley, its C-Series engine was actually less powerful than the Riley Big Four that it replaced. This was to be the last large Riley, with the model dropped in May 1959 and Riley refocusing on the under-2-litre segment.
Riley and Wolseley were linked in small cars as well. Launched in 1957, the Riley One-Point-Five and Wolseley 1500 were based on the unused but intended replacement for the Morris Minor. They shared their exteriors, but the Riley was marketed as the more performance-oriented option, having an uprated engine, twin S.U. carburetters and a close-ratio gearbox. With its good handling, compact, sports-saloon styling and well-appointed interior, the One-Point-Five quite successfully recaptured the character of the 1930s light saloons.
At the top of the Riley line for April 1959 was the new Riley 4/Sixty-Eight saloon. Again, it was merely a badge-engineered version of other BMC models. The steering was perhaps the worst feature of the car, being Austin-derived cam and peg rather than the rack and pinion of the One-Point-Five. Overall, it could not provide the sharp and positive drive associated with previous Rileys, being based on the humble Austin Cambridge and Morris Oxford. Sharing many features with the similarly upmarket MG Magnette Mark III and Wolseley 15/60, it was the most luxurious of the versions, which were all comfortable and spacious, and (nominally) styled by Farina. The car was refreshed, along with its siblings, in 1961 and rebadged the 4/Seventy-Two.
1961 saw the introduction of the Riley Elf based on the original Mini. Again, a Wolseley model (the Hornet) was introduced simultaneously. This time, the Riley and Wolseley versions were differentiated visually by their grilles but identical mechanically.
The final model of the BMC era was the Kestrel 1100/1300, based on the Austin/Morris 1100/1300 saloon (BMC ADO16). This also had stablemates in Wolseley and MG versions. Following objections from diehard Riley enthusiasts, the Kestrel name was dropped for the last facelift in 1968, the Riley 1300.
Between 1966 and 1968, a series of mergers took place in the British motor industry, ultimately creating the British Leyland Motor Corporation, whose management embarked on a programme of rationalisation—in which the Riley marque was an early casualty. The badge began to be discontinued in many export markets almost immediately. A BLMC press release was reported in The Times of 9 July 1969: "British Leyland will stop making Riley cars from today. "With less than 1 per cent of the home market, they are not viable" the company said last night. The decision will end 60 years of motoring history. No other marques in the British Leyland stable are likely to suffer the same fate "in the foreseeable future".
In spite of the decline of the marque under BMC, surviving well-preserved examples of the period are now considered desirable classics, the Riley 'face' and badge lending a distinctive character. The needs of enthusiasts are met by the Riley Motor Club, the original factory Club founded in 1925.
The future
Riley production ended with the 1960s, and the marque became dormant. The last Riley badged car was produced in 1969. For many enthusiasts, however, the name of Riley still has resonance into the 21st century. Many of the original racing Rileys compete regularly in VSCC (Vintage Sports Car Club) events, and pre-war racing 'specials' continue to be created (controversially) from tired or derelict saloons. For a short while, following BMW's purchase of the Rover Group in 1994, there were hopes that Riley might be revived, since the then Chairman Bernd Pischetsrieder was an enthusiast for many of the defunct British marques. After Pischetsrieder's removal in 1999, and BMW's divestment of the MG Rover Group in 2000, however, these hopes faded; though the rights to the Triumph and Riley marques, along with Mini were retained by BMW.
In 2007, William Riley, who claims to be a descendant of the Riley family, although this has been disputed, formed MG Sports and Racing Europe Ltd. This new business acquired assets relating to the MG XPower SV sportscar from PricewaterhouseCoopers, the administrators of the defunct MG Rover Group, and intended to continue production of the model as the MG XPower WR.
In September 2010 the motor magazine 'Autocar' reported that BMW were considering the revival of the Riley brand in the form of a variant of the redesigned MINI. This would most likely be a luxury version taking its cues from the 'Elf' of 1961–9, with a 'notchback' (booted) body, and the interior trimmed in wood and leather in the manner of earlier Rileys. No sources were quoted, however, and in the absence of any statement from BMW reports of the possible resurrection of Riley must be regarded as highly speculative. Autocar'' reiterated this information in April 2016.
List of Riley vehicles
Pre-World War I
1907–1911 Riley 9
1907–1907 Riley 12
1909–1914 Riley 10
1908–1914 Riley 12/18
1915–1916 Riley 10
Inter-war years
1913–1922 Riley 17/30
1919–1924 Riley Eleven
1925–1928 Riley Twelve
1926–1937 Riley Nine
1929–1934 Riley 14/6
1933–1935 Riley 12/6
1935–1935 Riley 12/4
1935–1938 Riley 15/6
1935–1938 Riley 1½-litre
1936–1938 Riley 8/90 V8
1937–1940 Riley 16
1938–1938 Riley Victor
1939–1940 Riley 12 Nuffield body
Notable bodies
1927–1931 Riley Brooklands Nine
1934–1935 Riley Imp Nine
1934–1935 Riley MPH 12/6 14/6 or 15/6
1936–1938 Riley Sprite 12/4 1½ litre
Post-war
Roadster
1948–1951 RMC
1949–1951 RMD
Mid-sized
1945–1952 RMA
1952–1955 RME
1957–1965 One-Point-Five (Wolseley 1500)
1959–1961 4/Sixty-Eight (Wolseley 15/60)
1961–1969 4/Seventy-Two (Wolseley 16/60)
Large
1946–1952 RMB
1952–1953 RMF
1953–1957 Pathfinder
1958–1959 Two-Point-Six (Wolseley 6/90)
Mini
1961–1969 Riley Elf (Mini variant)
Compact
1965–1969 Riley Kestrel (variant of the Austin/Morris 1100/1300)
See also
List of car manufacturers of the United Kingdom
1936 Benalla Centenary Race
Notes
References
External links
Brochures (incomplete)
1930 Riley Nine
1937 Riley Motors
Riley 12-18 tourer 1909
The Riley RM Club – The Club for the Preservation of all Rileys from 1945-1957
Riley Motor Club 'The Club for all Rileys'
The 1100 Club based in the UK
Austin and Longbridge All about the history of Longbridge and models produced
Coventry motor companies
Defunct cycle manufacturers of the United Kingdom
Defunct motor vehicle manufacturers of England
Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1890
Manufacturing companies disestablished in 1938
1890 establishments in England
1938 disestablishments in England
British Leyland
BMW
Luxury motor vehicle manufacturers
1938 mergers and acquisitions
British companies disestablished in 1938
British companies established in 1890
Sports car manufacturers
Car brands
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-eclampsia
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Pre-eclampsia
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Pre-eclampsia is a multi-system disorder specific to pregnancy, characterized by the onset of high blood pressure and often a significant amount of protein in the urine. When it arises, the condition begins after 20 weeks of pregnancy. In severe cases of the disease there may be red blood cell breakdown, a low blood platelet count, impaired liver function, kidney dysfunction, swelling, shortness of breath due to fluid in the lungs, or visual disturbances. Pre-eclampsia increases the risk of undesirable as well as lethal outcomes for both the mother and the fetus including preterm labor. If left untreated, it may result in seizures at which point it is known as eclampsia.
Risk factors for pre-eclampsia include obesity, prior hypertension, older age, and diabetes mellitus. It is also more frequent in a woman's first pregnancy and if she is carrying twins. The underlying mechanisms are complex and involve abnormal formation of blood vessels in the placenta amongst other factors. Most cases are diagnosed before delivery, and may be categorized depending on the gestational week at delivery. Commonly, pre-eclampsia continues into the period after delivery, then known as postpartum pre-eclampsia. Rarely, pre-eclampsia may begin in the period after delivery. While historically both high blood pressure and protein in the urine were required to make the diagnosis, some definitions also include those with hypertension and any associated organ dysfunction. Blood pressure is defined as high when it is greater than 140 mmHg systolic or 90 mmHg diastolic at two separate times, more than four hours apart in a woman after twenty weeks of pregnancy. Pre-eclampsia is routinely screened during prenatal care.
Recommendations for prevention include: aspirin in those at high risk, calcium supplementation in areas with low intake, and treatment of prior hypertension with medications. In those with pre-eclampsia, delivery of the baby and placenta is an effective treatment but full recovery can take days or weeks. When delivery becomes recommended depends on how severe the pre-eclampsia and how far along in pregnancy a woman is. Blood pressure medication, such as labetalol and methyldopa, may be used to improve the mother's condition before delivery. Magnesium sulfate may be used to prevent eclampsia in those with severe disease. Bed rest and salt intake have not been found to be useful for either treatment or prevention.
Pre-eclampsia affects 2–8% of pregnancies worldwide. Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy (which include pre-eclampsia) are one of the most common causes of death due to pregnancy. They resulted in 46,900 deaths in 2015. Pre-eclampsia usually occurs after 32 weeks; however, if it occurs earlier it is associated with worse outcomes. Women who have had pre-eclampsia are at increased risk of high blood pressure, heart disease and stroke later in life. Further, those with pre-eclampsia may have a lower risk of breast cancer.
Etymology
The word "eclampsia" is from the Greek term for lightning. The first known description of the condition was by Hippocrates in the 5th century BC.
Signs and symptoms
Edema (especially in the hands and face) was originally considered an important sign for a diagnosis of pre-eclampsia. However, because edema is a common occurrence in pregnancy, its utility as a distinguishing factor in pre-eclampsia is not high. Pitting edema (unusual swelling, particularly of the hands, feet, or face, notable by leaving an indentation when pressed on) can be significant, and should be reported to a health care provider.
Further, a symptom such as epigastric pain may be misinterpreted as heartburn. Common features of pre-eclampsia which are screened for during pre-natal visits include elevated blood pressure and excess protein in the urine. Additionally, some women may develop severe headache as a sign of pre-eclampsia. In general, none of the signs of pre-eclampsia are specific, and even convulsions in pregnancy are more likely to have causes other than eclampsia in modern practice. Diagnosis depends on finding a coincidence of several pre-eclamptic features, the final proof being their regression within the days and weeks after delivery.
Causes
There is no definitive known cause of pre-eclampsia, though it is likely related to a number of factors. Some of these factors include:
Abnormal placentation (formation and development of the placenta)
Immunologic factors
Prior or existing maternal pathology—pre-eclampsia is seen more at a higher incidence in individuals with pre-existing hypertension, obesity, or antiphospholipid antibody syndrome or those with a history of pre-eclampsia
Dietary factors, e.g. calcium supplementation in areas where dietary calcium intake is low has been shown to reduce the risk of pre-eclampsia
Environmental factors, e.g. air pollution
Those with long term high blood pressure have a risk 7 to 8 times higher than those without.
Physiologically, research has linked pre-eclampsia to the following physiologic changes: alterations in the interaction between the maternal immune response and the placenta, placental injury, endothelial cell injury, altered vascular reactivity, oxidative stress, imbalance among vasoactive substances, decreased intravascular volume, and disseminated intravascular coagulation.
While the exact cause of pre-eclampsia remains unclear, there is strong evidence that a major cause predisposing a susceptible woman to pre-eclampsia is an abnormally implanted placenta. This abnormally implanted placenta may result in poor uterine and placental perfusion, yielding a state of hypoxia and increased oxidative stress and the release of anti-angiogenic proteins along with inflammatory mediators into the maternal plasma. A major consequence of this sequence of events is generalized endothelial dysfunction. The abnormal implantation may stem from the maternal immune system's response to the placenta, specifically a lack of established immunological tolerance in pregnancy. Endothelial dysfunction results in hypertension and many of the other symptoms and complications associated with pre-eclampsia. When pre-eclampsia develops in the last weeks of pregnancy or in a multiple pregnancy, the causation may in some cases, partly be due to a large placenta outgrowing the capacity of the uterus, eventually leading to the symptoms of pre-eclampsia.
Abnormal chromosome 19 microRNA cluster (C19MC) impairs extravillus trophoblast cell invasion to the spiral arteries, causing high resistance, low blood flow, and low nutrient supply to the fetus.
Genetic factors
Despite a lack of knowledge on specific causal mechanisms of pre-eclampsia, there is strong evidence to suggest it results from both environmental and heritable factors. A 2005 study showed that women with a first-degree relative who had a pre-eclamptic birth are twice as likely to develop it themselves. Furthermore, men related to someone with affected birth have an increased risk of fathering a pre-eclamptic pregnancy. Fetuses affected by pre-eclampsia have a higher chance of later pregnancy complications including growth restriction, prematurity, and stillbirth.
The onset of pre-eclampsia is thought to be caused by several complex interactions between genetics and environmental factors. Our current understanding of the specifically heritable cause involves an imbalance of angiogenic factors in the placenta. Angiogenesis involves the growth of new blood vessels from existing vessels, and an imbalance during pregnancy can affect the vascularization, growth, and biological function of the fetus. The irregular expression of these factors is thought to be controlled by multiple loci on different chromosomes. Research on the topic has been limited because of the heterogeneous nature of the disease. Maternal, paternal, and fetal genotypes all play a role as well as complex epigenetic factors such as whether the parents smoke, maternal age, sexual cohabitation, and obesity. Currently, there is very little understanding behind the mechanisms of these interactions. Due to the polygenic nature of pre-eclampsia, a majority of the studies that have been conducted thus far on the topic have utilized genome-wide association studies.
One known effector of pre-eclampsia is the fetal loci FLT1. Located on chromosome 13 in the q12 region, FLT1 codes for Fms-like tyrosine kinase 1, an angiogenic factor expressed in fetal trophoblasts. Angiogenic factors are crucial for vascular growth in the placenta. An FLT1 soluble isoform caused by a splice variant is sFLT1, which works as an antiangiogenic factor, reducing vascular growth in the placenta. A healthy, normotensive pregnancy is characterized by a balance between these factors. However, upregulation of this variant and overexpression of sFL1 can contribute to endothelial dysfunction. Reduced vascular growth and endothelial dysfunction manifest primarily in maternal symptoms such as renal failure, edema, and seizures. However, these factors can also lead to inadequate oxygen, nutrient, or blood supply to the fetus. Furthermore, in this loci region, several single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) have been observed to impact the overexpression of sFL1. Specifically, SNPs rs12050029 and rs4769613's risk alleles are linked with low red blood cell counts and carry an increased risk of late-onset pre-eclampsia.
Patau syndrome, or Trisomy 13, is also associated with the upregulation of sFLT1 due to the extra copy of the 13th chromosome. Because of this upregulation of an antiangiogenic factor, women with trisomy 13 pregnancies often experience reduced placental vascularization and are at higher risk for developing pre-eclampsia.
Beyond fetal loci, there have been some maternal loci identified as effectors of pre-eclampsia. Alpha-ketoglutarate-dependent hydroxylase expression on chromosome 16 in the q12 region is also associated with pre-eclampsia. Specifically, allele rs1421085 heightens the risk of not just pre-eclampsia but also an increase in BMI and hypertension. This pleiotropy is one of the reasons why these traits are considered to be a risk factor. Furthermore, ZNF831 (zinc finger protein 831) and its loci on chromosome 20q13 were identified as another significant factor in pre-eclampsia. The risk allele rs259983 is also associated with both pre-eclampsia and hypertension, further evidence that the two traits are possibly linked.
While the current understanding suggests that maternal alleles are the main hereditary cause of pre-eclampsia, paternal loci have also been implicated. In one study, paternal DLX5 (Distal-Less Homeobox 5) was identified as an imprinted gene. Located on chromosome 7 in the q21 region, DLX5 serves as a transcription factor often linked with the developmental growth of organs. When paternally inherited, DLX5 and its SNP rs73708843 are shown to play a role in trophoblast proliferation, affecting vascular growth and nutrient delivery.
Besides specific loci, several important genetic regulatory factors contribute to the development of pre-eclampsia. Micro RNAs, or miRNAs, are noncoding mRNAs that down-regulate posttranscriptional gene expression through RNA-induced silencing complexes. In the placenta, miRNAs are crucial for regulating cell growth, angiogenesis, cell proliferation, and metabolism. These placental-specific miRNAs are clustered in large groups, mainly on chromosomes 14 and 19, and irregular expression of either is associated with an increased risk of an affected pregnancy. For instance, miR-16 and miR-29 are vascular endothelial growth factors (VEGFs) and play a role in upregulating sFLT-1. In particular, the overexpression of miRNA miR-210 has been shown to induce hypoxia, which affects spiral artery remodeling, an important part of the pathogenesis of pre-eclampsia.
Risk factors
Known risk factors for pre-eclampsia include:
Having never previously given birth
Diabetes mellitus
Obesity
Advanced maternal age (>35 years)
Kidney disease
Untreated hypertension
Prior history of pre-eclampsia
Family history of pre-eclampsia
Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome
Multiple gestation
Having donated a kidney
Having sub-clinical hypothyroidism or thyroid antibodies
Placental abnormalities such as placental ischemia
Socioeconomics play a large role in the prevalence of these risk factors, and, like other processes, each risk factor plays a role in the likelihood of increased consequences (morbidity) to, and the complexity of care for, the hospitalized patient
Pathogenesis
Although much research into mechanism of pre-eclampsia has taken place, its exact pathogenesis remains uncertain. Pre-eclampsia is thought to result from an abnormal placenta, the removal of which ends the disease in most cases. During normal pregnancy, the placenta vascularizes to allow for the exchange of water, gases, and solutes, including nutrients and wastes, between maternal and fetal circulations. Abnormal development of the placenta leads to poor placental perfusion. The placenta of women with pre-eclampsia is abnormal and characterized by poor trophoblastic invasion. It is thought that this results in oxidative stress, hypoxia, and the release of factors that promote endothelial dysfunction, inflammation, and other possible reactions.
The clinical manifestations of pre-eclampsia are associated with general endothelial dysfunction, including vasoconstriction and end-organ ischemia. Implicit in this generalized endothelial dysfunction may be an imbalance of angiogenic and anti-angiogenic factors. Both circulating and placental levels of soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase-1 (sFlt-1) are higher in women with pre-eclampsia than in women with normal pregnancy. sFlt-1 is an anti-angiogenic protein that antagonizes vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and placental growth factor (PIGF), both of which are proangiogenic factors. Soluble endoglin (sEng) has also been shown to be elevated in women with pre-eclampsia and has anti-angiogenic properties, much like sFlt-1 does.
Both sFlt-1 and sEng are upregulated in all pregnant women to some extent, supporting the idea that hypertensive disease in pregnancy is a normal pregnancy adaptation gone awry. As natural killer cells are intimately involved in placentation and placentation involves a degree of maternal immune tolerance for a foreign placenta, it is not surprising that the maternal immune system might respond more negatively to the arrival of some placentae under certain circumstances, such as a placenta which is more invasive than normal. Initial maternal rejection of the placental cytotrophoblasts may be the cause of the inadequately remodeled spiral arteries in those cases of pre-eclampsia associated with shallow implantation, leading to downstream hypoxia and the appearance of maternal symptoms in response to upregulated sFlt-1 and sEng.
Oxidative stress may also play an important part in the pathogenesis of pre-eclampsia. The main source of reactive oxygen species (ROS) is the enzyme xanthine oxidase (XO) and this enzyme mainly occurs in the liver. One hypothesis is that the increased purine catabolism from placental hypoxia results in increased ROS production in the maternal liver and release into the maternal circulation that causes endothelial cell damage.
Abnormalities in the maternal immune system and insufficiency of gestational immune tolerance seem to play major roles in pre-eclampsia. One of the main differences found in pre-eclampsia is a shift toward Th1 responses and the production of IFN-γ. The origin of IFN-γ is not clearly identified and could be the natural killer cells of the uterus, the placental dendritic cells modulating responses of T helper cells, alterations in synthesis of or response to regulatory molecules, or changes in the function of regulatory T cells in pregnancy. Aberrant immune responses promoting pre-eclampsia may also be due to an altered fetal allorecognition or to inflammatory triggers. It has been documented that fetal cells such as fetal erythroblasts as well as cell-free fetal DNA are increased in the maternal circulation in women who develop pre-eclampsia. These findings have given rise to the hypothesis that pre-eclampsia is a disease process by which a placental lesion such as hypoxia allows increased fetal material into the maternal circulation, that in turn leads to an immune response and endothelial damage, and that ultimately results in pre-eclampsia and eclampsia.
One hypothesis for vulnerability to pre-eclampsia is the maternal-fetal conflict between the maternal organism and fetus. After the first trimester trophoblasts enter the spiral arteries of the mother to alter the spiral arteries and thereby gain more access to maternal nutrients. Occasionally there is impaired trophoblast invasion that results in inadequate alterations to the uterine spiral arteries. It is hypothesized that the developing embryo releases biochemical signals that result in the woman developing hypertension and pre-eclampsia so that the fetus can benefit from a greater amount of maternal circulation of nutrients due to increased blood flow to the impaired placenta. This results in a conflict between maternal and fetal fitness and survival because the fetus is invested in only its survival and fitness while the mother is invested in this and subsequent pregnancies.
Another evolutionary hypothesis for vulnerability to pre-eclampsia is the idea of ensuring pair-bonding between the mother and father and paternal investment in the fetus. Researchers posit that pre-eclampsia is an adaptation for the mother to terminate investment in a fetus that might have an unavailable father, as determined by repeated semen exposure of the father to the mother. Various studies have shown that women who frequently had exposure to partners' semen before conception had a reduced risk of pre-eclampsia. Also, subsequent pregnancies by the same father had a reduced risk of pre-eclampsia while subsequent pregnancies by a different father had a higher risk of developing pre-eclampsia.
In normal early embryonic development, the outer epithelial layer contains cytotrophoblast cells, a stem cell type found in the trophoblast that later differentiates into the fetal placenta. These cells differentiate into many placental cells types, including extravillous trophoblast cells. Extravillous trophoblast cells are an invasive cell type which remodel the maternal spiral arteries by replacing the maternal epithelium and smooth muscle lining the spiral arteries causing artery dilation. This prevents maternal vasoconstriction in the spiral arteries and allows for continued blood and nutrient supply to the growing fetus with low resistance and high blood flow.
In pre-eclampsia, abnormal expression of chromosome 19 microRNA cluster (C19MC) in placental cell lines reduces extravillus trophoblast migration. Specific microRNAs in this cluster which might cause abnormal spiral artery invasion include miR-520h, miR-520b, and 520c-3p. This impairs extravillus trophoblast cells invasion to the maternal spiral arteries, causing high resistance and low blood flow and low nutrient supply to the fetus. There is tentative evidence that vitamin supplementation can decrease the risk.
Immune factors may also play a role.
Diagnosis
Testing for pre-eclampsia is recommended throughout pregnancy via measuring a woman's blood pressure.
Diagnostic criteria
Pre-eclampsia is diagnosed when a pregnant woman develops:
Blood pressure ≥140 mmHg systolic or ≥90 mmHg diastolic on two separate readings taken at least four to six hours apart after 20 weeks' gestation in an individual with previously normal blood pressure.
In a woman with essential hypertension beginning before 20 weeks' gestational age, the diagnostic criteria are an increase in systolic blood pressure (SBP) of ≥30 mmHg or an increase in diastolic blood pressure (DBP) of ≥15 mmHg.
Proteinuria ≥ or more of protein in a 24-hour urine sample or a SPOT urinary protein to creatinine ratio ≥0.3 or a urine dipstick reading of 1+ or greater (dipstick reading should only be used if other quantitative methods are not available).
Suspicion for pre-eclampsia should be maintained in any pregnancy complicated by elevated blood pressure, even in the absence of proteinuria. Ten percent of individuals with other signs and symptoms of pre-eclampsia and 20% of individuals diagnosed with eclampsia show no evidence of proteinuria. In the absence of proteinuria, the presence of new-onset hypertension (elevated blood pressure) and the new onset of one or more of the following is suggestive of the diagnosis of pre-eclampsia:
Evidence of kidney dysfunction (oliguria, elevated creatinine levels)
Impaired liver function (noted by liver function tests)
Thrombocytopenia (platelet count <100,000/microliter)
Pulmonary edema
Ankle edema (pitting type)
Cerebral or visual disturbances
Pre-eclampsia is a progressive disorder and these signs of organ dysfunction are indicative of severe pre-eclampsia. A systolic blood pressure ≥160 or diastolic blood pressure ≥110 and/or proteinuria >5g in a 24-hour period is also indicative of severe pre-eclampsia. Clinically, individuals with severe pre-eclampsia may also present epigastric/right upper quadrant abdominal pain, headaches, and vomiting. Severe pre-eclampsia is a significant risk factor for intrauterine fetal death.
A rise in baseline blood pressure (BP) of 30 mmHg systolic or 15 mmHg diastolic, while not meeting the absolute criteria of 140/90, is important to note but is not considered diagnostic.
Predictive tests
There have been many assessments of tests aimed at predicting pre-eclampsia, though no single biomarker is likely to be sufficiently predictive of the disorder. Predictive tests that have been assessed include those related to placental perfusion, vascular resistance, kidney dysfunction, endothelial dysfunction, and oxidative stress. Examples of notable tests include:
Doppler ultrasonography of the uterine arteries to investigate for signs of inadequate placental perfusion. This test has a high negative predictive value among those individuals with a history of prior pre-eclampsia.
Elevations in serum uric acid (hyperuricemia) is used by some to "define" pre-eclampsia, though it has been found to be a poor predictor of the disorder. Elevated levels in the blood (hyperuricemia) are likely due to reduced uric acid clearance secondary to impaired kidney function.
Angiogenic proteins such as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and placental growth factor (PIGF) and anti-angiogenic proteins such as soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase-1 (sFlt-1) have shown promise for potential clinical use in diagnosing pre-eclampsia, though evidence is insufficient to recommend a clinical use for these markers.
A recent study, ASPRE, known to be the largest multi-country prospective trial, has reported a significant performance in identifying pregnant women at high risk of pre-eclampsia yet during the first trimester of pregnancy. Utilizing a combination of maternal history, mean arterial blood pressure, intrauterine Doppler and PlGF measurement, the study has shown a capacity to identify more than 75% of the women that will develop pre-eclampsia, allowing early intervention to prevent development of later symptoms. This approach is now officially recommended by the International Federation of Gynecologists & Obstetricians (FIGO), However this model particularly predict pre-eclampsia with onset before 34 weeks' of gestation, while prediction of pre-eclampsia with later onset remains challenging.
Recent studies have shown that looking for podocytes (specialized cells of the kidney) in the urine has the potential to aid in the prediction of pre-eclampsia. Studies have demonstrated that finding podocytes in the urine may serve as an early marker of and diagnostic test for pre-eclampsia.
Differential diagnosis
Pre-eclampsia can mimic and be confused with many other diseases, including chronic hypertension, chronic renal disease, primary seizure disorders, gallbladder and pancreatic disease, immune or thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura, antiphospholipid syndrome and hemolytic-uremic syndrome. It must be considered a possibility in any pregnant woman beyond 20 weeks of gestation. It is particularly difficult to diagnose when pre-existing conditions such as hypertension are present. Women with acute fatty liver of pregnancy may also present with elevated blood pressure and protein in the urine, but differ by the extent of liver damage. Other disorders that can cause high blood pressure include thyrotoxicosis, pheochromocytoma, and drug misuse.
Prevention
Preventive measures against pre-eclampsia have been heavily studied. Because the pathogenesis of pre-eclampsia is not completely understood, prevention remains a complex issue. Some currently accepted recommendations are:
Diet
Supplementation with a balanced protein and energy diet does not appear to reduce the risk of pre-eclampsia. Further, there is no evidence that changing salt intake has an effect.
Supplementation with antioxidants such as vitamin C, D and E has no effect on pre-eclampsia incidence; therefore, supplementation with vitamins C, E, and D is not recommended for reducing the risk of pre-eclampsia.
Calcium supplementation of at least 1 gram per day is recommended during pregnancy as it prevents pre-eclampsia where dietary calcium intake is low, especially for those at high risk. Higher selenium level is associated with lower incidence of pre-eclampsia. Higher cadmium level is associated with higher incidence of pre-eclampsia.
Aspirin
Taking aspirin is associated with a 1 to 5% reduction in pre-eclampsia and a 1 to 5% reduction in premature births in women at high risk. The World Health Organization recommends low-dose aspirin for the prevention of pre-eclampsia in women at high risk and recommends it be started before 20 weeks of pregnancy. The United States Preventive Services Task Force recommends a low-dose regimen for women at high risk beginning in the 12th week. Benefits are less if started after 16 weeks. Since 2018 the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists has recommended low-dose aspirin therapy as standard preventive treatment for pre-eclampsia. There is a reported problem of its efficacy when combined with paracetamol. Supplementation of aspirin with L-Arginine has shown favourable results.
The study ASPRE, besides its efficacy in identifying women suspected to develop pre-eclampsia, has also been able to demonstrate a strong drop in the rate of early pre-eclampsia (-82%) and preterm pre-eclampsia (-62%). The efficacy of aspirin is due to screening to identify high risk women, adjusted prophylaxis dosage (150 mg/day), timing of the intake (bedtime) and must start before week 16 of pregnancy.
Physical activity
There is insufficient evidence to recommend either exercise or strict bedrest as preventive measures of pre-eclampsia.
Smoking cessation
In low-risk pregnancies, the association between cigarette smoking and a reduced risk of pre-eclampsia has been consistent and reproducible across epidemiologic studies. High-risk pregnancies (those with pregestational diabetes, chronic hypertension, history of pre-eclampsia in a previous pregnancy, or multifetal gestation) showed no significant protective effect. The reason for this discrepancy is not definitively known; research supports speculation that the underlying pathology increases the risk of pre-eclampsia to such a degree that any measurable reduction of risk due to smoking is masked. However, the damaging effects of smoking on overall health and pregnancy outcomes outweighs the benefits in decreasing the incidence of pre-eclampsia. It is recommended that smoking be stopped prior to, during and after pregnancy.
Immune modulation
Some studies have suggested the importance of a woman's gestational immunological tolerance to her baby's father, as the baby and father share genetics. There is tentative evidence that ongoing exposure either by vaginal or oral sex to the same semen that resulted in the pregnancy decreases the risk of pre-eclampsia. As one early study described, "although pre-eclampsia is a disease of first pregnancies, the protective effect of multiparity is lost with change of partner". The study also concluded that although women with changing partners are strongly advised to use condoms to prevent sexually transmitted diseases, "a certain period of sperm exposure within a stable relation, when pregnancy is aimed for, is associated with protection against pre-eclampsia".
Several other studies have since investigated the decreased incidence of pre-eclampsia in women who had received blood transfusions from their partner, those with long preceding histories of sex without barrier contraceptives, and in women who had been regularly performing oral sex.
Having already noted the importance of a woman's immunological tolerance to her baby's paternal genes, several Dutch reproductive biologists decided to take their research a step further. Consistent with the fact that human immune systems tolerate things better when they enter the body via the mouth, the Dutch researchers conducted a series of studies that confirmed a surprisingly strong correlation between a diminished incidence of pre-eclampsia and a woman's practice of oral sex, and noted that the protective effects were strongest if she swallowed her partner's semen. A team from the University of Adelaide has also investigated to see if men who have fathered pregnancies which have ended in miscarriage or pre-eclampsia had low seminal levels of critical immune modulating factors such as TGF-beta. The team has found that certain men, dubbed "dangerous males", are several times more likely to father pregnancies that would end in either pre-eclampsia or miscarriage. Among other things, most of the "dangerous males" seemed to lack sufficient levels of the seminal immune factors necessary to induce immunological tolerance in their partners.
As the theory of immune intolerance as a cause of pre-eclampsia has become accepted, women with repeated pre-eclampsia, miscarriages, or in vitro fertilization failures could potentially be administered key immune factors such as TGF-beta along with the father's foreign proteins, possibly either orally, as a sublingual spray, or as a vaginal gel to be applied onto the vaginal wall before intercourse.
Treatment
The definitive treatment for pre-eclampsia is the delivery of the baby and placenta, but danger to the mother persists after delivery, and full recovery can take days or weeks. The timing of delivery should balance the desire for optimal outcomes for the baby while reducing risks for the mother. The severity of disease and the maturity of the baby are primary considerations. These considerations are situation-specific and management will vary with situation, location, and institution. Treatment can range from expectant management to expedited delivery by induction of labor or Caesarean section, in addition to medications. Important in management is the assessment of the mother's organ systems, management of severe hypertension, and prevention and treatment of eclamptic seizures. Separate interventions directed at the baby may also be necessary. Bed rest has not been found to be useful and is thus not routinely recommended.
Blood pressure
The World Health Organization recommends that women with severe hypertension during pregnancy should receive treatment with anti-hypertensive agents. Severe hypertension is generally considered systolic BP of at least 160 or diastolic BP of at least 110. Evidence does not support the use of one anti-hypertensive over another. The choice of which agent to use should be based on the prescribing clinician's experience with a particular agent, its cost, and its availability. Diuretics are not recommended for prevention of pre-eclampsia and its complications. Labetalol, hydralazine and nifedipine are commonly used antihypertensive agents for hypertension in pregnancy. ACE inhibitors and angiotensin receptor blockers are contraindicated as they affect fetal development.
The goal of treatment of severe hypertension in pregnancy is to prevent cardiovascular, kidney, and cerebrovascular complications. The target blood pressure has been proposed to be 140–160 mmHg systolic and 90–105 mmHg diastolic, although values are variable.
Prevention of eclampsia
The intrapartum and postpartum administration of magnesium sulfate is recommended in severe pre-eclampsia for the prevention of eclampsia. Further, magnesium sulfate is recommended for the treatment of eclampsia over other anticonvulsants. Magnesium sulfate acts by interacting with NMDA receptors.
Epidemiology
Pre-eclampsia affects approximately 2–8% of all pregnancies worldwide. The incidence of pre-eclampsia has risen in the U.S. since the 1990s, possibly as a result of increased prevalence of predisposing disorders, such as chronic hypertension, diabetes, and obesity.
Pre-eclampsia is one of the leading causes of maternal and perinatal morbidity and mortality worldwide. Nearly one-tenth of all maternal deaths in Africa and Asia and one-quarter in Latin America are associated with hypertensive diseases in pregnancy, a category that encompasses pre-eclampsia.
Pre-eclampsia is much more common in women who are pregnant for the first time. Women who have previously been diagnosed with pre-eclampsia are also more likely to experience pre-eclampsia in subsequent pregnancies. Pre-eclampsia is also more common in women who have pre-existing hypertension, obesity, diabetes, autoimmune diseases such as lupus, various inherited thrombophilias such as Factor V Leiden, renal disease, multiple gestation (twins or multiple birth), and advanced maternal age. Women who live at high altitude are also more likely to experience pre-eclampsia. Pre-eclampsia is also more common in some ethnic groups (e.g. African-Americans, Sub-Saharan Africans, Latin Americans, African Caribbeans, and Filipinos). Change of paternity in a subsequent pregnancy has been implicated as affecting risk, except in those with a family history of hypertensive pregnancy.
Eclampsia is a major complication of pre-eclampsia. Eclampsia affects 0.56 per 1,000 pregnant women in developed countries and almost 10 to 30 times as many women in low-income countries as in developed countries.
Complications
Complications of pre-eclampsia can affect both the mother and the fetus. Acutely, pre-eclampsia can be complicated by eclampsia, the development of HELLP syndrome, hemorrhagic or ischemic stroke, liver damage and dysfunction, acute kidney injury, and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS).
Pre-eclampsia is also associated with increased frequency of Caesarean section, preterm delivery, and placental abruption. Furthermore, an elevation in blood pressure can occur in some individuals in the first week postpartum attributable to volume expansion and fluid mobilization. Fetal complications include fetal growth restriction and potential fetal or perinatal death.
Long-term, an individual with pre-eclampsia is at increased risk for recurrence of pre-eclampsia in subsequent pregnancies.
Eclampsia
Eclampsia is the development of new convulsions in a pre-eclamptic patient that may not be attributed to other causes. It is a sign that the underlying pre-eclamptic condition is severe and is associated with high rates of perinatal and maternal morbidity and mortality. Warning symptoms for eclampsia in an individual with current pre-eclampsia may include headaches, visual disturbances, and right upper quadrant or epigastric abdominal pain, with a headache being the most consistent symptom. During pregnancy brisk or hyperactive reflexes are common, however ankle clonus is a sign of neuromuscular irritability that usually reflects severe pre-eclampsia and also can precede eclampsia. Magnesium sulfate is used to prevent convulsions in cases of severe pre-eclampsia.
HELLP Syndrome
HELLP syndrome is defined as hemolysis (microangiopathic), elevated liver enzymes (liver dysfunction), and low platelets (thrombocytopenia). This condition may occur in 10–20% of patients with severe pre-eclampsia and eclampsia and is associated with increased maternal and fetal morbidity and mortality. In 50% of instances, HELLP syndrome develops preterm, while 20% of cases develop in late gestation and 30% during the post-partum period.
Long term
Preeclampsia predisposes for future cardiovascular disease and a history of preeclampsia/eclampsia doubles the risk for cardiovascular mortality later in life.
Other risks include stroke, chronic hypertension, kidney disease and venous thromboembolism. Preeclampsia and cardiovascular disease share many risk factors such as age, elevated BMI, family history and certain chronic diseases.
It seems that pre-eclampsia does not increase the risk of cancer.
Lowered blood supply to the fetus in pre-eclampsia causes lowered nutrient supply, which could result in intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) and low birth weight. The fetal origins hypothesis states that fetal undernutrition is linked with coronary heart disease later in adult life due to disproportionate growth.
Because pre-eclampsia leads to a mismatch between the maternal energy supply and fetal energy demands, pre-eclampsia can lead to IUGR in the developing fetus. Infants with IUGR are prone to have poor neuronal development and in increased risk for adult disease according to the Barker hypothesis. Associated adult diseases of the fetus due to IUGR include, but are not limited to, coronary artery disease (CAD), type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), cancer, osteoporosis, and various psychiatric illnesses.
The risk of pre-eclampsia and development of placental dysfunction has also been shown to be recurrent cross-generationally on the maternal side and most likely on the paternal side. Fetuses born to mothers who were born small for gestational age (SGA) were 50% more likely to develop pre-eclampsia while fetuses born to both SGA parents were three-fold more likely to develop pre-eclampsia in future pregnancies.
History
The word "eclampsia" is from the Greek term for lightning. The first known description of the condition was by Hippocrates in the 5th century BC.
An outdated medical term for pre-eclampsia is toxemia of pregnancy, a term that originated in the mistaken belief that the condition was caused by toxins.
References
External links
MedlinePlus entry on high blood pressure in pregnancy
Mayo Clinic fact sheet on pre-eclampsia
Health issues in pregnancy
Medical emergencies
Rare diseases
Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate
Women's health
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agathyrsi
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Agathyrsi
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The Agathyrsi were an ancient people belonging to the Scythian cultures who lived in the Transylvanian Plateau, in the region that later became Dacia. The Agathyrsi are largely known from Herodotus of Halicarnassus's description of them in the 5th century BC.
Name
The name is the Latinisation of the Ancient Greek name (), which was itself the Hellenized form of a Scythian name whose original form is not attested.
The linguist Alexis Manaster Ramer has reconstructed the original Scythian form of this name as , meaning "prospering the friend/", with the final part modified into , referring to the composite vegetal wand of Bacchus, in Greek because the ancient Greeks associated Scythian peoples with Bacchic rites.
History
Origins
The arrival of the Agathyrsi in Europe was part of the larger process of westwards movement of Central Asian Iranic nomads towards Southeast and Central Europe which lasted from the 1st millennium BC to the 1st millennium AD, and to which also later participated other Iranic nomads such as the Cimmerians, Scythians, Sauromatians, and Sarmatians. The archaeological and historical records regarding these migrations are however scarce, and permit to sketch only a very broad outline of this complex development.
Beginning of steppe nomadism
The formation of genuine nomadic pastoralism itself happened in the early 1st millennium BC due to climatic changes which caused the environment in the Central Asian and Siberian steppes to become cooler and drier than before. These changes caused the sedentary mixed farmers of the Bronze Age to become nomadic pastoralists, so that by the 9th century BC all the steppe settlements of the sedentary Bronze Age populations had disappeared, and therefore led to the development of population mobility and the formation of warrior units necessary to protect herds and take over new areas.
These climatic conditions in turn caused the nomadic groups to become transhumant pastoralists constantly moving their herds from one pasture to another in the steppe, and to search for better pastures to the west, in Ciscaucasia and the forest steppe regions of western Eurasia.
The Chernogorovka-Novocherkassk complex
The Agathyrsi originated as a section of the first wave of the nomadic populations who originated in the parts of Central Asia corresponding to eastern Kazakhstan or the Altai-Sayan region, and who had, beginning in the 10th century BC and lasting until the 9th to 8th centuries BC, migrated westwards into the Pontic-Caspian Steppe regions, where they formed new tribal confederations which constituted the Chernogorovka-Novocherkassk complex.
Among these tribal confederations were the Agathyrsi in the Pontic Steppe, as well as the Cimmerians in the Caspian Steppe, and possibly the Sigynnae in the Pannonian Steppe. The achaeological and historical records regarding these migrations are however scarce, and permit to sketch only a very broad outline of this complex development.
The Agathyrsi thus corresponded to a part of the Chernogorovka-Novocherkassk complex, to whose development three main cultural influences contributed to:
present in the development of the Chernogorovka-Novocherkassk complex is a strong impact of the native Bilozerka culture, especially in the form of pottery styles and burial traditions;
the two other influences were of foreign origin:
attesting of the Inner Asian origin, a strong material influence from the Altai, Aržan and Karasuk cultures from Central Asia and Siberia is visible in the Chernogorovka-Novocherkassk complex of Inner Asian origin were especially dagger and arrowhead types, horse gear such as bits with stirrup-shaped terminals, deer stone-like carved stelae and Animal Style art;
in addition to this Central Asian influence, the Kuban culture of Ciscaucasia also played an important contribution in the development of the Chernogorovka-Novocherkassk complex, especially regarding the adoption of Kuban culture-types of mace heads and bimetallic daggers.
The Chernogorovka-Novocherkassk complex thus developed natively in the North Pontic region over the course of the 9th to mid-7th centuries BC from elements which had earlier arrived from Central Asia, due to which it itself exhibited similarities with the other early nomadic cultures of the Eurasian steppe and forest steppe which existed before the 7th century BC, such as the Aržan culture, so that these various pre-Scythian early nomadic cultures were thus part of a unified Aržan-Chernogorovka cultural layer originating from Central Asia.
Thanks to their development of highly mobile mounted nomadic pastoralism and the creation of effective weapons suited to equestrian warfare, all based on equestrianism, these nomads from the Pontic-Caspian Steppes were able to gradually infiltrate into Central and Southeast Europe and therefore expand deep into this region over a very long period of time, so that the Chernogorovka-Novocherkassk complex covered a wide territory ranging from Central Europe and the Pannonian Plain in the west to Caucasia in the east, including present-day Southern Russia.
This in turn allowed the Chernogorovka-Novocherkassk complex itself to strongly influence the Hallstatt culture of Central Europe: among these influences was the adoption of trousers, which were not used by the native populations of Central Europe before the arrival of the Central Asian steppe nomads.
In the Pontic Steppe
Within the western sections of the Eurasian Steppe, the Agathyrsi lived in the part of the Pontic Steppe situated on the northern shore of the Maeotian Sea, while their neighbours to the east, in the Ciscaucasian Steppe and the steppe regions to the north of the Caspian Sea were the Cimmerians, who themselves also belonged to the grouping of Iranic nomads of Central Asian origin belonging to the Chernogorovka-Novocherkassk complex.
Displacement of the Agathyrsi
A second wave of migration of Iranic nomads corresponded arrival of the early Scythians from Central Asia into the Caucasian Steppe, which started in the 9th century BC, when a significant movement of the nomadic peoples of the Eurasian Steppe started after the early Scythians were expelled out of Central Asia by either the Massagetae, who were a powerful nomadic Iranic tribe from Central Asia closely related to the Scythians, or by another Central Asian people called the Issedones, thus forcing the early Scythians to the west, across the Araxes river and into the Caspian and Ciscaucasian Steppes.
This western migration of the early Scythians lasted through the middle 8th century BC, and archaeologically corresponded to the movement of a population originating from Tuva in southern Siberia in the late 9th century BC towards the west, and arriving in the 8th to 7th centuries BC into Europe, especially into Ciscaucasia, which it reached some time between and , thus following the same migration general path as the first wave of Central Asian Iranic nomads who had formed the Chernogorovka-Novocherkassk complex.
The westward migration of the Scythians brought them to the lands of the Cimmerians, after which the Scythians settled between the Araxes river to the east, the Caucasus mountains to the south, and the Maeotian Sea to the west, in the Ciscaucasian Steppe where were located the Scythian kingdom's headquarters.
The arrival of the Scythians corresponded to a disturbance of the development of the Cimmerian peoples' Chernogorovka-Novocherkassk complex, which was thus replaced over the course of to by the early Scythian culture in southern Europe, which itself nevertheless still showed links to the Chernogorovka-Novocherkassk complex.
From their base in the Ciscaucasian Steppe, the Scythians over the course of the 8th to 7th centuries BC conquered the Pontic and Crimean Steppes to the north of the Black Sea up to the Istros river, whose mouth henceforth formed the western boundary of Scythian territory.
The conquest of their territories by the Scythians from the east pushed the Agathyrsi westwards, out of the Pontic Steppe, with the Scythians themselves replacing them as the main population of the Pontic Steppe, thus completing the process of the Scythians becoming the main dominant population of the Pontic-Steppe over the course of to . The Agathyrsi henceforth became the immediate neighbours of the Scythians to their west and the relations between these two tribes remained hostile.
In the Balkans
After their displacement, the Agathyrsi settled in the regions surrounding the Eastern Carpathian Mountains corresponding to the territories presently called Moldavia, Oltenia and Transylvania, although they also may have been one of the peoples who had free access to the Wallachian and Moldavian Plains along with the Scythians.
In these regions, the Agathyrsi established themselves as a ruling class over the indigenous population, who were Geto-Thracians, and intermarried with these local peoples and gradually assimilated into these local peoples' culture. And, beginning in the 6th century BC, the Agathyrsi were organising into fortified settlements, such as the ones at Stâncești and Cotnari, which acted as important centres of the Getae.
A section of the displaced Agathyrsi might also have migrated more southwards into Thrace proper, where a group of this people was located on the Haemus Mons by Stephanus of Byzantium.
The Trausi
Stephanus of Byzantium also suggested that a section of the Agathyrsi were present on the Rhodope Mountains by his mention that the Greeks referred to the Trausi (; , ) tribe who lived there as being Agathyrsi.
On the Rhodopes, the Trausi initially lived to the north-east of the Thracian tribe of the Bistones. By the early 2nd century BC, the Trausi had migrated to the east of the Hebrus river in the hinterland of Maroneia and Aenus, and they soon disappeared from history after being conquered by the kingdom of the Sapaei.
Scythian influence
In the 6th century BC, some splinter Scythian groups followed the earlier route of the nomads of the Chernogorovka-Novocherkassk wave, passed through the passes of the Carpathian Mountains, and settled in the Pannonian Basin, where some of them settled in the territory of the Agathyrsi while others moved into the Pannonian Steppe and settled in the territory of the Sigynnae, and subsequently intermarried with the local populations while remaining in contact with the Pontic Steppe through trade.
These migrations and trade connections contributed to the transformation of the culture of the Agathyrsi and the Sigynnae into a more Scythian-like form.
The Persian invasion of Scythia
In the late 6th century BC, the Achaemenid Persian Empire started expanding into Europe, beginning with the Persian annexation of all of Thrace, after which the Achaemenid king of kings Darius I crossed the Istros river in 513 BC and attacked the Scythian kingdom with an army of 700,000 to 800,000 soldiers, possibly with the goal of annexing it.
In response, the Scythian king Idanthyrsus summoned the kings of the peoples surrounding his kingdom to a council to decide how to deal with the Persian invasion. The Budini, Geloni and Sauromatians joined the Scythian-led alliance in resisting the Persian invasion, and Idanthyrsus led the joint forces of the Scythians and their allied neighbours in resisting the Persian invasion. Meanwhile the Agathyrsi, Androphagi, Melanchlaeni, Neuri and Tauri refused to support the Scythians.
According to the Greek author Herodotus of Halicarnassus, during the campaign the fleeing Scythians and the Persian army pursuing them passed through the territories of the Melanchlaeni, Androphagi, and Neuri, before they reached the borders of the Agathyrsi, who refused to let the Scythian divisions to pass into their territories and find refuge there, thus forcing the Scythians to return to Scythia with the Persians pursuing them.
Death of Ariapeithes
At some point between and , Ariapeithes was killed by the Agathyrsian king Spargapeithes.
Celtic immigration
In the middle of the 5th century BC, the Hallstatt culture developped into the La Tène culture, whose people are identified with the Celts, who by the late 5th century BC were moving to the east along the upper Istros and initially settled in Transistria before moving into the Pannonian Steppe where lived the Sigynnae and later into the mountainous regions where lived the Agathyrsi. The relations between the Celtic incomers and the Iranic nomads appear to have remained peaceful, with the Celts later intermarrying with the local populations of the Pannonian Basin, thus exposing the Celts to the influence of the beliefs, practices and art styles of the steppe nomads so that motifs borrowed from and influenced by the steppe nomads started appearing in La Tène Celtic art.
Among these borrowed artistic influences were images of predatory carnivores, sometimes attacking herbivorous beasts, as well as motifs of pairs of animals facing each other, giving rise to Celtic motif of the "dragon pairs" which decorated the tops of Celtic sword scabbards. Another motif borrowed by Celtic art from steppe art are pairs of predatory birds around shield circular bosses, reflecting not only the mere artistic influence of the steppe nomads, but also of the borrowing by the Celts of Iranic steppe nomad belief systems expressed through the image of predatory beasts.
Ethnogenesis of the Dacians
The Agathyrsi were barely mentioned again in outside sources after Herodotus of Halicarnassus described them in the 5th century BC, and it is unknown for how long they were able to maintain their Agathyrsian identity. However, the Graeco-Roman author Claudius Ptolemy and an inscription from Rome, both from the middle of the 1st century AD, mentioned the Agathyrsi.
The Agathyrsi appear to have eventually become fully assimilated into the Geto-Thracian populations among whom they lived, and the Getic groups organised around the Agathyrsian fortified settlements eventually evolved into the Dacian culture, with a large part of the later Dacian people being consequently descended from the Agathyrsi. The Agathyrsi hence disappeared from history in a process typical of most Scythic peoples who back then formed the substrate of the many powerful tribal federations of the Ponto-Danubian region.
Legacy
The peoples of the Chernogorovka-Novocherkassk complex of which the Agathyrsi were part of introduced the use of trousers into Central Europe, whose local native populations did not wear trousers before the arrival of the first wave of steppe nomads of Central Asian origin into Europe.
The role of the Agathyrsi as the oldest Scythic population of the Pontic Steppe was reflected in the Scythian genealogical myth of the Scythians proper, according to which Agathyrsus was the eldest of the three ancestors of the Scythian peoples born of the union of the god Targitaos and the Snake-Legged Goddess.
The displacement of the Agathyrsi by the Scythians is expressed in the genealogical myth by how the Snake-Legged Goddess banished her two eldest sons, Agathyrsus and Gelonus, from her country and instead crowned as king her youngest son, Scythes, who was the ancestor of the Scythians proper.
Culture and society
Location
In the Pontic Steppe
From the 9th to the late 8th or early 7th centuries BC, the Agathyrsi occupied the eastern sections of the Pontic Steppe on the northern shores of the Maeotian Sea.
The neighbours of the Agathyrsi to the east, in the Ciscaucasian Steppe and the steppe regions to the north of the Caspian Sea were the Cimmerians, who themselves also belonged to the grouping of Iranic nomads of Central Asian origin belonging to the Chernogorovka-Novocherkassk complex and were therefore closely related to the Agathyrsi.
In the Balkans
At the time when the Greek historian Herodotus of Halicarnassus described them, in the 5th century BC, the Agathyrsi were living in the region which later became known as Dacia and is presently known as Transylvania, as well as in the region of the Carpathian Mountains and to their east and north of the Danube river where was located the source of the Maris river, that is in the regions corresponding to present-day Moldavia and Oltenia, and they may have been one of the peoples who had free access to the Wallachian and Moldavian Plains along with the Scythians.
The eastern neighbours of the Agathyrsi were the Pontic Scythians, while their northern neighbours were the Neuri, who were a Baltic population.
Ethnicity
By the time the Agathyrsi were living in the Balkans, they had become a people of mixed Scytho-Thracian origin, composed of a Geto-Thracian population with an Iranic-Scythic ruling class, as attested by how their kings, such as Agathyrsus and Spargapeithes, were Iranic.
The assimilation of the Scythic Agathyrsi into the Getic population of the areas they had settled in is attested by how their culture combined Iranic and Thracian elements.
Social organisation
Unlike the nomads of the Pontic Steppe, the Pannonian Basin nomads such as the Agathyrsi appear to not have possessed an elite class.
Language
Reflecting their Scythic origin, the names of the kings of Agathyrsi, such as Agathyrsus and Spargapeithes, were Iranic.
Gender roles
Herodotus of Halicarnassus claimed that the men of the Agathyrsi had their wives in common so that all of their people would be each other's siblings and members of a single family living together without jealousy or hatred.
Lifestyle
Dress
The clothing of the Agathyrsi likely included the use of trousers, which was a typical part of steppe nomads' dress.
The Agathyrsi lived in luxury and wore gold jewellery.
Hair dyeing
The aristocracy of the Agathyrsi dyed their hair dark blue to distinguish themselves from the common people.
Tattooing
The Agathyrsi had followed Thracian customs such as tattooing, which the aristocracy of the Agathyrsi performed to distinguish themselves from the common people: the tattoos of the Agathyrsi consisted of checkered designs in blue-black ink on their faces and limbs, and their intensity, intricacy and vibrancy was proportional to their bearers' social status and the prestige of their lineage.
Tattooing was especially practised among Agathyrsi women.
Religion
According to Herodotus of Halicarnassus, the Agathyrsian tribe of the Trausi, who lived in southern Thrace, practised a custom which was unique among the peoples of all of Thrace: the relatives of newborns would sit around them and mourn all the misfortunes they would have to go through in life, and would celebrate with joy during funerals since they believed that death had instead brought happiness to the deceased by freeing them from the miseries of life.
Other customs
The Agathyrsi traditionally memorised their laws in song form.
Archaeology
To the early phase of the Agathyrsian presence in Transylvania belongs a cemetery from the 8th to 7th centuries BC at Stoicani.
In the 6th century BC, the populations of the Chernogorovka-Novocherkassk complex of Central Europe came under Scythian influence, resulting in them becoming more Scythianised: the Agathyrsi thus corresponded to a local group of the Scythian culture located in Transylvania, around the valley of the Mures river, with scattered groups being present in areas of Romania and Bessarabia.
The archaeological remains of the Agathyrsi exhibited a unique character due to the absorption of Thracian elements by Iranic incomers, and consist of multiple hundred burials in the form of both cremations and inhumations: the inhumations were themselves buried in simple Scythian-type catacomb tombs, and the grave goods included Scythian-type weapon sets and jewellery from the 6th and 5th centuries BC. The pottery of the Agathyrsi was derived from traditions native to the Transylvanian region.
A related culture from the region of Wallachia on the lower Danube was the Ferigile culture, to which belonged Scythian-type weapons, horse harnesses and pottery.
The Agathyrsi themselves corresponded to the archaeological culture which had created the fortified settlements of the Stincesti-Cotnari type in the 6th century BC. Objects found isolated or in graves in territories identifiable with the Agathyrsi are characteristic of the Scythian culture, and consist of:
military gear such as:
arrows,
quivers,
,
iron battle-axes,
scale armour,
shields;
horse gear,
personal accessories such as:
bronze mirrors,
pole-top rattles,
bronze kettles,
gold ornaments,
and dress attachments.
Gallery
See also
Cimmerians
Dacians
Getae
Scythians
Sigynnae
Notes
References
Scythian tribes
Dacian tribes
Ancient tribes in Dacia
Tribes described primarily by Herodotus
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%20Dream%20of%20Jeannie
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I Dream of Jeannie
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I Dream of Jeannie is an American fantasy sitcom television series, created by Sidney Sheldon that starred Barbara Eden as a sultry, 2,000-year-old genie and Larry Hagman, as an astronaut with whom she falls in love and eventually marries. Produced by Screen Gems, the show originally aired for 139 episodes over five seasons, from September 18, 1965, to May 26, 1970, on NBC.
Plot
In the pilot episode, "The Lady in the Bottle", astronaut Captain Tony Nelson, United States Air Force, is on a space flight when his one-man capsule Stardust One comes down far from the planned recovery area, near a deserted island in the South Pacific. On the beach, Tony notices a strange bottle that rolls by itself. When he rubs it after removing the stopper, smoke starts shooting out and a beautiful Persian-speaking female genie materializes and kisses Tony on the lips, shocking him.
They cannot understand each other until Tony expresses his wish that Jeannie (a homophone of genie) could speak English, which she then does. Then, per his instructions, she "blinks" and causes a recovery helicopter to show up to rescue Tony, who is so grateful, he tells her she is free, but Jeannie, who has fallen in love with Tony at first sight after being trapped for 2,000 years, re-enters her bottle and rolls it into Tony's duffel bag so she can accompany him back home. One of the first things Jeannie does in a subsequent episode is break up Tony's engagement to his commanding general's daughter, Melissa, who, along with that particular general, is never seen or mentioned again. Producer Sidney Sheldon realized the romantic triangle between Jeannie, Tony, and Melissa would not pan out in the long run.
At first Tony keeps Jeannie in her bottle most of the time, but he finally relents and allows her to enjoy a life of her own. However, her life is devoted mostly to his, and most of their problems stem both from Jeannie's love for him and her often-misguided efforts to please Tony, even when he does not want her assistance. Tony's efforts to cover up Jeannie's antics, because of his fear that he would be dismissed from the space program if her existence were publicly known, brings him to the attention of NASA's resident psychiatrist, U.S. Air Force Colonel Dr. Alfred Bellows. A running gag throughout the series has Bellows being the only eyewitness to many of Jeannie's antics with Tony (and sometimes including his best friend and fellow astronaut, United States Army Captain, later Major, Roger Healey) also being present and trying to offer the doctor far-fetched explanations as Bellows then tries over and over to prove to his superior officers, General Martin Peterson (Peterson is the only superior who refers to Tony by his first name), then General Winfield Schaeffer, that Tony is either crazy or is hiding something. But both Peterson and Schaeffer each refuse to believe him and, after he is always foiled, Bellows repeatedly proclaims, "He's done it to me again!", and Tony's job remains secure. A frequently used plot device is that Jeannie loses her powers when she is confined in a closed space. She is unable to leave her bottle when it is corked, and under certain circumstances, the next person who removes the cork becomes her new master. A multiple-episode story arc involves Jeannie (in miniature) becoming trapped in a NASA safe when it is accidentally locked.
At first Roger does not know about both Jeannie's existence and magic for the first 16 episodes, although they meet in episode 12. When Roger finds out she is a genie, he steals her bottle, temporarily becoming her master. Roger is often shown as girl-crazy or scheming to make a quick buck. He occasionally has hopes of claiming Jeannie so he can use her to have a lavish lifestyle or gain beautiful girlfriends, but overall he is respectful that Tony is Jeannie's master. Both Tony and Roger are promoted to the rank of major late in the first season. In later seasons, Roger's role is retconned to portray him knowing about Jeannie from the beginning (i.e., to him having been with Tony on the space flight that touched down, and thus having seen Jeannie introduce herself to Tony).
Jeannie's evil fraternal twin sister, mentioned in a second-season episode (also named Jeannie – since, as Barbara Eden's character explains it, all female genies are named Jeannie — and also portrayed by Barbara Eden, in a brunette wig), proves to have a mean streak starting in the third season (as in her initial appearance in "Jeannie or the Tiger?"), repeatedly trying to steal Tony for herself, with her as the real "master". Her final attempt in the series comes shortly after Tony and Jeannie are married, with a ploy involving a man played by Barbara Eden's real-life husband at the time, Michael Ansara (in a kind of in-joke, while Jeannie's sister pretends to be attracted to him, she privately scoffs at him). The evil sister wears a green costume, with a skirt rather than pantaloons.
Early in the fifth season, Jeannie is called upon by her uncle Sully (Jackie Coogan) to become queen of their family's native country, Basenji. Tony inadvertently gives grave offense to Basenji national pride in their feud with neighboring Kasja. To regain favor, Tony is required by Sully to marry Jeannie and to avenge Basenji's honor by killing the ambassador from Kasja when he visits NASA. After Sully puts Tony through an ordeal of nearly killing the ambassador, Tony responds in a fit of anger that he is fed up with Sully and his cohorts and he would not marry Jeannie even if she were "the last genie on earth". Hearing this, Jeannie bitterly leaves Tony and returns to Basenji. With Jeannie gone, Tony realizes how deeply he loves her. He flies to Basenji to win Jeannie back. Upon their return, Tony introduces Jeannie as his fiancée. She dresses as a modern American woman in public. This changed the show's premise: hiding Jeannie's magical abilities rather than her existence. This, however, contradicts what is revealed in "The Birds and Bees Bit", in which it is claimed that upon marriage a genie loses all of her magical powers.
Cast and characters
Main
Barbara Eden as Jeannie
Larry Hagman as Captain/Major Anthony "Tony" Nelson
Bill Daily as Captain/Major Roger Healey
Hayden Rorke as Colonel Alfred Bellows, MD
Recurring
Barton MacLane as General Martin Peterson (seasons 1–4, 35 episodes)
Emmaline Henry as Amanda Bellows (seasons 2–5, 34 episodes)
Vinton Hayworth as General Winfield Schaeffer (seasons 4-5, 20 episodes)
Philip Ober as Brigadier General Wingard Stone (season 1, episodes 1 and 4)
Karen Sharpe as Melissa Stone (season 1, episodes 1 and 4)
Abraham Sofaer as Haji, master of all the genies (seasons 2–3)
Michael Ansara as The Blue Djinn (season 2, episode 1), also as King Kamehameha (season 3, episode 19), last as Major Biff Jellico (season 5 episode 12) and directed "One Jeannie Beats Four of a Kind" (season 5 episode 25)
Barbara Eden as Jeannie's evil sister, Jeannie II (seasons 3–5)
The role of Jeannie's mother was played by several actresses:
Florence Sundstrom (season 1, episode 2)
Lurene Tuttle (season 1, episode 14)
Barbara Eden (season 4, episodes 2 and 18)
Production
Background
The series was created and produced by Sidney Sheldon in response to the great success of rival network ABC's Bewitched series, which had debuted in 1964 as the second-most watched program in the United States. Sheldon, inspired by the 1964 film The Brass Bottle, conceived of the idea for a beautiful female genie. Both I Dream of Jeannie and Bewitched were Screen Gems productions.
When casting was opened for the role of Jeannie, producer Sidney Sheldon could not find an actress who could play the role the way that he had written it. He did have one specific rule: he did not want a blonde genie, because the similarity with the blonde witch on Bewitched would be too much. However, after many unsuccessful auditions, he called Barbara Eden's agent. Eden had coincidently co-starred in The Brass Bottle as mortal Sylvia Kenton.
The show debuted on Saturday, September 18, 1965, at 8 pm on NBC. When NBC began broadcasting most of its prime-time television line-up in color in the fall of 1965, Jeannie was one of two programs that remained in black and white, in its case because of the special photographic effects employed to achieve Jeannie's magic. By the second season, however, further work had been done on techniques to create the visual effects in color, which was necessary because by 1966, all prime-time series in the United States were being made in color.
Sheldon originally wanted to film season one in color, but NBC did not want to pay for the extra expenses, as the network (and Screen Gems) believed the series would not make it to a second season. Sheldon offered to pay the extra $400 an episode needed for color filming at the beginning of the series, but Screen Gems executive Jerry Hyams advised him: "Sidney, don't throw your money away."
Opening sequence
The first few episodes after the pilot (episodes two through eight) used a nonanimated, expository opening narrated by Paul Frees; the narration mentions that Nelson lived in "a mythical town" named Cocoa Beach in "a mythical state called Florida". The remaining episodes of that first season featured an animated sequence that was redone and expanded in season two, when the show switched from black and white to color. This new sequence, used in seasons 2–5, featured a retelling of the initial meeting in the pilot episode, with Captain Nelson's space capsule splashing down on the beach, and Jeannie dancing out of her bottle (modified to reflect its new decoration) and then kissing Nelson before the bottle sucks her back in at the end. Both original versions of the show's animated opening sequence were created by animator Friz Freleng.
Setting
Although the series was set in and around Cape Kennedy, Florida, and Major Nelson lived at 1020 Palm Drive in nearby Cocoa Beach, locales in California were used in place of those in Florida. The exterior of the building where he and Major Healey had offices was actually the main building at the NASA Flight Research Center (renamed as the NASA Dryden Flight Research Center in March 1976 and as the Armstrong Flight Research Center in 2014) at Edwards Air Force Base, north of Los Angeles. "If you look at some of those old [episodes], it's supposed to be shot in Cocoa Beach, but in the background you have mountains — the Hollywood Hills," Bill Daily said. In actuality, the home of Major Nelson (also used as the Anderson house in Father Knows Best, and then the home of Mr. Wilson in Dennis the Menace) was filmed at the Warner Bros. Ranch, in Burbank (on Blondie Street). Many exteriors were filmed at this facility. Interior filming was done at the Sunset Gower Studios (the original Columbia Pictures studio lot) in Hollywood.
The cast and crew only made two visits to Florida's Space Coast, both in 1969. On June 27, a parade in Cocoa Beach escorted Eden and the rest of the cast to Cocoa Beach City Hall, where she was greeted by fans and city officials. They were then taken to LC-43 at Cape Canaveral where she pressed a button to launch a Loki-Dart weather rocket. They had dinner at Bernard's Surf, where Eden was given the state of Florida's Commodore Award for outstanding acting. Later, the entourage went to Lee Caron's Carnival Club, where Eden was showered with gifts and kissed astronaut Buzz Aldrin on the cheek, just two weeks before the Apollo 11 launch.
The cast and crew returned on November 25, 1969, for three days for a mock wedding of Eden and Hagman staged for television writers from around the nation (timed to the airing of the nuptials episode on December 2) at the Patrick Air Force Base Officers Club. Then-Florida Governor Claude R. Kirk, Jr., attended and cut the cake for the couple.
Eden returned 27 years later, in July 1996, as a featured speaker for Space Days at the Kennedy Space Center. Cocoa Beach Mayor Joe Morgan presented her an "I Dream of Jeannie Lane" street sign, later installed on a short street off Florida State Road A1A near Lori Wilson Park.
On September 15, 2005, the area held a "We Dream of Jeannie" festival, including a Jeannie lookalike contest. Plans for one in 2004 were interrupted by Hurricane Frances and Hurricane Jeanne. However, a Jeannie lookalike contest was held in 2004, with Bill Daily attending.
On August 24, 2012, Cocoa Beach City leaders honored the show with a roadside plaque outside Lori Wilson Park.
Jeannie's origin
In the first season, Jeannie clearly was originally a human who was turned into a genie by (as later revealed Season 1, Episode 2: "My Hero?") the Blue Djinn when she refused to marry him (the term "djinn" is synonymous with "genie"). Several members of Jeannie's family, including her parents, are rather eccentric, but none is a genie. Her mother describes the family as "just peasants from the old country" (Season 1, Episode 14, "What House Across the Street?"). The Blue Djinn was played by Barbara Eden's first husband, Michael Ansara. In later seasons, he also played King Kamehameha (Season 3, Episode 15 "The Battle of Waikiki"), and Biff Jellico (Season 5, Episode 12 "My Sister, the Homewrecker").
The topic of Jeannie's originally being human is restated in season two during the episode "How to be a Genie in 10 Easy Lessons". Jeannie mentions that she has a sister who is a genie, but the phrasing—"she was a genie when I left Baghdad"—does bring up the question of whether she, too, was born a genie. One minor subplot that lasted over multiple episodes was when Jeanie was born. In season 1, episode 5 ("G.I.Jeannie"), while applying for recruitment into the Air Force, Jeannie clearly states her birthday as July 1, 21 B.C. In Season 2, Episode 10 ("The Girl Who Never Had a Birthday"), Jeannie says she doesn't know her birth date, setting up the two-episode plot. It was revealed by a computation by a computer (ERIC) in part 1 that Jeannie was born in 64 BC, and in part two Roger reveals that her birthday is April 1.
In the third season, this continuity was changed retroactively and the dialog imply Jeannie had always been a genie. All her relatives are also depicted as genies, including, by the fourth season, her mother (also played by Barbara Eden beginning in Season 4, Episode 2 "Jeannie and the Wild Pipchicks"). Whatever the reason for the shift in the narrative concerning her origins, this new narrative was retained for the rest of the series.
The television film I Dream of Jeannie... Fifteen Years Later (1985) has Jeannie re-stating most of her first-season origin when she tells her son, Tony Jr., that she was trapped in her bottle by an evil djinn after she refused to marry him. (No specific statement is given about whether he turned her into a genie at that time or if she had been born one.)
In a 1966 paperback novel I Dream of Jeannie, by Al Hine, writing pseudonymously as "Dennis Brewster", published by Pocket Books, very loosely based on the series, Jeannie (in the book, her real name is revealed as "Fawzia") and her immediate family were established in the story as genies living in Tehran hundreds of years before Tony found her bottle on an island in the Persian Gulf (instead of the South Pacific, as depicted on TV).
Theme music
The first-season theme music was an instrumental jazz waltz written by Richard Wess. Sidney Sheldon became dissatisfied with Wess's theme and musical score. From the second season on, it was replaced by a new theme titled "Jeannie", composed by Hugo Montenegro with lyrics by Buddy Kaye. Episodes 20 and 25 used a rerecorded ending of "Jeannie" for the closing credits with new, longer drum breaks and a different closing riff. The lyrics were never used in the show.
Songwriters Gerry Goffin and Carole King wrote a theme, called "Jeannie", for Sidney Sheldon before the series started, but it was not used.
In the third and fourth seasons of the show, another instrumental theme by Hugo Montenegro was introduced that was played during the show's campy scenes. Simply titled "Mischief", the theme was heard mainly on outdoor locations, showing the characters attempting to do something such as Jeannie learning to drive, Major Nelson arriving up the driveway, a monkey walking around, or reactions to Doctor Bellows. This theme featured the accompaniment of a sideshow organ, a trombone, and electric bass. It was introduced in the first episode of season 3, "Fly Me to the Moon".
A popular cover version of the Jeannie theme was released in 1985 in the compilation Television's Greatest Hits: 65 TV Themes! From the 50's and 60's by TVT Records. This recording was later sampled in several songs, such as DJ Jazzy Jeff and the Fresh Prince's debut single "Girls Ain't Nothing but Trouble" (from their 1987 debut album Rock the House), and also for the Ben Liebrand 1990 re-release of American hip-hop artist Dimples D.'s single, "Sucker DJ".
DNA featuring Suzanne Vega released "Tom's Diner" in 1990 using a variation of the Jeannie theme song which then hit No. 5 on the U.S. Pop Chart and was rereleased the following year with other variations of "Tom's Diner", one of which was used by Nick-at-Nite for promos of its I Dream of Jeannie reruns.
The bottle
Jeannie's iconic bottle was not created for the show. The actual bottle was a special Christmas 1964 Jim Beam liquor decanter containing "Beam's Choice" bourbon whiskey. It was designed by Roy Kramer for the Wheaton Bottle Company. For years, Sidney Sheldon was said to have received one as a gift and thought it would be a perfect design for the series. Several people in the Screen Gems art department also take credit for finding the bottle. Strong evidence, however, indicates first season director Gene Nelson saw one in a liquor store and bought it, bringing it to Sheldon.
Jeannie's bottle was left in its original dark, smoke-green color, with a painted gold-leaf pattern (to make it look like an antique), during the first season. The plot description of the pilot episode in TV Guide in September 1965 referred to it as a "green bottle". In that first episode, it also looked quite rough and weathered. Since the show was originally filmed in black and white, a lot of colors and patterns were not necessary. When the show switched to color, the show's art director came up with a brightly colored purple bottle to replace the original. The later colorized version of the show's first season tried to present that the smoked glass look of the original gold-leaf design was purple, to match the consistent look of the bottle used in the second through fifth seasons.
The first-season bottle had a clear glass stopper that Tony took from a 1956 Old Grand-Dad Bourbon bottle in his home, as the original stopper was left behind on the beach where Tony found Jeannie. In the first color episode, Jeannie returns to the beach, and her bottle is seen to have its original stopper (painted to match the bottle), presumably retrieved by her upon her return there. The rest of the TV series (and the films) used the original bottle stopper. (During some close-ups, one can still see the plastic rings that hold the cork part of the stopper in place.)
During the first season, in black and white, the smoke effect was usually a screen overlay of billowing smoke, sometimes combined with animation. Early color episodes used a purely animated smoke effect. Sometime later, a live smoke pack, lifted out of the bottle on a wire, was used.
Jeannie's color-episodes bottle was painted mainly in pinks and purples, while the bottle for the Blue Djinn was a first-season design with a heavy green wash, and Jeannie's sister's bottle was simply a plain, unpainted Jim Beam bottle.
No one knows exactly how many bottles were used during the show, but members of the production have estimated that around 12 bottles were painted and used during the run of the series. The stunt bottle used mostly for the smoke effect was broken frequently by the heat and chemicals used to produce Jeannie's smoke. In the pilot episode, several bottles were used for the opening scene on the beach; one was drilled through the bottom for smoke, and another was used to walk across the sand and slip into Tony's pack. Two bottles were used from promotional tours to kick off the first season, and one bottle was used for the first-season production.
Barbara Eden got to keep the color stunt bottle used on the last day of filming the final episode of the series. It was given to her by her make-up woman after the show was canceled while the show was on hiatus. According to the DVD release of the first season, Bill Daily owned an original bottle, and according to the Donny & Marie talk show, Larry Hagman also owned an original bottle.
In the penultimate episode, "Hurricane Jeannie", Nelson dreams that Dr. Bellows discovers Jeannie's secret, and that Jeannie's bottle is broken when dropped. A broken bottle is shown on camera. This was intended to be the series' final episode and is often shown that way in syndication.
Broadcast
Multi-part story arcs
On several occasions, multipart story arcs were created to serve as backgrounds for national contests. During the second season, in a story that is the focus of a two-part episode and a peripheral plot of two further episodes (the "Guess Jeannie's Birthday" contest began with the opening two-part episode on November 14, 1966, concluding with the name of the winner revealed after the end of the fourth episode, "My Master, the Great Caruso", on December 5), it was established that Jeannie did not know her birthday, and her family members could not agree when it was, either. Tony and Roger use NASA's powerful new computer and horoscopic guidance based on Jeannie's traits to calculate it. The year is quickly established as 64 BC, but only Roger is privy to the exact date and he decides to make a game out of revealing it. This date became the basis of the contest. Jeannie finally forces it out of him at the end of the fourth episode: April 1.
In a third-season four-part episode ("Genie, Genie, Who's Got the Genie?" January 16 – February 6, 1968), Jeannie is locked in a safe bound for the Moon. Any attempt to force the safe or use the wrong combination will destroy it with an explosive. Jeannie is in there so long that whoever opens the safe will become her master. The episodes spread out over four weeks, during which a contest was held to guess the safe's combination. This explains why Larry Hagman is never seen saying the combination out loud: His mouth is hidden behind the safe or the shot is on Jeannie when he says it. The combination was not decided until just before the episode aired, with Hagman's voice dubbed in. Over the closing credits, Barbara Eden announced and congratulated the contest winner, with 4–9–7 as the winning combination.
In the fourth season, a two-part episode, "The Case Of My Vanishing Master" (January 6–13, 1969), concerned Tony being taken to a secret location somewhere in the world, while a perfect double took his place at home. A contest was held to guess the location where Tony had been taken. Unlike earlier contests, the answer was not revealed within the story. At the end of "Invisible House For Sale" (February 3, 1969), a special "contest epilogue" had Jeannie and Tony reveal to the audience the "secret location", Puerto Rico, followed by the name of the "Grand Prize Winner".
Reception
Nielsen ratings
While never a major ratings hit, the show did receive its highest Nielsen ranking during the fourth season (26th).
Syndication
When reruns debuted on New York's WPIX, Jeannie won its time period with a 13 rating and a 23 share of the audience. The series averaged a 14 share and 32 share of the audience when WTTG in Washington, DC began airing the series. It was the first off-network series to best network competition in the ratings: "The big switch no doubt representing the first time in rating history that indies (local stations) have knocked over the network stations in a primetime slot was promoted by WPIX's premiere of the off-web Jeannie reruns back to back from 7 to 8 pm."
In India, Sony Entertainment Television showed the series dubbed in Hindi in the late 1990s.
It started airing again on Zee Cafe in India in 2020.
In Italy, the series aired on Rai 1 under the name Strega per amore (Witch for Love) aired from 1977 until 1980, then repeated on Paramount Channel from 2020 until 2021.
In France, TF1 aired the series dubbed in French from 1993 to 1998.
Home media
DVD/Blu-ray
Sony Pictures Home Entertainment has released all 5 seasons of I Dream of Jeannie on DVD in regions 1, 2 & 4 in individual season releases and complete series box sets (there were two different packaging versions for the complete series of 20 discs). The first season was made available in both the original black & white and colorized editions — only the colorized version was included in the complete series releases from Sony.
On August 27, 2013, it was announced that Mill Creek Entertainment had acquired the R1 rights to various television series from the Sony Pictures library including I Dream of Jeannie. They subsequently rereleased the first two seasons on DVD on April 1, 2014; Mill Creek released season one in its original black-and-white format only as they currently do not have the rights to Sony’s colorized version. On October 6, 2015, Mill Creek Entertainment rereleased I Dream of Jeannie: The Complete Series on DVD in region 1, though it did not port over both of the special features found on the first season of the Sony releases. Mill Creek Entertainment released the entire series on Blu-ray, after several delays, on November 30, 2021. However, most consumers and reviewers complained that rather than true remastered HD, Mill Creek simply used an SD master upscaled to 1080i. The company has yet to admit this publicly to fans regardless of many inquires. Fortunately, the series streams in actual HD online, proving that such prints exist in the Sony vaults.
In Australia, a repackaged complete series collection was released on 23 November 2010 in a purple box (the first version was a pink box). On November 4, 2015, a 50th anniversary edition of the complete series was released. On 6 July 2016, all five individual seasons were rereleased as well as another complete series collection, now distributed through Shock Entertainment.
VHS
Some episodes were released on VHS. This is a complete list.
Reunion films
Barbara Eden starred in two made-for-television reunion films which followed the further exploits of Jeannie and Tony in the successive years. Larry Hagman did not reprise his role as Tony Nelson in either film. Bill Daily returned as Roger Healey for both films, while Hayden Rorke made a brief appearance in the first film. In 1985, Wayne Rogers played the role of retiring Colonel Anthony Nelson in I Dream of Jeannie... Fifteen Years Later. In 1991, I Still Dream of Jeannie was broadcast with Hagman's Dallas co-star Ken Kercheval essentially playing the role of Jeannie's "master". A third film was planned but never finalized.
Animated series
Hanna-Barbera Productions produced an animated series Jeannie. This animated series is completely separate from the Eden live-action series. Jeannie, the animated series was originally broadcast from
September 1973 to 1975, which featured Jeannie (voiced by Julie McWhirter) and genie-in-training Babu (voiced by former Three Stooges star Joe Besser) as the servants of Corey Anders, a high-school student and surfer (voiced by Mark Hamill).
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Anthony (Tony) Nelson, fictitious astronaut – Encyclopedia Astronautica
Roger Healey, fictitious astronaut – Encyclopedia Astronautica
1965 American television series debuts
1970 American television series endings
1960s American sitcoms
1970s American sitcoms
American fantasy comedy television series
Romantic fantasy television series
Black-and-white American television shows
English-language television shows
Genies in television
NBC original programming
Television shows adapted into films
Television series about couples
Television series about NASA
Television series by Screen Gems
Television series by Sony Pictures Television
Television series created by Sidney Sheldon
Television shows set in Florida
Television series about astronauts
Television series about the United States Air Force
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward%20Drinker%20Cope
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Edward Drinker Cope
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Edward Drinker Cope (July 28, 1840 – April 12, 1897) was an American zoologist, paleontologist, comparative anatomist, herpetologist, and ichthyologist. Born to a wealthy Quaker family, he distinguished himself as a child prodigy interested in science, publishing his first scientific paper at the age of 19. Though his father tried to raise Cope as a gentleman farmer, he eventually acquiesced to his son's scientific aspirations.
Cope had little formal scientific training, and he eschewed a teaching position for field work. He made regular trips to the American West, prospecting in the 1870s and 1880s, often as a member of U.S. Geological Survey teams. A personal feud between Cope and paleontologist Othniel Charles Marsh led to a period of intense fossil-finding competition now known as the Bone Wars. Cope's financial fortunes soured after failed mining ventures in the 1880s, forcing him to sell off much of his fossil collection. He experienced a resurgence in his career toward the end of his life before dying on April 12, 1897.
Though Cope's scientific pursuits nearly bankrupted him, his contributions helped to define the field of American paleontology. He was a prodigious writer with 1,400 papers published over his lifetime, although his rivals debated the accuracy of his rapidly published works. He discovered, described, and named more than 1,000 vertebrate species, including hundreds of fishes and dozens of dinosaurs. His proposal for the origin of mammalian molars is notable among his theoretical contributions. "Cope's rule", the hypothesis that mammalian lineages gradually grow larger over geologic time, is, despite being named after him, "neither explicit nor implicit" in his work.
Biography
Early life
Edward Drinker Cope was born on July 28, 1840, the eldest son of Alfred Cope and Hannah, daughter of Thomas Edge, of Chester County, Pennsylvania. He was a distant cousin of historian Gilbert Cope. His middle name, "Drinker", was his paternal grandmother's maiden name, she being daughter of John Drinker, of Philadelphia. The Cope family were of English origin; the first to settle in America, in 1683, was Oliver Cope, a tailor formerly of Avebury, Wiltshire, who was granted two hundred and fifty acres in Delaware. The death of his mother when he was three years old seemed to have had little effect on young Edward, as he mentioned in his letters that he had no recollection of her. His stepmother, Rebecca Biddle, filled the maternal role; Cope referred to her warmly, as well as his younger stepbrother, James Biddle Cope. Alfred, an orthodox member of the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers), operated a lucrative shipping business started by his father, Thomas P. Cope, in 1821. He was a philanthropist who gave money to the Society of Friends, the Philadelphia Zoological Gardens, and the Institute for Colored Youth.
Edward was born and raised in a large stone house called "Fairfield", whose location is now within the boundaries of Philadelphia. The of pristine and exotic gardens of the house offered a landscape that Edward was able to explore. The Copes began teaching their children to read and write while very young, and took Edward on trips across New England and to museums, zoos, and gardens. Cope's interest in animals became apparent at a young age, as did his natural artistic ability.
Alfred intended to give his son the same education he himself had received. At age nine, Edward was sent to a day school in Philadelphia; at 12, he attended the Friends' Boarding School at Westtown, near West Chester, Pennsylvania. The school was founded in 1799 with fundraising by members of the Society of Friends (Quakers), and provided much of the Cope family's education. The prestigious school was expensive, costing Alfred $500 in tuition each year, and in his first year, Edward studied algebra, chemistry, scripture, physiology, grammar, astronomy, and Latin. Edward's letters home requesting a larger allowance show he was able to manipulate his father, and he was, according to author and Cope biographer Jane Davidson, "a bit of a spoiled brat". His letters suggest he was lonely at the school—it was the first time he had been away from his home for an extended period. Otherwise, Edward's studies progressed much like a typical boy—he consistently had "less than perfect" or "not quite satisfactory" marks for conduct from his teachers, and did not work hard on his penmanship lessons, which may have contributed to his often-illegible handwriting as an adult.
Edward returned to Westtown in 1855, accompanied by two of his sisters. Biology began to interest him more that year, and he studied natural history texts in his spare time. While at the school, he frequently visited the Academy of Natural Sciences. Edward often obtained bad marks due to quarreling and bad conduct. His letters to his father show he chafed at farm work and betrayed flashes of the temper for which he would later become well known. After sending Edward back to the farm for summer break in 1854 and 1855, Alfred did not return Edward to school after spring 1856. Instead, Alfred attempted to turn his son into a gentleman farmer, which he considered a wholesome profession that would yield enough profit to lead a comfortable life, and improve the undersized Edward's health. Until 1863, Cope's letters to his father continually expressed his yearning for a more professional scientific career than that of a farmer, which he called "dreadfully boring".
While working on farms, Edward continued his education on his own. In 1858, he began working part-time at the Academy of Natural Sciences, reclassifying and cataloguing specimens, and published his first series of research results in January 1859. Cope began taking French and German classes with a former Westtown teacher. Though Alfred resisted his son's pursuit of a science career, he paid for his son's private studies. Instead of working the farm his father bought for him, Edward rented out the land and used the income to further his scientific endeavors.
Alfred finally gave in to Edward's wishes and paid for university classes. Cope attended the University of Pennsylvania in the 1861 and/or 1862 academic years, studying comparative anatomy under Joseph Leidy, one of the most influential anatomists and paleontologists at the time. Cope asked his father to pay for a tutor in German and French to allow him to read scholarly works in those languages. During this period, he had a job recataloging the herpetological collection at the Academy of Natural Sciences, where he became a member at Leidy's urging. Cope visited the Smithsonian Institution on occasion, where he became acquainted with Spencer Baird, who was an expert in the fields of ornithology and ichthyology. In 1861, he published his first paper on Salamandridae classification; over the next five years he published primarily on reptiles and amphibians. Cope's membership in the Academy of Natural Sciences and American Philosophical Society gave him outlets to publish and announce his work; many of his early paleontological works were published by the Philosophical Society.
European travels
In 1863 and 1864, during the American Civil War, Cope traveled through Europe, taking the opportunity to visit the most esteemed museums and societies of the time. Initially, he seemed interested in helping out at a field hospital, but in letters to his father later on in the war, this aspiration seemed to disappear; instead he considered working in the American South to assist freed African Americans. Davidson suggests Cope's correspondence with Leidy and Ferdinand Hayden, who worked as field surgeons during the war, might have informed Cope of the horrors of the occupation. Edward was involved in a love affair; his father did not approve. Whether Edward or the unnamed woman (whom he at one point intended to marry) broke off the relationship is unknown, but he took the breakup poorly. Biographer and paleontologist Henry Fairfield Osborn attributed Edward's sudden departure for Europe as a method of keeping him from being drafted into the Civil War. Cope did write to his father from London on February 11, 1864, "I shall get home in time to catch and be caught by the new draft. I shall not be sorry for this, as I know certain persons who would be mean enough to say that I have gone to Europe to avoid the war." Eventually, Cope took the pragmatic approach and waited out the conflict. He may have suffered from mild depression during this period, and often complained of boredom.
Despite his torpor, Edward proceeded with his tour of Europe, and met with some of the most highly esteemed scientists of the world during his travels through France, Germany, Great Britain, Ireland, Austria, Italy, and Eastern Europe, most likely with introductory letters from Leidy and Spencer Baird. In the winter of 1863, Edward met Othniel Charles Marsh while in Berlin. Marsh, age 32, was attending the University of Berlin. He held two university degrees in comparison to Edward's lack of formal schooling past 16, but Edward had written 37 scientific papers in comparison to Marsh's two published works. While they would later become rivals, the two men appeared to take a liking to each other upon meeting. Marsh led Edward on a tour of the city, and they stayed together for days. After Edward left Berlin, the two maintained correspondence, exchanging manuscripts, fossils, and photographs. Edward burned many of his journals and letters from Europe upon his return to the United States. Friends intervened and stopped Cope from destroying some of his drawings and notes, in what author Url Lanham deemed a "partial suicide".
Family and early career
When Cope returned to Philadelphia in 1864, his family made every effort to secure him a teaching post as the Professor of Zoology at Haverford College, a small Quaker school where the family had philanthropic ties. The college awarded him an honorary master's degree so he could have the position. Cope even began to think about marriage and consulted his father in the matter, telling him of the girl he would like to marry: "an amiable woman, not over sensitive, with considerable energy, and especially one inclined to be serious and not inclined to frivolity and display—the more truly Christian of course the better—seems to be the most practically the most suitable for me, though intellect and accomplishments have more charm." Cope thought of Annie Pim, a member of the Society of Friends, as less a lover than companion, declaring, "her amiability and domestic qualities generally, her capability of taking care of a house, etc., as well as her steady seriousness weigh far more with me than any of the traits which form the theme of poets!" Cope's family approved of his choice, and the marriage took place in July 1865 at Pim's farmhouse in Chester County, Pennsylvania. The two had a single daughter, Julia Biddle Cope, born June 10, 1866. Cope's return to the United States also marked an expansion of his scientific studies; in 1864, he described several fishes, a whale, and the amphibian Amphibamus grandiceps (his first paleontological contribution).
During the period between 1866 and 1867, Cope went on trips to western parts of the country. He related to his father his scientific experiences; to his daughter he sent descriptions of animal life as part of her education. Cope found educating his students at Haverford "a pleasure", but wrote to his father that he "could not get any work done." He resigned from his position at Haverford and moved his family to Haddonfield, in part to be closer to the fossil beds of western New Jersey. Due to the time-consuming nature of his Haverford position, Cope had not had time to attend to his farm and had let it out to others, but eventually found he was in need of more money to fuel his scientific habits. Pleading with his father for money to pursue his career, he finally sold the farm in 1869. Alfred apparently did not press his son to continue farming, and Edward focused on his scientific career. He continued his continental travels, including trips to Virginia, Tennessee, and North Carolina. He visited caves across the region. He stopped these cave explorations after an 1871 trip to the Wyandotte Caves in Indiana, but remained interested in the subject. Cope had visited Haddonfield many times in the 1860s, paying periodic visits to the marl pits. The fossils he found in these pits became the focus of several papers, including a description in 1868 of Elasmosaurus platyurus and Laelaps. Marsh accompanied him on one of these excursions. Cope's proximity to the beds after moving to Haddonfield made more frequent trips possible. The Copes lived comfortably in a frame house backed by an apple orchard. Two maids tended the estate, which entertained a number of guests. Cope's only concern was for more money to spend on his scientific work.
The 1870s were the golden years of Cope's career, marked by his most prominent discoveries and rapid flow of publications. Among his descriptions were the therapsid Lystrosaurus (1870), the archosauromorph Champsosaurus (1876), and the sauropod Amphicoelias (1878), possibly the largest dinosaur ever discovered. In the period of one year, from 1879 to 1880, Cope published 76 papers based on his travels through New Mexico and Colorado, and on the findings of his collectors in Texas, Kansas, Oregon, Colorado, Wyoming, and Utah. During the peak years, Cope published around 25 reports and preliminary observations each year. The hurried publications led to errors in interpretation and naming—many of his scientific names were later canceled or withdrawn. In comparison, Marsh wrote and published less frequently and more succinctly—his works appeared in the widely read American Journal of Science, which led to faster reception abroad, and Marsh's reputation grew more rapidly than Cope's.
In autumn 1871, Cope began prospecting farther west to the fossil fields of Kansas. Leidy and Marsh had been to the region earlier, and Cope employed one of Marsh's guides, Benjamin Mudge, who was in want of a job. Cope's companion Charles Sternberg described the lack of water and good food available to Cope and his helpers on these expeditions. Cope would suffer from a "severe attack of nightmare" in which "every animal of which we had found trace during the day played with him at night ... sometimes he would lose half the night in this exhausting slumber." Nevertheless, Cope continued to lead the party from sunrise to sunset, sending letters to his wife and child describing his finds. The severe desert conditions and Cope's habit of overworking himself till he was bedridden caught up with him, and in 1872, he broke down from exhaustion. Cope maintained a regular pattern of summers spent prospecting and winters writing up his findings from 1871 to 1879.
Throughout the decade, Cope traveled across the West, exploring rocks of the Eocene in 1872 and the Titanothere Beds of Colorado in 1873. In 1874, Cope was employed with the Wheeler Survey, a group of surveys led by George Montague Wheeler that mapped parts of the United States west of the 100th meridian. The survey traveled through New Mexico, whose Puerco formations, he wrote to his father, provided "the most important find in geology I have ever made". The New Mexico bluffs contained millions of years of formation and subsequent deformation, and were in an area which had not been visited by Leidy or Marsh. Being part of the survey had other advantages; Cope was able to draw on fort commissaries and defray publishing costs. While there was no salary, his findings would be published in the annual reports the surveys printed. Cope brought Annie and Julia along on one such survey, and rented a house for them at Fort Bridger, but he spent more of his own money on these survey trips than he would have liked.
Alfred died December 4, 1875, and left Edward with an inheritance of nearly a quarter of a million dollars. Alfred's death was a blow to Cope; his father was a constant confidant. The same year marked a suspension of much of Cope's field work and a new emphasis on writing up discoveries of the previous years. His chief publication of the time, The Vertebrata of the Cretaceous Formations of the West, was a collection of 303 pages and 54 illustration plates. The memoir summarized his experiences prospecting in New Jersey and Kansas. Cope now had the finances to hire multiple teams to search for fossils for him year-round and he advised the Philadelphia Centennial Exhibition on their fossil displays. Cope's studies of marine reptiles of Kansas closed in 1876, opening a new focus on terrestrial reptiles. The same year, Cope moved from Haddonfield to 2100 and 2102 Pine Street in Philadelphia. He converted one of the two houses into a museum where he stored his growing collection of fossils. Cope's expeditions took him across Kansas, Colorado, New Mexico, Wyoming, and Montana. His initial journey into the Clarendon beds of Upper Miocene and Lower Pliocene of Texas led to an affiliation with the Geological Survey of Texas. Cope's papers on the region constitute some of his most important paleontological contributions. In 1877, he purchased half the rights to the American Naturalist to publish the papers he produced at a rate so high, Marsh questioned their dating.
Cope returned to Europe in August 1878 in response to an invitation to join the British Association for the Advancement of Science's Dublin meeting. He was warmly welcomed in England and France, and met with the distinguished paleontologists and archeologists of the period. Marsh's attempts to sully Cope's reputation had made little impact on anyone save paleontologist Thomas Henry Huxley, who according to Osborn, "alone treated [Cope] with coolness". Following the Dublin meeting, Cope spent two days with the French Association for the Advancement of Science. At each gathering, Cope exhibited dinosaur restorations by Philadelphia colleague John A. Ryder and various charts and plates from geological surveys of the 1870s led by Ferdinand Vandeveer Hayden. He returned to London on October 12, meeting with anatomist Richard Owen, ichthyologist Albert Günther, and paleontologist H. G. Seeley. While in Europe, Cope purchased a great collection of fossils from Argentina. Cope never found time to describe the collection and many of the boxes remained unopened until his death.
Bone Wars
Cope's relations with Marsh turned into a competition for fossils between the two, known today as the Bone Wars. The conflict's seeds began upon the men's return to the United States in the 1860s, although Cope named Colosteus marshii for Marsh in 1867, and Marsh returned the favor, naming Mosasaurus copeanus for Cope in 1869. Cope introduced his colleague to the marl pit owner Albert Vorhees when the two visited the site. Marsh went behind Cope's back and made a private agreement with Vorhees: any fossils that Vorhees's men found were sent back to Marsh at New Haven. When Marsh was at Haddonfield examining one of Cope's fossil finds—a complete skeleton of a large aquatic plesiosaur, Elasmosaurus, that had four flippers and a long neck—he commented that the fossil's head was on the wrong end, evidently stating that Cope had put the skull at the end of the vertebrae of the tail. Cope was outraged and the two argued for some time until they agreed to have Leidy examine the bones and determine who was right. Leidy came, picked up the head of the fossil and put it on the other end. Cope was horrified since he had already published a paper on the fossil with the error at the American Philosophical Society. He immediately tried to buy back the copies, but some remained with their buyers (Marsh and Leidy kept theirs). The whole ordeal might have passed easily enough had Leidy not exposed the cover-up at the next society meeting, not to alienate Cope, but only in response to Cope's brief statement where he never admitted he was wrong. Cope and Marsh would never talk to each other amicably again, and by 1873, open hostility had broken out between them.
The rivalry between the two increased towards the latter half of the 1870s. In 1877, Marsh received a letter from Arthur Lakes, a schoolteacher in Golden, Colorado. Lakes had been hiking in the mountains near the town of Morrison with his friend, H. C. Beckwith, looking for fossilized leaves in the Dakota sandstone. Instead, the pair found large bones embedded in the rock. Lakes wrote that the bones were "apparently a vertebra and a humerus bone of some gigantic saurian." While Lakes sent Marsh some 1,500 pounds of bone, he also sent Cope some of the specimens. Marsh published his finds first, and having been paid $100 for the finds Lakes wrote to Cope that the samples should be forwarded to Marsh. Cope was offended by the slight. Meanwhile, Cope received bones from school superintendent O.W. Lucas in March 1877 from Cañon City; the remains were of a dinosaur even bigger than Lakes' that Marsh had described.
Word that Lakes had notified Cope of his finds galvanized Marsh into action. When Marsh heard from Union Pacific Railroad workers W.E. Carlin and W.H. Reed about a vast boneyard northwest of Laramie in Como Bluff, Marsh sent his agent, Samuel Wendell Williston, to take charge of the digging. Cope, in response, learned of Carlin and Reed's discoveries and sent his own men to find bones in the area. The two scientists attempted to sabotage each other's progress. Cope was described as a genius and what Marsh lacked in intelligence, he easily made up for in connections—Marsh's uncle was George Peabody, a rich banker who supported Marsh with money, and a secure position at the Peabody Museum. Marsh lobbied John Wesley Powell to act against Cope and attempted to persuade Hayden to "muzzle" Cope's publishing. Both men tried to spy on the other's whereabouts and attempted to offer their collectors more money in the hopes of recruiting them to their own side. Cope was able to recruit David Baldwin in New Mexico and Frank Williston in Wyoming from Marsh. Cope and Marsh were extremely secretive as to the source of their fossils. When Henry Fairfield Osborn, at the time a student at Princeton, visited Cope to ask where to travel to look for fossils in the West, Cope politely refused to answer.
When Cope arrived back in the United States after his tour of Europe in 1878, he had nearly two years of fossil findings from Lucas. Among these dinosaurs was Camarasaurus, one of the most recognizable dinosaur recreations of the time. The summer of 1879 took Cope to Salt Lake City, San Francisco, and north to Oregon, where he was amazed at the rich flora and the blueness of the Pacific Ocean. In 1879, the United States Congress consolidated the various government survey teams into the United States Geological Survey with Clarence King as its leader. This was discouraging to Cope because King named Marsh, an old college friend, as the chief paleontologist. The period of Cope's and Marsh's paleontological digs in the American West spanned from 1877 to 1892, by which time both men exhausted much of their financial resources.
Later years
The 1880s proved disastrous for Cope. Marsh's close association with the Geological Survey gave him the resources to employ 54 staff members over the course of ten years. His teaching position at Yale meant he had guaranteed access to the American Journal of Science for publication. Cope had his interest in the Naturalist, but it drained him of funds. After Hayden was removed from the survey, Cope lost his source of government funding. His fortune was not enough to support his rivalry, so Cope invested in mining. Most of his properties were silver mines in New Mexico; one mine yielded an ore vein worth $3 million in silver chloride. Cope visited the mines each summer from 1881 to 1885, taking the opportunity to supervise or collect other minerals. For a while he made good money, but the mines stopped producing and by 1886 he had to give up his now-worthless stocks. The same year he received a teaching position at the University of Pennsylvania. He continued to travel west, but realized he would not be able to best Marsh in cornering the market for bones; he had to release the collectors he had hired and sell his collections. During this period, he published 40 to 75 papers each year. With the failure of his mines, Cope began searching for a job, but was turned down at the Smithsonian and American Museum of Natural History. He turned to giving lectures for hire and writing magazine articles. Each year, he lobbied Congress for an appropriation with which to finish his work on "Cope's Bible", a volume on Tertiary vertebrates, but was continually turned down. Rather than work with Powell and the survey, Cope tried to inflame sentiment against them.
At Marsh's urging, Powell pushed for Cope to return specimens he had unearthed during his employment under the government surveys. This was an outrage to Cope, who had used his own money while working as a volunteer. In response, Cope went to the editor of the New York Herald and promised a scandalous headline. Since 1885, Cope had kept an elaborate journal of mistakes and misdeeds that both Marsh and Powell had committed over the years. From scientific errors to publishing mistakes, he had them written down in a journal he kept in the bottom drawer of his Pine Street desk. Cope sought out Marsh's assistants, who complained of being denied access and credit by their employer and of being chronically underpaid. Reporter William Hosea Ballou ran the first article on January 12, 1890, in what would become a series of newspaper debates between Marsh, Powell, and Cope. Cope attacked Marsh for plagiarism and financial mismanagement, and attacked Powell for his geological classification errors and misspending of government-allocated funds. Marsh and Powell published their own side of the story and, in the end, little changed. No congressional hearing was created to investigate Powell's alleged misallocation of funds, while Cope and Marsh were not held responsible for any mistakes. Indirectly, however, the attacks may have been influential in Marsh's fall from power in the survey. Due to pressure from Powell over bad press, Marsh was removed from his position for the government surveys. Cope's relations with the president of the University of Pennsylvania soured, and the entire funding for paleontology in the government surveys was pulled.
Cope took his sinking fortunes in stride. In writing to Osborn about the articles, he laughed at the outcome, saying, "It will now rest largely with you whether or not I am supposed to be a liar and am actuated by jealousy and disappointment. I think Marsh is impaled on the horns of Monoclonius sphenocerus." Cope was well aware of his enemies and was carefree enough to name a species after a combination of "Cope" and "hater", Anisonchus cophater. Through his years of financial hardship, he was able to continue publishing papers—his most productive years were 1884 and 1885, with 79 and 62 papers published, respectively. The 1880s marked the publication of two of the best-known fossil taxa described by Cope: the pelycosaur Edaphosaurus in 1882 and the early dinosaur Coelophysis in 1889. In 1889, he succeeded Leidy, who had died the previous year, as professor of zoology at the University of Pennsylvania. The small yearly stipend was enough for Cope's family to move back into one of the townhouses he had been forced to relinquish earlier.
In 1892, Cope (then 52 years old) was granted expense money for field work from the Texas Geological Survey. With his finances improved, he was able to publish a massive work on the Batrachians of North America, which was the most detailed analysis and organization of the continent's frogs and amphibians ever mastered, and the 1,115-page The Crocodilians Lizards and Snakes of North America. In the 1890s, his publication rate increased to an average of 43 articles a year. His final expedition to the West took place in 1894, when he prospected for dinosaurs in South Dakota and visited sites in Texas and Oklahoma. The same year, Julia was married to William H. Collins, a Haverford astronomy professor. The couple's ages—Julia was 28 and the groom 35—were past the conventions of Victorian marriage. After their European honeymoon, the couple returned to Haverford. While Annie moved to Haverford, as well, Cope did not. His official reason was the long commute and late lectures he gave in Philadelphia. In private correspondence, however, Osborn wrote that the two had essentially separated, though they remained on amiable terms.
Cope sold his collections to the American Museum of Natural History in 1895; his set of 10,000 American fossil mammals sold for $32,000, lower than Cope's asking price of $50,000. The purchase was financed by the donations from New York's high society. Cope sold three other collections for $29,000. While his collection contained more than 13,000 specimens, Cope's fossil hoard was still much smaller than Marsh's collection, valued at over a million dollars. The University of Pennsylvania bought part of Cope's ethnological artifact collection for $5,500. The Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia's foremost museum, did not bid on any of Cope's sales due to bad blood between Cope and the museum's leaders; as a result, many of Cope's major finds left the city. Cope's proceeds from the sales allowed him to rehire Sternberg to prospect for fossils on his behalf.
Death
In 1896, Cope began suffering from a gastrointestinal illness he said was cystitis. His wife cared for him in Philadelphia when she was able; at other times, Cope's university secretary, Anna Brown, tended to him. Cope at this time lived in his Pine Street museum and rested on a cot surrounded by his fossil finds. Cope often prescribed himself medications, including large amounts of morphine, belladonna, and formalin, a substance based on formaldehyde used to preserve specimens. Osborn was horrified by Cope's actions and made arrangements for surgery, but the plans were put on hold after a temporary improvement in Cope's health. Cope went to Virginia looking for fossils, became ill again, and returned to his home very weak. Osborn visited Cope on April 5, inquiring about Cope's health, but the sick paleontologist pressed his friend for his views on the origin of mammals. Word of Cope's illness spread, and he was visited by friends and colleagues; even in a feverish condition Cope delivered lectures from his bed. Cope died on April 12, 1897, 16 weeks short of his 57th birthday.
Sternberg, still prospecting for Cope that spring, was woken by a liveryman who relayed word from Annie that Cope had died three days earlier. Sternberg wrote in his memoirs, "I had lost friends before, and I had known what it was to bury my own dead, even my firstborn son, but I had never sorrowed more deeply than I did over the news." Cope's Quaker funeral consisted of six men: Osborn, his colleague William Berryman Scott, Cope's friend Persifor Frazer, son-in-law Collins, Horatio Wood, and Harrison Allen. The six sat around Cope's coffin among the fossils and Cope's pets, a tortoise and a Gila monster, for what Osborn called "a perfect Quaker silence ... an interminable length of time." Anticipating the quiet, Osborn had brought along a Bible and read an excerpt from the Book of Job, ending by saying, "These are the problems to which our friend devoted his life."
The coffin was loaded on a hearse and carried to a gathering at Fairfield; much of the gathering was spent in silence. After the coffin was removed, the assembled began talking. Frazer recalled that each person remembered Cope differently, and "Few men succeeded so well in concealing from anyone ... all the sides of his multiform character." Osborn, intending to follow the coffin to the graveyard, was instead pulled aside by Collins and taken to the reading of Cope's will—Osborn and Cope's brother-in-law John Garrett were named executors. Cope gave his family a choice of his books, with the remainder to be sold or donated to the University of Pennsylvania. After debts were handled, Cope left small bequests to friends and family—Anna Brown and Julia received $5000 each, while the remainder went to Annie. Cope's estate was valued at $75,327, not including additional revenue raised by sales of fossils to the American Museum of Natural History, for a total of $84,600. Some specimens preserved in alcohol made their way to the Academy of Natural Sciences, including a few Gordian worms.
Cope insisted through his will that no graveside service or burial be held; he had donated his body to science. He issued a final challenge to Marsh at his death: he had his skull donated to science so his brain could be measured, hoping his brain would be larger than that of his adversary; at the time, brain size was thought to be the true measure of intelligence. Marsh never accepted the challenge.
Osborn listed Cope's cause of death as uremic poisoning, combined with a large prostate, but the true cause of death is unknown. Many believed Cope had died of syphilis contracted from the women with whom he fraternized during his travels. In 1995, Davidson gained permission to have the skeleton examined by a medical doctor at the university. Dr. Morrie Kricun, a professor of radiology, concluded no evidence of bony syphilis was found on Cope's skeleton.
Public mentions of Cope's death were relatively slight. The Naturalist ran four photographs, a six-page obituary by editor J. S. Kingsley, and a two-page remembrance by Frazer. The National Academy of Sciences' official memoir was submitted years later and written by Osborn. The American Journal of Science devoted six paragraphs to Cope's passing, and incorrectly gave his age as 46. Cope was outlived by his rival Marsh, who was suffering poor health.
Evolution
As a young man, Cope read Charles Darwin's Voyage of a Naturalist, which had little effect on him. The only comment about Darwin's book recorded by Cope was that Darwin discussed "too much geology" from the account of his voyage. Due to his background in taxonomy and paleontology, Cope focused on evolution in terms of changing structure, rather than emphasizing geography and variation within populations as Darwin had. Over his lifetime, Cope's views on evolution shifted.
His original view, described in the paper "On the Origin of Genera" (1868), held that while Darwin's natural selection may affect the preservation of superficial characteristics in organisms, natural selection alone could not explain the formation of genera. Cope's suggested mechanism for this action was a "steady progressive development of organization" through what Cope termed "a continual crowding backward of the successive steps of individual development". In Cope's view, during embryological development, an organism could complete its growth with a new stage of development beyond its parents, taking it to a higher level of organization. Later individuals would inherit this new level of development—thus evolution was a continuous advance of organization, sometimes slowly and other times suddenly; this view is known as the law of acceleration.
Cope's beliefs later evolved to one with an increased emphasis on continual and utilitarian evolution with less involvement of a Creator. He became one of the founders of the Neo-Lamarckism school of thought, which holds that an individual can pass on traits acquired in its lifetime to offspring. Although the view has been shown incorrect, it was the prevalent theory among paleontologists in Cope's time. In 1887, Cope published his own "Origin of the Fittest: Essays in Evolution", detailing his views on the subject. He was a strong believer in the law of use and disuse—that an individual will slowly, over time, favor an anatomical part of its body so much that it will become stronger and larger as time progresses down the generations. The giraffe, for example, stretched its neck to reach taller trees and passed this acquired characteristic to its offspring in a developmental phase that is added to gestation in the womb.
Cope's Theology of Evolution (1887) argued that consciousness comes from the mind of the universe and governs evolution by directing animals to new goals. According to Sideris (2003), "[Cope] argued that organisms respond to changes in their environments by an exercise of choice. Consciousness itself, he maintained, was the principal force in evolution. Cope credited God with having built into evolution a life force that propelled organisms toward even higher levels of consciousness."
Personality and views
Julia assisted Osborn in writing a biography of her father, titled Cope: Master Naturalist. She would not comment on the name of the woman with whom her father had had an affair prior to his first European travel. Julia is believed to have burned any of the scandalous letters and journals Cope had kept, but many of his friends were able to give their recollections of the scandalous nature of some of Cope's unpublished routines. Charles R. Knight, a former friend called, "Cope's mouth the filthiest, from hearsay that in [Cope's] heyday no woman was safe within five miles of him." As Julia was the major financier behind The Master Naturalist, she wanted to keep her father's name in good standing and refused to comment on any misdeeds her father might have committed.
Cope was described by zoologist Henry Weed Fowler as "a man of medium height and build, but always impressive with his great energy and activity". To him, Fowler wrote, "[Cope] was both genial and always interesting, easily approachable, and both kindly and helpful." Cope's affability during visits to the Academy of Natural Sciences to compare specimens was later recalled by his colleague Witmer Stone: "I have often seen him busily engaged in such comparisons, all the while whistling whole passages from grand opera, or else counting the scales on the back of a lizard, while he conversed in a most amusing manner with some small street urchin who had drifted into the museum and was watching in awe with eyes and mouth wide open." His self-taught nature, however, meant that he was largely hostile to bureaucracy and politics. He had a famous temper; one friend called Cope a "militant paleontologist". Despite his faults, he was generally well liked by his contemporaries. American paleontologist Alfred Romer wrote that, "[Cope's] little slips from virtue were those we might make ourselves, were we bolder".
Cope was raised as a Quaker, and was taught that the Bible was literal truth. Although he never confronted his family about their religious views, Osborn writes that Cope was at least aware of the conflict between his scientific career and his religion. Osborn writes: "If Edward harbored intellectual doubts about the literalness of the Bible ... he did not express them in his letters to his family but there can be little question ... that he shared the intellectual unrest of the period." Lanham writes that Cope's religious fervor (which seems to have subsided after his father's death) was embarrassing to even his devout Quaker associates. Biographer Jane Davidson believes that Osborn overstated Cope's internal religious conflicts. She ascribes Cope's deference to his father's beliefs as an act of respect or a measure to retain his father's financial support. Frazer's reminiscences about his friend suggest Cope often told people what they wanted to hear, rather than his true views.
Cope's views on human races would today be considered racist. In his essays on evolution, he assessed the physiognomies of three sub-species of human — termed the Negro, the Mongolian, and the Indo-European — in comparison to those of apes and human embryos, and drew the following conclusion:The Indo-European race is then the highest by virtue of the acceleration of growth in the development of the muscles by which the body is maintained in the erect position (extensors of the leg), and in those important elements of beauty, a well-developed nose and beard. It is also superior in those points in which it is more embryonic than the other races, viz., the want of prominence of the jaws and cheek-bones, since these are associated with a greater predominance of the cerebral part of the skull, increased size of cerebral hemispheres, and greater intellectual power.He believed that if, "a race was not white then it was inherently more ape-like". He was opposed to blacks because of their "degrading vices", believing that the "inferior Negro should go back to Africa." He did not blame blacks for their perceived "poor virtue", but wrote, "A vulture will always eat carrion when surrounded on all hands by every kind of cleaner food. It is the nature of the bird". Cope was against the modern view of women's rights, believing in the husband's role as protector; he was opposed to women's suffrage, as he felt they would be unduly influenced by their husbands.
Legacy
In fewer than 40 years as a scientist, Cope published over 1,400 scientific papers, a record that is rivaled by few other scientists. His major works include three volumes: On the Origin of Genera (1867), The Vertebrata of the Tertiary Formations of the West (1884) and "Essays in Evolution". He discovered a total of 56 new dinosaur species during the Bone Wars compared to Marsh's 80. Although Cope is today known as a herpetologist and paleontologist, his contributions extended to ichthyology, in which he cataloged 300 species of fishes and described over 300 species of reptiles over three decades. In total, he discovered and described over 1,000 species of fossil vertebrates and published 600 separate titles.
The salamander Dicamptodon copei , the dinosaur Drinker nisti , the lizards Alopoglossus copii , Gambelia copeii , Plestiodon copei , Sepsina copei ,Sphaerodactylus copei , the snakes Thamnophis copei , Aspidura copei , Cemophora coccinea copei , Coniophanes imperialis copei ,Dipsas copei , Cope's gray treefrog Hyla chrysoscelis Cope, 1880, and the splash tetra genus Copella are among the many taxa named in honor of Cope. Currently, 21 fish species named copei are distributed among 11 families. Cope lent his name to the Journal of the American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists (ASIH) from 1913 to 2020. Cope's Pine Street home is recognized as a national landmark.
Cope named a species of Caribbean snake, Liophis juliae, in honor of his daughter Julia Cope Collins (1866–1959).
Cope's remains are still kept as scientific specimens. His brain is preserved in alcohol at the Wistar Institute, and his skull is at the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. His ashes were placed at the institute with those of Leidy, while his bones were extracted and kept in a locked drawer to be studied by anatomy students. In 1993, the American photographer Louie Psihoyos loaned Cope's skull and prominently incorporated it into his book Hunting Dinosaurs (1994). Psihoyos and his assistant, John Knoebber, traveled around America with Cope's skull, taking pictures of the skull in different places on the "adventure" and showing it to various modern paleontologists. Among the notable incidents during the journey was Robert T. Bakker pouring pasta into the skull to measure Cope's brain size.
See also
Port Kennedy Bone Cave
List of species in Port Kennedy Bone Cave
:Category:Taxa named by Edward Drinker Cope
Footnotes
References
Bibliography
Beolens, Bo; Watkins, Michael; Grayson, Michael (2011). The Eponym Dictionary of Reptiles. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. xiii + 296 pp. .
Jackson, J.R. & Quinn, A. (2023), "Post-Darwinian Fish Classifications: Theories and Methodologies of Günther, Cope, and Gill", History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences, Vol.45, No.4, (2023), pp. 1–37.
Selected works
On The Origin of Genera; From the Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, Oct. 1868 (Merrihew & Son, 1869)
The Vertebrata of the Tertiary Formations of the West (Government Printing Office, 1884).
"The Origin of the Fittest: Essays on Evolution" (Nature, 1887). Internet Archive / Archive.org
The Crocodilians, Lizards and Snakes of North America (Government Printing Office, 1900).
External links
Profile of Edward Drinker Cope at the Niagara Falls Museum Collection
Edward Drinker Cope obituary, 1897 archived via JSTOR
View works by Edward Drinker Cope online at the Biodiversity Heritage Library.
National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoir
1840 births
1897 deaths
19th-century American zoologists
American taxonomists
American anatomists
American herpetologists
American ichthyologists
American paleontologists
American Quakers
American expatriates in Germany
American expatriates in the United Kingdom
Lamarckism
Orthogenesis
People from Haddonfield, New Jersey
Scientists from Philadelphia
Theistic evolutionists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body%20Language%20%28Kylie%20Minogue%20album%29
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Body Language (Kylie Minogue album)
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Body Language is the ninth studio album by Australian singer Kylie Minogue. It was released on 10 November 2003 by Parlophone. Following the commercial success of her eighth studio album Fever (2001), Minogue enlisted a diverse group of writers and producers to aid in creating a new album, including Cathy Dennis, Dan Carey, Emiliana Torrini, Johnny Douglas, and Kurtis Mantronik among others. Influenced by the musical works of the 1980s and artists like Prince and Scritti Politti, Body Language musically differs from Minogue's previous albums, which mainly featured disco-oriented dance-pop tracks, and instead explores genres like synth-pop, electroclash, R&B, and hip hop. Lyrically, the album touches upon themes of enjoyment, flirting, and sex.
Following its release, Body Language received generally favourable reviews from music critics, many of whom complimented Minogue for experimenting with new genres and the overall production of the album. Some critics, however, opined that many songs lacked catchy material and were not suitable for dancing. Commercially, Body Language peaked at number two on the albums chart of Australia and was certified double-platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA). In the United Kingdom, the album peaked at number six and was certified platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI).
Three singles were released from Body Language. "Slow" was released as the lead single in November 2003 and was a commercial success, peaking at number one on the singles charts of Australia, Denmark, Spain and the United Kingdom. "Red Blooded Woman" was released as the second single and reached the top five in Australia and the United Kingdom. "Chocolate" was released as the final single and peaked inside the top 10 in the United Kingdom. Minogue performed at a one-off concert-show titled "Money Can't Buy", on 15 November 2003 to mark the release of the album. Body Language became notable for displaying another change in Minogue's persona and is cited as an example of her numerous "reinventions". The album sold 1.5 million copies worldwide.
Background and development
In October 2001, Kylie Minogue released her eighth studio album Fever. The disco and Europop-influenced dance-pop album became an international commercial success, debuting at number one on the record charts of Minogue's native Australia and the United Kingdom. It was Minogue's first album to be released in the United States since her second studio album Enjoy Yourself (1989), and became her biggest commercial success in the region after peaking at number three on the Billboard 200 chart. With worldwide sales over six million copies, Fever became Minogue's highest-selling album to date. The success of the album, particularly in the US, was credited to the commercial impact of its lead single "Can't Get You Out of My Head", which reached number one in 40 countries. "Can't Get You Out of My Head" sold over five million copies worldwide, becoming Minogue's highest selling single to date and also one of the best-selling singles of all time.
Soon, Minogue began work on her ninth studio album Body Language. Aiming to create a dance-pop album inspired by electronic music from the 1980s, Minogue enlisted collaborators such as Cathy Dennis, Dan Carey, Emiliana Torrini, Johnny Douglas and Mantronix. Talking further about Scritti Politti, a British post-punk band, Minogue reminisced about her collaboration with the band's frontman Green Gartside, who provides vocals on the track "Someday", saying, "To this day I haven't met him! I left a message on his answering machine, saying, "Hi, it's Kylie! I just wanted to say thanks so much! You sound brilliant!" "After Dark" was co-written by Dennis, who had previously co-written "Can't Get You Out of My Head" for Minogue. Torrini, who co-wrote "Slow", revealed how she was approached for writing the song, saying "It was like I had just accidentally walked into the line of fire with, "Hey! You There! It was all quite surreal. I still think Kylie's people were trying to call Jamelia, and they just got the wrong number. It'd be much more funny if that is how it actually happened". The recording of Body Language took place during the summer of 2003, in London, England; Dublin, Ireland and Marbella, Spain.
Music and lyrics
Inspired by music from the 1980s, Body Language deviates from Minogue's usual disco-influenced dance-pop style, evident on albums like Light Years (2000) and Fever (2001), and instead explores genres like synthpop, electroclash, club and R&B. In comparison to her previous work, Body Language is a "slower-burning record" and begins with the song "Slow", a "minimal" and simple track which serves as a primary example of the synthpop-styled production of the album. Adrien Begrand from PopMatters compared it to "More More More", the opening track of Fever, saying "In contrast to the pulsating, hi-hat driven dance beat of Fever'''s "More More More", Body Language gets off to a more understated start". Other synthpop songs on the album include "Still Standing" and "Promises", which make use of "buzzing, low synth lines driving the beats, and chord flourishes that sound straight out of 1984". The former track also displays influences of nu-disco and club music.
Many songs on Body Language are influenced by R&B and hip hop music, two genres Minogue newly experimented with on the album. "Red Blooded Woman" "blends the 1980s sound with an almost garage-like beat" and contains a "Boy! Boy!" hook and "la la la" bridge. Critics felt its production was similar to that by American hip hop and R&B producer Timbaland. Elements of funk are also present and are notably clear on tracks like "Sweet Music" and "I Feel For You". "Secret (Take You Home)" received considerable coverage as it features a "coquettish" rap section delivered by Minogue. Body Language also contains ballads such as the quiet storm-influenced "Chocolate" and "Obsession". Minogue's vocal delivery on the album is mostly seductive and breathy in tone, such as in songs like "Slow" and "Chocolate", although the track "Obsession" features raspy vocals.
Critics noted references and similarities to 1980s pop music throughout the album. Adrien Begrand from PopMatters found the hook of "Sweet Music" similar to those in songs by Prince and INXS. "Still Standing" was described by Helen Pidd from The Guardian as "a magnificent blend of Prince's "Kiss" and Peter Gabriel's "Sledgehammer"". "Red Blooded Woman" contains a reference to British band Dead or Alive's 1985 song "You Spin Me Round (Like a Record)", in the line "You got me spinning round, round, round, round like a record". The title of "I Feel For You" is the same as the 1979/1984 song by Prince and Chaka Khan, although it is not a cover of the song. "Secret (Take You Home)" directly refers to urban contemporary band Lisa Lisa and Cult Jam's 1984 song "I Wonder If I Take You Home", both in its title and refrain. The line of the song in which Minogue sings "don't confuse emotions with the pleasure principle" also refers to American recording artist Janet Jackson's 1987 song "The Pleasure Principle".
Lyrically, Body Language touches upon themes like enjoyment, flirting, sex, and "partying like it's 1987 all over again". In an interview with VH1, Minogue was asked why the lyrics on the album "sound more personal than they might have been a few years ago", and she responded by saying "Some of that could be just chance! I wrote lyrics that were intensely personal to me on an album a few years ago. Maybe people know me better now, and therefore, if a songwriter pitches me a song, they might tailor it [to fit me]. I get the lyrics of a tune and interpret them my way". Although the lyrics of "Slow" seem like an invitation to the dance floor, Minogue revealed that "it's about how time and space have a different meaning when you meet someone [you really like]". In "Sweet Music", Minogue sings about the "magic of the modern singer/producer partnership" in lines like "I think we're on to something/Your taste it mirrors mine/So hot and in the moment" and "Let's make this demo right". The song also makes use of double entendre in some lines. Similarly, "Chocolate" is "packed with saccharine innuendo". "Secret (Take You Home)" contains various metaphors that compare flirting and sex to car racing. Ballads like "Obsession" deal with issues of loss and the ending of a relationship.
Release Body Language was released on 14 November 2003 in Australia, while in the United Kingdom it was released three days later. In the United States, Body Language was released on 10 February 2004. The cover art of the album, as well as other promotion shoots, show Minogue striking a pose in a black and white striped crop top, which reveals her midriff, and black pantyhose, which were worn without shoes. Her appearance is similar to that of French actress and singer Brigitte Bardot. Minogue described the promotion shoots as "the perfect mix of coquette, kitten and rock 'n' roll", and revealed that "We shot it on location in the South of France, so it was [easy to] channel the spirit of [Brigitte] Bardot. She's a great iconic reference, particularly that period where she was working with Serge Gainsbourg". The title of the album was taken from a line from the song "Slow" in which Minogue sings "Read my body language".
Singles
"Slow" was released on 3 November 2003 as the lead single from Body Language. The song garnered critical acclaim, with Minogue's breathy and seductive vocal delivery receiving particular praise. Commercially, the single was a success. It debuted at number one on both the Australian Singles Chart and UK Singles Chart. In the latter region, it became Minogue's seventh number one single and made her a record-holding female artist for spending the longest duration as a UK chart topper. Elsewhere, it reached number one in Denmark, Spain, and on the US Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs chart. In Australia, "Slow" was certified platinum by the ARIA for shipments of 70,000 units. The accompanying music video for "Slow" was directed by Baillie Walsh and was shot in Barcelona, Spain. It features Minogue and a number of beach models performing synchronised choreography to the song while sunbathing next to the Piscina Municipal de Montjuïc swimming pool.
"Red Blooded Woman" was released as the second single on 1 March 2004. Critics praised its radio-friendly sound and lyrical content. The song performed well on charts, peaking at numbers four and five in Australia and the United Kingdom, respectively. An accompanying music video for the song was directed in Los Angeles by Jake Nava, and features Minogue performing dance routines in various locations.
"Chocolate" was released as the third and final single on 28 June 2004. It received mixed reviews from critics, some of whom praised its sensual nature but criticised Minogue's vocals for being over-processed. The song was a moderate commercial success, peaking at number six in the United Kingdom, but narrowly missing the top 10 in Australia. It became Minogue's 27th single to peak inside the top 10 in the UK. Dawn Shadforth, who had previously directed the video for "Can't Get You Out of My Head", collaborated on the music video for "Chocolate", which sees Minogue and a number of backup dancers performing a ballet-like dance routines as a tribute to Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer musicals.
Promotion
A one-off concert show was held at entertainment venue Hammersmith Apollo, London, on 15 November 2003 to mark the release of Body Language. The show was entitled "Money Can't Buy" as no tickets were publicly made available for sale and only fans with invitations were allowed to attend the concert. The 75-minute-long concert cost one million pounds to set up and display manufacturer Barco was hired to provide LED displays as backdrops to Minogue's performances. The singer wore five different costumes during the show which were designed by fashion houses like Chanel, Balenciaga, and Helmut Lang. The concert was entitled "Money Can't Buy" as no tickets were made available for purchase publicly; only competition winners and guests with invitations were allowed to attend the show. 4000 seats were made available for viewing the show and while most were reserved for invited guests, some tickets were auctioned at a charity ball for the "Full Stop" campaign by the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children (NSPCC).
The show was directed by Minogue's stylist and friend William Baker, with musical arrangement and choreography being handled by Steve Anderson and Michael Rooney, respectively. The setlist of the concert show was composed primarily of songs from Body Language; other songs were taken from Impossible Princess (1997), Light Years, and Fever. The show was split in four acts: "Paris by Night", "Bardello", "Electro" and "On Yer Bike". "Still Standing" and "Red Blooded Woman" were performed in the first act, "After Dark" and "Chocolate" in the second, "Slow" and "Obsession" in the third, and "Secret (Take You Home)" in the last. The performances were recorded for inclusion in the DVD recording of the event, which was released as Body Language Live on 12 July 2004. The DVD was certified platinum and gold in Australia and the United Kingdom, respectively.
Critical reception
At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, Body Language received an average score of 62 based on 17 reviews which indicates "generally favourable reviews". Chris True from AllMusic complimented Minogue for expanding her "horizons" and felt that the album was consistent and worked as a "piece", calling it "stylish without being smarmy, retro without being ironic". He favoured the overall production of the album and praised Minogue for displaying a "sense of class", which he felt was lacking in the work of female artists like Britney Spears, Christina Aguilera, and Madonna; he concluded by labelling Body Language a "near perfect pop record" and "what may well be the best album of her [Minogue's] career". Keith Caulfield from Billboard was also positive in his review and complimented Minogue for selecting a talented creative team, saying, "The sexy, solid set is glued together by danceable beats and Minogue's knack for picking great songs and producers." The Irish Times review of the song called the album a "worthy successor to 2001's smash hit Fever, a supremely danceable collection of electro-pop songs that's clearly in thrall to the 80s" and complimented Minogue's versatile vocal delivery.
Ethan Brown from New York was greatly impressed by opening track "Slow", and commented that most of the songs on the album "mimic its sound, none of the other songs on Body Language comes close to the achievement of "Slow"". Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine felt Body Language was a better album than Fever, calling it "less immediate and more experimental, a midway point between the alternative/electronica of 1997's Impossible Princess and Minogue's more mainstream post-millennium work", and praised it for being cohesive. He also complimented Minogue's "willingness to try something new – even if it's within the confines of dance-pop – is what's made her an international sensation 15 years running". Rob Sheffield from Rolling Stone favoured the sensual nature of the album, calling it "fantastic" and that "At thirty-five, she's ten times hotter than she was ten years ago – on Body Language, Kylie Minogue definitely sounds like she has a few more tricks stored on her hard drive than Britney [Spears] or Christina [Aguilera]".
Chris Willman from Entertainment Weekly called it Minogue's "Madonna-meets-Mirwais move" and felt that her exploration of new genres is "ludicrously enjoyable", although he opined that the album was "synthetic" and "all Body [sic] no soul". Helen Pidd from The Guardian favoured the blend of 1980s musical styles on the album, but felt that it lacked danceable songs, saying "Problem is, as with the majority of other tracks – including, most disappointingly, the Dennis-penned "After Dark" – you would be hard pushed to dance to it, which could well be Body Languages downfall". John Robinson from NME gave Body Language an overall positive review and called it "an extremely tastefully done, soulful modern r'n'b record", but felt that it "fails to live up to its predecessor [Fever]". Likewise, Adrien Begnard from PopMatters felt that Body Language lacked the "undeniably catchy" material which was present in Fever, but praised the overall production and the first half of the album; he concluded that "Even though Body Language is a bit of a misstep for Minogue, there's a sense of class to it" and that "Britney [Spears] could learn a thing or two". The Spin review of the album commented that Minogue "wears the '80s well" and praised the dance-oriented songs on the track listing, although they criticised the ballads and pointed out that "[at times] Minogue's vocals are so over-processed that they barely seem to exist at all". On the other hand, Andy Battaglia from The A.V. Club opined that the ballads "work" and concluded that "Body Language shows Minogue as a surprisingly impressive presence in spurts, but she sounds better with her pleasure engine revving at full purr".
Commercial performance
Although Body Language was not as much of a commercial success as Fever, it performed well nonetheless. In Minogue's native Australia, Body Language entered and peaked at number two on the albums chart and spent a total of 18 weeks on the chart. The Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) certified the album double-platinum for shipping 140,000 units in the country. In the United Kingdom, the album entered and peaked at number six on the UK Albums Chart with first week sales of 68,866 units. It remained inside the top 10 for one week, and for two weeks in the top 20. In total, it stayed on the chart for 30 weeks. Body Language was certified platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) on 28 November 2003, and had sold 398,035 copies by December 2007.
Elsewhere, Body Language peaked at number 23 on the Austrian Albums Chart and was certified gold by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI) for selling 7,500 units. In the Dutch-speaking Flanders region of Belgium, it peaked at number 10 on the Ultratop chart and spent a total of 17 weeks on the chart. It became Minogue's first album to reach the top 10 in the region. Body Language entered and peaked at number eight on the Swiss Albums Chart, and spent a total of 17 weeks on the chart. In this region, the IFPI certified it gold for selling 20,000 units. In the United States, Body Language debuted at number 42 on the Billboard 200 chart with "meager" first-week sales of 43,000 units. According to Nielson SoundScan, Body Language had sold 177,000 units in the US as of March 2011. The album sold 1.5 million copies worldwide.
Legacy
In 2004, Minogue was nominated for "Best Female Artist" at the 18th Annual Australian Recording Industry Association Music Awards and Body Language was nominated for "Best Pop Release". At the 2004 Brit Awards, the singer received her third-consecutive nomination for "Best International Female Solo Artist". At the 47th Grammy Awards ceremony held in the year 2005, lead single "Slow" was nominated for "Best Dance Recording", and in 2012, Minogue picked the song as her all-time favourite song from her 25 years in music.
Following its release, Body Language was considered to be an example of Minogue's constant "reinventions". During this period, Minogue was often referred to as "Bardot Kylie" due to the Brigitte Bardot-inspired look she sported on the cover, and Body Language was seen as a step forward from the "slick, minimalist and postmodern" image she had adopted during the release of Fever. Chris True from AllMusic regarded the album as "another successful attempt [by Minogue] at broadening her sound (with electro and hip-hop for instance) and winning more fans". Later in his review of Minogue's tenth studio album X (2007), he remarked that "By the time of 2004's Body Language, Kylie Minogue was seemingly unassailable, with three hit albums, a number of hit singles, and a recharged career that only a few years before had seemed precarious at best".
In 2006, Larissa Dubecki from The Age commented that "Kylie has beaten her early detractors by inhabiting almost a dozen identities, from the "singing budgie" who emerged from Neighbours to score her first hit single with a cover of the Little Eva classic "Locomotion" in 1987, to the 1960s ingenue of her most recent album, 2003's Body Language". In 2020, Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine ranked Body Language as the second best album of Minogue's career. He praised the singer for exploring new genres and presenting a "smooth, sleek, and understated" album, which he described as an "anomaly" in Minogue's discography.
Track listingNotes' signifies a vocal and additional producer
"I Feel for You" features an extract from "It's My House" by S. Buchanan and Earl Buchanan.
Some digital editions of the album include the radio edit of "Chocolate".
On Australian limited edition "Slow Motion" is titled "Slo Motion".
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Body Language''.
Musicians
Kylie Minogue – lead vocals, backing vocals
Ash Thomas – backing vocals, extra chorus "pops"
Alexis Strum – backing vocals
Lion – extra chorus "pops"
David Billing – backing vocals
Miriam Grey – backing vocals
Johnny Douglas – all instruments, backing vocals
Dave Clews – keyboards ; programming
Karen Poole – backing vocals
A. Guevara – MC
Green Gartside – additional vocals
Richard "Biff" Stannard – keyboards, backing vocals
Julian Gallagher – keyboards, programming
Dave Morgan – keyboards, guitars
Alvin Sweeney – programming
Simon Hale – string arrangements, conducting
London Session Orchestra – orchestra
Gavyn Wright – orchestra leader
Chris Braide – all instruments, backing vocals
Cathy Dennis – all instruments, backing vocals
Dave McCracken – programming
Technical
Sunnyroads – production
Mr. Dan – mixing
Baby Ash – production ; mixing ; vocal production
Rez – production
Dave Clews – Pro Tools ; vocal engineering
Johnny Douglas – vocal production, additional production ; production, mixing
Steve Fitzmaurice – mixing
Damon Iddins – mixing assistance
Kurtis Mantronik – production
Electric J – production
Richard "Biff" Stannard – production
Julian Gallagher – production
Alvin Sweeney – recording, mixing
Niall Alcott – orchestra recording
Cathy Dennis – production
Danton Supple – engineering
Dylan Gallagher – pre-production engineering
Tony Maserati – mixing
Geoff Rice – engineering assistance
Geoff "Peshy" Pesh – mastering
Artwork
Tony Hung – sleeve direction, design
Mert Alas and Marcus Piggott – photography
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Certifications and sales
Release history
References
Footnotes
External links
Body Language at Kylie.com (archived from 2004)
2003 albums
Albums produced by Kurtis Mantronik
Albums produced by Richard Stannard (songwriter)
Capitol Records albums
Kylie Minogue albums
Parlophone albums
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeremy%20Corbyn
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Jeremy Corbyn
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Jeremy Bernard Corbyn (; born 26 May 1949) is a British politician who served as Leader of the Opposition and Leader of the Labour Party from 2015 to 2020. On the political left of the Labour Party, Corbyn describes himself as a socialist. He has been Member of Parliament (MP) for Islington North since 1983. Corbyn sits in the House of Commons as an independent, having had the whip suspended in October 2020.
Born in Chippenham, Wiltshire, and raised in Wiltshire and Shropshire, Corbyn joined the Labour Party as a teenager. Moving to London, he became a trade union representative. In 1974, he was elected to Haringey Council and became Secretary of Hornsey Constituency Labour Party until being elected as the MP for Islington North in 1983; he has been reelected to the office nine times. His activism has included roles in Anti-Fascist Action, the Anti-Apartheid Movement, the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament, and advocating for a united Ireland and Palestinian statehood. As a backbench MP, Corbyn routinely voted against the Labour whip, including New Labour governments under Tony Blair and Gordon Brown. A vocal opponent of the Iraq War, he chaired the Stop the War Coalition from 2011 to 2015, a period when he received the Gandhi International Peace Award; he also won the Seán MacBride Peace Prize in 2017. Analyses of domestic media coverage of Corbyn have found it to be critical or antagonistic.
Corbyn was elected Leader of the Labour Party in 2015. The party's membership increased sharply, both during the leadership campaign and following his election. Taking the party to the left, he advocated renationalising public utilities and railways, a less interventionist military policy, and reversals of austerity cuts to welfare and public services. Although critical of the European Union, he supported continued membership in the 2016 referendum. After Labour MPs sought to remove him in 2016 through a formal leadership challenge, he won a second leadership contest. In the 2017 general election, Labour increased its share of the vote to 40%, with its 9.6% vote rise their largest improvement since the 1945 general election. This resulted in a net gain of 30 seats and a hung parliament; but the Conservative Prime Minister, Theresa May, formed a minority government and Labour remained in Opposition. In 2019, after deadlock in Parliament over Brexit, Corbyn endorsed holding a referendum on the withdrawal agreement, with a personal stance of neutrality. In the 2019 general election, Labour's vote share fell to 32%, leading to a net loss of 60 seats and leaving it with 202, its fewest since 1935. Corbyn said he would not lead Labour into the next election, triggering a leadership election in 2020 that was won by Keir Starmer, his Shadow Brexit Secretary.
During his tenure as leader, Corbyn came under criticism in relation to antisemitism within the Labour Party. Corbyn has condemned antisemitism and apologised for its presence within the party, while his leadership oversaw changes to strengthen party disciplinary procedures regarding hate speech and racism as recommended by the 2016 Chakrabarti Inquiry. An internal 2020 report and the subsequent 2022 Forde Report noted that Corbyn's team inherited a dysfunctional disciplinary system which eventually improved under General Secretary Jennie Formby, and stated that antisemitism was used as a factional weapon by both opponents and supporters of Corbyn within the party. A 2020 Equality and Human Rights Commission inquiry into the matter found the party under his leadership was responsible for unlawful acts of discrimination and harassment. After asserting that the scale of antisemitism within the party had been overstated for political reasons, Corbyn was suspended from Labour Party membership in October 2020. The membership suspension was lifted a month later after a formal disciplinary warning, but the Labour leadership declined to restore the whip, denying readmission to the parliamentary party. In March 2023, Labour's national executive committee resolved not to endorse Corbyn standing as a candidate in the next general election.
Early life
Corbyn was born on 26 May 1949 in Chippenham, Wiltshire, and lived until the age of seven in the nearby village of Kington St Michael. He is the youngest of the four sons of Naomi Loveday (née Josling; 1915–1987), a maths teacher, and David Benjamin Corbyn (1915–1986), an electrical engineer and expert in power rectifiers. His brother Piers Corbyn is a physicist, meteorologist, weather forecaster and climate change denier. His parents were Labour Party members and peace campaigners who met in the 1930s at a committee meeting in support of the Spanish Republic at Conway Hall during the Spanish Civil War.
When Corbyn was seven, the family moved to Pave Lane in Shropshire, where his father bought Yew Tree Manor, a 17th-century farmhouse which was once part of the Duke of Sutherland's Lilleshall estate. Corbyn attended Castle House School, an independent preparatory school near Newport, Shropshire, before, at the age of 11, becoming a day student at the Adams Grammar School in the town.
While still at school, Corbyn became active in The Wrekin constituency Young Socialists, his local Labour Party, and the League Against Cruel Sports. He joined the Labour Party at the age of 16 and achieved two A-Levels, at grade E, the lowest-possible passing grade, before leaving school at 18. Corbyn joined the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND) in 1966 while at school and later became one of its three vice-chairs and subsequently vice-president. Around this time, he also campaigned against the Vietnam War.
After school, Corbyn worked briefly as a reporter for a local newspaper, the Newport and Market Drayton Advertiser. At around the age of 19, he spent two years doing Voluntary Service Overseas in Jamaica as a youth worker and geography teacher. He subsequently travelled through Latin America in 1969 and 1970, visiting Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay and Chile. While in Brazil he participated in a student demonstration in São Paulo against the Brazilian military government. He also attended a May Day march in Santiago, where the atmosphere around Salvador Allende's Popular Unity alliance which swept to power in the Chilean elections of 1970 made an impression on him: "[I] noticed something very different from anything I had experienced... What Popular Unity and Allende had done was weld together the folk tradition, the song tradition, the artistic tradition and the intellectual tradition".
Early career and political activities
Returning to the UK in 1971, he worked as an official for the National Union of Tailors and Garment Workers. Corbyn began a course in Trade Union Studies at North London Polytechnic but left after a year without a degree after a series of arguments with his tutors over the curriculum. He worked as a trade union organiser for the National Union of Public Employees (NUPE) and Amalgamated Engineering and Electrical Union, where his union was approached by Tony Benn and "encouraged ... to produce a blueprint for workers' control of British Leyland"; the plans did not proceed after Benn was moved to a different Department.
He was appointed a member of a district health authority and in early 1974, at the age of 24, he was elected to Haringey Council in South Hornsey ward. After boundary changes in 1978 he was re-elected in Harringay ward as councillor, remaining so until 1983. As a delegate from Hornsey to the Labour Party Conference in 1978, Corbyn successfully moved a motion calling for dentists to be employed by the NHS rather than as private contractors. He also spoke in another debate, describing a motion calling for greater support for law and order as "more appropriate to the National Front than to the Labour Party".
Corbyn became the local Labour Party's agent and organiser, and had responsibility for the 1979 general election campaign in Hornsey.
Around this time, he became involved with the London Labour Briefing, where he was a contributor. Described by The Times in 1981 as "Briefings founder", The Economist in a 1982 article named Corbyn as "Briefings general secretary figure", as did a profile on Corbyn compiled by parliamentary biographer Andrew Roth in 2004, which states that he joined the editorial board as General Secretary in 1979. Michael Crick in his 2016 edition of Militant says Corbyn was "a member of the editorial board", as does Lansley, Goss and Wolmar's 1989 work, The Rise and Fall of the Municipal Left. Corbyn said these reports were inaccurate in 2017, telling Sophy Ridge "I read the magazine. I wrote for the magazine. I was not a member of the editorial board. I didn't agree with it."
He worked on Tony Benn's unsuccessful deputy leadership campaign in 1981. He was keen to allow former International Marxist Group member Tariq Ali to join the party, despite Labour's National Executive having declared him unacceptable, and declared that "so far as we are concerned ... he's a member of the party and he'll be issued with a card." In May 1982, when Corbyn was chairman of the Constituency Labour Party, Ali was given a party card signed by Corbyn; in November the local party voted by 17 to 14 to insist on Ali's membership "up to and including the point of disbandment of the party".
In the July 1982 edition of Briefing, Corbyn opposed expulsions of the Trotskyist and entryist group Militant, saying that "If expulsions are in order for Militant, they should apply to us too." In the same year, he was the "provisional convener" of "Defeat the Witch-Hunt Campaign", based at Corbyn's then address. The Metropolitan Police's Special Branch monitored Corbyn for two decades, until the early 2000s, as he was "deemed to be a subversive". According to the Labour Party, "The Security Services kept files on many peace and Labour movement campaigners at the time, including anti-Apartheid activists and trade unionists".
Parliamentary backbencher (1983–2015)
Labour in opposition (1982–1997)
Corbyn was selected as the Labour Party candidate for the constituency of Islington North, in February 1982, winning the final ballot for selection by 39 votes against 35 for GLC councillor Paul Boateng, who in 1987 became one of the first three Black British Members of Parliament (MP). At the 1983 general election he was elected MP for the constituency, defeating the Independent Labour incumbent Michael O'Halloran, and immediately joined the socialist Campaign Group, later becoming secretary of the group.
Shortly after being elected to Parliament, he began writing a weekly column for the left-wing Morning Star newspaper. In May 2015, he said that "the Star is the most precious and only voice we have in the daily media". In February 2017, the Morning Star said of Corbyn: "He has been bullied, betrayed and ridiculed, and yet he carries on with the same grace and care he always shows to others – however objectionable their behaviour and treatment of him might be."
In 1983, Corbyn spoke on a "no socialism without gay liberation" platform and continued to campaign for LGBT rights.
He was a campaigner against apartheid in South Africa, serving on the National Executive of the Anti-Apartheid Movement, and was arrested in 1984 while demonstrating outside South Africa House, leading, decades later, to a viral image of Corbyn being arrested circulated by supporters on social media. This was as a member of the City of London Anti-Apartheid Group (CLAAG) who carried out a "non-stop picket" for 1,408 days to campaign for Nelson Mandela's release from prison. The Anti-Apartheid Movement did not support this protest, as they had agreed not to demonstrate within 30 feet of the embassy, and the picket failed to gain support from the London ANC; Mandela's failure to respond to CLAAG following his release from prison in 1990 is frequently described as a 'snub'.
He supported the 1984–85 miners' strike. In 1985, he invited striking miners into the gallery of the House of Commons; they were expelled for shouting: "Coal not dole". At the end of the strike Corbyn was given a medallion by the miners in recognition of his help.
In 1985, he was appointed national secretary of the newly launched Anti-Fascist Action.
During the BBC's Newsnight in 1984, Conservative MP Terry Dicks said that so-called Labour "scruffs" (such as Corbyn, who at this time was known for wearing an old polo-necked sweater to the Commons) should be banned from addressing the House of Commons unless they maintained higher standards. Corbyn responded, saying that: "It's not a fashion parade, it's not a gentleman's club, it's not a bankers' institute, it's a place where the people are represented."
In 1990, Corbyn opposed the poll tax (formally known as the Community Charge) and nearly went to jail for not paying the tax. He appeared in court the following year as a result.
Corbyn supported the campaign to overturn the convictions of Jawad Botmeh and Samar Alami for the 1994 bombing of the Israeli Embassy in London which argued that there was insufficient evidence to tie them to the act, along with Amnesty International, Unison and a number of journalists and other MPs. Botmeh and Alami had admitted possessing explosives and guns but denied they were for use in Britain. The convictions were upheld by the High Court of Justice in 2001 and by the European Court of Human Rights in 2007.
Corbyn sat on the Social Security Select Committee from 1992 to 1997.
Irish politics
A longstanding supporter of a united Ireland, in the 1980s Corbyn met Sinn Féin leader Gerry Adams a number of times. Corbyn consistently stated that he maintained links with Sinn Fein in order to work for a resolution to the armed conflict. According to The Sunday Times, Corbyn was involved in over 72 events connected with Sinn Féin or other pro-republican groups during the period of the IRA's paramilitary campaign.
Corbyn met Adams at the 1983 and 1989 Labour conferences (facilitated by pro-IRA Red Action) and in 1983 at Westminster, along with a number of other Labour MPs. In 1984, Corbyn and Ken Livingstone invited Adams, two convicted IRA volunteers and other members of Sinn Féin to Westminster.
During the 1980s, he campaigned on behalf of the Guildford Four and Birmingham Six, who were wrongly convicted of responsibility for IRA bombings in England in the mid-70s. In 1986, Corbyn was arrested with 15 demonstrators protesting against what they saw as weak evidence and poor treatment during the trial of a group of IRA members including Patrick Magee, who was convicted of the Brighton hotel bombing and other attacks. After refusing police requests to move from outside the court, Corbyn and the other protesters were arrested for obstruction and held for five hours before being released on bail, but were not charged.
In 1987, Corbyn attended a commemoration by the Wolfe Tone Society in London for eight IRA members who were killed by Special Air Service soldiers while attacking a Royal Ulster Constabulary police station in Loughgall, County Armagh. At the commemoration, he told his fellow attendees that "I'm happy to commemorate all those who died fighting for an independent Ireland" and attacked the British government's policies in Northern Ireland, calling for all British troops to be withdrawn from the region. Corbyn subsequently said that he had attended the event, which included a minute of silence for the eight IRA members, to "call for a peace and dialogue process".
He voted against the 1985 Anglo-Irish Agreement, saying "We believe that the agreement strengthens rather than weakens the border between the six and the 26 counties, and those of us who wish to see a United Ireland oppose the agreement for that reason."
In the early 1990s, MI5 opened a file on Corbyn to monitor his links to the IRA.
In 1994, Corbyn signed a Commons motion condemning the 1974 Birmingham pub bombings, which killed 21 people.
The meeting took place three weeks after the IRA's bombing of the Conservative Party leadership that killed five people. A short time after IRA plans to bomb London were foiled in 1996, Corbyn invited Adams to the House of Commons for a press conference to promote Adams' autobiography, Before the Dawn. Shadow Northern Ireland Secretary Mo Mowlam and Labour leader Tony Blair condemned the invitation, with Mowlam arguing that it was detrimental to the peace process, and Blair threatening disciplinary action. Adams cancelled the event, to save further embarrassment to Corbyn and to avoid negative publicity.
In 1998, he voted for the Good Friday Agreement, saying he looked forward to "peace, hope and reconciliation in Ireland in the future."
In 2017, Corbyn said that he had "never met the IRA", although Shadow Home Secretary Diane Abbott later clarified that although he had met members of the IRA, "he met with them in their capacity as activists in Sinn Fein".
Labour in government (1997–2010)
Between 1997 and 2010, during the most recent Labour Government, Corbyn was the Labour MP who voted most often against the party whip, including three-line whip votes. In 2005 he was identified as the second most rebellious Labour MP of all time when the party was in government. He was the most rebellious Labour MP in the 1997–2001 Parliament, the 2001–2005 Parliament and the 2005–2010 Parliament, defying the whip 428 times while Labour was in power. Jacobin described him as "a figure who for decades challenged them [Labour Party elites] from the backbench as one of the most rebellious left-wing members of parliament."
Corbyn sat on the London Regional Select Committee from 2009 to 2010.
Stop the War Coalition and anti-war activism
In October 2001, Corbyn was elected to the steering committee of the Stop the War Coalition, which was formed to oppose the War in Afghanistan which started later that year. In 2002, Corbyn reported unrest : "there is disquiet...about issues of foreign policy" among some members of the Labour party. He cited "the deployment of troops to Afghanistan and the threat of bombing Iraq" as examples. He was vehemently opposed to the Iraq War in 2003, and spoke at dozens of anti-war rallies in Britain and overseas. He spoke at the February anti-Iraq War protest which was said to be the largest such protest in British political history. In 2006, Corbyn was one of 12 Labour MPs to support Plaid Cymru and the Scottish National Party's call for a parliamentary inquiry into the Iraq War. He was elected chair of the coalition in succession to Andrew Murray in September 2011, but resigned once he became Leader of the Labour Party in September 2015.
Parliamentary groups and activism
Corbyn is a member of a number of Parliamentary Trade Union Groups: he is sponsored by several trade unions, including UNISON, Unite and the National Union of Rail, Maritime and Transport Workers. He is a supporter of the Unite Against Fascism pressure group. Corbyn was chair of the All-Party Parliamentary Group (APPG) on the Chagos Islands, chair of the APPG on Mexico, Vice-Chair of the APPG on Latin America and vice-chair of the APPG on Human Rights. He has advocated for the rights of the forcibly removed Chagossians to return to the British Indian Ocean Territory.
Corbyn appeared on a call-in show on Press TV, an Iranian government television channel, several times between 2009 and 2012. He was criticised for appearing on the channel in light of Iran executing and imprisoning homosexuals, as well as Corbyn not questioning contributors who called the BBC "Zionist liars" and described Israel as a "disease". Corbyn said in response that he used the programme to address "human rights issues" and that his appearance fee was "not an enormous amount" and was used to help meet constituency office costs. Corbyn's final appearance was six months after the network was fined by Ofcom for its part in filming an interview with Maziar Bahari, an Iranian journalist, saying the interview had been held under duress and after torture.
Labour in opposition (2010–2015)
In the 2010 Labour Party leadership election, Corbyn supported Diane Abbott in the first round in which she was eliminated; thereafter, he supported Ed Miliband.
Corbyn was one of 16 signatories to an open letter to Ed Miliband in January 2015 calling for Labour to make a commitment to opposing further austerity, to take rail franchises back into public ownership, and to strengthen collective bargaining arrangements.
Corbyn sat on the Justice Select Committee from 2010 to 2015. Before becoming party leader Corbyn had been returned as member of Parliament for Islington North seven times, gaining 60.24% of the vote and a majority of 21,194 in the 2015 general election.
Leadership of the Labour Party (2015–2020)
Leadership election
Following the Labour Party's defeat at the general election on 7 May 2015, Ed Miliband resigned as its party leader, triggering a leadership election. Corbyn decided to stand as a candidate, having been disillusioned by the lack of a left-wing voice, and said to his local newspaper, The Islington Tribune, that he would have a "clear anti-austerity platform". He also said he would vote to scrap the Trident nuclear weapons system and would "seek to withdraw from Nato". He suggested that Britain should establish a national investment bank to boost house-building and improve economic growth and lift wages in areas that had less investment in infrastructure. He would also aim to eliminate the current budget deficit over time and restore the 50p top rate of income tax. He added: "This decision is in response to an overwhelming call by Labour Party members who want to see a broader range of candidates and a thorough debate about the future of the party. I am standing to give Labour Party members a voice in this debate". He indicated that, if he were elected, policies that he put forward would need to be approved by party members before being adopted and that he wanted to "implement the democratic will of our party". The other candidates were Shadow Home Secretary Yvette Cooper, Shadow Health Secretary Andy Burnham and Shadow Care Minister Liz Kendall. Several who nominated Corbyn later said they had ensured he had enough votes to stand, more to widen the political debate within the party than because of a desire or expectation that he would win.
At the Second Reading of the Welfare Reform and Work Bill in July 2015, Corbyn joined 47 Labour MPs to oppose the Bill, describing it as "rotten and indefensible", whilst the other three leadership candidates abstained under direction from interim leader Harriet Harman. In August 2015, he called on Iain Duncan Smith to resign as Secretary of State for Work and Pensions after it was reported that thousands of disabled people had died after being found fit to work by Work Capability Assessments (instituted in 2008) between 2011 and 2014, although this was challenged by the government and by FullFact who said that the figure included those who had died and therefore their claim had ended, rather than being found fit for work.
Corbyn rapidly became the frontrunner among the candidates and was perceived to benefit from a large influx of new members. Hundreds of supporters turned out to hear him speak at the hustings across the nation and their enthusiastic reception and support for him was dubbed "Corbynmania" by the press.
Membership numbers continued to climb after the start of his leadership. In addition, following a rule change under Miliband, members of the public who supported Labour's aims and values could join the party as "registered supporters" for £3 and be entitled to vote in the election. There was speculation that the rule change would lead to Corbyn being elected by registered supporters without majority support from ordinary members. He was elected party leader in a landslide victory on 12 September 2015 with 59.5% of first-preference votes in the first round of voting. He would have won in the first round with 51% of votes, even without "£3 registered supporters", having gained the support of 49.6% of full members and 57.6% of affiliated supporters. His 40.5% majority was a larger proportional majority than that attained by Tony Blair in 1994. His margin of victory was said to be "the largest mandate ever won by a party leader".
An internal Labour Party report, entitled The work of the Labour Party's Governance and Legal Unit in relation to antisemitism, 2014–2019, which was leaked to the media in April 2020, stated that, during the 2015 and 2016 leadership contests staff members at Labour party headquarters looked for ways to exclude from voting members who they believed would vote for Corbyn. The staff members referred to this activity as "trot busting", "bashing trots" and "trot spotting".
Corbynmania
Corbynmania was the enthusiastic support for Jeremy Corbyn. Initially viewed as a token candidate for the left wing of the party and not expected to win, many new young members, who had joined after the membership fee had been reduced to £3, were attracted by what they saw as Corbyn's authentic, informal style and radical policies. Hundreds of supporters turned out to hear him speak at the hustings across the nation and their enthusiastic reception and support for him was dubbed "Corbynmania" by the press.
Jonathan Dean characterised Corbynmania as a political fandom, comparable with the enthusiastic followings of popular media stars and other modern politicians such as Bernie Sanders and Justin Trudeau. Specific features included use of the #jezwecan hashtag, attendance at rallies and the posting of pictures such as selfies on social media. Artistic, merchandising and other activity consolidated and spread this fannish enthusiasm. This included a "Jeremy Corbyn for Prime Minister" (JC4PM) tour by celebrities such as Charlotte Church, Jeremy Hardy, and Maxine Peake; a Corbyn superhero comic book; mash-ups and videos. Many of Corbyn's supporters felt he possessed personal qualities such as earnestness and modesty leading them to develop a sense of emotional attachment to him as individual. These were seen as cultish by critics such as Margaret Beckett who said in 2016 that the Labour Party had been turned into the "Jeremy Corbyn Fan Club".
A chant of "Oh, Jeremy Corbyn" was adopted as an anthem or chorus by his supporters. Sung in the style of a football chant to the tune of a riff from "Seven Nation Army" by The White Stripes
, it attracted special attention at the Glastonbury Festival of 2017, where Corbyn appeared and spoke to the crowds.
Labour's weaker than expected performance in the 2018 United Kingdom local elections led to suggestions that Corbynmania had peaked.
First term as Leader of the Opposition (2015–2017)
After being elected leader, Corbyn became Leader of the Official Opposition and shortly thereafter his appointment to the Privy Council was announced. In Corbyn's first Prime Minister's Questions session as leader, he broke with the traditional format by asking the Prime Minister six questions he had received from members of the public, the result of his invitation to Labour Party members to send suggestions, for which he received around 40,000 emails. Corbyn stressed his desire to reduce the "theatrical" nature of the House of Commons, and his début was described in a Guardian editorial as "a good start" and a "long overdue" change to the tone of PMQs. He delivered his first Labour Party Conference address as leader on 29 September 2015. Party membership nearly doubled between the May 2015 election and October 2015, attributed largely to the election as leader of Corbyn.
In September 2015 an unnamed senior serving general in the British Army stated that a mutiny by the Army could occur if a future Corbyn government moved to scrap Trident, pull out of Nato or reduce the size of the armed forces. The general said "the Army just wouldn't stand for it. The general staff would not allow a prime minister to jeopardise the security of this country and I think people would use whatever means possible, fair or foul to prevent that. You can't put a maverick in charge of a country's security".
In July 2016, a study and analysis by academics from the London School of Economics of months of eight national newspaper articles about Corbyn in the first months of his leadership of Labour showed that 75% of them either distorted or failed to represent his actual views on subjects.
First Shadow Cabinet and other appointments
On 13 September 2015, Corbyn unveiled his Shadow Cabinet. He appointed his leadership campaign manager and long-standing political ally John McDonnell as Shadow Chancellor, leadership opponent Andy Burnham as Shadow Home Secretary, and Angela Eagle as Shadow First Secretary of State to deputise for him in the House of Commons. Corbyn promoted a number of female backbench MPs to Shadow Cabinet roles, including Diane Abbott, Heidi Alexander and Lisa Nandy, making his the first Shadow Cabinet with more women than men, although the most senior roles went to men. In October 2015, Corbyn appointed The Guardian journalist Seumas Milne as the Labour Party's Executive Director of Strategy and Communications.
Military intervention in Syria
After members of Islamic State carried out terrorist attacks in Paris in November 2015, Corbyn agreed with David Cameron that a political settlement between the Syrian Government and the rebels should be aimed at resolving the Syrian civil war. Prime Minister David Cameron sought to build political consensus for UK military intervention against IS targets in Syria in the days after the attacks. Corbyn warned against "external intervention" in Syria but told delegates that Labour would "consider the proposals the Government brings forward".
After Cameron set out his case for military intervention to Parliament, Corbyn held a Shadow Cabinet meeting, in which he said he would continue with efforts "to reach a common view" on Syria, while Shadow Foreign Secretary Hilary Benn suggested the case for air strikes was "compelling". Corbyn sent a letter to Labour MPs saying that he could not support military action against Islamic State: "The issue [is] whether what the Prime Minister is proposing strengthens, or undermines, our national security...I do not believe the current proposal for air strikes in Syria will protect our security and therefore cannot support it." Amid widespread reports of division in the Parliamentary Labour Party, Corbyn insisted that the final decision on whether the Labour Party would oppose air strikes rested with him. Corbyn eventually agreed that Labour MPs would be given a free vote on air strikes when the issue was voted on. 66 Labour MPs voted for the Syrian air strikes, including Hilary Benn and Deputy Labour Leader Tom Watson, while Corbyn and the majority of Labour MPs voted against.
January 2016 Shadow Cabinet reshuffle
There was widespread speculation following the vote that Corbyn would reshuffle his Shadow Cabinet to remove Hilary Benn, but Corbyn's January reshuffle retained Benn in the same position. The reshuffle prompted the resignations of three junior shadow ministers who were unhappy that Corbyn had sacked or moved shadow ministers who disagreed with his position on Syria and Trident.
On 6 January 2016, Corbyn replaced Shadow Culture Secretary Michael Dugher with Shadow Defence Secretary Maria Eagle (who was in turn replaced by Shadow Employment Minister Emily Thornberry). Thornberry, unlike Maria Eagle, is an opponent of nuclear weapons and British involvement in Syria. Corbyn also replaced Shadow Europe Minister (not attending Shadow Cabinet) Pat McFadden with Pat Glass. On 11 January 2016, Shadow Attorney General Catherine McKinnell resigned, citing party infighting, family reasons and the ability to speak in Parliament beyond her legal portfolio. She was replaced by Karl Turner.
May 2016 local elections
In the 2016 local elections, Labour had a net loss of 18 local council seats and controlled as many councils as before (gaining control of Bristol but losing Dudley). There were also Westminster by-elections in two Labour safe seats, which Labour retained: Ogmore and Sheffield Brightside and Hillsborough. The BBC's Projected National Vote Share was 31% for Labour, 30% for the Conservatives, 15% for the Liberal Democrats and 12% for UKIP. Labour candidate Sadiq Khan won the London mayorship from the Conservatives. Labour's misfortunes in Scotland continued, where they fell into third place behind the Conservatives. They retained government in Wales whilst suffering some small losses.
EU referendum
Following the 2016 United Kingdom European Union (EU) membership referendum, Corbyn was accused of "lukewarm" campaigning for Britain to remain and showing a "lack of leadership" on the issue by several party figures. Alan Johnson, who headed up the Labour In for Britain campaign said "at times" it felt as if Corbyn's office was "working against the rest of the party and had conflicting objectives". Corbyn's decision to go on holiday during the campaign was also criticised by Phil Wilson, the chair of Labour in for Britain. In September 2016, Corbyn's spokesman said Corbyn wanted access to the European Single Market, but there were "aspects" of EU membership related to privatisation "which Jeremy campaigned against in the referendum campaign." Diane Abbott, one of Corbyn's key allies, later said "Jeremy in his heart of hearts is a Brexiter". She said
Corbyn was hostile to the European Union, which he considered it "a conspiracy of business people".
Shadow Cabinet resignations and vote of no confidence
Three days after the EU referendum, on 26 June, Hilary Benn was sacked after it was disclosed that he had been organising a mass resignation of Shadow Cabinet members to force Corbyn to stand down. Several other Shadow Cabinet members resigned in solidarity with Benn and by the following day, 23 of the 31 Shadow Cabinet members had resigned their roles, as did seven parliamentary private secretaries. On the same day, 27 June, Corbyn announced changes to his Shadow Cabinet, moving Emily Thornberry (to Shadow Foreign Secretary), Diane Abbott (to Shadow Health Secretary), and appointing Pat Glass, Andy McDonald, Clive Lewis, Rebecca Long-Bailey, Kate Osamor, Rachael Maskell, Cat Smith and Dave Anderson to his Shadow Cabinet. Just two days later one of the newly appointed members, Pat Glass, resigned, saying "the situation is untenable".
A motion of no confidence in Corbyn as Labour leader was tabled by MPs Margaret Hodge and Ann Coffey on 24 June 2016. Hodge said: "This has been a tumultuous referendum which has been a test of leadership ... Jeremy has failed that test". Shadow Chancellor John McDonnell and union leaders including Len McCluskey condemned the motion.
On 28 June, he lost the vote of confidence by Labour Party MPs by 172–40. He responded with a statement that the motion had no "constitutional legitimacy" and that he intended to continue as the elected leader. The vote did not require the party to call a leadership election, but was expected to lead to a leadership challenge. Corbyn was encouraged to resign by Tom Watson and senior Labour politicians including his predecessor, Ed Miliband. Several union leaders (from GMB, UCATT, the CWU, the TSSA, ASLEF, the FBU, the BFWAU and the NUM) issued a joint statement saying that Corbyn was "the democratically-elected leader of Labour and his position should not be challenged except through the proper democratic procedures provided for in the party's constitution" and that a leadership election would be an "unnecessary distraction".
2016 leadership challenge and election
The division between Corbyn and the Labour parliamentary party continued. On 11 July 2016, Angela Eagle, who had recently resigned from his Shadow Cabinet, formally launched her leadership campaign.
After news reports that Eagle's office had been vandalised, and threats and abuse to other MPs, including death threats to himself, Corbyn said: "It is extremely concerning that Angela Eagle has been the victim of a threatening act" and called for "respect and dignity, even where there is disagreement."
On 12 July 2016, following a dispute as to whether the elected leader would need nominations in an election as a "challenger" to their own leadership, Labour's National Executive Committee (NEC) resolved that Corbyn, as the incumbent leader, had an automatic right to be on the ballot, and also decided that members needed to have been a member for more than six months to be eligible to vote, meaning that many members who had joined recently would not be able to vote. The NEC's decision was that "registered supporters" would be entitled to vote if they paid a one off fee of £25. 184,541 people subsequently paid the one-off fee to become "registered supporters" of the party during the two-day window in July, meaning that over 700,000 people had a vote in the leadership election.
The decision to retain Corbyn on the ballot was contested unsuccessfully in a High Court action brought by Labour donor Michael Foster.
On 13 July, Owen Smith entered the Labour Party leadership race. Subsequently, on 19 July, Angela Eagle withdrew and offered her endorsement to Smith.
A survey of the public on 14 July found that 66% of those surveyed believed that the Labour Party needed a new leader before the 2020 elections and only 23 per cent believed that Corbyn would make a good Prime Minister while Theresa May had an approval rating of 55 per cent. A later poll on 23 July found that among those who said they backed Labour, 54% supported Corbyn against just 22% who would prefer Smith. When voters were asked who they thought would be the best prime minister – Corbyn or Theresa May – among Labour supporters 48% said Corbyn and 22% May, among all UK voters 52% chose May and just 16% were for Corbyn.
More than 40 female Labour MPs, in an open letter during the campaign in July 2016, called on Corbyn to deal with issues relating to online abuse, and criticised him for his allegedly unsatisfactory responses and inaction. Speaking at the launch of policies intending to democratise the internet in late August, Corbyn described such abuse as "appalling". He continued: "I have set up a code of conduct on this. The Labour party has a code of conduct on this, and it does have to be dealt with".
On 16 August 2016, Corbyn released a video of himself sitting on the floor of a Virgin Trains East Coast train while travelling to a leadership hustings in Gateshead. Corbyn said the train was "ram-packed" and used this to support his policy to reverse the 1990s privatisation of the railways of Great Britain. A dispute, nicknamed Traingate in the media, developed a week later when Virgin released CCTV images appearing to show that Corbyn had walked past some available seats on the train before recording his video. Corbyn subsequently said that there had not been room for all his team to sit together, but that a train manager later found seats for him and his team, including his wife, by upgrading other passengers.
The psephologist John Curtice wrote just before Corbyn's second leadership win: "There is evidently a section of the British public, to be found particularly among younger voters, for whom the Labour leader does have an appeal; it just does not look like a section that is big enough, on its own at least, to enable Labour to win a general election". Meanwhile, on 23 September, a poll for The Independent by BMG Research suggested that working class voters were more likely to consider Corbyn "incompetent" than those from the middle class, and a higher proportion thought he was also "out of touch". Martin Kettle of The Guardian wrote that "many Labour MPs, even some who face defeat, want an early election" to prove decisively that Corbyn's Labour is unelectable as a government, stating that "If there is hope for Labour it lies with the voters. Only they can change the party".
Corbyn was re-elected as Labour leader on 24 September, with 313,209 votes (61.8%) compared to 193,229 (38.2%) for Owen Smith – a slightly increased share of the vote compared to his election in 2015, when he won 59%. On a turnout of 77.6%, Corbyn won the support of 59% of party members, 70% of registered supporters and 60% of affiliated supporters. In his acceptance speech, Corbyn called on the "Labour family" to end their divisions and to "wipe that slate clean from today and get on with the work we've got to do as a party". He continued: "Together, arguing for the real change this country needs, I have no doubt this party can win the next election whenever the Prime Minister decides to call it and form the next government."
Article 50
In January 2017, Corbyn announced that he would impose a three-line whip to force Labour MPs to vote in favour of triggering Article 50 of the Treaty on European Union to initiate the withdrawal of the UK from the EU. In response, two Labour whips said they would vote against the bill. Tulip Siddiq, the shadow minister for early years, and Jo Stevens, the Shadow Welsh Secretary resigned in protest. On 1 February, forty seven Labour MPs defied Corbyn's whip on the second reading of the bill.
May 2017 local elections
At the 2017 local elections, Labour lost nearly 400 councillors and control of Derbyshire and Nottinghamshire county councils. The BBC's Projected National Vote Share was 38% for the Conservatives, 27% for Labour, 18% for the Liberal Democrats and 5% for UKIP, with others on around 12%.
2017 general election
Corbyn said he welcomed Prime Minister Theresa May's proposal to seek an early general election in 2017. He said his party should support the government's move in the parliamentary vote. The Labour campaign focused on social issues like health care, education and ending austerity.
Earlier in the year, Corbyn had become the first opposition party leader since 1982 to lose a by-election to an incumbent government, and at the time May called the election Labour trailed the Conservative Party by up to 25 points in some opinion polls. A large Conservative majority was widely predicted. Following the short campaign, Labour again finished as the second largest party in parliament but surprised many pundits by increasing their share of the popular vote to 40%, resulting in a net gain of 30 seats and a hung parliament. Although Labour started the campaign as far as 20 points behind, it defied expectations by gaining 40% of the vote, its greatest share since 2001. It was the first time Labour had made a net gain of seats since 1997, and the party's 9.6% increase in vote share was its largest in a single general election since 1945. This has partly been attributed to the popularity of its 2017 Manifesto that promised to scrap tuition fees, address public sector pay, make housing more affordable, end austerity, nationalise the railways and provide school students with free lunches.
Corbyn's election campaign was run under the slogan "For the Many, Not the Few" and featured rallies with a large audience and connected with a grassroots following for the party, including appearing on stage in front of a crowd of 20,000 at the Wirral Live Festival in Prenton Park. He chose to take part in television debates and dressed more professionally than usual, wearing a business suit and tie. He said the result was a public call for the end of "austerity politics" and suggested May should step down as Prime Minister. Corbyn said that he had received the largest vote for a winning candidate in the history of his borough.
Leaked Labour Party report on antisemitism
In April 2020, an internal Labour Party report, entitled The work of the Labour Party's Governance and Legal Unit in relation to antisemitism, 2014–2019, was leaked to the media. The report was completed in the last months of Corbyn's leadership and was meant to form part of the Labour Party's submission to the Equality and Human Rights Commission (EHRC) inquiry into Labour's approach to dealing with antisemitism. It included 10,000 emails and thousands of private WhatsApp communications between former senior party officials. The Labour Party had, after the intervention of party lawyers, decided not to submit the report to the EHRC.
According to the report there was "an abnormal intensity of factional opposition" to Corbyn which had "inhibited the proper functioning of the Labour Party bureaucracy". The report included what it alleges were examples of how senior Labour Party officials including former party general secretary Iain McNicol worked to undermine Labour's campaign in the 2017 general election in order to force a change of leader. The report revealed that senior party officials sent insulting WhatsApp messages about leftwing MPs, including Diane Abbott, and officials in Corbyn's office. Prior to the 2017 election, officials discussed using party resources to assist candidates critical of Corbyn, such as deputy leader Tom Watson. The report stated that officials operated a "secret key seats team from where a parallel general election campaign was run to support MPs associated with the right wing of the party". The officials expressed dismay over the party's unexpectedly strong results in the 2017 general election. In response to the report, Labour MP Kate Osamor called for the expulsion of those involved. Stephen Bush wrote in the New Statesman that the "report's summary writes a cheque that its findings cannot cash".
In May 2020, the Labour Party National Executive Committee (NEC) appointed barrister Martin Forde to chair an investigation into the leaked report on antisemitism. The inquiry was set up to examine the contents of the report as well as how it was authored and leaked. It was expected to release its findings in 2021, but was delayed indefinitely over concerns it could prejudice an investigation by the information commissioner into the leak, eventually being published in July 2022. In Corbyn's submission to the Forde inquiry, submitted jointly with eight other colleagues, he was reported to have accused officials of sabotage and said their diversion of funds could constitute fraud. The diverted funds refer to the "Bespoke Materials Service" (sometimes referred to as the 'Ergon House Project'), which represented 1.2 per cent of Labour's total election spend and was focused towards certain Labour-held seats rather than offensive targets. BMS was apparently not disclosed to Corbyn's office. Officials said their targeting was due to fears Labour would lose seats, based on its poor polling position at the start of the campaign, and that three of the seats supported by BMS were less than 500 votes away from being lost to the Conservatives. The 2017 campaigns chief, Patrick Heneghan also stated that Corbyn's office had demanded he divert funds towards a list of Labour-held seats, some with majorities of over 10,000, to help MPs were considered allies of Corbyn, including Ian Lavery and Jon Trickett. Heneghan said the use of funds in BMS was legal, as it had been authorised by the General Secretary, and stated it had been kept from Corbyn's office because staffers believed they were "in a bind" and "felt it was pointless to try and discuss this sensibly with Jeremy's staff".
The Guardian reported that "[w]hile the leaked report does show hostility to Corbyn during the 2017 election, and even dismay among some officials when he did better than expected, there is seemingly no proof of active obstruction" by Labour officials and that there was "an argument that any evidence of election-scuppering is circumstantial rather than a smoking gun". In July 2022, the Forde Report concluded that while the leader's office and party staff "were trying to win in different ways", it was "highly unlikely" this cost Labour the 2017 election (see Publication of Forde Report).
Opinion polling
Opinion polls during the first few months of his leadership gave Corbyn lower personal approval ratings than any previous Labour leader in the early stages of their leadership amongst the general public. His approval amongst party members was initially strong reaching a net approval of +45 in May 2016, though this fell back sharply to just +3 by the end of the next month following criticism of Corbyn's handling of the EU referendum and a string of Shadow Cabinet resignations.
A poll by Election Data in February 2017 found that 50% of Labour voters wanted Corbyn to stand down by the next election, while 44% wanted him to stay. In the same month, YouGov found party members' net approval rating of Corbyn was 17%, whereas a year earlier the result found by the same pollsters had been 55%. Also during February 2017, Ipsos MORI found Corbyn's satisfaction rating among the electorate as a whole was minus 38%; among Labour voters it was minus 9%.
Polling by the end of the first week of campaigning during the 2017 general election was suggesting a defeat for Labour with the parliamentary party much reduced and a landslide victory for the Conservatives with a majority of perhaps 150 MPs. An ITV Wales/YouGov poll at this time placed the Conservatives on 40% in Wales against Labour's 30%; Labour MPs have formed a majority in Wales since the 1922 election. An opinion poll published on 22 May suggested that the position had been reversed, with Labour now polling 44% in Wales and the Conservatives 34%. Polls following the publication of the Labour and Conservative manifestos suggested that nationally, Labour was narrowing the Conservative lead to nine points, with YouGov putting the party on 35% of the vote. The final election polls predicted an increased majority for the Tories.
Second term as Leader of the Opposition (2017–2019)
June 2017 Shadow Cabinet dismissals
Corbyn sacked three Shadow Cabinet members and a fourth resigned after they rebelled against party orders to abstain on a motion aimed at keeping the UK in the EU single market, which was put forward by Labour MP Chuka Umunna.
Salisbury poisoning response
On 15 March 2018, Corbyn wrote in The Guardian that "to rush way ahead of the evidence" about Russia's involvement in the Salisbury poisoning "serves neither justice nor our national security" and that responsibility for the attack "is a matter for police and security professionals to determine". However, he also said that Theresa May was right "to identify two possibilities for the source of the attack in Salisbury [...] Either this was a crime authored by the Russian state; or that state has allowed these deadly toxins to slip out of the control it has an obligation to exercise." This sparked a row within the Labour Party, with more than 30 backbenchers signing an Early Day Motion "unequivocally" blaming Russia for the attack and several frontbenchers, including shadow foreign secretary Emily Thornberry, shadow defence secretary Nia Griffith and shadow Brexit secretary Sir Keir Starmer, stating that Russia was to blame. A poll on 17 March found only 16% of voters believed Corbyn would be the best person to deal with the UK's relations with Russia, compared to 39% saying Theresa May.
On 20 March, Corbyn called for the British authorities to send a sample of the nerve agent involved in the poisoning to Russia, so they could "say categorically one way or the other" where it came from. A few days later, Corbyn was satisfied that the evidence pointed to Russia. Polling between 10–13 April found only 23% of voters believed Corbyn had handled the situation well, with 44% (including 28% of 2017 Labour voters) believing he had handled it badly.
Corbyn advisor Andrew Murray later said that the Salisbury attack was "something we got wrong", saying "evidence that's emerged since is overwhelming". Murray said that at the time Corbyn and his team "just didn't think the Russian state would be so stupid and brazen as to [...] carry out a poisoning attack on British soil", although he admitted "given the Litvinenko precedent perhaps we should have done". Murray also suggested the response was the turning point for Corbyn's leadership, as it "started bringing all the doubts about Jeremy and the leader's office to the surface again".
Developments of the Labour Party's Brexit policies
Following the 2017 general election, the party faced internal pressure to shift its Brexit policy away from a soft Brexit and towards a second referendum, a position widely supported among the party membership. In response, Corbyn said at the 2018 Labour Party conference that he did not support a second referendum but would abide by the decision of members at the conference. The party conference decided to support a Brexit deal either negotiated by the Conservatives and meeting certain conditions or negotiated by Labour in government. The conference agreed to use all means to stop an unacceptable Brexit deal, including another referendum including an option to remain in the EU, as a last resort. A week after seven Labour MPs left the party in February 2019 to form The Independent Group, partly in protest over Labour's Brexit position, the Labour leadership said it would support another referendum "as a final resort in order to stop a damaging Tory Brexit being forced on the country". Following an exodus of Remain voters from Labour at the 2019 European Parliament elections, Corbyn said he was "listening very carefully" after key members of his Shadow Cabinet including John McDonnell said publicly Labour should back a second referendum under any circumstances. In July 2019, Corbyn announced Labour's policy was now that there must be a referendum on any Brexit deal, including the deal Labour would attempt to negotiate if it entered government, and that the party would campaign for Remain against any Tory Brexit. During the 2019 election Corbyn would promise to take a "neutral stance" during the referendum on any Brexit deal his government would negotiate.
Breakaway group of Labour MPs
In February 2019, seven MPs – Chuka Umunna, Luciana Berger, Chris Leslie, Angela Smith, Mike Gapes, Gavin Shuker and Ann Coffey – resigned from the Labour Party to form The Independent Group, citing Corbyn's handling of Brexit and of allegations of antisemitism. They were soon joined by Joan Ryan while Ian Austin resigned to sit as an independent. TIG later rebranded as Change UK, and all of the defecting MPs left Parliament at the 2019 general election, with some losing their seats, others not seeking re-election, and some standing and losing in different constituencies from the ones that they had previously held.
Other events
In 2018, Conservative MP Ben Bradley posted a tweet saying that Jeremy Corbyn had passed British secrets to a spy from communist Czechoslovakia. Corbyn threatened legal action against Bradley, which resulted in Bradley deleting the tweet, apologising for his comments which he accepted were "untrue and false", and agreeing to pay Corbyn's legal costs and to donate to a charity of Corbyn's choice.
In March 2019, Corbyn was assaulted by a Brexit supporter outside a mosque in Finsbury Park, North London. His attacker was sentenced to 28 days in jail.
A video of soldiers from the 3rd Battalion, Parachute Regiment, stationed in Afghanistan using an image of Corbyn for target practice was posted on social media in April 2019. Momentum said the video was a consequence of the "radicalising effect the rightwing press". The Independent expressed the view that Corbyn was "unpopular in parts of the military because of his past policies on Northern Ireland, Trident and opposition to the Iraq War and other foreign interventions". In July 2019, the soldiers involved received reprimands, with two being demoted.
In 2019, Corbyn refused an invitation to attend a state banquet for Donald Trump, hosted by Queen Elizabeth II during the president's June visit to the UK. Corbyn then attended a London protest outside Trump and May's joint press conference and requested a meeting with Trump to discuss issues such as the "climate emergency, threats to peace and the refugee crisis". Trump rejected the request, saying that Corbyn was a "negative force".
2019 general election and resignation
In May 2019, Theresa May announced her resignation and stood down as Prime Minister in July, following the election of her replacement, former Foreign Secretary Boris Johnson. Corbyn said that Labour was ready to fight an election against Johnson.
The 2019 Labour Party Manifesto included policies to increase funding for health, negotiate a Brexit deal and hold a referendum giving a choice between the deal and remain, raise the minimum wage, stop the age pension age increase, nationalise key industries, and replace universal credit. Due to the plans to nationalise the "big six" energy firms, the National Grid, the water industry, Royal Mail, the railways and the broadband arm of BT, the 2019 manifesto was widely considered as the most radical in several decades, more closely resembling Labour's politics of the 1970s than subsequent decades.
The 2019 general election was the worst defeat in seats for Labour since 1935, with Labour winning just 202 out of 650 seats, their fourth successive election defeat. At 32.2%, Labour's share of the vote was down around eight points on the 2017 general election and is lower than that achieved by Neil Kinnock in 1992, although it was higher than in 2010 and 2015. In the aftermath, opinions differed to why the Labour Party was defeated to the extent it was. The Shadow Chancellor John McDonnell largely blamed Brexit and the media representation of the party. Tony Blair argued that the party's unclear position on Brexit and the economic policy pursued by the Corbyn leadership were to blame.
Following the Labour Party's unsuccessful performance in the 2019 general election, Corbyn conceded defeat and stated that he intended to step down as leader following the election of a successor and that he would not lead the party into the next election. Corbyn himself was re-elected for Islington North with 64.3% of the vote share and a majority of 26,188 votes over the runner-up candidate representing the Liberal Democrats, with Labour's share of the vote falling by 8.7%. The Guardian described the results as a "realignment" of UK politics as the Conservative landslide took many traditionally Labour seats in England and Wales. Corbyn insisted that he had "pride in the manifesto" that Labour put forward and blamed the defeat on Brexit. According to polling by Lord Ashcroft, Corbyn was himself a major contribution to the party's defeat.
On 4 April 2020, the results of the 2020 Labour Party leadership election were announced, with Sir Keir Starmer winning the election and succeeding Corbyn as the leader of the Labour Party.
Opinion polling
In the months following the 2017 election, Labour consistently had a small lead in opinion polling. After Boris Johnson became Prime Minister in July 2019, he gained double-digit leads over Corbyn on the "Best PM" question, although Corbyn was seen to be "more in touch" with ordinary people than Johnson. Labour fell behind the Tories, partly because it lost some of its pro-Remain support to the Liberal Democrats.
Post-leadership
EHRC report and suspension
On 29 October 2020, a report by the Equalities and Human Rights Commission into anti-Semitism in the Labour party was published, finding that the party was responsible for unlawful acts of harassment and discrimination. In response to the report, Corbyn said that while antisemitism was "absolutely abhorrent" and that "one anti-Semite [in the Labour Party] is one too many", he alleged that "the scale of the problem was also dramatically overstated for political reasons by our opponents inside and outside the party, as well as by much of the media". He further claimed that "the public perception in an opinion poll last year was that one third of all Labour party members were somehow or other under suspicion of antisemitism. The reality is, it was 0.3 per cent of party members had a case against them which had to be put through the process." A fact check by Channel 4 News noted that Corbyn's "0.3 per cent" claim was likely based on an estimate provided by Labour General Secretary Jennie Formby during her investigation and first published in a 2019 study co-authored by media scholar Greg Philo. Corbyn's claim that "one-third" of party members were believed to be involved in antisemitism complaints by the public likely originated in a Survation poll of 1,009 people conducted in 2019, in which the average perception of respondents familiar with the issue was that 34% of party members were involved in antisemitism complaints; this number is over 300 times the estimate arrived at by Formby's actual investigation.
In his press conference around half an hour after Corbyn's statement, Starmer said that anyone who thought the problems were "exaggerated" or were a "factional attack" were "part of the problem and... should be nowhere near the Labour Party". Corbyn defended his comments in a TV interview later that day; shortly after it aired, the Labour Party announced that it had suspended Corbyn pending an investigation. Corbyn's suspension was welcomed by Labour figures including Margaret Hodge, and Harriet Harman, as well as by the Board of Deputies of British Jews. Corbyn stated he would "strongly contest" his suspension. John McDonnell, Unite leader Len McCluskey, and Momentum expressed opposition to Corbyn's suspension.
On 17 November 2020, a panel drawn from the party's national executive committee decided to readmit Corbyn to the Labour Party. However, Starmer did not restore the Labour whip to Corbyn, effectively denying him readmission to the parliamentary party, saying that he would "keep this situation under review". On 23 November 2020, the Labour chief whip Nick Brown wrote to Corbyn asking him to "unequivocally, unambiguously and without reservation apologise for your comments". In November 2021, Starmer said Corbyn "knows what he must do in order to move this forward" and that it was "his choice". He also stated that Corbyn might not be allowed to stand as a Labour candidate in Islington North unless the whip was restored. Corbyn believes his dismissal was unfair and has threatened legal action.
In March 2023, Labour's national executive committee resolved not to endorse Corbyn in the next general election, preventing him from seeking re-election as a Labour candidate. A YouGov opinion poll that month found that 41% of Labour voters thought this was the wrong decision compared to 36% who thought this was the right decision, though amongst all voters 48% agreed with the decision compared to 27% who disagreed.
Peace and Justice Project
On 13 December 2020, Corbyn announced the Project for Peace and Justice. Corbyn launched the project on 17 January 2021, and its affiliates include Christine Blower, Len McCluskey and Zarah Sultana. Rafael Correa said that he "welcome[d] the creation" of the project.
Stop the War Coalition statement on Ukraine crisis
On 18 February 2022, in the week before the Russian invasion of Ukraine, Corbyn alongside 11 Labour MPs cosigned a statement from the Stop the War Coalition opposing any war in Ukraine. The statement said that "the crisis should be settled on a basis which recognises the right of the Ukrainian people to self-determination and addresses Russia's security concerns", that NATO "should call a halt to its eastward expansion", and that the British government's sending of arms to Ukraine and troops to eastern Europe served "no purpose other than inflaming tensions and indicating disdain for Russian concerns". The statement's authors also said that they "refute [sic] the idea that NATO is a defensive alliance".
On the evening of 24 February, the first day of the invasion, Labour chief whip Alan Campbell wrote to all 11 Labour MPs who had signed the statement, requesting that they withdraw their signatures. All 11 agreed to do so the same evening. Corbyn and fellow former Labour independent MP Claudia Webbe did not withdraw their signatures from the statement, though Labour shadow foreign secretary David Lammy urged Corbyn to do so.
Publication of the Forde Report
The Forde Report, written by lawyer Martin Forde in response to the dossier that was leaked in April 2020 (The work of the Labour Party's Governance and Legal Unit in relation to antisemitism, 2014–2019), was released on 19 July 2022, stating that: "[R]ather than confront the paramount need to deal with the profoundly serious issue of anti-Semitism in the party, both factions treated it as a factional weapon." It also described senior Labour staff as having displayed "deplorably factional and insensitive, and at times discriminatory, attitudes" towards Corbyn and his supporters, and detailed concerns by some staff about a "hierarchy of racism" in the party which ignored Black people. The report also expressed regret that Corbyn himself did not engage with the authors' request to interview him.
Responding to this, Corbyn's former advisor Andrew Fisher wrote: "Forde confirms that reflection is necessary. Cultural change requires painstaking work, not glib assertions of change." Corbyn himself stated that report "calls into question the behaviour of senior officials in the party, in particular during the 2017 election" and that "wrongs must be righted."
Policies and views
In 1997 the political scientists David Butler and Dennis Kavanagh described Corbyn's political stance as "far-left".
When asked in an interview in 2015 what politicised him Corbyn said, "Peace issues. Vietnam. Environmental issues". When asked if he regarded himself as a Marxist, Corbyn responded by saying: "That is a very interesting question actually. I haven't thought about that for a long time. I haven't really read as much of Marx as we should have done. I have read quite a bit but not that much." Supporting John McDonnell's statement that there is "a lot to learn" from Karl Marx's book Das Kapital, Corbyn described Marx as a "great economist". Corbyn has said he has read some of the works of Adam Smith, Karl Marx and David Ricardo and has "looked at many, many others".
Economy and taxation
Corbyn has campaigned against private finance initiative schemes, supported a higher rate of income tax for the wealthiest in society, and his shadow chancellor proposed the introduction of a £10 per hour living wage. He advocates recouping losses from tax avoidance and evasion by investing £1 billion in HM Revenue and Customs. Corbyn sought to reduce an estimated £93 billion that companies receive in tax relief. The amount is made up of several reliefs, including railway and energy subsidies, regional development grants, relief on investment and government procurement from the private sector.
Corbyn opposes austerity, and has advocated an economic strategy based on investing-to-grow as opposed to making spending cuts. During his first Labour leadership election campaign, Corbyn proposed that the Bank of England should be able to issue money for capital spending, especially housebuilding, instead of quantitative easing, which attempts to stimulate the economy by buying assets from commercial banks. He describes it as "People's Quantitative Easing". A number of economists, including Steve Keen, said that Corbyn's candidature for leadership of the Labour party "recognis[ed] the inspiring possibilities for a fairer and more equal society offered by an information economy in an interdependent world". Robert Skidelsky offered a qualified endorsement of Corbyn's proposals to carry out QE through a National Investment Bank. As the policy would change the central bank's focus on stabilising prices it has been argued it could increase the perceived risk of investing in the UK and raise the prospect of increased inflation. His second leadership campaign saw him promise £500 billion in additional public spending, though he did not detail how he would fund it.
Corbyn has been a consistent supporter of renationalising public utilities, such as the now-privatised British Rail and energy companies, back into public ownership. Initially, Corbyn suggested completely renationalising the entire railway network, but would now bring them under public control "line by line" as franchises expire.
National and constitutional issues
Corbyn is a longstanding supporter of a united Ireland and reportedly described himself as campaigner against imperialism in Ireland in 1984. In 1985, Corbyn voted against the Anglo-Irish Agreement, saying that it strengthened the border between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland and he opposed it as he wished to see a united Ireland. In July 1998, Corbyn endorsed the Good Friday Agreement by voting for the Northern Ireland Bill saying: "We look forward to peace, hope and reconciliation in Ireland in the future."
Corbyn would prefer Britain to become a republic, but has said that, given the Royal Family's popularity, "it's not a battle that I am fighting".
On the issue of Scottish independence, when asked if he would consider himself a unionist, Corbyn said: "No, I would describe myself as a Socialist. I would prefer the UK to stay together, yes, but I recognise the right of people to take the decision on their own autonomy and independence." Corbyn said that he did not favour holding a second Scottish independence referendum, but that it would be wrong for the UK Parliament to block such a referendum if the Scottish Parliament desired to have one.
As Leader of the Opposition, Corbyn was one of the sponsors for the Constitutional Convention Bill, which was an attempt at codifying the UK's constitution, which has not been compiled into a single document. He appointed a Shadow Minister for the Constitutional Convention into his Shadow Cabinet and Teresa Pearce stepped down after the May 2017 local elections and this position has since remained vacant.
In October 2017, Corbyn was one of 113 MPs to sign a cross-party petition to Home Secretary Amber Rudd, which requested making it a criminal offence for opponents of abortion to hold protests outside of abortion clinics. The letter called for buffer zones to be established around clinics, arguing women "face daily abuse when undergoing terminations", with protesters instead given space in town centres or Speakers' corner. He also promised to allow abortion in Northern Ireland as well as same-sex marriage.
Education
During the 2015 Labour leadership contest, Corbyn put forward a policy to scrap all tuition fees and restore student maintenance grants. The cost of the policy was estimated at £10 billion which would be funded by "a 7% rise in national insurance for those earning over £50,000 a year and a 2.5% higher corporation tax, or by slowing the pace at which the deficit is reduced". Corbyn apologised for the actions of previous Labour governments in imposing "fees, top-up fees and the replacement of grants with loans". He said "I opposed those changes at the time – as did many others – and now we have an opportunity to change course".
During the 2017 election, Corbyn had a policy of scrapping university tuition fees from 2018 restoring the maintenance grants abolished by the Conservatives in 2016 and funding a free national education service. He also pledged to investigate cancelling student loan debts incurred by recent graduates. The policy said that the British average student starts their working life with debts of £44,000 due to tuition costs and that university tuition is free in many northern European countries. The education changes were costed at £9.5 billion and would be funded by increasing taxes on the top 5 per cent of earners and increasing corporations tax.
European Union
Corbyn has previously been a left-wing Eurosceptic. In the 1975 European Communities referendum, Corbyn opposed Britain's membership of the European Communities, the precursor of the EU. Corbyn also opposed the ratification of the Maastricht Treaty in 1993, opposed the Lisbon Treaty in 2008, and backed a proposed referendum on British withdrawal from the EU in 2011. He accused the EU of acting "brutally" in the 2015 Greek crisis by allowing financiers to destroy its economy.
During his leadership campaign, Corbyn said there might be circumstances in which he would favour withdrawal from the EU. In September 2015, Corbyn said that Labour would campaign for Britain to stay in the EU regardless of the result of Cameron's negotiations, and instead "pledge to reverse any changes" if Cameron reduced the rights of workers or citizens. He also believed that Britain should play a crucial role in Europe by making demands about working arrangements across the continent, the levels of corporation taxation and in forming an agreement on environmental regulation.
In June 2016, in the run-up to the EU referendum, Corbyn said that there was an "overwhelming case" for staying in the EU. In a speech in London, Corbyn said: "We, the Labour Party, are overwhelmingly for staying in, because we believe the European Union has brought investment, jobs and protection for workers, consumers and the environment." Corbyn also criticised media coverage and warnings from both sides, saying that the debate had been dominated too much by "myth-making and prophecies of doom". He said he was "seven, or seven and a half" out of 10 for staying in the EU.
In July 2017, Corbyn said that Britain could not remain in the European Single Market after leaving the EU, saying that membership of the single market was "dependent on membership of the EU", although it includes some non-EU countries. Shadow Minister Barry Gardiner later suggested that Corbyn meant that Labour interpreted the referendum result as wanting to leave the single market. Corbyn said that Labour would campaign for an alternative arrangement involving "tariff free access". In October 2017, Corbyn said that he would vote remain if there were another referendum.
In January 2018, Corbyn reiterated that Labour would not seek to keep the UK in the single market after Brexit and in June 2018 he called for a "new single market" deal for the UK after Brexit maintaining "full access" to the EU internal market, as opposed to the "Norway model" which pro-Remainers in the party wish to see.
In 2018, Corbyn said his main reason for not committing to remaining in the single market was freedom from EU rules on state aid to industry. He said the UK government should not be "held back, inside or outside the EU, from taking the steps we need to support cutting edge industries and local business". This prompted backlash from senior EU figures, who said that state subsidisation would be a "red line" in negotiations, as it would lead to a possible trade war between the UK and EU. One senior figure told The Times: "We have to protect ourselves and the single market ... If a Corbyn government implements his declared policies the level playing field mechanism will lead to increased costs for Britain to access the single market because of distortions caused by state aid."
Also in 2018, Corbyn said he would seek a new type of customs union with the European Union, but will seek exemptions of some EU regulations for the UK, such as those regarding state aid and government subsidies.
In January 2019, Labour lost a vote of no confidence in the government. The Conservative government sought to open cross-party talks while Corbyn initially said Labour would refuse to attend talks unless the government ruled out a "no deal Brexit". In March 2019, Corbyn said that he could vote leave in a second referendum, depending on the Brexit deal on offer.
Following the 2019 European Parliament election, Corbyn endorsed holding a referendum on the Brexit withdrawal agreement regardless of who negotiates it.
Foreign affairs
War and peace
During the 1982 Falklands War, in a meeting of Haringey Council, Corbyn opposed a motion offering support to British troops sent to retake the islands, instead declaring the war to be a "Tory plot" and submitted an alternative motion that condemned the war as a "nauseating waste of lives and money". Corbyn has said that he would like Britain to achieve "some reasonable accommodation" with Argentina over their Falkland Islands dispute, with a "degree of joint administration" between the two countries over the islands.
Corbyn does not consider himself an absolute pacifist and has named the Spanish Civil War, the British naval blockade to stop the slave trade in the nineteenth century and the role of UN peacekeepers in the 1999 crisis in East Timor as justified conflicts. Opposing violence and war has been "the whole purpose of his life". He prominently opposed the invasion of Iraq and War in Afghanistan, NATO-led military intervention in Libya, military strikes against Assad's Syria, and military action against ISIS, and served as the chair of the Stop the War Coalition. When challenged on whether there were any circumstances in which he would deploy military forces overseas he said "I'm sure there are some but I can't think of them at the moment."
Corbyn has called for Tony Blair to be investigated for alleged war crimes during the Iraq War. In July 2016, the Chilcot Report of the Iraq Inquiry was issued, criticising Blair for joining the United States in the war against Iraq. Subsequently, Corbyn – who had voted against military action against Iraq – gave a speech in Westminster commenting: "I now apologise sincerely on behalf of my party for the disastrous decision to go to war in Iraq in March 2003" which he called an "act of military aggression launched on a false pretext" something that has "long been regarded as illegal by the overwhelming weight of international opinion". Corbyn specifically apologised to "the people of Iraq"; to the families of British soldiers who died in Iraq or returned injured; and to "the millions of British citizens who feel our democracy was traduced and undermined by the way in which the decision to go to war was taken on."
Corbyn has said he would prefer to use diplomacy rather than armed force in international conflict. He would avoid military conflict by "building up the diplomatic relationships and also trying to not isolate any country in Europe". His aim is to "achieve a world where we don't need to go to war, where there is no need for it".
NATO
Corbyn favours the United Kingdom leaving NATO, and for NATO to be disbanded. In May 2012, Corbyn authored a piece in the Morning Star titled "High time for an end to NATO" where he described the organisation as an "instrument of cold war manipulation", saying that "The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1990, with the ending of the Warsaw Pact mutual defence strategy, was the obvious time for NATO to have been disbanded." and also said in a 2014 speech that the organisation was an "engine for the delivery of oil to the oil companies" and called for it to "give up, go home and go away".
For these comments and a refusal to answer whether he would defend a NATO ally in the case of attack he was criticised by Anders Fogh Rasmussen, the former Prime Minister of Denmark and NATO Secretary General, who said Corbyn's opinions were "tempting President Putin to aggression" and made comparisons between his views and those of the American president Donald Trump. He was also criticised by George Robertson, former Labour Party defence secretary, who said "It beggars belief that the leader of the party most responsible for the collective security pact of NATO should be so reckless as to undermine it by refusing to say he would come to the aid of an ally".
He has since acknowledged that the British public do not agree with his beliefs that the UK should leave NATO, and instead intends to push for the organisation to "restrict its role". He believes there should be a debate about the extent of NATO's powers including its "democratic accountability" and why it has taken on a global role. In April 2014, Corbyn wrote an article for the Morning Star attributing the crisis in Ukraine to NATO. He said the "root of the crisis" lay in "the US drive to expand eastwards" and described Russia's actions as "not unprovoked". He has said it "probably was" a mistake to allow former Warsaw Pact countries to join NATO as it has increased tensions with Russia and made the "world infinitely more dangerous". Subsequently, he criticised the British government and other Western countries for supplying arms to Ukraine.
During the 2017 election, when questioned about Corbyn's anti-NATO statements, Labour Shadow Foreign Secretary Emily Thornberry said, "Jeremy has been on a journey, to coin a phrase. There have been a number of discussions. It is quite clear that the predominance of opinion within the Labour is that we are committed to NATO."
Nuclear weapons
Corbyn is a longstanding supporter of unilateral nuclear disarmament, although he has suggested a compromise of having submarines without nuclear weapons. He has campaigned for many years against nuclear weapons and the replacement of Trident and has said he would not authorise the use of nuclear weapons if he were prime minister. In June 2016, he agreed to allow Labour MPs a free vote on the replacement of Trident. In the subsequent vote 140 Labour MPs voted with the government in favour of the new submarines, in line with party policy, and 47 joined Corbyn to vote against. During the debate Corbyn said "I do not believe the threat of mass murder is a legitimate way to deal with international relations".
United States
Following the election of Donald Trump in the 2016 US presidential elections, Corbyn said that he believes that President Trump is not offering solutions to problems, but simply being divisive. Corbyn also called for a proposed Trump state visit to the UK to be cancelled following his executive order banning visitors from certain majority-Muslim countries from entering the US.
Corbyn criticised Trump's involvement in British politics after Trump said Boris Johnson should become PM and Nigel Farage should be part of the Brexit negotiating team, saying that it was "not [Trump's] business who the British prime minister is" following Trump's endorsement of Boris Johnson as a possible future leader. Corbyn criticised Trump's attacks on Sadiq Khan as "unacceptable".
Israel and Palestine
Corbyn is a member of the Palestine Solidarity Campaign, campaigning, for example, against the killing of Palestinian civilians during conflict in Gaza. In 2012 and again in 2017, Corbyn called for an investigation into Israeli influence in British politics. In August 2016, Corbyn said: "I am not in favour of the academic or cultural boycott of Israel, and I am not in favour of a blanket boycott of Israeli goods. I do support targeted boycotts aimed at undermining the existence of illegal settlements in the West Bank."
At a meeting hosted by Stop the War Coalition in 2009, Corbyn said he invited "friends" from Hamas and Hezbollah to an event in parliament, referred to Hamas as "an organisation dedicated towards the good of the Palestinian people," and said that the British government's labelling of Hamas as a terrorist organisation is "a big, big historical mistake." Asked on Channel 4 News in July 2015 why he had called representatives from Hamas and Hezbollah "friends", Corbyn explained, "I use it in a collective way, saying our friends are prepared to talk," and that the specific occasion he used it was to introduce speakers from Hezbollah at a Parliamentary meeting about the Middle East. He said that he does not condone the actions of either organisation: "Does it mean I agree with Hamas and what it does? No. Does it mean I agree with Hezbollah and what they do? No. What it means is that I think to bring about a peace process, you have to talk to people with whom you may profoundly disagree … There is not going to be a peace process unless there is talks involving Israel, Hezbollah and Hamas and I think everyone knows that", he argued.
In January 2017, Corbyn expressed concern about Israeli involvement in British politics, after the broadcasting of The Lobby. He described the actions of the Israeli official, Shai Masot, as "improper interference in this country's democratic process" and was concerned on national security grounds that Boris Johnson had said the matter was closed.
In his keynote speech at the 2018 annual Labour Party conference, Corbyn said that, if elected, his government would immediately recognise the Palestinian State as a way of supporting a two-state solution to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. He declared that the Labour Party condemned the "shooting of hundreds of unarmed demonstrators in Gaza by Israeli forces and the passing of Israel's discriminatory nation-state law".
In May 2019, Corbyn sent a message of support to the National Demonstration for Palestine in London in which Ahed Tamimi participated. He said the Labour Party condemned the "ongoing human rights abuses by Israeli forces, including the shooting by Israeli forces of hundreds of unarmed Palestinian demonstrators in Gaza – most of them refugees or families of refugees – demanding their rights".
Tunisian wreath-laying controversy
In October 2014, Corbyn visited Tunisia to attend the "International Conference on Monitoring the Palestinian Political and Legal Situation in the Light of Israeli Aggression", organised by the Centre for Strategic Studies for North Africa. While there, Corbyn and other British parliamentarians attended a commemoration for victims of the 1985 Israeli air strikes on the PLO headquarters in Tunis. The bombardment had been condemned by British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher and US President Ronald Reagan, as well as the UN Security Council.
In August 2018, the Daily Mail reported, with pictorial evidence, that during the event, Corbyn had also been present at a wreath-laying at the graves of Salah Khalaf and Atef Bseiso, both of whom are thought to have been key members of the Black September Organization, which was behind the 1972 Munich massacre. The Jerusalem Post commented: "In another photo, Corbyn is seen close to the grave of terrorist Atef Bseiso, intelligence chief of the Palestine Liberation Organization. Bseiso is also linked to the massacre." There was condemnation from some of the British press, as well as from some members of the Labour Party and Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu. A Labour spokesperson said that "a wreath was laid on behalf of those at the conference to all those who lost their lives, including families and children".
On 1 August, BBC News showed in a report from inside the cemetery that for the memorial for the 1985 victims, Corbyn would have stood in a designated confined covered area where all dignitaries typically stand during annual ceremonies, which also covers the graves of Bseiso and Khalaf. Corbyn said that he had been present during commemorations where a wreath was laid for Palestinian leaders linked to Black September, but did not think that he had actually been involved. A Labour spokesperson stated that Corbyn "did not lay any wreath at the graves of those alleged to have been linked to the Black September Organisation or the 1972 Munich killings. He of course condemns that terrible attack, as he does the 1985 bombing." The Labour Party initially made a complaint to the press watchdog Independent Press Standards Organisation against several newspapers' alleged misreporting of the event, although this was later dropped.
Kosovo
Unlike most Labour MPs at the time, Corbyn and a few other backbenchers opposed NATO intervention during the Kosovo War. In 2004, Corbyn and 24 other backbenchers signed a parliamentary motion praising an article by journalist John Pilger for "reminding readers of the devastating human cost of the so-termed ‘humanitarian' invasion of Kosovo, led by NATO and the United States in the Spring of 1999, without any sanction of the United Nations Security Council". The motion also congratulated Pilger "on his expose of the fraudulent justifications for intervening in a ‘genocide' that never really existed in Kosovo". The motion said that initial estimates of casualties by the US Ambassador for War Crimes Issues were much higher than the later body count by the International War Crimes Tribunal. Balkan Insight wrote that, during the 2015 campaign for the Labour leadership, Corbyn was criticised by bloggers and journalists for "having once apparently dismissed Serbian war crimes in Kosovo as a fabrication".
Sri Lanka and the Tamil Tigers
In 2006, Corbyn signed a petition calling for the lifting of the ban on the Tamil Tigers, which it referred to as the "supposedly terrorist Tamil Tigers", stating that "the Sri Lanka government is carrying out an undeclared war against the Tamil people who have been struggling for more than two decades for the legitimate right to self-rule" and calling for an end to aerial bombardment by the Sri Lankan government. In 2009, Corbyn called for a total economic boycott of Sri Lanka, stating "the tourism must stop, the arms must stop, the trade must stop", he later stated the Sri Lankan cricket team should also be boycotted. He expressed outrage particularly at the reports of the depopulation of Tamil areas of Eastern Sri Lanka and the relocation of Tamils, stating that denying Tamils the right to return home was in contravention of international law, as well as reports of systematic sexual violence.
In 2016, after Corbyn released a video stating his "solidarity to stand with the Tamil community in the search for truth, justice, accountability and reconciliation", while the Labour Party reiterated its " full implementation of the UN Human Rights Councils resolution on Sri Lanka", some Tamil activists interpreted the video to be a signal of Jeremy Corbyn's "support for Tamil self-determination". In 2017, John McDonnell stated that a Corbyn led Labour government would end arms sales to Sri Lanka.
Iran
Corbyn has called for the lifting of the sanctions on Iran as part of a negotiated full settlement of issues concerning the Iranian nuclear programme, and the starting of a political process to decommission Israel's nuclear arsenal.
Saudi Arabia
Corbyn has criticised Britain's close ties with Saudi Arabia and British involvement in the Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen. In January 2016, after a United Nations panel ruled Saudi-led bombing campaign of Yemen contravened international humanitarian law, Corbyn called for an independent inquiry into the UK's arms exports policy to Saudi Arabia. Corbyn and Hilary Benn wrote to David Cameron asking him to "set out the exact nature of the involvement of UK personnel working with the Saudi military". Corbyn has constantly called for the British Government to stop selling arms to Saudi Arabia to show that Britain wants a peace process in Yemen, "not an invasion by Saudi Arabia". In March 2018, Corbyn accused Theresa May's government of "colluding" in war crimes committed by Saudi forces in Yemen. He said that a "humanitarian disaster is now taking place in Yemen. Millions face starvation...because of the Saudi led bombing campaign and the blockade."
Corbyn called for the suspension of arms sales to Saudi Arabia after dissident Saudi journalist Jamal Khashoggi was murdered inside the Saudi consulate in Istanbul. Corbyn also called for an international investigation into the assassination of Jamal Khashoggi and Saudi's war crimes in Yemen.
Chagos Islands sovereignty dispute
The sovereignty of the Chagos Archipelago in the Indian Ocean is disputed between the United Kingdom and Mauritius. Corbyn said he would respect a UN vote calling on the UK to decolonise the Chagos Archipelago and return Chagos to Mauritius. He said that "What happened to the Chagos islanders was utterly disgraceful. [They were] forcibly removed from their own islands, unfortunately, by this country. The right of return to those islands is absolutely important as a symbol of the way in which we wish to behave in international law."
Cuba
Corbyn is a longtime supporter of the Cuba Solidarity Campaign, which campaigns against the US embargo against Cuba and supports the Cuban Revolution. In November 2016, following the death of former communist President of Cuba Fidel Castro, While saying that Castro had "flaws" and was a "huge figure of modern history, national independence and 20th Century socialism...Castro's achievements were many", Corbyn also praised his revolutionary "heroism". Internal Labour party critics of Corbyn accused him of glossing over Castro's human rights abuses.
Venezuela
When Hugo Chávez, the United Socialist Party President of Venezuela died in 2013, Corbyn tweeted that "Hugo Chavez showed that the poor matter and wealth can be shared. He made massive contributions to Venezuela & a very wide world". In 2014, Corbyn congratulated Chávez's successor, President Nicolás Maduro on his election to the presidency. In February 2019, he said that "intervention in Venezuela and sanctions against the government of Nicolás Maduro were wrong" and that "only Venezuelans have the right to decide their own destiny". He was against outside interference in Venezuela, "whether from the US or anywhere else". He said there "needed to be dialogue and a negotiated settlement to overcome the crisis".
Kurdistan and Kurds
In 1988, Jeremy Corbyn was one of the first MPs to raise the issue of Saddam Hussein's Halabja chemical attack against the Kurdish people, at a time when Hussein was still an ally of the west. In the aftermath, he called upon the Tory government to institute sanctions against Iraq and Iran to end the Iran–Iraq War, and to end the use of chemical weapons against the Kurds.
In 2016, Corbyn said that "if peace is wanted in the region, the Kurdish people's right to self-determination must be accepted." Referring to the Kurdish nationalist leader Abdullah Öcalan, he remarked "if there will be a peace process and solution, Öcalan must be free and at the table."
At Chatham House in 2017 he was asked if he would "condemn the genocide which is going on against the Kurds in Syria and in Turkey," Corbyn responded with "I would be very strong with the Turkish government on its treatment of Kurdish people and minorities and the way in which it's denied them their decency and human rights." On warfare by Turkey against the Kurds, Corbyn stated, "If arms are being used to oppress people internally in violation of international law then they simply should not be supplied to them."
Allegations of antisemitism
Controversies
Corbyn's critics, including British Orthodox rabbi Jonathan Sacks, former Chief Rabbi of the United Hebrew Congregations of the Commonwealth, have accused him of antisemitism in relation to past associations and comments as well as his handling of allegations within the party while defenders have cited his support for Jews against racism. These associations included hosting a meeting where Holocaust survivor and anti-Zionist political activist Hajo Meyer compared Israeli actions in Gaza to elements of the Holocaust; Corbyn stated of this event, "In the past, in pursuit of justice for the Palestinian people and peace in Israel/Palestine, I have on occasion appeared on platforms with people whose views I completely reject. I apologise for the concerns and anxiety that this has caused." Corbyn attended "two or three" of the annual Deir Yassin Remembered commemorations in London, with Jewish fellow Labour MP Gerald Kaufman, organised by a group founded by Paul Eisen, who has denied the Holocaust, but it is not known whether Eisen attended the commemorations. Corbyn stated that he was unaware of the views expressed by Eisen, and had associated with Mayer and others with whom he disagreed in pursuit of progress in the Middle East.
Corbyn has been criticised for his defence of Palestinian-Israeli cleric and activist Raed Salah, who was arrested in 2011 due to a deportation order one day before he was due to attend a meeting with MPs including Corbyn. Salah was accused of spreading the "blood libel" (the myth that Jews in Europe had used children's blood in making holy bread), a claim which he strongly denied. He had also written an article suggesting that 4,000 "Jewish clerks" had been absent on the day of the 9/11 attacks attacks, alluding to the conspiracy theory that the Israeli secret service Mossad was involved in the attack. In a statement, Salah condemned antisemitism and denied the accusation of blood libel, of which he was later convicted and sentenced to eight months in prison before he successfully appealed his deportation. Corbyn said that Salah was "a voice of the Palestinian people that needs to be heard" and accused then-Home Secretary Theresa May of giving "an executive detention order against him". Following Salah's successful appeal against deportation, Corbyn said he was looking forward to inviting the cleric to "tea on the House of Commons terrace, because you deserve it". A Labour source also stated in response, "Jeremy Corbyn is a determined supporter of justice for the Palestinian people and opponent of anti-Semitism. He condemns support for Palestinians being used as a mask for anti-Semitism and attempts to silence legitimate criticism of Israel by wrongly conflating it with anti-Semitism. There was widespread criticism of the attempt to deport Raed Salah, including from Jews for Justice for Palestinians, and his appeal against deportation succeeded on all grounds."
In 2018, Corbyn was criticised by Jewish leaders for not recognising an antisemitic canard after Mear One publicised on social media in 2012 that his mural about exploitative bankers and industrialists was being censored and Corbyn responded at the time by questioning its removal. In response to the criticism, Corbyn said he regretted that he "did not look more closely at the image", agreed it was antisemitic and endorsed the decision to remove it. In 2020, the Equality and Human Rights Commission (EHRC) revealed that an antisemitism complaint had been made against Corbyn in April 2018 over his defence of the mural, and members of Corbyn's office "directly interfered in the decision not to investigate the case," an example of political interference the EHRC concluded was "unlawful". Corbyn was criticised for a 2013 speech in which he spoke of certain Zionists who had "berated" the Palestinian speaker at a meeting, "they don't want to study history and secondly having lived in this country for a very long time, probably all their lives, they don't understand English irony either" (used by the speaker). The remarks were criticised for appearing to perpetuate the antisemitic canard that Jews fail or refuse to integrate into wider society. Corbyn responded that he was using Zionist "in the accurate political sense and not as a euphemism for Jewish people". Jonathan Sacks, a former Chief Rabbi, described the remark as "the most offensive statement made by a senior British politician since Enoch Powell's 1968 'rivers of blood' speech."
Following coverage of alleged antisemitic statements by party members, Corbyn commissioned the Chakrabarti Inquiry and supported changes to the party's rules and procedures to make hate speech and expressions of racism a disciplinary offence. In July 2018, Labour, with Corbyn's support, agreed a code of conduct which excluded or amended some of the examples from the IHRA Working Definition of Antisemitism relating to criticism of Israel. Britain's three main Jewish newspapers jointly called a Corbyn-led government an "existential threat to Jewish life" in Britain. Corbyn was accosted by Labour MP Margaret Hodge in the Commons; she then told him she believed he was "an antisemitic racist" because of his perceived reluctance to adopt the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance's definition of antisemitism in full. In an opinion piece for The Guardian, Hodge explained that, for her, as the daughter of Holocaust survivors, the issue of racism was personal. The party began disciplinary action against Hodge but dropped the charges in August, claiming she had "expressed regret for the manner in which she raised her views", but Hodge denied this was the case.
In 2019, Corbyn was criticised for a foreword he wrote in 2011 for a republication of the 1902 book Imperialism: A Study by John A. Hobson, as the book contains the antisemitic assertion that finance was controlled "by men of a single and peculiar race, who have behind them many centuries of financial experience" who "are in a unique position to control the policy of nations". In his foreword, he called the book a "great tome" and "brilliant, and very controversial at the time". Corbyn responded that the language used to describe minorities in Hobson's work is "absolutely deplorable", but he stated that his foreword analysed "the process which led to the first world war" which he saw as the subject of the book and not Hobson's language.
In 2020, former Corbyn advisor Andrew Murray suggested Corbyn may have struggled to empathise with the Jewish community during his leadership, stating: "He is very empathetic, Jeremy, but he's empathetic with the poor, the disadvantaged, the migrant, the marginalised. [...] Happily, that is not the Jewish community in Britain today." Corbyn raised the question in internal debates of whether there was a risk of giving the Jewish community 'special treatment'. In 2021 Corbyn was a guest at the Cambridge Union. He was asked by the society's President, Joel Rosen, what he had done to stop Luciana Berger, a Jewish MP for Liverpool Wavertree, from being "hounded out" of the Labour party. Corbyn replied that Berger "was not hounded out of the party. She unfortunately decided to resign from the party."
A September 2018 poll carried out by polling firm Survation, on behalf of the Jewish Chronicle, found that 86% of British Jews and 39% of the British public believed Corbyn to be anti-Semitic. A poll conducted in 2021 by YouGov, again on behalf of the Jewish Chronicle, found that 70% of Labour members dismissed the idea that the party had a problem with anti-Semitism, and 72% believe Corbyn should not have been expelled from the party.
In November 2019, a number of British public figures urged voters in a letter published in The Guardian to reject Corbyn in the impending general election, alleging an "association with antisemitism". The Labour Party responded by noting their robust actions in dealing with it and that several of the signatories had themselves been accused of antisemitism, Islamophobia and misogyny and/or were Conservatives and Liberal Democrats.
Defences
Corbyn has condemned antisemitism, calling it "vile and wrong," and has apologised for the presence of antisemitism within the Labour Party on numerous occasions, including at a meeting with Jewish community leaders in 2018. While stating that "one anti-Semite [in the Labour Party] is one too many," he also argued that UK media coverage misrepresented the scale of antisemitism cases in the Labour Party for political reasons, stating that "the public perception in an opinion poll last year was that one third of all Labour party members were somehow or other under suspicion of antisemitism. The reality is, it was 0.3 per cent of party members had a case against them which had to be put through the process." An internal Labour Party report entitled The work of the Labour Party's Governance and Legal Unit in relation to antisemitism, 2014–2019 was leaked to the media in April 2020 and stated that Corbyn's team inherited a lack of "robust processes, systems, training, education and effective line management" as well as factional hostility towards Corbyn amongst former senior officials. This contributed to "a litany of mistakes" which "affected the expeditious and resolute handling of disciplinary complaints". The investigation, which was completed in March 2020, concluded there was "no evidence" of antisemitism complaints being treated differently to other forms of complaint, or of current or former staff being "motivated by antisemitic intent". The report also stated that Corbyn's office was not made aware of the scale of the antisemitism problem in the party because former General Secretary Iain McNicol, and other senior figures provided "false and misleading information" to his office. It found that McNicol and staff in the Governance and Legal Unit "provided timetables for the resolution of cases that were never met; falsely claimed to have processed all antisemitism complaints; falsely claimed that most complaints received were not about Labour members and provided highly inaccurate statistics of antisemitism complaints". The report also stated Sam Matthews, who was Head of Disputes and acting Head of the Governance and Legal Unit, "rarely replied or took any action" in relation to antisemitism complaints. It said the process for tackling antisemitism complaints improved when Jennie Formby became general secretary in 2018.
UK academics have criticised the media for bias against Corbyn in its coverage of the anti-Semitism debate, which they said had been "weaponised" against Corbyn ahead of important elections. Corbyn's defenders, including Jewish Voice for Labour, have cited Corbyn's record of opposing and campaigning against racism and antisemitism, and supporting Jewish communal initiatives. He organised a demonstration against a 1970s National Front march through Wood Green; spoke on the 80th anniversary of the Battle of Cable Street, noting that his mother was a protester; signed numerous early day motions condemning antisemitism; in 1987, campaigned to reverse Islington Council's decision to grant the planning application to destroy a Jewish cemetery; and in 2010, called on the UK government to facilitate the settlement of Yemeni Jews in Britain. He also took part in a ceremony in his Islington constituency to commemorate the original site of the North London Synagogue and visited the Theresienstadt Ghetto, calling it a reminder of the dangers of far-right politics, antisemitism and racism.
A 2019 letter, supportive of Corbyn and published in the NME, was signed by thirty high profile figures, including Noam Chomsky, Naomi Klein, Yanis Varoufakis, Steve Coogan, Brian Eno, Lowkey, Thurston Moore, Massive Attack, Maxine Peake, Mark Ruffalo, Mark Rylance, Alexei Sayle, Roger Waters, and Vivienne Westwood. The letter describes Corbyn as a "life-long committed anti-racist" and says that "no political party or political leader has done more to address [the issue] than Jeremy Corbyn and the Labour Party." A further letter in support of Corbyn, from a number of British Jews, mainly eminent academics, was published in The Guardian a few days later. Also in 2019, John Bercow, the Jewish former Speaker of the House of Commons and Conservative MP, said that he had known Corbyn for 22 years, did not believe he was antisemitic and had never experienced antisemitism from a Labour Party member. In May 2021, Jewish Voice for Labour published a report entitled How the EHRC Got It So Wrong: Antisemitism and the Labour Party. The report, which contained an introduction by Geoffrey Bindman, was critical of the EHRC investigation.
In July 2020, Corbyn said he was disappointed at the Labour Party's decision to apologise and financially settle defamation cases arising from its response to the July 2019 BBC Panorama programme Is Labour Anti-Semitic? The Labour Party (led by Corbyn at the time) had accused the show's presenter John Ware of having "invented quotes", which in the settlement they admitted had been untrue. Corbyn said that the Labour Party risked "giving credibility to misleading and inaccurate allegations about action taken to tackle anti-Semitism in the Labour Party in recent years" and that the settlements were a "political decision, not a legal one". A fundraising campaign, set up with an initial target of £20,000 to help Corbyn with legal fees related to Ware's action, surpassed £270,000 within a few days, eventually reaching over £370,000.
Suspension from the Labour Party
In October 2020, the EHRC announced that its investigation had found that the Labour Party had breached the Equality Act 2010 in three ways:
Unlawful harassment by agents of the party; namely a councillor, Pam Bromley, and Ken Livingstone in his defence of Naz Shah,
failure to provide appropriate training to those handling the complaints, and
23 instances of "inappropriate involvement" by Corbyn's staff in antisemitism complaints. One of the complaints had been against Corbyn personally, regarding his response to the removal of the mural.
In response, Corbyn said his team's involvement in complaints was "to speed up, not hinder the process", that he did not accept all of the EHRC's findings, and that while "[o]ne antisemite is one too many", the scale of antisemitism within Labour had been "dramatically overstated for political reasons by our opponents inside and outside the party, as well as by much of the media". Corbyn was suspended from the Labour Party pending investigation by General Secretary David Evans when he failed to retract his remarks; he has said he will "strongly contest the political intervention to suspend [him]".
Trade union officials such as Len McCluskey and Dave Ward, wrestler Sami Zayn as well as politicians Claudia Webbe, Laura Pidcock, Ken Livingstone, Pablo Iglesias Turrión, Rafael Correa, Jill Stein, Diane Abbott, John McDonnell, Salma Yaqoob, Kate Osborne, Mercedes Villalba, Mary Foy, Nadia Whittome, Apsana Begum, Liam Byrne, Zarah Sultana and Richard Burgon called for the suspension to be revoked. Campaign group Momentum held a virtual rally entitled 'Stand with Corbyn' where they described Corbyn's suspension as "a naked attack on the left". On 31 October, the general secretaries of seven of Labour's affiliated trade unions (CWU, FBU, NUM, Unite, BFAWU, ASLEF and TSSA) published a joint statement calling the suspension "ill-advised and unjust". A YouGov poll found that 58% of respondents, including 41% of those who had voted Labour in 2019 under Corbyn's leadership, thought it was right to suspend him, with 13% (and 26% of Labour voters) disagreeing while 29% did not know.
On 17 November, Corbyn was given a formal warning and reinstated to the Labour Party. Starmer has not yet re-instated the whip to Corbyn. Corbyn received support from a number of Constituency Labour Parties (CLPs) around the country in response to Starmer's decision to remove the whip. The whip was suspended – initially for three months to allow an investigation to be conducted – however this suspension was still in place as of July 2021. On 26 November, Corbyn's lawyers lodged a pre-action disclosure application to the High Court as a prelude to taking legal action against the Labour Party for suspending the whip. The basis of Corbyn's claim is that he and Starmer had agreed to a deal to readmit him to the party. On 27 January 2021, the application for a pre-action disclosure was dismissed.
In September 2021, McCluskey wrote that Starmer had reneged on a deal to reinstate the whip to Corbyn in return for Corbyn agreeing to a statement that was co-written by senior Labour staff. McCluskey said he had provided a statement for Corbyn's legal challenge and would appear in court if required.
Media coverage
Analyses of domestic media coverage of Corbyn have found it to be critical or antagonistic. In July 2016, academics from the London School of Economics published a study of 812 articles about Corbyn taken from eight national newspapers around the time of his Labour leadership election. The study found that 75 percent of the articles either distorted or failed to represent his actual views on subjects. The study's director commented that "Our analysis shows that Corbyn was thoroughly delegitimised as a political actor from the moment he became a prominent candidate and even more so after he was elected as party leader".
Another report by the Media Reform Coalition and Birkbeck College in July 2016, based on 10 days of coverage around the time of multiple shadow cabinet resignations, found "marked and persistent imbalance" in favour of sources critical to him; the International Business Times was the only outlet that gave him more favourable than critical coverage.
In August 2016, a YouGov survey found that 97% of Corbyn supporters agreed that the "mainstream media as a whole has been deliberately biasing coverage to portray Jeremy Corbyn in a negative manner", as did 51% of the general "Labour selectorate" sample.
In May 2017, Loughborough University's Centre for Research in Communication and Culture concluded that the media was attacking Jeremy Corbyn far more than Theresa May during nine election campaign weekdays examined. The Daily Mail and Daily Express praised Theresa May for election pledges that were condemned when proposed by Labour in previous elections.
In February 2018, Momentum reported that attacks on Corbyn in the press were associated with increases in their membership applications. In September 2019, Labour leaders argued that traditional mainstream media outlets showed bias.
In December 2019, a study by Loughborough University found that British press coverage was twice as hostile to Labour and half as critical of the Conservatives during the 2019 general election campaign as it had been during the 2017 campaign.
In an interview with Middle East Eye in June 2020, Corbyn described the media's treatment of himself while he was Labour leader as obsessive and "at one level laughable, but all designed to be undermining". He said that the media coverage had diverted his media team from helping him pursue "a political agenda on homelessness, on poverty in Britain, on housing, on international issues" to "rebutting these crazy stories, abusive stories, about me the whole time". He said he considered suing as a result of media treatment but was guided by advice from Tony Benn, who told him, "Libel is a rich man's game, and you're not a rich man [...] Go to a libel case – even if you win the case, you'll be destroyed financially in doing so".
Personal life
Corbyn lives in the Finsbury Park area of London. He has been married three times and divorced twice, and has three sons with his second wife. In 1974, he married his first wife, Jane Chapman, a fellow Labour Councillor for Haringey and now a professor at the University of Lincoln. They divorced in 1979. In the late 1970s, Corbyn had a brief relationship with Labour MP Diane Abbott.
In 1987, Corbyn married Chilean exile Claudia Bracchitta, granddaughter of Ricardo Bracchitta (Consul-General of Spain in Santiago), with whom he has three sons. He missed his youngest son's birth as he was lecturing National Union of Public Employees members at the same hospital. Following a difference of opinion about sending their son to a grammar school (Corbyn opposes selective education) they divorced in 1999 after two years of separation, although Corbyn said in June 2015 that he continues to "get on very well" with her. His son subsequently attended Queen Elizabeth's School, which had been his wife's first choice. Their second son, Sebastian, worked on his leadership campaign and was later employed as John McDonnell's Chief of Staff.
Corbyn's second oldest brother, Andrew, who was a geologist, died of a brain haemorrhage while in Papua New Guinea in 2001. Corbyn escorted the body from Papua New Guinea to Australia, where his brother's widow and children lived.
In 2012, Corbyn went to Mexico to marry his Mexican partner Laura Álvarez, who runs a fair trade coffee import business which has been the subject of some controversy. A former human rights lawyer in Mexico, she first met Corbyn shortly after his divorce from Bracchitta, having come to London to support her sister Marcela following the abduction of her niece to America by her sister's estranged husband. They contacted fellow Labour MP Tony Benn for assistance, who introduced them to Corbyn, who met with the police on their behalf and spoke at fundraisers until the girl was located in 2003. Álvarez then returned to Mexico, with the couple maintaining a long-distance relationship until she moved to London in 2011. Álvarez has described Corbyn as "not very good at house work but he is a good politician". They have a cat called El Gato ("The Cat" in Spanish), while Corbyn had previously owned a dog called Mango, described by The Observer in 1984 as his "only constant companion" at the time.
Corbyn named John Smith as the former Labour leader whom he most admired, describing him as "a decent, nice, inclusive leader". He also said he was "very close and very good friends" with Michael Foot.
Personal beliefs and interests
When interviewed by The Huffington Post in December 2015, Corbyn refused to reveal his religious beliefs and called them a "private thing", but denied that he was an atheist. He has said that he is "sceptical" of having a god in his life. He compared his concerns about the environment to a sort of "spiritualism". Corbyn has described himself as frugal, telling Simon Hattenstone of The Guardian, "I don't spend a lot of money, I lead a very normal life, I ride a bicycle and I don't have a car." He has been a vegetarian for nearly 50 years, after having volunteered on a pig farm in Jamaica when he was 19, and stated in April 2018 that he was considering becoming a vegan. Although he has been described in the media as teetotal, he said in an interview with the Daily Mirror that he does drink alcohol but "very, very little".
Corbyn is a member of the All-Party Parliamentary Group on Cycling. He enjoys reading and writing, and speaks fluent Spanish. He supports Arsenal FC, which is based in his constituency, and has signed parliamentary motions praising the successes of its men's and women's teams. He named Jens Lehmann, Ian Wright, and Dennis Bergkamp as his favourite Arsenal players, and has campaigned for the club to pay its staff a living wage. Corbyn is an avid "drain spotter" and has photographed decorative drain and manhole covers throughout the country.
Awards and recognition
In 2013, Corbyn was awarded the Gandhi International Peace Award for his "consistent efforts over a 30-year parliamentary career to uphold the Gandhian values of social justice and non‐violence". In the same year, he was honoured by the Grassroot Diplomat Initiative for his "ongoing support for a number of non-government organisations and civil causes". Corbyn has won the Parliamentary "Beard of the Year Award" a record six times, as well as being named as the Beard Liberation Front's Beard of the Year, having previously described his beard as "a form of dissent" against New Labour.
In 2016, Corbyn was the subject of a musical entitled Corbyn the Musical: The Motorcycle Diaries, written by journalists Rupert Myers and Bobby Friedman.
In 2017 the American magazine Foreign Policy named Corbyn in its Top 100 Global Thinkers list for that year "for inspiring a new generation to re-engage in politics". In December 2017 he was one of three recipients awarded the Seán MacBride Peace Prize "for his sustained and powerful political work for disarmament and peace". The award was announced the previous September.
In July 2023, a YouGov opinion poll found that Corbyn was the politician with the highest popularity (30%) in Britain.
See also
List of peace activists
References
Further reading
Allen, Peter. "Political science, punditry, and the Corbyn problem". British Politics 15.1 (2020): 69–87 online.
Bolton, Matthew. "Conceptual Vandalism, Historical Distortion: The Labour Antisemitism Crisis and the Limits of Class Instrumentalism". Journal of Contemporary Antisemitism 3.2 (2020) online .
Bolton, Matt, and Frederick Harry Pitts, eds. Corbynism: A Critical Approach (Bingley: Emerald, 2018).
Bower, Tom. Dangerous Hero: Corbyn's Ruthless Plot for Power (2019)
Cammaerts, Bart, Brooks DeCillia, and João Carlos Magalhães. "Journalistic transgressions in the representation of Jeremy Corbyn: From watchdog to attackdog". Journalism 21.2 (2020): 191–208 online.
Cawthorne, Nigel. Jeremy Corbyn: Leading from the Left. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2015
Gilbert, W. Stephen. Jeremy Corbyn: Accidental Hero. London: Eyeware Publishing Ltd (Squint Books series), 2015. .
Hedges, Paul, and Luca Farrow. "UK Elections: Jeremy Corbyn, Anti-Semitism, and Islamophobia". RSIS Commentaries (2 January 2020) online.
Manwaring, Rob, and Evan Smith. "Corbyn, British labour and policy change". British Politics 15.1 (2020): 25–47 online.
Mueller, Frank, Andrea Whittle, and Gyuzel Gadelshina. "The discursive construction of authenticity: The case of Jeremy Corbyn". Discourse, Context & Media 31 (2019): 100324 online.
Prince, Rosa. Comrade Corbyn: A Very Unlikely Coup: How Jeremy Corbyn Stormed to the Labour Leadership (Biteback Publishing, 2016)
Seymour, Richard. Corbyn: The Strange Rebirth of Radical Politics. Verso Books, 2016.
Sinha, Paresha, Owain Smolović Jones, and Brigid Carroll. "Theorizing dramaturgical resistance leadership from the leadership campaigns of Jeremy Corbyn". Human Relations (2019): 0018726719887310. online
Watts, Jake, and Tim Bale. "Populism as an intra-party phenomenon: The British Labour party under Jeremy Corbyn". British Journal of Politics and International Relations 21.1 (2019): 99–115 online
Whiteley, Paul and others. "Oh Jeremy Corbyn! Why did Labour Party membership soar after the 2015 general election?". British Journal of Politics and International Relations 21.1 (2019): 80–98. online
External links
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Living people
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betty%20White
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Betty White
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Betty Marion White (January 17, 1922December 31, 2021) was an American actress, comedian and producer. A pioneer of early television with a career spanning almost seven decades, she was noted for her vast television appearances acting in sitcoms, sketch comedy, and game shows. She produced and starred in the series Life with Elizabeth (19531955), thus becoming the first woman to produce a sitcom.
After moving from radio to television, White became a staple panelist of American game shows such as Password, Match Game, Tattletales, To Tell the Truth, The Hollywood Squares, and The $25,000 Pyramid. Dubbed "the first lady of game shows", she became the first woman to receive the Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Game Show Host for the show Just Men! in 1983. She then became more widely known for her guest and recurring appearances on shows such as The Carol Burnett Show, Mama's Family, The Bold and the Beautiful and Boston Legal.
White's biggest roles include Sue Ann Nivens on the CBS sitcom The Mary Tyler Moore Show (1973–1977), Rose Nylund on the NBC sitcom The Golden Girls (1985–1992), and Elka Ostrovsky on the TV Land sitcom Hot in Cleveland (2010–2015). She had a late career resurgence when she starred in the romantic comedy film The Proposal (2009) and hosted Saturday Night Live the following year, garnering her a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series. The 2018 documentary Betty White: First Lady of Television detailed her life and career.
For her lengthy work in radio, television, and film, White twice earned the Guinness World Record for the longest TV career by a female entertainer in both 2014 and 2018. She received various awards and nominations, including seven Emmy Awards, three Screen Actors Guild Awards, and a Grammy Award. She received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame and was inducted into the Television Hall of Fame in 1995.
Early life
Betty Marion White was born in Oak Park, Illinois, on January 17, 1922. She later clarified that "Betty" was her legal name and not a shortened version of "Elizabeth" as some people had assumed. She was the only child of housewife Christine Tess (née Cachikis) and lighting company executive Horace Logan White. Her father was from Michigan. White's maternal grandfather was Greek, her paternal grandfather was Danish, both of her grandmothers were Canadians of English descent, and her other ancestry included Welsh. When she was one year old, her family moved to Alhambra, California, and later to Los Angeles during the Great Depression. To make extra money, her father built crystal radios and sold them wherever he could. Since it was the height of the Depression and hardly anyone had a sizable income, he would trade the radios for other goods, which sometimes included dogs.
White was educated in Beverly Hills, where she attended Horace Mann Elementary School and Beverly Hills High School, graduating from the latter in 1939. Her interest in wildlife was sparked by family vacations to the Sierra Nevada. She initially aspired to become a forest ranger, but was unable to do so because women were not allowed to serve as rangers at the time. She instead pursued an interest in writing; she wrote and played the lead in a graduation play at Horace Mann School and discovered her interest in performing. Inspired by her idols Jeanette MacDonald and Nelson Eddy, she decided to pursue a career as an actress.
One month after White graduated from high school, she and a classmate sang songs from The Merry Widow on an experimental television show, at a time when the medium of television itself was still in development. She found work as a model, and her first professional acting job was at the Bliss Hayden Little Theatre. After the U.S. entered World War II in 1941, she volunteered for the American Women's Voluntary Services. Her assignment included driving a PX truck with military supplies to the Hollywood Hills. She also participated in events for troops before they were deployed overseas. Commenting on her wartime service, she later said that it was "a strange time and out of balance with everything".
Career
1951–1969: Early career and breakthrough
After the war, White made the rounds to movie studios looking for work, but was turned down because she was "not photogenic". She started to look for radio jobs, where being photogenic did not matter. Her first radio jobs included reading commercials and playing bit parts, and sometimes even doing crowd noises. She made about five dollars a show. She would do just about anything, like singing on a show for no pay. She appeared on shows such as Blondie, The Great Gildersleeve, and This Is Your FBI. She was then offered her own radio show, called The Betty White Show.
In 1949, she began appearing as co-host with Al Jarvis on his daily live television variety show Hollywood on Television, originally called Make Believe Ballroom, on KFWB and then on KLAC-TV (now KCOP-TV) in Los Angeles.
White began hosting the show by herself in 1952 after Jarvis's departure, spanning five and a half hours of live ad lib television six days per week, over a continuous four-year span. In all of her various variety series over the years, White would sing at least a couple of songs during each broadcast. In 1951, she was nominated for her first Emmy Award as "Best Actress" on television, competing with Judith Anderson, Helen Hayes, and Imogene Coca; the award went to Gertrude Berg. At this point, the award was for body of work, with no shows named in nominations.
The Betty White Show (1952–1954)
From 1952 to 1954, White hosted and produced her own daily talk/variety show, The Betty White Show, first on KLAC-TV and then on NBC (her first television, but second show to feature that title). Like her sitcom, she had creative control over the series, and was able to hire a female director. In a first for American network variety television, her show featured an African-American performer, but the show faced criticism for the inclusion of tap dancer Arthur Duncan as a regular cast member. The criticism followed when NBC expanded the show nationally. Local Southern stations in the Jim Crow era threatened to boycott unless Duncan was removed from the series. In response, White said "I'm sorry. Live with it", and gave Duncan more airtime. Initially a ratings success, the show repeatedly changed time slots and suffered lower viewership. By the end of the year, NBC quietly cancelled the series.
Life with Elizabeth (1953–1955)
In 1952, the same year that she began hosting Hollywood on Television, White co-founded Bandy Productions with writer George Tibbles and Don Fedderson, a producer. The trio worked to create new shows using existing characters from sketches shown on Hollywood on Television. White, Fedderson, and Tibbles created the television comedy Life with Elizabeth, with White portraying the title character. The show was originally a live production on KLAC-TV in 1951, and won White a Los Angeles Emmy Award in 1952. Life with Elizabeth was nationally syndicated from 1953 to 1955, allowing White to become one of the few women in television with full creative control in front of and behind the camera. The show was unusual for a sitcom in the 1950s because it was co-produced and owned by a twenty-eight-year-old woman who still lived with her parents. White said they did not worry about relevance in those days, and that usually the incidents were based on real-life situations that happened to her, the actor who played Alvin, and the writer. White also performed in television advertisements seen on live television in Los Angeles, including a rendition of the "Dr. Ross Dog Food" advertisement at KTLA during the 1950s. She guest-starred on The Millionaire in the 1956 episode "The Virginia Lennart Story", as the owner of a small-town diner who received an anonymous gift of $1 million.
Following the end of Life with Elizabeth, she appeared as Vicki Angel on the ABC sitcom Date with the Angels from 1957 to 1958. As originally intended, the show, loosely based on the Elmer Rice play Dream Girl, would focus on Vicki's daydreaming tendencies. However, the sponsor was not pleased with the fantasy elements and was pressured to have them eliminated. "I can honestly say that was the only time I have ever wanted to get out of a show", White later said. The sitcom was a critical and rating disaster, but ABC wouldn't allow White out of her contractual agreement and required her to fill the remaining thirteen weeks in their deal. Instead of a retooled version of the sitcom, White rebooted her old talk/variety show, The Betty White Show, which aired until her contract was fulfilled."
The sitcom did give White some positive experiences: she first met Lucille Ball while working on it, as both Date With the Angels and I Love Lucy were filmed on the same Culver Studios lot. The two quickly struck up a friendship over their accomplishments in taking on the male-dominated television business of the 1950s. They relied on one another through divorce, illness, personal loss, and even competed against one another on various game shows. In July 1959, White made her professional stage debut in a week-long production of the play, Third Best Sport, at the Ephrata Legion Star Playhouse in Ephrata, Pennsylvania.
Game and talk show appearances
By the 1960s, White was a staple of network game shows and talk shows: including both Jack Paar and later Johnny Carson's era of The Tonight Show. She made many appearances on the hit Password show as a celebrity guest from 1961 through 1975. She married the show's host, Allen Ludden, in 1963. She subsequently appeared on the show's three updated versions, Password Plus, Super Password, and Million Dollar Password. White made frequent game show appearances on What's My Line? (starting in 1955), To Tell the Truth (in 1961, 1990, and 2015), I've Got a Secret (in 1972–73), Match Game (1973–1982), and Pyramid (starting in 1982). She made her feature film debut as fictional Kansas Senator Elizabeth Ames Adams in the 1962 drama Advise & Consent; in 2004, on talk show Q&A, host Brian Lamb remarked on White's longevity as an actress besides the fact she was playing a strong female senator in 1962. He and Donald A. Ritchie noted that viewers would have seen the Senator Adams character to reflect Margaret Chase Smith. In 1963, White starred in a production of The King and I at the St. Louis Municipal Opera Theatre, with Charles Korvin co-starring as the king.
NBC offered her an anchor job on their flagship breakfast television show Today. She turned the offer down because she did not want to move permanently to New York City (where Today is produced). The job eventually went to Barbara Walters. Through the 1950s and 1960s, White began a nineteen-year run as hostess and commentator on the annual Rose Parade broadcast on NBC (co-hosting with Roy Neal and later Lorne Greene), and appeared on a number of late-night talk shows, including Jack Paar's The Tonight Show, and various other daytime game shows.
1973–1992: Established star
The Mary Tyler Moore Show (1973–1977)
White made several appearances in the fourth season (1973–74) of The Mary Tyler Moore Show, as the "man-hungry" Sue Ann Nivens. Although considering the role a highlight of her career, White described the character's image as "icky sweet", feeling she was the very definition of feminine passivity, owing to the fact she always satirized her own persona onscreen in just such a way. The Mary Tyler Moore Show producers made Sue Ann Nivens a regular character and brought White into the main cast starting with the fifth season, after Valerie Harper, who played Rhoda Morgenstern, left the program.
A running gag was how Sue Ann's aggressive, cynical personality was the complete opposite of her relentlessly perky TV persona on the fictional WJM-TV show, The Happy Homemaker. "We need somebody who can play sickeningly sweet, like Betty White", Moore suggested at a production meeting, which resulted in casting White herself. White won two Emmy Awards back-to-back for her role in the hugely popular series, in 1975 and 1976.
Mary Tyler Moore and her husband Grant Tinker were close friends with White and her husband Allen Ludden. In 2010 The Interviews: An Oral History of Television interview, Moore explained that producers, aware of Moore and White's friendship, were initially hesitant to audition White for the role, for fear that if she hadn't been right, it would create awkwardness between the two.
In 1975, NBC replaced White as commentator hostess of the Tournament of Roses Parade, feeling that she was identified too heavily with rival network CBS's The Mary Tyler Moore Show. White admitted to People that it was difficult "watching someone else do my parade", although she would soon start a ten-year run as hostess of the Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade for CBS. Following the end of The Mary Tyler Moore Show in 1977, White was offered her own sitcom on CBS, her fourth, entitled The Betty White Show (the first of thet name running a quarter century earlier), in which she co-starred with John Hillerman and former Mary Tyler Moore co-star Georgia Engel. Running up against Monday Night Football in its timeslot, the ratings were poor and it was canceled after one season.
White appeared several times on The Carol Burnett Show and The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson appearing in many sketches, and began guest-starring in a number of television movies and television miniseries, including With This Ring, The Best Place to Be, Before and After, and The Gossip Columnist. In 1983, White became the first woman to win a Daytime Emmy Award in the category of Outstanding Game Show Host, for the NBC entry Just Men! Due to the amount of work she did on them, she was deemed the "First Lady of Game Shows".
The Golden Girls (1985–1992)
From 1983 to 1984, White had a recurring role playing Ellen Harper Jackson on the series Mama's Family, along with future Golden Girls co-star Rue McClanahan. White had originated this character in a series of sketches on The Carol Burnett Show in the 1970s. In 1985, White scored her second signature role and the biggest hit of her career as the St. Olaf, Minnesota native Rose Nylund on The Golden Girls. The series chronicled the lives of four widowed or divorced women in their "golden years" who shared a home in Miami. The Golden Girls, which also starred Bea Arthur, Estelle Getty, and Rue McClanahan, was immensely successful and ran from 1985 through 1992. White won one Primetime Emmy Award, for "Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series", for the first season of The Golden Girls and was nominated in that category every year of the show's run (Getty was also nominated every year, but in the supporting actress category).
White had a strained relationship with her The Golden Girls co-star Bea Arthur on and off the set of their television show, commenting that Arthur "was not that fond of me" and that "she found me a pain in the neck sometimes. It was my positive attitude – and that made Bea mad sometimes. Sometimes if I was happy, she'd be furious." After Arthur's death in 2009, White said, "I knew it would hurt, I just didn't know it would hurt this much." Despite their differences, The Golden Girls was a positive experience for both actresses and they had great mutual respect for the show, their roles, and the achievements made as an ensemble cast.
White was originally offered the role of Blanche in The Golden Girls, and Rue McClanahan was offered the role of Rose (the two characters being similar to roles they had played in Mary Tyler Moore and Maude, respectively). Jay Sandrich, the director of the pilot, suggested that since they had played similar roles in the past, they should switch roles, Rue McClanahan later said in a documentary on the series. White originally had doubts about her ability to play Rose, until Sandrich explained to her that Rose was "terminally naive". White says "if you told Rose you were so hungry you could eat a horse, she'd call the ASPCA."
The Golden Girls ended in 1992 after Arthur announced her decision to depart the series. White, McClanahan, and Getty reprised their roles as Rose, Blanche, and Sophia in the spin-off The Golden Palace. The series was short-lived, lasting only one season. In addition, White reprised her Rose Nylund character in guest appearances on the NBC shows Empty Nest and Nurses, both set in Miami.
1993–2009: Continued roles
After The Golden Palace ended, White guest-starred on a number of television programs including Suddenly Susan, The Practice, and Yes, Dear where she received Emmy nominations for her individual appearances. She won an Emmy in 1996 for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series, appearing as herself on an episode of The John Larroquette Show. In that episode, titled "Here We Go Again", a parody on Sunset Boulevard, a diva-like White convinces Larroquette to help write her memoir. At one point Golden Girls co-stars McClanahan and Getty appear as themselves. Larroquette is forced to dress in drag as Bea Arthur, when all four appear in public as the "original" cast members. White also appeared in films such as Lake Placid (1999) and Bringing Down the House (2003) during this time.
In December 2006, White joined the soap opera The Bold and the Beautiful in the role of Ann Douglas (where she would make 22 appearances), the long-lost mother of the show's matriarch, Stephanie Forrester, played by Susan Flannery. She also began a recurring role in ABC's Boston Legal from 2005 to 2008 as the calculating, blackmailing gossip-monger Catherine Piper, a role she originally played as a guest star on The Practice in 2004.
White appeared several times on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno and The Late Late Show with Craig Ferguson appearing in many sketches and returned to Password in its latest incarnation, Million Dollar Password, on June 12, 2008, (episode #3), participating in the Million Dollar challenge at the end of the show. On May 19, 2008, she appeared on The Oprah Winfrey Show, taking part in the host's Mary Tyler Moore Show reunion special alongside every surviving cast member of the series.
Beginning in 2007, White was featured in television commercials for PetMed Express, highlighting her interest in animal welfare.
The Proposal (2009)
In 2009, White starred in the romantic comedy The Proposal alongside Sandra Bullock and Ryan Reynolds. Also in 2009, the candy company Mars, Incorporated launched a global campaign for their Snickers bar; the campaign's slogan was: "You're not you when you're hungry". White appeared, alongside Abe Vigoda, in the company's advertisement for the candy during the 2010 Super Bowl XLIV. The advertisement became very popular, and won the top spot on the Super Bowl Ad Meter.
2010–2021: Career resurgence
Following the success of the Snickers advertisement, a grassroots campaign on Facebook called "Betty White to Host SNL (Please)" began in January 2010. The group was approaching 500,000 members when NBC confirmed on March 11, 2010, that White would in fact host Saturday Night Live on May 8. The appearance made her, at age 88, the oldest person to host the show, beating Miskel Spillman, the winner of SNLs "Anybody Can Host" contest, who was 80 when she hosted in 1977. In her opening monologue, White thanked Facebook and joked that she "didn't know what Facebook was, and now that I do know what it is, I have to say, it sounds like a huge waste of time." The appearance earned her a 2010 Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series. White and Jean Smart are the only actresses to have wins in all three comedy Emmy nominations.
Hot in Cleveland (2010–2015)
In June 2010, White took on the role of Elka Ostrovsky, the house caretaker on TV Land's original sitcom Hot in Cleveland along with Valerie Bertinelli, Jane Leeves, and Wendie Malick. Hot in Cleveland was TV Land's first attempt at a first-run scripted comedy (the channel has rerun other sitcoms since its debut). White was only meant to appear in the pilot of the show but was asked to stay on for the entire series. In 2011, she was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series for her role as Elka, but lost to Julie Bowen for Modern Family. The series ran for six seasons, a total of 128 episodes, with the hour-long final episode airing on June 3, 2015.
White also starred in the Hallmark Hall of Fame presentation of The Lost Valentine on January 30, 2011 (this presentation garnered the highest rating for a Hallmark Hall of Fame presentation in the previous four years and according to the Nielsen Media Research TV rating service won first place in the prime time slot for that date), and from 2012 to 2014, White hosted and executive produced Betty White's Off Their Rockers, in which senior citizens play practical jokes on the younger generation. For this show, she received three Emmy nominations.
A Betty White calendar for 2011 was published in late 2010. The calendar features photos from White's career and with various animals. She also launched her own clothing line on July 22, 2010, which features shirts with her face on them. All proceeds go to various animal charities she supported.
White's success continued in 2012 with her first Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Recording for her bestseller If You Ask Me. She also won the UCLA Jack Benny Award for Comedy, recognizing her significant contribution to comedy in television, and was roasted at the New York Friars Club. A television special, Betty White's 90th Birthday Party, aired on NBC a day before her birthday on January 16, 2012. The show featured appearances of many stars whom White worked with over the years as well as a message from then sitting president Barack Obama. In January 2013, NBC once again celebrated White's birthday with a TV special featuring celebrity friends, including former president Bill Clinton; the special aired on February 5.
On February 15, 2015, White made her final appearance on Saturday Night Live when she attended the 40th Anniversary Special. She participated in "The Californians" sketch alongside members of the current SNL cast members as well as Bill Hader, Taylor Swift and Kerry Washington. In the memorable sketch White ends up kissing Bradley Cooper.
On August 18, 2018, White's career was celebrated in a PBS documentary called Betty White: First Lady of Television. The documentary was filmed over a period of ten years, and featured archived footage and interviews from colleagues and friends. In 2019, White appeared in Pixar's Toy Story 4, providing the voice of Bitey White, a toy tiger that was named after her. The other toys she shared a scene with were named and played by Carol Burnett, Carl Reiner, and Mel Brooks. White commented that "It was wonderful the way they incorporated our names into the characters ... And I'm a sucker for animals, so the tiger was perfect!"
Betty White: A Celebration (2022)
In December 2021, before White's death, it was announced that a new documentary-style film about her, Betty White: A Celebration would be released in U.S. theatres on what would have been her 100th birthday, January 17, 2022. It features a cast of friends including Ryan Reynolds, Tina Fey, Robert Redford, Lin-Manuel Miranda, Clint Eastwood, Morgan Freeman, Jay Leno, Carol Burnett, Craig Ferguson, Jimmy Kimmel, Valerie Bertinelli, James Corden, Wendie Malick, and Jennifer Love Hewitt. In addition to the planned documentary, People magazine featured her as the cover story of its January 10, 2022, newsstand publication and a separate commemorative edition to celebrate the anticipated milestone, which were released days before her death.
Following White's death, producers Steve Boettcher and Mike Trinklein of the event distributors Fathom Events announced in a Facebook post that the pre-filmed production would be going ahead as scheduled.
Achievements and honors
White won five Primetime Emmy Awards, two Daytime Emmy Awards (including the 2015 Daytime Emmy for Lifetime Achievement), and received a Los Angeles Emmy Award in 1952. White was the first woman to have received an Emmy in all performing comedic categories, and also holds the record for longest span between Emmy nominations for performances—her first was in 1951 and her last was in 2014, a span of over 60 years. In 2015, she received the Lifetime Achievement Daytime Emmy. She also won three American Comedy Awards (including a Lifetime Achievement Award in 1990), and two Viewers for Quality Television Awards. She was inducted into the Television Hall of Fame in 1995 and has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at Hollywood Boulevard alongside the star of her late husband Allen Ludden. In 2009, White received the TCA Career Achievement Award from the Television Critics Association.
In 1955 she was named the honorary Mayor of Hollywood. White was the recipient of The Pacific Pioneer Broadcasters Golden Ike Award and the Genii Award from the Alliance for Women in Media in 1976. The American Comedy Awards awarded her the award for Funniest Female in 1987 as well as the list of lifetime achievement awards in 1990.
The American Veterinary Medical Association awarded White with its Humane Award in 1987 for her charitable work with animals. The City of Los Angeles further honored her for her philanthropic work with animals in 2006 with a bronze commemorative plaque near the Gorilla Exhibit at the Los Angeles Zoo. The City of Los Angeles named her "Ambassador to the Animals" at the dedication ceremony.
In September 2009, the Screen Actors Guild (SAG) announced plans to honor White with the Screen Actors Guild Life Achievement Award at the 16th Screen Actors Guild Awards. Actress Sandra Bullock presented White with the award on January 23, 2010, at the ceremony, which took place at the Shrine Auditorium in Los Angeles. She was a Kentucky Colonel. In 2009, White and her Golden Girls cast mates Bea Arthur, Rue McClanahan, and Estelle Getty were awarded Disney Legends awards. White was inducted into the California Hall of Fame in December 2010. In 2010, she was chosen as the Associated Press's Entertainer of the Year.
On November 9, 2010, the USDA Forest Service, along with Smokey Bear, made White an honorary forest ranger, fulfilling her lifelong dream. White said in previous interviews that she wanted to be a forest ranger as a little girl but that women were not allowed to do that then. When White received the honor, more than one-third of Forest Service employees were women.
In January 2011, White received a SAG Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Comedy Series for her role as Elka Ostrovsky in Hot in Cleveland. The show itself was also nominated for an award as Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series, but it lost to the cast of Modern Family. She won the same award again in 2012 and later received a third nomination.
In October 2011, White was awarded an honorary degree and a white doctor's coat by Washington State University at the Washington State Veterinary Medical Association's centennial gala in Yakima, Washington.
A 2011 poll conducted by Reuters and Ipsos revealed that White was considered the most popular and most trusted celebrity among Americans, beating the likes of Denzel Washington, Sandra Bullock, and Tom Hanks.
In 2017, after 70 years in the industry, White was invited to become a member of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. At age 95, this made her the oldest new member at the time.
Personal life
While volunteering with the American Women's Voluntary Services, White met Air Force P-38 pilot Dick Barker. After the war, they were married in 1945 and moved to Belle Center, Ohio, where Barker owned a chicken farm; he wanted to embrace a simpler life, but White did not enjoy doing so. They returned to Los Angeles and divorced within a year. She married Hollywood talent agent Lane Allen in 1947, and they divorced in 1949 because he wanted to start a family but she wanted to focus on her career rather than having children.
On June 14, 1963, White married television host Allen Ludden, whom she had met as a celebrity guest on his game show Password in 1961. Her legal name was changed to Betty White Ludden. He proposed to her at least twice before she accepted, and they remained married until he died from stomach cancer in Los Angeles on June 9, 1981. The couple appeared together in an episode of The Odd Couple featuring Felix's and Oscar's appearance on Password.
Writer John Steinbeck was in White and Ludden's group of high-profile friends, and White wrote about the friendship in her 2011 book If You Ask Me (And of Course You Won't). Ludden had attended the same school as actress Elaine Anderson (Steinbeck's future wife) and Steinbeck later gave an early draft of his Nobel Prize in Literature acceptance speech to Ludden as a birthday gift. The couple also had a close friendship with blind musician and motivational speaker Tom Sullivan, whom they had met in 1968 while Sullivan was singing in a small club at the same time that White and Ludden were performing in a play on Cape Cod. White and Sullivan co-wrote a book, Leading Lady, about Sullivan's first seeing eye dog, who lived with White after being retired.
White and Ludden had no children together, though she was the stepmother of his three children with Margaret McGloin Ludden, who had died of cancer in 1961. During an interview on Larry King Live, she was asked why she never remarried after Ludden's death. She replied, "Once you've had the best, who needs the rest?" When asked by James Lipton on Inside the Actors Studio in 2010 what she would like God to say to her if Heaven exists, she replied, "Come on in, Betty. Here's Allen."
White attended the Unity Church, part of the New Thought movement.
Death
On December 25, 2021, White suffered a stroke. On the morning of December 31, she died in her sleep at her home in the Brentwood neighborhood of Los Angeles at the age of 99. Her remains were cremated.
White's death was met with statements of sympathy and tributes from many people and organizations around the world. The United States Army released a statement as White had volunteered with the American Women's Voluntary Services during World War II. The Martin Luther King Jr. Center also offered their condolences and praised White for her early support of racial equality. There were additional tributes from numerous media organizations, entertainers, political commentators, sports teams, politicians, and other public figures. White's star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame was flooded with flowers and tributes within hours of the announcement of her death.
White's two California homes in Brentwood and Carmel were sold in April and June 2022 respectively, with her personal belongings sold at auction that September and proceeds donated to several charities. Her estate also donated a substantial portion of her television memorabilia to the National Comedy Center, including wardrobe pieces, annotated notes, and five of her Emmy Awards.
Causes and advocacy
Animal welfare
White was a pet enthusiast and animal welfare advocate, who worked with organizations including the Los Angeles Zoo Commission, The Morris Animal Foundation, African Wildlife Foundation, and Actors and Others for Animals. Her interest in animal welfare began in the early 1970s while she was producing and hosting the syndicated series The Pet Set, which spotlighted celebrities and their pets. As of 2009, White was the president emerita of the Morris Animal Foundation, where she served as a trustee of the organization beginning in 1971. She was a member of the board of directors of the Greater Los Angeles Zoo Association since 1974. Additionally, White served the association as a Zoo Commissioner for eight years.
According to the Los Angeles Zoo & Botanical Garden's ZooScape member newsletter, White hosted "History on Film" from 2000 to 2002. White donated nearly $100,000 to the zoo in the month of April 2008 alone. White served as a judge at the 2011 American Humane Hero Dog Awards ceremony.
White served as a judge alongside Whoopi Goldberg and Wendy Diamond for the American Humane's Hero Dog Awards on the Hallmark Channel on November 8, 2011.
Racial equality
In 1954, as The Betty White Show became national across the United States, White was criticized by many in the Southern states for having Arthur Duncan, a Black tap dancer, on her variety show and was asked to remove him. In the 2018 documentary Betty White: First Lady of Television, White recalled threats to take the show off-air "if we didn't get rid of Arthur, because he was Black." She refused, saying "he stays, live with it".
In 2017, sixty-three years after the show was canceled, Duncan appeared as a surprise guest on the series premiere of the reality talent series Little Big Shots: Forever Young, where he performed and reunited with White, later thanking her again for her support.
LGBT rights
A supporter and advocate of LGBT rights, White said in 2010, "If a couple has been together all that timeand there are gay relationships that are more solid than some heterosexual onesI think it's fine if they want to get married. I don't know how people can get so anti-something. Mind your own business, take care of your affairs, and don't worry about other people so much." In a 2011 interview, she revealed that she always knew her close friend Liberace was gay and that she sometimes accompanied him to premieres to help him hide it.
Discography
In September 2011, White teamed up with English singer Luciana to produce a remix of her song "I'm Still Hot". The song was released digitally on September 22 and the video later premiered on October 6. It was made for a campaign for a life settlement company, The Lifeline Program, and it is her only commercial single to date, peaking at number 1 on the Dance Club Songs chart. White has also covered songs on her live television shows, such as "Nevertheless I'm in Love with You", "It's a Good Day", "Getting to Know You" and "A 'No' That Sounds like 'Yes'".
Filmography
Bibliography
White published several books. In August 2010, she entered a deal with G.P. Putnam's Sons to produce two more books, the first of which, If You Ask Me (And of Course You Won't), was released in 2011. In February 2012, White received a Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Recording for the audio recording of the book.
Books
(with Tom Sullivan)
(with Tom Sullivan)
Audiobooks
2004: Here We Go Again (read by the author)
2011: If You Ask Me: (And of Course You Won't) (read by the author), Penguin Audio,
References
Further reading
Tucker, David C. (2007). The Women Who Made Television Funny: Ten Stars of 1950s Sitcoms. Jefferson, NC: McFarland.
External links
Betty White: Celebrating 60 Years (August 7, 2008)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classic%20RISC%20pipeline
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Classic RISC pipeline
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In the history of computer hardware, some early reduced instruction set computer central processing units (RISC CPUs) used a very similar architectural solution, now called a classic RISC pipeline. Those CPUs were: MIPS, SPARC, Motorola 88000, and later the notional CPU DLX invented for education.
Each of these classic scalar RISC designs fetches and tries to execute one instruction per cycle. The main common concept of each design is a five-stage execution instruction pipeline. During operation, each pipeline stage works on one instruction at a time. Each of these stages consists of a set of flip-flops to hold state, and combinational logic that operates on the outputs of those flip-flops.
The classic five stage RISC pipeline
Instruction fetch
The instructions reside in memory that takes one cycle to read. This memory can be dedicated to SRAM, or an Instruction Cache. The term "latency" is used in computer science often and means the time from when an operation starts until it completes. Thus, instruction fetch has a latency of one clock cycle (if using single-cycle SRAM or if the instruction was in the cache). Thus, during the Instruction Fetch stage, a 32-bit instruction is fetched from the instruction memory.
The Program Counter, or PC is a register that holds the address that is presented to the instruction memory. The address is presented to instruction memory at the start of a cycle. Then during the cycle, the instruction is read out of instruction memory, and at the same time, a calculation is done to determine the next PC. The next PC is calculated by incrementing the PC by 4, and by choosing whether to take that as the next PC or to take the result of a branch/jump calculation as the next PC. Note that in classic RISC, all instructions have the same length. (This is one thing that separates RISC from CISC ). In the original RISC designs, the size of an instruction is 4 bytes, so always add 4 to the instruction address, but don't use PC + 4 for the case of a taken branch, jump, or exception (see delayed branches, below). (Note that some modern machines use more complicated algorithms (branch prediction and branch target prediction) to guess the next instruction address.)
Instruction decode
Another thing that separates the first RISC machines from earlier CISC machines, is that RISC has no microcode. In the case of CISC micro-coded instructions, once fetched from the instruction cache, the instruction bits are shifted down the pipeline, where simple combinational logic in each pipeline stage produces control signals for the datapath directly from the instruction bits. In those CISC designs, very little decoding is done in the stage traditionally called the decode stage. A consequence of this lack of decoding is that more instruction bits have to be used to specifying what the instruction does. That leaves fewer bits for things like register indices.
All MIPS, SPARC, and DLX instructions have at most two register inputs. During the decode stage, the indexes of these two registers are identified within the instruction, and the indexes are presented to the register memory, as the address. Thus the two registers named are read from the register file. In the MIPS design, the register file had 32 entries.
At the same time the register file is read, instruction issue logic in this stage determines if the pipeline is ready to execute the instruction in this stage. If not, the issue logic causes both the Instruction Fetch stage and the Decode stage to stall. On a stall cycle, the input flip flops do not accept new bits, thus no new calculations take place during that cycle.
If the instruction decoded is a branch or jump, the target address of the branch or jump is computed in parallel with reading the register file. The branch condition is computed in the following cycle (after the register file is read), and if the branch is taken or if the instruction is a jump, the PC in the first stage is assigned the branch target, rather than the incremented PC that has been computed. Some architectures made use of the Arithmetic logic unit (ALU) in the Execute stage, at the cost of slightly decreased instruction throughput.
The decode stage ended up with quite a lot of hardware: MIPS has the possibility of branching if two registers are equal, so a 32-bit-wide AND tree runs in series after the register file read, making a very long critical path through this stage (which means fewer cycles per second). Also, the branch target computation generally required a 16 bit add and a 14 bit incrementer. Resolving the branch in the decode stage made it possible to have just a single-cycle branch mis-predict penalty. Since branches were very often taken (and thus mis-predicted), it was very important to keep this penalty low.
Execute
The Execute stage is where the actual computation occurs. Typically this stage consists of an ALU, and also a bit shifter. It may also include a multiple cycle multiplier and divider.
The ALU is responsible for performing boolean operations (and, or, not, nand, nor, xor, xnor) and also for performing integer addition and subtraction. Besides the result, the ALU typically provides status bits such as whether or not the result was 0, or if an overflow occurred.
The bit shifter is responsible for shift and rotations.
Instructions on these simple RISC machines can be divided into three latency classes according to the type of the operation:
Register-Register Operation (Single-cycle latency): Add, subtract, compare, and logical operations. During the execute stage, the two arguments were fed to a simple ALU, which generated the result by the end of the execute stage.
Memory Reference (Two-cycle latency). All loads from memory. During the execute stage, the ALU added the two arguments (a register and a constant offset) to produce a virtual address by the end of the cycle.
Multi-cycle Instructions (Many cycle latency). Integer multiply and divide and all floating-point operations. During the execute stage, the operands to these operations were fed to the multi-cycle multiply/divide unit. The rest of the pipeline was free to continue execution while the multiply/divide unit did its work. To avoid complicating the writeback stage and issue logic, multicycle instruction wrote their results to a separate set of registers.
Memory access
If data memory needs to be accessed, it is done in this stage.
During this stage, single cycle latency instructions simply have their results forwarded to the next stage. This forwarding ensures that both one and two cycle instructions always write their results in the same stage of the pipeline so that just one write port to the register file can be used, and it is always available.
For direct mapped and virtually tagged data caching, the simplest by far of the numerous data cache organizations, two SRAMs are used, one storing data and the other storing tags.
Writeback
During this stage, both single cycle and two cycle instructions write their results into the register file.
Note that two different stages are accessing the register file at the same time—the decode stage is reading two source registers, at the same time that the writeback stage is writing a previous instruction's destination register.
On real silicon, this can be a hazard (see below for more on hazards). That is because one of the source registers being read in decode might be the same as the destination register being written in writeback. When that happens, then the same memory cells in the register file are being both read and written the same time. On silicon, many implementations of memory cells will not operate correctly when read and written at the same time.
Hazards
Hennessy and Patterson coined the term hazard for situations where instructions in a pipeline would produce wrong answers.
Structural hazards
Structural hazards occur when two instructions might attempt to use the same resources at the same time. Classic RISC pipelines avoided these hazards by replicating hardware. In particular, branch instructions could have used the ALU to compute the target address of the branch. If the ALU were used in the decode stage for that purpose, an ALU instruction followed by a branch would have seen both instructions attempt to use the ALU simultaneously. It is simple to resolve this conflict by designing a specialized branch target adder into the decode stage.
Data hazards
Data hazards occur when an instruction, scheduled blindly, would attempt to use data before the data is available in the register file.
In the classic RISC pipeline, Data hazards are avoided in one of two ways:
Solution A. Bypassing
Bypassing is also known as operand forwarding.
Suppose the CPU is executing the following piece of code:
SUB r3,r4 -> r10 ; Writes r3 - r4 to r10
AND r10,r3 -> r11 ; Writes r10 & r3 to r11
The instruction fetch and decode stages send the second instruction one cycle after the first. They flow down the pipeline as shown in this diagram:
In a naive pipeline, without hazard consideration, the data hazard progresses as follows:
In cycle 3, the SUB instruction calculates the new value for r10. In the same cycle, the AND operation is decoded, and the value of r10 is fetched from the register file. However, the SUB instruction has not yet written its result to r10. Write-back of this normally occurs in cycle 5 (green box). Therefore, the value read from the register file and passed to the ALU (in the Execute stage of the AND operation, red box) is incorrect.
Instead, we must pass the data that was computed by SUB back to the Execute stage (i.e. to the red circle in the diagram) of the AND operation before it is normally written-back. The solution to this problem is a pair of bypass multiplexers. These multiplexers sit at the end of the decode stage, and their flopped outputs are the inputs to the ALU. Each multiplexer selects between:
A register file read port (i.e. the output of the decode stage, as in the naive pipeline): arrow
The current register pipeline of the ALU (to bypass by one stage): arrow
The current register pipeline of the access stage (which is either a loaded value or a forwarded ALU result, this provides bypassing of two stages): arrow. Note that this requires the data to be passed backwards in time by one cycle. If this occurs, a bubble must be inserted to stall the AND operation until the data is ready.
Decode stage logic compares the registers written by instructions in the execute and access stages of the pipeline to the registers read by the instruction in the decode stage, and cause the multiplexers to select the most recent data. These bypass multiplexers make it possible for the pipeline to execute simple instructions with just the latency of the ALU, the multiplexer, and a flip-flop. Without the multiplexers, the latency of writing and then reading the register file would have to be included in the latency of these instructions.
Note that the data can only be passed forward in time - the data cannot be bypassed back to an earlier stage if it has not been processed yet. In the case above, the data is passed forward (by the time the AND is ready for the register in the ALU, the SUB has already computed it).
Solution B. Pipeline interlock
However, consider the following instructions:
LD adr -> r10
AND r10,r3 -> r11
The data read from the address adr is not present in the data cache until after the Memory Access stage of the LD instruction. By this time, the AND instruction is already through the ALU. To resolve this would require the data from memory to be passed backwards in time to the input to the ALU. This is not possible. The solution is to delay the AND instruction by one cycle. The data hazard is detected in the decode stage, and the fetch and decode stages are stalled - they are prevented from flopping their inputs and so stay in the same state for a cycle. The execute, access, and write-back stages downstream see an extra no-operation instruction (NOP) inserted between the LD and AND instructions.
This NOP is termed a pipeline bubble since it floats in the pipeline, like an air bubble in a water pipe, occupying resources but not producing useful results. The hardware to detect a data hazard and stall the pipeline until the hazard is cleared is called a pipeline interlock.
A pipeline interlock does not have to be used with any data forwarding, however. The first example of the SUB followed by AND and the second example of LD followed by AND can be solved by stalling the first stage by three cycles until write-back is achieved, and the data in the register file is correct, causing the correct register value to be fetched by the AND's Decode stage. This causes quite a performance hit, as the processor spends a lot of time processing nothing, but clock speeds can be increased as there is less forwarding logic to wait for.
This data hazard can be detected quite easily when the program's machine code is written by the compiler. The Stanford MIPS machine relied on the compiler to add the NOP instructions in this case, rather than having the circuitry to detect and (more taxingly) stall the first two pipeline stages. Hence the name MIPS: Microprocessor without Interlocked Pipeline Stages. It turned out that the extra NOP instructions added by the compiler expanded the program binaries enough that the instruction cache hit rate was reduced. The stall hardware, although expensive, was put back into later designs to improve instruction cache hit rate, at which point the acronym no longer made sense.
Control hazards
Control hazards are caused by conditional and unconditional branching. The classic RISC pipeline resolves branches in the decode stage, which means the branch resolution recurrence is two cycles long. There are three implications:
The branch resolution recurrence goes through quite a bit of circuitry: the instruction cache read, register file read, branch condition compute (which involves a 32-bit compare on the MIPS CPUs), and the next instruction address multiplexer.
Because branch and jump targets are calculated in parallel to the register read, RISC ISAs typically do not have instructions that branch to a register+offset address. Jump to register is supported.
On any branch taken, the instruction immediately after the branch is always fetched from the instruction cache. If this instruction is ignored, there is a one cycle per taken branch IPC penalty, which is adequately large.
There are four schemes to solve this performance problem with branches:
Predict Not Taken: Always fetch the instruction after the branch from the instruction cache, but only execute it if the branch is not taken. If the branch is not taken, the pipeline stays full. If the branch is taken, the instruction is flushed (marked as if it were a NOP), and one cycle's opportunity to finish an instruction is lost.
Branch Likely: Always fetch the instruction after the branch from the instruction cache, but only execute it if the branch was taken. The compiler can always fill the branch delay slot on such a branch, and since branches are more often taken than not, such branches have a smaller IPC penalty than the previous kind.
Branch Delay Slot: Always fetch the instruction after the branch from the instruction cache, and always execute it, even if the branch is taken. Instead of taking an IPC penalty for some fraction of branches either taken (perhaps 60%) or not taken (perhaps 40%), branch delay slots take an IPC penalty for those branches into which the compiler could not schedule the branch delay slot. The SPARC, MIPS, and MC88K designers designed a branch delay slot into their ISAs.
Branch Prediction: In parallel with fetching each instruction, guess if the instruction is a branch or jump, and if so, guess the target. On the cycle after a branch or jump, fetch the instruction at the guessed target. When the guess is wrong, flush the incorrectly fetched target.
Delayed branches were controversial, first, because their semantics are complicated. A delayed branch specifies that the jump to a new location happens after the next instruction. That next instruction is the one unavoidably loaded by the instruction cache after the branch.
Delayed branches have been criticized as a poor short-term choice in ISA design:
Compilers typically have some difficulty finding logically independent instructions to place after the branch (the instruction after the branch is called the delay slot), so that they must insert NOPs into the delay slots.
Superscalar processors, which fetch multiple instructions per cycle and must have some form of branch prediction, do not benefit from delayed branches. The Alpha ISA left out delayed branches, as it was intended for superscalar processors.
The most serious drawback to delayed branches is the additional control complexity they entail. If the delay slot instruction takes an exception, the processor has to be restarted on the branch, rather than that next instruction. Exceptions then have essentially two addresses, the exception address and the restart address, and generating and distinguishing between the two correctly in all cases has been a source of bugs for later designs.
Exceptions
Suppose a 32-bit RISC processes an ADD instruction that adds two large numbers, and the result does not fit in 32 bits.
The simplest solution, provided by most architectures, is wrapping arithmetic. Numbers greater than the maximum possible encoded value have their most significant bits chopped off until they fit. In the usual integer number system, 3000000000+3000000000=6000000000. With unsigned 32 bit wrapping arithmetic, 3000000000+3000000000=1705032704 (6000000000 mod 2^32). This may not seem terribly useful. The largest benefit of wrapping arithmetic is that every operation has a well defined result.
But the programmer, especially if programming in a language supporting large integers (e.g. Lisp or Scheme), may not want wrapping arithmetic. Some architectures (e.g. MIPS), define special addition operations that branch to special locations on overflow, rather than wrapping the result. Software at the target location is responsible for fixing the problem. This special branch is called an exception. Exceptions differ from regular branches in that the target address is not specified by the instruction itself, and the branch decision is dependent on the outcome of the instruction.
The most common kind of software-visible exception on one of the classic RISC machines is a TLB miss.
Exceptions are different from branches and jumps, because those other control flow changes are resolved in the decode stage. Exceptions are resolved in the writeback stage. When an exception is detected, the following instructions (earlier in the pipeline) are marked as invalid, and as they flow to the end of the pipe their results are discarded. The program counter is set to the address of a special exception handler, and special registers are written with the exception location and cause.
To make it easy (and fast) for the software to fix the problem and restart the program, the CPU must take a precise exception. A precise exception means that all instructions up to the excepting instruction have been executed, and the excepting instruction and everything afterwards have not been executed.
To take precise exceptions, the CPU must commit changes to the software visible state in the program order. This in-order commit happens very naturally in the classic RISC pipeline. Most instructions write their results to the register file in the writeback stage, and so those writes automatically happen in program order. Store instructions, however, write their results to the Store Data Queue in the access stage. If the store instruction takes an exception, the Store Data Queue entry is invalidated so that it is not written to the cache data SRAM later.
Cache miss handling
Occasionally, either the data or instruction cache does not contain a required datum or instruction. In these cases, the CPU must suspend operation until the cache can be filled with the necessary data, and then must resume execution. The problem of filling the cache with the required data (and potentially writing back to memory the evicted cache line) is not specific to the pipeline organization, and is not discussed here.
There are two strategies to handle the suspend/resume problem. The first is a global stall signal. This signal, when activated, prevents instructions from advancing down the pipeline, generally by gating off the clock to the flip-flops at the start of each stage. The disadvantage of this strategy is that there are a large number of flip flops, so the global stall signal takes a long time to propagate. Since the machine generally has to stall in the same cycle that it identifies the condition requiring the stall, the stall signal becomes a speed-limiting critical path.
Another strategy to handle suspend/resume is to reuse the exception logic. The machine takes an exception on the offending instruction, and all further instructions are invalidated. When the cache has been filled with the necessary data, the instruction that caused the cache miss restarts. To expedite data cache miss handling, the instruction can be restarted so that its access cycle happens one cycle after the data cache is filled.
See also
Iron law of processor performance
References
Pipeline Classic RISC
Superscalar microprocessors
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415060
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialist%20Campaign%20Group
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Socialist Campaign Group
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The Socialist Campaign Group is a grouping of left-wing Labour Members of Parliament in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom. The group also includes some MPs who formerly represented Labour in Parliament, but have had the whip withdrawn or been expelled from the party.
The group was formed in 1982 following the 1981 Labour Party deputy leadership election when a number of soft left MPs, led by Neil Kinnock, refused to back Tony Benn's campaign, leading a number of left-wing Benn-supporting MPs to split from the Tribune Group to form the Campaign Group.
It was at a meeting of the Campaign Group in 2015 that the decision was taken that Jeremy Corbyn would contest for the leadership of the Labour Party. The Campaign Group maintains close links with Momentum.
Origins
The Socialist Campaign Group was founded in 1982 due to a disagreement within the Labour left, traditionally organised around the Tribune Group, about whom to back in the 1981 deputy leadership election. Tony Benn's decision to challenge Denis Healey for the Deputy Leadership of the Labour Party in 1981 was heavily criticised by Labour's leader, Michael Foot, who had long been associated with the Labour left and Tribune Group. Tribune Group member and future Labour leader Neil Kinnock led a number of Labour MPs to support John Silkin in the deputy leadership election and abstain in the run-off between Healey and Benn. This sowed the seeds for a split in the left between a "soft left" supportive of Foot's leadership and a dissenting "hard left" organised principally around Benn.
The Campaign Group would go on to back Eric Heffer and Michael Meacher in their unsuccessful bids for the leadership and deputy leadership in 1983.
The Campaign Group subsequently organised itself around opposition to the direction the party took under the leadership of Kinnock and his successors.
An advertisement in Tribune (24 April 1983) gave the membership of the Campaign Group as: Norman Atkinson, Tony Benn, Ron Brown, Dennis Canavan, Bob Cryer, Don Dixon, Martin Flannery, Stuart Holland, Bob Litherland, Joan Maynard, Willie McKelvey, Andy McMahon, Bob McTaggart, Michael Meacher, Bob Parry, Reg Race, Allan Roberts, Ernie Roberts, Dennis Skinner, and John Tilley.
Activities and campaigns
During Kinnock's leadership of the Party
Neil Kinnock was hostile to the Campaign Group. He pursued a 'carrot and stick' approach to undermining the Campaign Group by promoting MPs who were willing to leave the Campaign Group and renounce their previously held views and by isolating those who remained members.
1984–85 miners' strike
During the 1984–85 miners' strike MPs from the Socialist Campaign Group took action to support the striking miners by visiting picket lines and raising money to be donated to the miners' relief centres. This put pressure on the Labour Party leadership to support the strike, something Neil Kinnnock resisted until 10 months after the start of the strike. Members of the Socialist Campaign Group also led a "direct action protest" in the House of Commons by refusing to sit down in order to force a debate on the strike.
Anti-poll tax campaign
In 1989 Margaret Thatcher's Conservative Government announced plans to introduce a flat-tax to fund local Government. The planned tax became known as the poll tax and was thought by many to be intended to save the rich money and move the expenses onto the poor.
Only 15 Labour MPs supported the Anti Poll Tax Federation. Socialist Campaign Group MPs made up a significant number of these including Tony Benn, who gave his full support to the campaign and spoke at the 200,000 strong anti-Poll Tax demonstration in Trafalgar Square, and Jeremy Corbyn who appeared at Highbury Magistrates' Court in 1991 for not paying his poll tax bill of £481. Corbyn was in court alongside 16 other Islington residents all opposing the levy on grounds other than inability to pay. He told The Times newspaper "I am here today because thousands of people who elected me just cannot afford to pay."
The scale of public opposition in both polls and in the streets have been identified as one of the key causes of the end of Thatcher's premiership.
Labour historians have identified the campaign against the Poll Tax as a "huge victory" for the Labour left who campaigned in alliance with the extra-parliamentary socialist left "against one of the most reactionary pieces of legislation dreamt up in the modern age". Tony Benn described the relationship of the campaign against the Poll Tax with the Labour Party:
During the New Labour years
Following the 1997 General Election, 7% of Labour MPs were members of the Campaign Group.
Tony Blair enthusiastically carried on Kinnock's attempts to "delegitimise the left". He sought to reduce the number of left-wing Labour MPs by centralising control of candidate selections and used "open shortlists in a fast and loose way, mainly to ensure that left candidates are excluded or defeated." Labour Party historian Alex Nunns described how "Left-wing hopefuls, like Christine Shawcroft or Mark Seddon, were stopped at all costs. Party workers were tasked with personal lobbying for the leadership’s preferred choice, or were even told to chase up certain postal votes but not others."
Blair's strategist Peter Mandelson reportedly described wanting the parliamentary left to become “a sealed tomb”.
Alan Simpson, a member of the Campaign Group during the New Labour years, described it as "the only bolt-hole of real political thought that I found throughout my parliamentary years ... they were the MPs you would always find on picket lines, at trade union and social movement rallies, on anti-war marches and at the forefront of campaigns to restore rather than exploit the planet."
Opposition to single parent benefit cuts
Under Blair, the Labour government introduced plans to cut lone parent benefit, a measure which members of the Campaign Group believed would disproportionately harm women. The cut was brought in by Harriet Harman, Secretary of State for Social Security, who championed the cut despite the majority of people affected being women and children who were already poor. Backbench Labour MPs, led by the Campaign Group, opposed these plans, speaking and voting against them in Parliament. Blair ally Patricia Hewitt was alleged to have described the rebellion as a "conspiracy organised by the Socialist Campaign Group"
47 Labour MPs voted against the proposals including Campaign Group members Ken Livingstone, Ronnie Campbell, Tony Benn, Jeremy Corbyn, Ann Cryer, Alan Simpson, John McDonnell, Dennis Skinner, Audrey Wise, and Diane Abbott.
Despite the scale of the opposition from Labour MPs and campaigners, Harman continued to implement the cuts. She was sacked from Cabinet the following year.
Opposition to the Iraq War & founding the Stop The War Coalition
The Stop the War Coalition was founded in the weeks following 9/11, when George W. Bush announced the "War on terror", and has since campaigned to oppose and end the wars in Afghanistan, Iraq, Libya and elsewhere.
Socialist Campaign Group MPs Jeremy Corbyn and Tam Dalyell, along with Tony Benn, (who had been in the Socialist Campaign Group until he stood down as an MP at the 2001 General Election) were among the most high profile of the initial sponsors of the Stop the War Coalition at the meeting on 21 September 2001, along with figures such as Tariq Ali, Harold Pinter, Andrew Murray and Lindsey German, who became the convenor of Stop the War.
The Coalition organised what is widely thought to be the largest demonstration in British history, when on 15 February 2003, over a million people marched against the War in Iraq.
Campaign Group MP Alan Simpson launched Labour Against The War to coordinate parliamentary opposition to Tony Blair's decision to follow George W. Bush in invading Iraq. Although Blair was able to win these votes with the support of Conservative MPs, 139 Labour MPs voted against his plans for war, one of the largest rebellions ever seen in the Commons.
Opposition to academisation
In 2005, Blair's government announced plans to encourage every school to become an independent self-governing trust. These schools would, like academies, determine their own curriculum and ethos, appoint the governing body, control their own assets, employ their own staff and set their own admissions policy. These plans were described as intending to "all but abolish local authority involvement in state schools" and Deputy Prime Minister John Prescott argued that it would "condemn a generation of poorer children to ghettos of collapsing schools".
14 Campaign Group MPs, working with other Labour backbenchers, sought to block the plans by proposing an alternative plan for education. John McDonnell, then Chair of the Socialist Campaign Group, argued "Our sincere hope is that the prime minister desists from relying upon a [David] Cameron coalition to force his education policies through in the face of this overwhelming opposition within the parliamentary Labour party."
With Tory support, the reforms were eventually passed by 422 to 98 votes. However, this was the largest rebellion a Labour government had ever suffered at the third reading of a Bill.
Reform 2019–present
While Corbyn was party leader, from 2015 to 2019, Socialist Campaign Group activity reduced as many members joined the shadow cabinet. The rule that shadow cabinet MPs could not be group members caused difficulties, and this rule was removed, allowing the group to recover to 23 members by 2019.
In January 2020, the Socialist Campaign Group was reformed. It supported Rebecca Long-Bailey for Leader and Richard Burgon for Deputy Leader in the 2020 Labour Party leadership election, which was won by Keir Starmer and Angela Rayner, respectively.
In October, the Socialist Campaign Group produced a pamphlet called "Winning the Future", which proposed solutions to the COVID-19 crisis.
Labour leadership elections
There have been nine Labour Leadership Elections since the formation of the Socialist Campaign Group: 1983, 1988, 1992, 1994, 2007, 2010, 2015, 2016 and 2020.
1983 leadership election
The Campaign Group backed Eric Heffer and Michael Meacher in their unsuccessful bids for the leadership and deputy leadership in 1983.
Tony Benn could not stand because he was not currently in Parliament at the time, having just lost his seat.
1988 leadership election
During his time as Leader Neil Kinnock moved the Labour party to adopt centrist politics. In the 1987 General Election Margaret Thatcher's Conservatives won a landslide victory and were nearly 12% ahead of Labour in the popular vote. Following this defeat Kinnock introduced a Policy Review, which many on the left thought would lead to an abandonment of the party's commitment to Clause IV, public ownership and the transformation of society. At a meeting of the Campaign Group following this election defeat, it was agreed that Tony Benn should stand against Kinnock in a leadership election, although Benn himself was reluctant to run. The decision to run led to a number of MPs leaving the Campaign Group including Clare Short, Margaret Beckett, Jo Richardson and Joan Ruddock.
Labour's electoral college was weighted 40% to affiliated unions, 30% to Constituency Labour Parties (CLPs) and 30% to MPs in the Parliamentary Labour Party. Benn secured only 11.4% of the vote (17.2% of MPs, 19.6% of CLPs and 0.2% of affiliated unions). The scale of this defeat was a surprise to Benn, in particular the decline in support from CLPs since the 1983 election, and strengthened Kinnock's position, which he used to take the party further towards centrism.
Following this election the party rules were changed to quadruple the number of MPs required to nominate a candidate to launch a leadership challenge from 5% to 20% (lowered in 1993 to 12.5% for elections where the incumbent had resigned).
1992 leadership election
Neil Kinnock resigned just three days after he lost his second General Election, and tried to persuade candidates other than John Smith to stand aside so as to avoid a contest. Rules introduced following Tony Benn's 1988 leadership challenge meant that candidates would have to secure nominations from 55 MPs to make it onto the ballot paper. Three candidates sought nominations: John Smith, the favourite, regarded as being "from the right" of the party, Bryan Gould, from the "centre-left" and Ken Livingstone, the Campaign Group candidate.
Bernie Grant sought nominations as the Campaign Group candidate for Deputy Leader. John Prescott, Ann Clywd and Margaret Beckett were the other deputy leadership contenders.
It quickly became clear that the 20% nomination threshold risked eliminating all candidates except Smith:
To avoid this party officials changed the rules mid-contest, at the suggestion of Gould, to allow MPs who had already nominated a candidate to withdraw and support another instead. This ensured that Gould received enough nominations to ensure a contest between him and Smith, and that Ken Livingstone and Bernie Grant were kept off the ballot. Margaret Beckett described this change as "unprecedented".
John Smith won the electoral college vote against Gould with 91% of the vote.
1994 leadership election
No candidate from the Campaign Group ran in the 1994 leadership election and the group did not endorse a candidate. However, Margaret Beckett, who had been a member of the Campaign Group until 1988, was nominated by 18 Campaign Group MPs, with 5 nominating John Prescott. Beckett's campaign was supported due to her position that Tory anti-union laws should be repealed and that anti-union changes to the party constitution should stop.
No Campaign Group MPs backed Tony Blair, who went on to win the contest.
2007 leadership election
In 2007 only 24 of 353 Labour MPs were members of the Socialist Campaign Group and party rules required nominations from 45 MPs (12.5% of the Parliamentary Labour Party) to make it onto the ballot paper.
Both John McDonnell, then Chair of the Campaign Group, and Michael Meacher, a member of the Campaign Group, sought nominations to run against Gordon Brown. Both McDonnell and Meacher agreed that whichever of them had the support of fewer Labour MPs at the point of Tony Blair's resignation would withdraw from the campaign and support the other. However, although Meacher gave his support to McDonnell following Blair's resignation not all of his supporters switched allegiance, leaving McDonnell short of the nominations required and leading to Gordon Brown becoming leader unopposed.
As part of his campaign John McDonnell published his manifesto as a book entitled Another World Is Possible: A Manifesto for 21st Century Socialism.
2010 leadership election
In 2010 nominations from 33 MPs (12.5% of the Parliamentary Labour Party) were required to make it onto the ballot paper.
Socialist Campaign Group MPs John McDonnell and Diane Abbott both sought nominations to run; however, McDonnell withdrew from the race after it became clear he would not receive sufficient nominations, and instead supported Abbott to give her the best chance of making it onto the ballot. Abbott secured the necessary 33 nominations after being 'lent' nominations from a number of MPs who were not supporting her campaign but wanted to ensure that the contest was not exclusively white and male. It has been suggested that this practice of lending nominations to left candidate to widen the scope of debate "set a precedent" for Jeremy Corbyn's run for Leadership in 2015. Abbott was the first black woman to ever contest the Labour leadership.
Despite beating both Andy Burnham and Ed Balls in total number of first preference votes cast (35,259 individual first preferences for Abbott compared to 28,772 for Burnham and 34,489 for Balls), Abbott was eliminated in the first round of voting, as she received fewer votes from MPs. Abbott secured the first-preference votes of 7 MPs: Diane Abbott, Katy Clark, Jeremy Corbyn, Kelvin Hopkins, John McDonnell, Linda Riordan and Mike Wood. Ed Miliband went on to win the leadership election.
2015 leadership election
The 2015 Leadership Election was the first held under new rules introduced by Ed Miliband following the Collins Review which recommended moving to a one-member one vote (OMOV) system. This reduced the previous weighting in favour of MPs and Trade Unions. The Blairite wing of the Labour Party (including Blair himself) celebrated this reform, believing that the changes would mean that "the next Labour leader will be a Blairite".
At a meeting of the Socialist Campaign Group on 3 June it was decided that, with McDonnell and Abbott both ruling themselves out after having stood previously, Jeremy Corbyn should be the left's candidate for leader. Corbyn was immediately nominated by Campaign Group MPs including John McDonnell (who became chair of his campaign), Diane Abbott, Ronnie Campbell, Kelvin Hopkins, Michael Meacher, Dennis Skinner, Richard Burgon, Clive Lewis and Cat Smith. The campaign quickly mobilised grassroots Labour members and activists to pressure MPs to nominate Corbyn, even if they disagreed with him, in order to ensure a proper debate about the future of the Labour Party.
Two minutes before the deadline Corbyn reached the threshold of 35 nominations, having been 'lent' nominations from MPs who did not support him but were persuaded to nominate him by grassroots members and Campaign Group MPs. Margaret Beckett was one of those who nominated Corbyn despite disagreeing with him, and later described herself as a "moron" for doing so. Immediately following his success in getting on the ballot Corbyn attended a protest against the treatment of women detained at Yarls Wood Detention Centre and against the 13-year detention by the US of British resident Shaker Aamer in Guantanamo Bay without charge.
Corbyn outlined an anti-austerity domestic agenda and an international agenda opposed to military intervention. He campaigned on issues with wide popular support that had been outside of the political mainstream for many years, including rail re-nationalisation, free higher education, regional investment and a higher minimum wage.
On 12 September 2015 Corbyn was elected Leader of the Labour Party in a landslide victory, with 59.5% of first-preference votes.
2016 leadership election
During the 2016 referendum Corbyn led Labour in campaigning to remain. Corbyn spoke at 15 rallies from London to Hastings to Aberdeen, reached more than 10 million people with his Remain messages on social media, made six statements in the Commons and put forward Remain arguments during interviews on Sky, BBC, ITV and Channel 4. Analysis from academics at Loughborough University found that the BBC had excluded Labour voices during the campaign and instead covered the campaign as a Conservative Party civil war.
When the result of the referendum was announced Corbyn's opponents on the right and centre of the Parliamentary Labour Party sought to trigger a leadership election on the grounds that they did not think he had campaigned sufficiently vigorously for Remain. MPs hostile to Corbyn leaked internal emails to the BBC which showed that Corbyn's team had resisted moves to pursue a more hostile line on immigration and suggested that this was evidence that Corbyn had sought to "sabotage" the remain campaign. Anti-Corbyn MPs had been briefing the media "for months to “expect movement” against Corbyn on 24 June", suggesting that the opposition to Corbyn was not primarily motivated by his actions during the referendum.
In the days following the referendum a number of Corbyn's critics resigned from the Shadow Cabinet and the parliamentary party passed a vote of no confidence in Corbyn by 172 votes against to 40 for. Corbyn promoted a number of Campaign Group MPs to fill his Shadow Cabinet including Richard Burgon, Rebecca Long-Bailey, Grahame Morris and Clive Lewis, and with their support along with that of other left wing MPs and the mobilisation of members by Momentum Corbyn refused to resign. Owen Smith secured the required nominations to run against him.
Corbyn's opponents in the National Executive Committee were alleged by Robert Peston to have sought to "fix" the result by increasing the fee for becoming a registered supporter from £3 to £25 and excluding from voting the 130,000 new members who had joined in the previous 6 months.
On 24 September 2016, Corbyn was re-elected Leader of the Labour Party in another landslide victory, increasing his share of the vote from 59.5% to 61.8%.
2020 leadership election
Following the 2019 general election, the Socialist Campaign Group reformed for 2019–2024. Campaign Group members Rebecca Long-Bailey and Richard Burgon ran for leader and deputy leader of the Labour Party respectively. Both were defeated by Keir Starmer and Angela Rayner respectively.
Views
Although the Campaign Group did not require members to adhere to a particular set of policies, the group did occasionally set out statements of principle. The February 1988 edition of Campaign Group News included "The Aims and Objectives of the Labour Party" a statement agreed by the Campaign Group of Labour MPs and circulated "to provide a focus for political discussion and education within the party ... and to be the basis of our long-term political work". The statement set out the ideological basis for Benn's 1988 campaign to be Labour leader. The document outlines a socialist, internationalist and democratic agenda and starts by listing the rights that members thought out to be fought for:
Campaign Group News
First published in March 1986, Socialist Campaign Group News was the monthly magazine of the Campaign Group. The paper published articles by Campaign Group MPs alongside left wing Labour Party activists and trade unionists.
Issues regularly covered included: women's liberation, Black Sections, international liberation struggles, internal Labour Party democracy and elections, reports from the National Executive Committee, proposed resolutions for Labour Party Conference, socialist economic policy, disabled people's rights, Northern Ireland and the Conservative Party.
As of 2008 the editorial board was Jim Mortimer (chair), Diane Abbott MP, Tony Benn, Jeremy Corbyn MP, Anni Marjoram, Bill Michie MP and Pete Willsman.
A website of the same name, providing electronic versions of some of the articles in the printed edition and lists of Campaign Group MPs, was run from 1999 to 2010.
Membership
Before 2017, the Campaign Group was only open to backbench MPs; this was reformed to allow all Members of Parliament to be members.
Current members
The current members are listed on the Campaign Group's Twitter account as:
Former members
Deceased
The following died while still serving in Parliament:
Bob McTaggart (d. 1989)
Allan Roberts (d. 1990)
Pat Wall (d. 1990)
Eric Heffer (d. 1991)
Bob Cryer (d. 1994)
Bernie Grant (d. 2000)
Audrey Wise (d. 2000)
Tony Banks (d. 2006)
David Taylor (d. 2009)
Left Parliament
These members left Parliament voluntarily, either to retire or for new opportunities elsewhere:
Joan Maynard (1987)
Stuart Holland (1989, left Parliament to return to academia)
Bob Clay (1992)
Martin Flannery (1992)
Don Dixon (1997)
Bob Litherland (1997)
Eddie Loyden (1997)
Willie McKelvey (1997)
Robert Parry (1997)
Tony Benn (2001)
Maria Fyfe (2001)
Tess Kingham (2001)
John McAllion (2001, resigned to focus on his duties as a Member of the Scottish Parliament)
Bill Michie (2001)
Harry Barnes (2005)
Harold Best (2005)
Tam Dalyell (2005)
Terence Lewis (2005)
Alice Mahon (2005)
Llew Smith (2005)
Jimmy Wray (2005)
Ernie Ross (2005)
John Austin (2010)
Michael Clapham (2010)
Harry Cohen (2010)
Ann Cryer (2010)
Bill Etherington (2010)
Neil Gerrard (2010)
Lynne Jones (2010)
Bob Marshall-Andrews (2010)
Alan Simpson (2010)
Martin Caton (2015)
David Hamilton (2015)
Austin Mitchell (2015)
Linda Riordan (2015)
Mike Wood (2015)
Ronnie Campbell (2019)
Constituencies abolished
These members left the Commons following the abolition of their constituencies as a result of redrawing of boundaries:
Mildred Gordon
Les Huckfield
Andrew McMahon
Reg Race
John Tilley
Lost seat in general election
These members lost their seats in general elections:
Tony Benn (lost seat 1983, returned to Parliament in 1984)
Bob Cryer (lost seat 1983, returned to Parliament 1987)
Eileen Gordon (lost seat 2001)
John Cryer (lost seat 2005, returned to Parliament in 2010)
Phil Sawford (lost seat 2005)
David Drew (lost seat 2010, returned to Parliament in 2017, lost seat 2019)
Katy Clark (lost seat 2015)
Emma Dent Coad (lost seat 2019)
Karen Lee (lost seat 2019)
Laura Pidcock (lost seat 2019)
Danielle Rowley (lost seat 2019)
Dennis Skinner (lost seat 2019)
Laura Smith (lost seat 2019)
Chris Williamson (lost seat in 2015, returned to Parliament in 2017, suspended from Party then lost seat 2019)
Expelled
The following members were expelled from the Labour Party:
Ron Brown (expelled in 1991 after he was convicted of criminal damage)
Dennis Canavan (expelled in 2000 for running as an independent for the Scottish Parliament)
Terry Fields (expelled in 1991 for his membership of the Militant tendency)
Dave Nellist (expelled in 1991 for his membership of the Militant tendency)
Ken Livingstone (expelled in 2000 for running as an independent for Mayor of London; later readmitted to the party)
Deselected
The following members were deselected by their Constituency Labour Parties:
Norman Atkinson (deselected 1987)
Frank Cook (deselected 2008)
Ian Gibson (deselected 2009)
John Hughes (deselected 1992)
Ernie Roberts (deselected 1987)
Sam Tarry (deselected 2022)
Bob Wareing (deselected 2007)
Defected
In 2005, Brian Sedgemore resigned the Labour Party whip and defected to the Liberal Democrats.
Resigned
The following members resigned their membership of the Campaign Group in 1985 in a show of support for Neil Kinnock's reforms:
Kevin Barron
Derek Fatchett
The following members resigned their membership of the Campaign Group in 1988 in protest at Tony Benn's decision to challenge Neil Kinnock for the Labour leadership that year:
Margaret Beckett
Jo Richardson
Joan Ruddock
Clare Short
Joan Walley
The following members resigned their membership of the Campaign Group at various points in time when they became front bench spokespersons or members of the government, which was seen as incompatible with membership of the Campaign Group until 2017:
Michael Meacher (joined the front bench 1983)
Ray Powell (joined the front bench 1983)
Mark Fisher (joined the front bench 1987)
Paul Boateng (joined the front bench 1989)
Gavin Strang (joined the front bench 1992)
Malcolm Chisholm (joined the government 1997)
Chris Mullin (joined the government 1997)
Dawn Primarolo (joined the government, but remained a member until 2000)
Dave Anderson (joined the government 2006)
John Cryer (elected Chair of the Parliamentary Labour Party in 2012, considered a front bench role)
Kelvin Hopkins (joined the front bench in 2016, whip suspended in 2017)
Jeremy Corbyn (elected party leader in 2015)
The following members resigned their membership of the Campaign Group for other reasons:
Alan Meale (resigned 1987)
Gerry Bermingham (resigned 1991)
Terry Patchett (resigned 1991)
Keith Vaz (resigned 1991)
Jimmy Hood (resigned 1997)
See also
Jeremy Corbyn
Tony Benn
Democratic Socialism
British Left
Campaign for Labour Party Democracy
Labour Party Black Sections
Notes
References
Further reading
Kogan, David (2019). Protest and Power: The Battle for the Labour Party. Bloomsbury Reader. .
Nunns, Alex (2nd ed. 2018). The candidate: Jeremy Corbyn's improbable path to power. London: OR Books. .
Hannah, Simon (2018). A Party With Socialists In It. London: PlutoPress. .
McDonnell, John (2007). Another World Is Possible: A Manifesto for 21st Century Socialism. Labour Representation Committee.
External links
Socialist Campaign Group News website archive
Democratic socialism
Labour Party (UK) factions
Political party factions in the United Kingdom
1982 establishments in the United Kingdom
Groups of British MPs
Socialist organisations in the United Kingdom
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River%20Dee%2C%20Wales
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River Dee, Wales
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The River Dee (, ) is a river in the United Kingdom. The length of the main section from Bala to Chester is and it is largely located in Wales. The stretch between Aldford and Chester is within England, and two other sections form the border between the two countries.
The river rises on Dduallt in Snowdonia and flows east through Bala Lake, Corwen, and Llangollen. It turns north near Overton-on-Dee and forms part of the England–Wales border before fully entering England north-east of Wrexham. It flows through Chester then re-enters Wales; the final section is canalised and discharges to the Irish Sea via an estuary long.
History
The River Dee was the traditional boundary of the Kingdom of Gwynedd in Wales for centuries, possibly since its founding in the 5th century. It was recorded in the 13th century (in mainstream Middle English orthography, lacking the letters v and w) as flumen Dubr Duiu; the name appears to derive from the Brythonic dēvā: "River of the Goddess" or "Holy River". The river is personified as the war and fate goddess Aerfen.
The river name inspired the name of Roman fortress Deva Victrix.
It is the only river in the UK to be subject to a Water Protection Zone along its whole length down to Chester weir.
Statistics
The total catchment area of the River Dee down to Chester Weir is . The estimated average annual rainfall over the catchment area is , yielding an average flow of 37 m3/s.
The larger reservoirs in the catchment area are:
Bala Lake ():
Llyn Brenig:
Llyn Celyn:
Catchment
Natural course
The River Dee has its source on the slopes of Dduallt above Llanuwchllyn in the mountains of Snowdonia in Meirionydd, Gwynedd, Wales. Between its source and Bala Lake the river is known by its Welsh name, Afon Dyfrdwy. Legend tells that the waters of the river pass through Bala Lake and emerge undiluted and unmixed at the outflow. On leaving Bala the river meets its confluence with Afon Tryweryn and passes through the Bala sluice gates, part of the Dee Regulation System protecting communities further downstream from severe flooding. Skirting the village of Llanfor, the path of the river takes it past Llandderfel and under the Grade II listed Pont Fawr bridge. The river trends generally northeast through the Vale of Edeyrnion, shadowed by the B4401 Bala to Cynwyd road. Leaving Gwynedd and entering Denbighshire the Dee flows beneath other historic bridges at Llandrillo and Cynwyd before arriving at the town of Corwen. From here the river passes the Iron Age hillfort of Caer Drewyn and enters the Clwydian Range and Dee Valley AONB. Through its forested valley the course takes it through Carrog, Glyndyfrdwy and Llantysilio, with the Llangollen Railway following the river on its route between Llangollen and Corwen.
At Berwyn the river passes over the manmade Horseshoe Falls, before picking up speed on a downhill gradient past the Chain Bridge Hotel and its historic pedestrian bridge. First built in 1814, and later refurbished by Henry Robertson in 1870, it was considered a marvel of early suspension bridge design. In 1928 the original bridge was destroyed by severe flooding and was rebuilt in its current form from original parts in 1929. The course of the river then takes it through Llangollen and under its 16th-century, Grade I listed bridge. The bridge is also a Scheduled Ancient Monument and considered one of the Seven Wonders of Wales. On leaving Llangollen the river continues east, generally skirting the outcropping Karstic limestone exposures of Eglwyseg Rocks (). Overlooking the river here is the medieval Castell Dinas Brân, a ruined fortress abandoned by John de Warenne, 6th Earl of Surrey in 1282. The river then enters Wrexham County Borough, passing south of Trevor and under Thomas Telford's Pontcysyllte Aqueduct, of 1805, which carries the Llangollen Canal overhead.
Less than a mile east of the aqueduct at Cefn Mawr, the river is crossed by the Cefn Mawr Viaduct, built in 1848 by Thomas Brassey and carrying the Shrewsbury to Chester railway line over the Dee. Beyond this point the river forms the boundary between Wrexham County Borough in Wales and Shropshire in the West Midlands of England. Passing Chirk and the confluence with the River Ceiriog, the river begins to trace gentle meanders on the level ground at the beginning of the Cheshire Plain. The course continues past Erbistock on the Welsh side, and the 5th-century earthwork of Wat's Dyke on the English, before passing wholly into Wales at Overton bridge. A couple more miles downstream is Bangor-on-Dee, known for its racecourse and its bridge. Until 1974 this area was part of an exclave of historic Flintshire known as English Maelor (). The Dee continues to meander past Worthenbury where it is joined by the River Clywedog. At this point the border between Wrexham and Cheshire West and Chester follows the course of the river. It passes the Cheshire village of Crewe by Farndon, before cutting between Holt in Wales and Farndon in England beneath the 14th-century, Grade I listed Farndon Bridge.
One of the major tributaries of the Dee, the River Alyn (), crosses the Carboniferous Limestone from Halkyn Mountain and runs down through the Loggerheads area before making its confluence north of Holt. Throughout the length of the Alyn there are numerous swallow holes and caverns and during the summer months long stretches of the river bed run dry. These caves include Ogof Hesp Alyn and Ogof Hen Ffynhonnau. A significant part of this lost flow reemerges in the Milwr Tunnel, a manmade tunnel, entering the west bank of the Dee estuary and carrying 12 million imperial gallons per day (600 L/s). This tunnel was originally constructed to drain metal mines in Halkyn Mountain. Once the main River Dee approaches the Cheshire border and the Carboniferous Coal Measures, it turns sharply northwards before meandering up to Chester. This long stretch of the river drops in height by only a few feet. The rich adjoining farmland has many remnants of abandoned coal workings and deep clay pits used to make bricks and tiles. A number of these pits are now being used as landfill sites for domestic and commercial waste.
Approaching Churton and Aldford, the river crosses entirely into England, and passes the grand country house of Eaton Hall, seat of the Duke of Westminster. It then continues past the village of Eccleston and beneath the A55 North Wales Expressway, tracing northwards past the Roman Eaton Road to the Chester suburbs of Huntington and Handbridge before reaching the centre of Chester. In the city centre the river passes and around the Earl's Eye(s) meadow at Queen's Park. In this vicinity, the riverside is used as a recreation area with a bandstand, benches and boat cruises, being crossed by four bridges. The first is the Queen's Park Suspension Bridge, which forms the only exclusively pedestrian footway across the river in Chester. The second is the Old Dee Bridge, a road bridge and by far the oldest bridge in Chester, being built in about 1387 on the site of a series of wooden predecessors which dated originally from the Roman period.
Above the Old Dee Bridge is Chester Weir, which was built by Hugh Lupus to supply power to his corn mills. Throughout the centuries the weir has been used to power corn, fulling, needle, snuff and flint mills. The same weir was used as part of a hydroelectric scheme in 1911 with the help of a small generator building which is still visible today, used as a pumping station for water since 1951. However the first water pumping station here was set up in 1600 by John Tyrer who pumped water to a square tower built on the city's Bridgegate. It was destroyed in the Civil War but an octagonal tower built in 1690 for the same purpose lasted until the gate was replaced with an arch in the mid-18th century.
On this weir is a fish pass and fish counting station to monitor the numbers of salmon ascending the river, and also a weirgate for navigating the weir at spring tides. A little further downstream stands the Grosvenor Bridge (designed by architect Thomas Harrison of Chester), which was opened in 1833 to ease congestion on the Old Dee Bridge. This bridge was opened by Princess Victoria five years before she became Queen.
The other side of the Grosvenor Bridge is the Roodee, Chester's race course and the oldest course in the country. This used to be the site of Chester's Roman harbour until, aided by the building of the weir, the River Dee silted up to become the size it is today. The only curiously remaining reminder of this site's maritime past is a stone cross which stands in the middle of the Roodee which exhibits the marks of water ripples. To the end of the Roodee the river is crossed by Chester's fourth bridge which carries the North Wales Coast railway line, before leaving Chester. This was the scene of one of the first serious railway accidents in the country, the Dee bridge disaster.
Canalised section
West of Chester, the river flows along an artificial channel excavated between 1732 and 1736. The work was planned and undertaken by engineers from the Netherlands and paid for by local merchants and Chester Corporation. It was an attempt to improve navigation for shipping and reduce silting. Chester's trade had declined steadily since the end of the 17th century as sediment had prevented larger craft reaching the city, spelling the end for the Port of Chester.
After four years' work, the river was diverted from its meandering natural course which passed Blacon, Saughall, Shotwick Castle, Burton and Parkgate and up the west shore of Wirral. Instead, the new canalised section followed the coast along northeast Wales. During this time, Sealand and Shotton were reclaimed from the estuary. Land reclamation in this area continued until 1916. The river's natural course can still be determined by following the bank and low bluffs that mark the western edge of the Wirral Peninsula.
The manmade channel, which runs in a straight line for , passes into Wales and Flintshire at Saltney. On the west shore is Hawarden Airport and the large Airbus factory at Broughton. This region is known as Deeside and contains several heavy industries. From here the Dee passes beneath three road bridges. The first two are adjacent to each other at Queensferry. They are a 1960s fixed-arch bridge carrying the A494 Queensferry to Dolgellau trunk road and its predecessor the Jubilee Bridge, which is a rolling bascule bridge completed in 1926. The third crossing, and the most recent, is at Connah's Quay. The Flintshire Bridge is a fixed cable-stayed bridge which opened in 1999.
Between the second and third road bridges is Hawarden railway bridge at Shotton, originally constructed as a swing bridge but now never opened. It carries the to Borderlands Line over the river. station serves the Deeside Industrial Park, Deeside Power Station and the works at Dee Marsh.
A footbridge replaced the passenger ferry at Saltney in the 1970s.
Estuary
Beyond Connah's Quay the river opens out into the Dee Estuary, forming the northeasternmost section of the North Wales coast and the western coast of the Wirral. Towns along the coast include Flint, Holywell and Mostyn on the Welsh side and Neston, Parkgate, Heswall, West Kirby and Hoylake on the Wirral side. South of Bagillt and Parkgate the Dee Estuary forms the boundary between the local authority areas of Flintshire and Cheshire West and Chester. Northwards it forms the boundary with the Metropolitan Borough of Wirral in Merseyside, North West England. The estuary continues to widen until finally entering the Irish Sea and Liverpool Bay between the northernmost point of mainland Wales, Point of Ayr at Talacre, Flintshire and Hilbre Point, near Hoylake and West Kirby in Wirral, Merseyside. Hilbre Island, part of Wirral, straddles the mouth of the estuary at this point. The waters of the Dee then converge with those of the River Mersey and Ribble, producing a notable drop in salinity and increase in sediment which can be tracked a considerable distance along the Sefton and Lancashire coasts.
The estuary is hugely important for birdlife and has been designated both as an SSSI and as a Ramsar site accordingly. Its value lies in the huge expanses of mud which are exposed between tides and the extensive saltmarsh developed on both sides but principally on the right bank north and south of Neston.
The estuary owes its origins to the scouring of a broad channel through the Triassic sandstones and Carboniferous mudstones by glacial ice during successive ice ages to form an iceway. The channel continues inland south of Chester but its higher reaches have long since been infilled with sand, gravel and mud. The process of infilling by mud continues to the present day as the rapid growth of the saltmarsh in the last century testifies, pushing the high tide line further out into the estuary.
Uses
Industry
Large parts of the catchment are devoted to agriculture and there a number of abstractions made from the river for summer irrigation. The volumes involved are not however significant.
From Chirk downstream, the river valley has supported a wide range of industries that were initially drawn to the area by the presence of coal mines and later by the deep deposits of Carboniferous clays used to make bricks and tiles.
The coal industry in particular gave rise to a number of chemical industries some of which survive to this day and which both take water from the river and discharge their cleaned up effluent back into the river. Industries in the valley include commercial chemicals manufacture, wood chip and MDF fabrication, cocoa milling, fibreglass manufacture, waste disposal (in old clay pits) and a great variety of smaller industries concentrated around Wrexham. The main impact on the river of these industries is their thirst for a dependable good quality water supply.
Previously the wings for the Airbus A380, which were made at Airbus's manufacturing factory in Broughton, were taken downriver by barge to the Port of Mostyn because they were too large to be shipped in an Airbus Beluga. However, the dredging of the river for the barge may be responsible for a weakening of the tidal bore.
Abstractions
There are a number of direct water abstractions upstream of Chester by three water companies and by the canal. The size of the abstraction is very large compared to the summer flow and the flow in the river is very highly regulated through the use of reservoirs to store water in the winter and release it in the summer. The whole system is managed as the Dee Regulation Scheme.
Below Chester water is also abstracted as cooling water by the gas-fired power station at Connah's Quay. Process and cooling water is also abstracted for the paper mill and power station at Shotton.
Water sport
The Dee used to be a popular whitewater kayaking and touring river (particularly the grade III/IV whitewater section upstream of Llangollen). It stays high after rain for longer than most British rivers and is paddleable year-round (thanks to the Dee Regulation Scheme). Canoeing used to be allowed on about twelve weekends per year, and tens of thousands of canoeists descended on Llangollen for recreational paddling (several Dee tours were held every winter), slalom competitions, and wild water races.
In 2003, negotiations with the angling associations owning fishing rights on the Dee broke down. The anglers wanted to restrict the numbers of paddlers on the river when paddling was allowed but the Welsh Canoe Association wanted to renew the previous agreement. In November 2004, a protest about the lack of access on the Dee, and to rivers across England and Wales, was held in Llangollen. Following the failure of the access agreement, the Welsh Canoeing Association advises canoeists to use their own judgement about using the river, which in practice means many canoeists use the river at will from the numerous access points along its banks.
Canoeing is permitted on one 100 m long rapid, 1 km upstream of Llangollen. Wildwater and slalom races are still held at Serpent's Tail rapid upstream of Llangollen.
A major tributary of the Dee, the River Tryweryn, supports a wide range of water sports and hosts the Canolfan Tryweryn - the national white water centre for Wales.
Each July the Chester Raft Race is held on the Dee in aid of charity.
The Deva (Chester) Triathlon uses the Dee for the swim leg of the race.
The rowing clubs on the Dee are Royal Chester Rowing Club (hosting also Chester University Rowing Club) and Grosvenor Rowing Club. King's School Rowing Club and Queens Park High School are school-dedicated rowing clubs. All these share the slightly meandering Chester/lower reach above the weir.
Fishing
The river has been famed as a mixed fishery with salmon and trout fishing, mostly in the upper waters and a good coarse fishery in the lower reaches. A major pollution incident in the middle reaches in the late 1990s did extensive damage to the fishery from which it is now largely recovered.
Site of Special Scientific Interest
Afon Dyfrdwy (River Dee) is a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) in the preserved county of Clwyd, along the River Dee, with the River Dee (England) SSSI in England.
The river has been designated as a Special Area of Conservation because of its role as a habitat for Atlantic salmon and floating water plantain.
See also
List of crossings of the River Dee, Wales
"Miller of Dee", a traditional folk song
List of SSSIs in Clwyd
References
References
External links
River Dee guide
Dee Estuary bird life
Dee Estuary photos
"The adventures of a salmon in the river Dee" (1853)
Rivers of Cheshire
Rivers of Denbighshire
Rivers of Flintshire
Rivers of Gwynedd
Rivers of Merseyside
Rivers of Shropshire
Rivers of Snowdonia
Rivers of Wrexham County Borough
River navigations in the United Kingdom
Sites of Special Scientific Interest in Clwyd
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kylie%20Minogue%20%28album%29
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Kylie Minogue (album)
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Kylie Minogue is the fifth studio album recorded by Australian singer Kylie Minogue. Deconstruction released it in the United Kingdom on 19 September 1994, while a release was issued through Mushroom Records in Australia on the same date. After leaving Pete Waterman Entertainment, Minogue wanted to establish her credibility and signed with the independent record label Deconstruction in early 1993. She became involved with a diverse group of collaborators in order to experiment with different sounds. After generally unsuccessful sessions with Saint Etienne and The Rapino Brothers, Minogue collaborated with new producers including Brothers in Rhythm, M People, Farley & Heller, and Jimmy Harry.
Musically, Kylie Minogue is a dance-pop album containing elements of dance, R&B and adult contemporary music. Lyrically, the album touches on themes of love, seduction and womanhood. Music critics praised the production and Minogue's vocals, while observing the start of a new phase in Minogue's career. The album peaked in the top five in the United Kingdom and Australia, alongside being certified gold in both countries. It attained top 40 positions in Switzerland, Sweden and Scotland. Minogue received three nominations at the ARIA Music Awards of 1995 for her work on Kylie Minogue, winning Best Video for "Put Yourself In My Place".
To promote the album, a limited edition coffee-table book photographed by Ellen von Unwerth and Katerina Jebb was released to highfliers. Three singles were released—"Confide in Me", "Put Yourself in My Place" and "Where Is the Feeling?"—each of which peaked inside the top 20 in the UK; the first two reached the top 20 in Australia. Minogue was involved with two film projects at the time Kylie Minogue dropped, which delayed the promotional process several times. The album was re-issued in Europe in 2018 and returned to the UK Albums Chart and the Scottish Albums Chart.
Background
In 1991, Minogue released her fourth studio album under Pete Waterman Limited (PWL), titled Let's Get to It. The album was recorded after songwriter Matt Aitken had left Stock Aitken Waterman (SAW) earlier that year, which left Pete Waterman and Mike Stock to write and produce the album. Minogue, who co-wrote six tracks with the producers for the album, was disappointed with the output. She felt SAW had reverted to formulaic sounds and by the time Let's Get to It came out, "the magic [had] gone and the record sank quickly". By the end of 1992, PWL did not renew their contract with Minogue, believing the singer "was [not] moving in a direction that was going to be successful", according to PWL co-owner David Howells. Minogue's final release under PWL was Greatest Hits (1992), which debuted at number one in the United Kingdom and reached number three in Australia.
After the split, Minogue wanted to establish her credibility and refused to fall back into the same market as PWL. She turned down several major record labels, among them EMI and A&M, and subsequently signed to indie label Deconstruction in early 1993. Deconstruction was known for being an innovative part of the dance scene, but it was unusual for a mainstream pop artist to sign an indie label contract. Deconstruction founder Pete Hadfield found Minogue to be a driven and creative artist, who needs to show her more experimental side. The label promised creative freedom, both musically and artistically, which persuaded Minogue. "I liked [Destruction's] attitude, I quite liked their arrogance, and I liked the vision they had. [...] There wouldn't be much point in leaving PWL and going somewhere exactly the same, so it was a big change", Minogue said.
Recording and development
1993: Early sessions
Hadfield intended to push Minogue towards a more unconventional approach to dance music. As work began on her new music, an early meeting with Deconstruction took place to discuss which direction Minogue intended to pursue. She decided to experiment with different sounds rather than record more pop songs. Minogue took an active role in planning for the album and sought a diverse group of collaborators to work with, including both mainstream and underground talents. Hadfield and Quentin Harrison of PopMatters referred to the process as the rebranding of Minogue as a pop artist. In an interview with NME, Keith Cameron wrote that Minogue "talks in the amazed tones of a blind child who has just rediscovered the gift of sight", with regard to the making of the album.
Early recording sessions for Kylie Minogue took place in 1993, with help from Saint Etienne and The Rapino Brothers. However, most of the tracks were deemed to be taking Minogue in the wrong direction and were scrapped. Some tracks were subsequently used as B-side singles and bonus tracks for different editions of Kylie Minogue. Bob Stanley of Saint Etienne remarked that the singer's camp "had no idea what they wanted, apart from being different from the SAW stuff", though he expressed his amazement at her powerful voice that SAW's double tracking had masked. The first recording Minogue did after she signed with Deconstruction was a new version of Saint Etienne's third single "Nothing Can Stop Us" (1991). Minogue had written eight songs with the Rapino Brothers; all but one–"Automatic Love"–were scrapped. "Automatic Love" ended up on the tracklist of Kylie Minogue and was the only song to list Minogue as a songwriter.
Several songwriters and producers unsuccessfully approached Minogue to work with them during the production process. American singer-songwriter Prince invited Minogue to his studio for a social visit after she met him backstage at Earl's Court, London. She handed him some lyrics she had written for a song entitled "Baby Doll"; Prince managed to finish the song and record Minogue's lyrics on a cassette tape but never properly recorded it. Minogue did suggest it to the label, but they were not into the track. Minogue and Lenny Kravitz had talked about working together, but he was busy making his fourth studio album Mama Said (1991), and composing Vanessa Paradis's 1992 self-titled album. The singer and Bobby Gillespie of Primal Scream had talked about working together in 1992, before two other band members discussed doing a different version of "Don't Fight It, Feel It" (from Screamadelica, 1991) with Minogue, but their record label wanted the band to finish their 1994 album first. British groups the Beloved and the Auteurs wrote at least one song for Kylie Minogue, but the material did not work out. Nick Cave had talked about a song written especially for Minogue to sing from the point of view of a murdered woman. The song, "Where the Wild Roses Grow", was released as a single in 1995 and later appeared on Cave's Murder Ballads album in 1996.
1993–1994: Later development
Hadfield and fellow Deconstruction co-founder Keith Blackhurst were friends with Steve Anderson and Dave Seaman, an electronic duo known as Brothers in Rhythm. Brothers in Rhythm had been involved with Minogue on a remix of "Finer Feelings", a single taken from Let's Get to It. When they heard Minogue had signed with Deconstruction, the duo called Blackhurst and asked to collaborate, despite having no prior experience writing for others. Minogue met Brothers in Rhythm at DMC Studios in Slough, where they had a meeting and set up the original sessions. Anderson said that Minogue was inspiring and open to trying out different sounds, while the label had faith in them and did not want to limit creativity. Minogue's stylist William Baker found her to be the "perfect vehicle" for the duo's hybrids: "Her vocal range and willingness to experiment musically meant that Steve and Dave could push the envelope further."
Minogue traveled from her residence in Chelsea and tried songs out at DMC Studios for months. The producers initially had their work cut out for them because of Minogue's nasal vocals, while she gained confidence in her vocals throughout the course of recording Kylie Minogue. Their first efforts resulted in "Confide in Me", a song that came together within an hour. Minogue recorded the original demo in one take, which ended up being used on the final recording. The producers were pleased with the result, calling it "without a shadow of doubt the best [Minogue track] we were involved with". A cover version of Prefab Sprout's "If You Don't Love Me" was recorded in only one take, as the producers wanted to experiment with Minogue's musical boundaries. Brothers in Rhythm was enlisted as the album's chief producer and produced four of the tracks: "Where Is the Feeling?" (originally recorded by Within A Dream in 1993), "Automatic Love" (a rework from material with the Rapino Brothers), "Confide in Me" and "Dangerous Game" (both songs written and produced by the duo). In London, the songs were recorded in Sarm West Studios.
Jimmy Harry wrote and produced "Put Yourself in My Place", written specially for Minogue, and "If I Was Your Lover". These songs, recorded in New York City at the Axis Studios, Power Station and Whorga Musica, were the only tracks recorded outside the UK. Minogue recorded a song entitled "Intuition" during these sessions, which was shelved until 2019, when Harry gave the demo to American singer Liz for her album Planet Y2K. Neil Tennant and Chris Lowe, better known as Pet Shop Boys, were approached by Minogue's camp after the pair finished work on Very (1993). They declined initially, but Lowe came up with a set of chords that Tennant found similar to Minogue's previous work with SAW and suggested they turn it into a song for her. The demo for "Falling" was sent to Deconstruction, where it was reworked by Fire Island, an English music duo made up of Pete Heller and Terry Farley. Tennant found the result very different from the original demo, saying, "It doesn't really have the same tune in it, for instance, and they haven't put the chorus in, but I suppose that's very modern." Minogue's label mate M People produced "Time Will Pass You By" for Kylie Minogue but could not commit to do more because of a busy schedule. Gerry DeVeaux, songwriter and Kravitz's cousin, produced and co-wrote "Surrender" with composer Charlie Mole. Three of the songs on the album are cover versions of largely unknown tracks: "Where Has The Love Gone?", "Time Will Pass You By" and "Where Is the Feeling?".
Musical styles
Kylie Minogue is primarily a dance-pop album that integrates elements of R&B and adult contemporary music. Chris True of AllMusic wrote that the album is a remarkable change from Minogue's previous teen pop material with an "atmosphere and style in the songs that wasn't there on Let's Get to It". In the biography Kylie: Naked (2012), Nigel Goodall and Jenny Stanley-Clarke describe the album as a collection of "upbeat dance tracks, lightweight funky numbers and smoochy ballads". Music critics extensively commented on the album's musical diversity. Paul Bowler of Record Collector noted the album "frolics gaily amongst the myriad contemporary dance styles of '94". Ian Gormely of Exclaim! found influences from house, techno and new jack swing, while an editor of Be With Records pointed out the ambient, Balearic and R&B elements. Portions of hip hop, acid jazz and club music were also listed by Harrison.
The album opens with "Confide in Me", a song incorporating elements of indie pop and Middle Eastern instrumentation like strings and percussion. The opening part of the track features an arrangement by musician Will Malone and a piano section by Anderson, which was performed on a Bösendorfer. Frankie Knuckles and David Morales' classic musical elements influenced Anderson when he produced Minogue's cover of "Where Is the Feeling?". The producers added live piano, guitar and percussion to the album's version of the song. The disco and acid jazz-based track was compared with the work of British acts such as The Brand New Heavies, Jamiroquai and Incognito. "Dangerous Game" and "Automatic Love" are prominently driven by string instruments.
"Surrender" is a seductive slow jam track, with Balearic pop, jazz and R&B-influences. Cinquemani compared "Surrender" to a less sensual rendition of songs recorded by Tia Carrere for Dreams (1993). It is followed by the mid-tempo pop-funk "If I Was Your Lover". "Put Yourself in My Place" is a melancholy quiet storm power ballad with trip hop beats that resembles late 1980s American R&B tracks. Produced by Heller and Farley, "Where Has The Love Gone" and "Falling" are tempestuous uptempo tracks that run over six minutes each. Bowler compared both tracks to the work of American producer Larry Heard. Minogue whispers the lyrics on "Falling", a house slow-burner with the bass-heavy rhythm and high backing vocals. The album ends with "Time Will Pass You By", is a sophisticated, grinning piano-house song.
Themes and vocals
The album touches on themes of love and womanhood.
Robbert Tilli and Machgiel Bakke of Music & Media compared the sensual tone throughout the album to Madonna's Erotica (1992). "Confide in Me" talks about Minogue's earnest seduction and manipulating people to confide into her. English musician Edward Barton is credited as a co-writer under the name Owain Barton, along with Anderson and Seaman, because of the interpolations from his song "It's a Fine Day" (1983). "Put Yourself in My Place" is a plaintive appeal to a former lover who had fallen for someone else. "Automatic Love" is a chilled-out track that contains technology references. Minogue sings "I didn't feel you enter / In my main menu / But every time I touch the key / The screen is showing you." "Where Has the Love Gone?" contains dainty lines like "I'm a woman and I've got my vanity". The closer track, "Time Will Pass You By", encapsulates Minogue's trademark joie de vivre message: not taking life for granted and enjoying it to its fullest.
Minogue adapted more breathy and resonant vocals on the album. She sings in a wide range of notes while adding sighs, murmurs, and whispers on several tracks. The album also features sitars and subtle backing vocals. John Mangan of The Age felt that her vocals are "more breathy, more swooping, more assured than ever". Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian wrote that the frailty of her vocals "impart a more appealing vulnerability." Jon Casimir of The Sydney Morning Herald noticed her Mid-Atlantic accent on the album, with the exception of a monologue on "If I Was Your Lover", which he thought sounds more American than Madonna does.
Artwork and title
British photographer Rankin shot the artwork for Kylie Minogue, with the assistance of British stylist Katie Grand. Mark Farrow was selected to design the cover. Deconstruction paid for Rankin and Grand to fly to Los Angeles and do a photoshoot with Minogue for Dazed & Confused, a British fashion magazine that Rankin founded in 1991. Grand took part in directing and styling fashion shoots for the magazine during the time. The shoot for an inlay section called "Kylie Bible" lasted for around six or seven hours outside a film studio. Grand tried to make Minogue's image more androgynous. Deconstruction approved the photographs and kept one image for later use on the album cover.
The black-and-white cover shows a barefoot Minogue, licking her lips and crouching low, with her hair brushed back behind her ears. She wears a dark Paul Smith trouser suit and a pair of glasses. In the biography Kylie (2014), Sean Smith says Minogue posed like "a leopard sizing up her prey" while wearing Clark Kent glasses, further writing that the cover is remarkably different from her previous ones. Robbie Daw of Idolator described Minogue as a seductive nerd, while Goodall and Clarke compared her to the character of Miss Moneypenny. Tamasin Doe of Evening Standard noted the cover reflects the trend of wearing glasses to be taken seriously, and linked Minogue's solemn image to the television series Joe 90. Christian Guiltenane of Classic Pop comments that Minogue's image had changed considerably in just five years, saying the shots are a mix of "sultry poses, avant garde styling and sex". A replica of the green taffeta suit that Minogue worn for the cover shot was donated to the Cultural Gifts Program of the Arts Centre Melbourne.
Kylie Minogue is the second studio album named after the singer, following her debut Kylie in 1988. Minogue said that the album was named after her because she wanted to introduce her new sound "that other people might copy". Smith feels the simple title might seem to be unimaginative, but it shows Minogue eager to start over and reintroduce herself to the public. Australian programme Rage wrote that the title completes "the 'rebirth' feel [that Minogue] had established by leaving PWL". Charles Shaar Murray of The Daily Telegraph suggested the artwork shows two different sides of Minogue, an intelligent modern woman with deep desires. Bowler commented that by subtly adding Minogue's surname to the title, as well as her formal outfit and lascivious pose on the cover, she successfully announced "the arrival of a more sophisticated artist" who wanted to be taken seriously.
Release and promotion
Kylie Minogue was released on 19 September 1994 in the UK and other European countries by Deconstruction, and in Australia simultaneously by Mushroom Records. In Japan, it was released on 21 October 1994 by the former of the two labels with two bonus tracks: "Love Is Waiting" (written by Tracy Ackerman, Mike Percy and Tim Lever of Dead or Alive) and "Nothing Can Stop Us". Deconstruction issued the album in Canada in 1995, featuring an alternate artwork and a franglais version of "Confide in Me", known as "Fie-toi à moi". Following the release of Enjoy Yourself (1989), Minogue failed to find an audience in the United States. American independent label Imago Records intended to release Kylie Minogue in the US, with a commercial release of "Confide in Me" in November 1994. The label, however, was facing serious financial problems and quickly parted ways with BMG in 1995. Imago withdrew all current releases, including the album, which was scheduled for Spring 1995.
Kylie Minogue was re-released in Australia in 1998 to celebrate the 25th anniversary of Mushroom Records. BMG and Mushroom released a special edition of Kylie Minogue with remastered tracks in May 2003, which contains remixes, B-sides, and a previously unreleased track, titled "Dangerous Overture". The album was later reissued on vinyl for the first time, as a double vinyl, by Be With Records in 2016 in the UK; and in 2018 by BMG as a white vinyl exclusively through Sainsbury's supermarket chain in European countries. Several album tracks and two unreleased tracks ("Gotta Move On" and "Difficult by Design") from Kylie Minogue appear on Hits+ (2000), which was released in Europe.
Minogue promoted the album with a limited-edition coffee-table book that was not commercially available in October 1994. The minimalist photographs are mostly black-and-white, depicting a stripped-back Minogue. Ellen von Unwerth shot the photographs in New York City while Minogue recorded there. "It wasn't my choice to get down to a négligé but that's the way Ellen shoots", Minogue said. Photographer Katerina Jebb and Baker, Minogue's frequent collaborators, met for the first time and came up with a Debbie Harry-themed photoshoot for the book. Baker provided many old punk-style costumes for Minogue; among them was a 1970s sleeveless Marilyn Monroe T-shirt that once belonged to a staff member at Andy Warhol's the Factory studio. The collection of images of Minogue in seductive poses and see-through costumes was compared to Madonna's highly controversial Sex book (1992). Minogue defended herself by claiming that she had plans to do a coffee-table book before Sex came out, and that the book was inspired by Janet Jackson's topless image on the cover of her 1993 self-titled album. She said: "It would be incredibly foolish of me to try to copy Madonna. I'm just trying to fight through and find out who I am. That was the idea of putting the book together."
Singles
"Confide in Me", the lead single from Kylie Minogue, was released in August 1994. Her covers of "Nothing Can Stop Us" and "If You Don't Love Me", alongside a 10-minute remix by Brothers in Rhythm, were included on the single's B-side. In the US, Phillip Damien remixed the single, titled the "Confession Mix", featuring his signature twisted loops and energetic beats; while Fire Island featured on a remix of "Where Has The Love Gone?" on the B-side. Black-and-white promotional photographs for "Confide in Me" saw Minogue sporting an afro. In the music video, directed by Paul Boyd, Minogue plays six different versions of herself, filming a commercial for a phone number and inviting viewers to call and reveal their secrets. "Confide in Me" was Minogue's biggest international hit of the decade, debuting at number two in the UK, while reaching numbers 10 and 39 in France and on the US Billboard Dance Club Songs chart, respectively. In her native Australia, it spent four weeks at number one on the ARIA Singles Chart.
After the release of "Confide in Me", Minogue was busy promoting Street Fighter (1994), her first Hollywood-funded project since The Delinquents (1989). The second single, "Put Yourself in My Place", was released in November. Rankin photographed the cover art featuring Minogue posing with headphones, to represent a "serious" approach to her music. Directed by Kier McFarlane, the music video recreates the opening sequence of the classic Jane Fonda film Barbarella (1968), while Minogue performs a slow striptease inside a spacecraft. "Put Yourself in My Place" narrowly missed the top 10, reached number 11 in both Australia and the UK.
"If I Was Your Lover" was intended as the follow-up single after "Put Yourself in My Place" in the US, but the plan was scrapped. "Where Is the Feeling?" was released as the third and final single in July 1995, seven months after the release of the second single. "Where Is the Feeling?" was planned initially as the follow-up single to "Confide In Me", before being scheduled for release in April 1995 but was delayed again when Minogue was filming Bio-Dome (1996) in the US. Brothers In Rhythm handled the remix for the single release, replacing the "bright and breezy vocal" of the album version with a murmured verse and a bass heavy backing track. Mixes by Felix da Housecat and Morales were also included. Minogue appeared with red hair, which was dyed specially for her role in Bio-Dome, during the promotional process for "Where Is the Feeling?". The music video, also directed by McFarlane, saw Minogue being pursued through the water by an ominous figure. The single only reached number 16 in the UK and number 31 in Australia. Minogue once considered "Time Will Pass You By" as the concluding single; instead, she worked with Cave on the single "Where the Wild Roses Grow" and released it in late 1995.
Critical reception
Kylie Minogue was met with generally positive reviews from music critics, many of whom praising its production. Sullivan wrote that although multiple producers were involved, the album is "absolutely cohesive, excellent dance-pop". Jonathan Bernstein of Spin and Mangan called it a polished piece of work, and singled out "Confide in Me" for praise. Writing for Music & Media, Tilli and Bakke praised the overall quality and compared the album favourably to Janet Jackson's Control (1986). Critics commented on the album's length; Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine viewed its length as an embracement of club music that emulates classic 12" house records. In a mixed review, Casimir felt that the album lacks of emphasis and its production is tailored made for the "slickness-loving US market".
Multiple reviewers highlighted Minogue's improved vocals and her mature perceptions. Cinquemani credited her for delivering a sensual and understated performance, while True felt she "wanted to sound grown-up, and she pulls it off with ease". Sharing the same sentiments were Sullivan and Mangan, who felt Minogue successfully transformed herself to a more sensual and credible artist. Levine opined that the early critics of her vocals would be surprised with her delivery on "Automatic Love". Murray commented that the songs were made to fit her thin voice, which often goes shrill when raised. Writing for Playboy, Marc Andrews found the album mature enough but the producers tried too hard to push Minogue's limited vocal range into soul diva territory.
In their retrospect reviews, Cinquemani and True interpreted the album as a creative and stylish statement for the second phase of Minogue's career; the former critic also ranked it Minogue's ninth-best studio album, praising its mid-tempo material. Levine and Oliver Hurley of Classic Pop commented that the sophisticated and cohesive record is unmarked by the passing years. Harrison deemed Kylie Minogue a major leap of progress and compared it favourably to Madonna's Bedtime Stories (1994); he concluded that these two records have "rippled through Madonna and Minogue's legacies, career-wise and artistically". Bowler commented that the 2016 reissue of Kylie Minogue was especially apposite in the contemporary well-crafted pop scene by the likes of Taylor Swift and Carly Rae Jepsen. The album was Minogue's only studio album, apart from Let's Get to It, to receive a two-star rating from British writer Colin Larkin in the Encyclopedia of Popular Music (2011), who classified it as "disappointing", "week or dull and not recommended".
Minogue received three nominations at the ARIA Music Awards of 1995 for her work on Kylie Minogue: Best Female Artist, Highest Selling Single for "Confide In Me" and Best Video for "Put Yourself In My Place", winning the latter category.
Commercial performance
Kylie Minogue experienced moderate worldwide success. The album debuted and peaked at number four in the UK, becoming her fifth top-10 entry on the UK Albums Chart. It fell to number 13 the following week and spent a total of 20 weeks on the chart. The British Phonographic Industry (BPI) certified Kylie Minogue gold within a month of the album's release for selling over 100,000 copies in the UK. In 2016, the reissue of Kylie Minogue sold out 500 copies on its initial pre-order run. Two years later, the 2018 reissue peaked at number 67 on the UK Albums Chart and number nine on the separate UK Independent Albums Chart on 28 September. The 2018 reissue also appeared on the Scottish Albums Chart, reaching number 30—Kylie Minogue had previously peaked at number 15 there after its original release in 1994. The album had sold 124,806 copies in the UK by October 2020.
In her native Australia, Kylie Minogue debuted at number three and spent 11 weeks on the ARIA Albums chart. It was the 84th best-selling album of 1994 and was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) for selling over 35,000 copies in Australia. Kylie Minogue also peaked at number 39 in Sweden, number 33 in Switzerland, and number 78 in Germany during its 1998 release. In Japan, the album peaked at number 54 on the Oricon Albums Chart and had sold 23,440 copies by 2006.
Track listing
Notes
"Confide in Me" contains interpolations of "It's a Fine Day", written by Edward Barton. He is credited as Owain Barton.
Personnel
Adapted from the album's liner notes.
Kylie Minogue – lead vocals
Greg Bone – guitar
Steve Anderson – piano, production
Brothers in Rhythm – production, arrangement
Dancin' Danny D – production, remixing
Gerry DeVeaux – production, arrangement
Jimmy Harry – production, arrangement
Terry Farley – production, engineering
M People – production, arrangement
Paul Masterson – production, remixing
Ronin – producer, remixing
Saint Etienne – production
Dave Seaman – production
John Waddell – production, arrangement
Justin Warfield – production, remixing
Wil Malone – string arrangements
Richard Niles – string arrangements, brass arrangement, orchestral arrangements
Andy Bradfield – engineering
Tim Bran – engineering, associate production
Ian Catt – engineering
Doug DeAngelis – engineering, mixing
Terry Farley – engineering
Paul West – engineering, mixing
Gary Wilkinson – engineering
Paul Wright III – engineering, mixing
Dave Pemberton – engineering, mixing
Niall Flynn – engineering assistance, assistance
Paul Anthony Taylor – programming
Tom Parker – liner notes, project consultant
Katie Grand – styling
Rankin – photography
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Certifications and sales
Release history
See also
List of UK top-ten albums in 1994
References
Citations
Websites
Media notes
Print sources
Original magazine article – via Google Books
External links
Kylie Minogue at Kylie.com (archived from 2008)
1994 albums
Kylie Minogue albums
Mushroom Records albums
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415070
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese%20herbology
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Chinese herbology
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Chinese herbology () is the theory of traditional Chinese herbal therapy, which accounts for the majority of treatments in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). A Nature editorial described TCM as "fraught with pseudoscience", and said that the most obvious reason why it has not delivered many cures is that the majority of its treatments have no logical mechanism of action.
The term herbology is misleading in the sense that, while plant elements are by far the most commonly used substances, animal, human, and mineral products are also used, among which some are poisonous. In the they are referred to as () which means toxin, poison, or medicine. Paul U. Unschuld points out that this is similar etymology to the Greek and so he uses the term pharmaceutic. Thus, the term medicinal (instead of herb) is usually preferred as a translation for ().
Research into the effectiveness of traditional Chinese herbal therapy is of poor quality and often tainted by bias, with little or no rigorous evidence of efficacy. There are concerns over a number of potentially toxic Chinese herbs.
History
Chinese herbs have been used for centuries. Among the earliest literature are lists of prescriptions for specific ailments, exemplified by the manuscript Recipes for 52 Ailments, found in the Mawangdui which were sealed in 168BCE.
The first traditionally recognized herbalist is Shénnóng (, ), a mythical god-like figure, who is said to have lived around 2800BCE. He allegedly tasted hundreds of herbs and imparted his knowledge of medicinal and poisonous plants to farmers. His (, Shennong's Materia Medica) is considered as the oldest book on Chinese herbal medicine. It classifies 365 species of roots, grass, woods, furs, animals and stones into three categories of herbal medicine:
The "superior" category, which includes herbs effective for multiple diseases and are mostly responsible for maintaining and restoring the body balance. They have almost no unfavorable side-effects.
A category comprising tonics and boosters, whose consumption must not be prolonged.
A category of substances which must usually be taken in small doses, and for the treatment of specific diseases only.
The original text of Shennong's Materia Medica has been lost; however, there are extant translations. The true date of origin is believed to fall into the late Western Han dynasty (i.e., the first century BCE).
The Treatise on Cold Damage Disorders and Miscellaneous Illnesses was collated by Zhang Zhongjing, also sometime at the end of the Han dynasty, between 196 and 220 CE. Focusing on drug prescriptions, it was the first medical work to combine Yinyang and the Five Phases with drug therapy. This formulary was also the earliest Chinese medical text to group symptoms into clinically useful "patterns" (, ) that could serve as targets for therapy. Having gone through numerous changes over time, it now circulates as two distinct books: the Treatise on Cold Damage Disorders and the Essential Prescriptions of the Golden Casket, which were edited separately in the eleventh century, under the Song dynasty.
Succeeding generations augmented these works, as in the (), a 7th-century Tang dynasty Chinese treatise on herbal medicine.
There was a shift in emphasis in treatment over several centuries. A section of the Neijing Suwen including Chapter 74 was added by Wang Bing in his 765 edition. In which it says: "Ruler of disease it called Sovereign, aid to Sovereign it called Minister, comply with Minister it called Envoy (Assistant), not upper lower three classes (qualities) it called." The last part is interpreted as stating that these three rulers are not the three classes of Shénnóng mentioned previously. This chapter in particular outlines a more forceful approach. Later on Zhang Zihe ( Zhang Cong-zhen, 1156–1228) is credited with founding the 'Attacking School' which criticized the overuse of tonics.
Arguably the most important of these later works is the Compendium of Materia Medica (, ) compiled during the Ming dynasty by Li Shizhen, which is still used today for consultation and reference.
The use of Chinese herbs was popular during the medieval age in western Asian and Islamic countries. They were traded through the Silk Road from the East to the West. Cinnamon, ginger, rhubarb, nutmeg and cubeb are mentioned as Chinese herbs by medieval Islamic medical scholars Such as Rhazes (854–925 CE), Haly Abbas (930–994 CE) and Avicenna (980–1037 CE). There were also multiple similarities between the clinical uses of these herbs in Chinese and Islamic medicine.
Raw materials
There are roughly 13,000 medicinals used in China and over 100,000 medicinal recipes recorded in the ancient literature. Plant elements and extracts are by far the most common elements used. In the classic Handbook of Traditional Drugs from 1941, 517 drugs were listed – out of these, only 45 were animal parts, and 30 were minerals. For many plants used as medicinals, detailed instructions have been handed down not only regarding the locations and areas where they grow best, but also regarding the best timing of planting and harvesting them.
Some animal parts used as medicinals can be considered rather strange such as cows' gallstones.
Furthermore, the classic materia medica describes the use of 35 traditional Chinese medicines derived from the human body, including bones, fingernail, hairs, dandruff, earwax, impurities on the teeth, feces, urine, sweat, and organs, but most are no longer in use.
Preparation
Decoction
Typically, one batch of medicinals is prepared as a decoction of about 9 to 18 substances. Some of these are considered as main herbs, some as ancillary herbs; within the ancillary herbs, up to three categories can be distinguished. Some ingredients are added to cancel out toxicity or side-effects of the main ingredients; on top of that, some medicinals require the use of other substances as catalysts.
Chinese patent medicine
Chinese patent medicine () is a kind of traditional Chinese medicine. They are standardized herbal formulas. From ancient times, pills were formed by combining several herbs and other ingredients, which were dried and ground into a powder. They were then mixed with a binder and formed into pills by hand. The binder was traditionally honey. Modern teapills, however, are extracted in stainless steel extractors to create either a water decoction or water-alcohol decoction, depending on the herbs used. They are extracted at a low temperature (below ) to preserve essential ingredients. The extracted liquid is then further condensed, and some raw herb powder from one of the herbal ingredients is mixed in to form a herbal dough. This dough is then machine cut into tiny pieces, a small amount of excipients are added for a smooth and consistent exterior, and they are spun into pills.
These medicines are not patented in the traditional sense of the word. No one has exclusive rights to the formula. Instead, "patent" refers to the standardization of the formula. In China, all Chinese patent medicines of the same name will have the same proportions of ingredients, and manufactured in accordance with the PRC Pharmacopoeia, which is mandated by law. However, in western countries there may be variations in the proportions of ingredients in patent medicines of the same name, and even different ingredients altogether.
Several producers of Chinese herbal medicines are pursuing FDA clinical trials to market their products as drugs in U.S. and European markets.
Chinese herbal extracts
Chinese herbal extracts are herbal decoctions that have been condensed into a granular or powdered form. Herbal extracts, similar to patent medicines, are easier and more convenient for patients to take. The industry extraction standard is 5:1, meaning for every five pounds of raw materials, one pound of herbal extract is derived.
Categorization
There are several different methods to classify traditional Chinese medicinals:
The Four Natures ()
The Five Flavors ()
The meridians ()
The specific function.
Four Natures
The Four Natures are: hot (), warm (), cool (), cold () or neutral (). Hot and warm herbs are used to treat cold diseases, while cool and cold herbs are used to treat hot diseases.
Five Flavors
The Five Flavors, sometimes also translated as Five Tastes, are: acrid/pungent (), sweet (), bitter (), sour (), and salty (). Substances may also have more than one flavor, or none (i.e., a bland () flavor). Each of the Five Flavors corresponds to one of the zàng organs, which in turn corresponds to one of the Five Phases: A flavor implies certain properties and presumed therapeutic "actions" of a substance: saltiness "drains downward and softens hard masses"; sweetness is "supplementing, harmonizing, and moistening"; pungent substances are thought to induce sweat and act on qi and blood; sourness tends to be astringent () in nature; bitterness "drains heat, purges the bowels, and eliminates dampness".
Specific function
These categories mainly include:
exterior-releasing or exterior-resolving
heat-clearing
downward-draining or precipitating
wind-damp-dispelling
dampness-transforming
promoting the movement of water and percolating dampness or dampness-percolating
interior-warming
qi-regulating or qi-rectifying
dispersing food accumulation or food-dispersing
worm-expelling
stopping bleeding or blood-stanching
quickening the Blood and dispelling stasis or blood-quickening or blood-moving.
transforming phlegm, stopping coughing and calming wheezing or phlegm-transforming and cough- and panting-suppressing
Spirit-quieting or Shen-calming.
calming the Liver and expelling wind or liver-calming and wind-extinguishing
orifice-opening
supplementing or tonifying: this includes qi-supplementing, blood-nourishing, yin-enriching, and yang-fortifying.
astriction-promoting or securing and astringing
vomiting-inducing
substances for external application
Nomenclature
Many herbs earn their names from their unique physical appearance. Examples of such names include (Radix cyathulae seu achyranthis), 'cow's knees,' which has big joints that might look like cow knees; (Fructificatio tremellae fuciformis), 'white wood ear', which is white and resembles an ear; (Rhizoma cibotii), 'dog spine,' which resembles the spine of a dog.
Color
Color is not only a valuable means of identifying herbs, but in many cases also provides information about the therapeutic attributes of the herb. For example, yellow herbs are referred to as (yellow) or (gold). (Cortex Phellodendri) means 'yellow fir," and (Flos Lonicerae) has the label 'golden silver flower."
Smell and taste
Unique flavors define specific names for some substances. means 'sweet,' so (Radix glycyrrhizae) is 'sweet herb,' an adequate description for the licorice root. means 'bitter', thus (Sophorae flavescentis) translates as 'bitter herb.'
Geographic location
The locations or provinces in which herbs are grown often figure into herb names. For example, (Radix glehniae) is grown and harvested in northern China, whereas (Radix adenophorae) originated in southern China. And the Chinese words for north and south are respectively and .
(Bulbus fritillariae cirrhosae) and (Radix cyathulae) are both found in Sichuan province, as the character indicates in their names.
Function
Some herbs, like (Radix Saposhnikoviae), literally 'prevent wind,' preventing or treating wind-related illnesses. (Radix Dipsaci), literally 'restore the broken,' treating torn soft tissues and broken bones.
Country of origin
Many herbs indigenous to other countries have been incorporated into the Chinese materia medica. (Radix panacis quinquefolii), imported from North American crops, translates as 'western ginseng,' while (Radix ginseng Japonica), grown in and imported from North Asian countries, is 'eastern ginseng.'
Toxicity
From the earliest records regarding the use of medicinals to today, the toxicity of certain substances has been described in all Chinese materia medica. Since TCM has become more popular in the Western world, there are increasing concerns about the potential toxicity of many traditional Chinese medicinals including plants, animal parts and minerals. For most medicinals, efficacy and toxicity testing are based on traditional knowledge rather than laboratory analysis. The toxicity in some cases could be confirmed by modern research (i.e., in scorpion); in some cases it could not (i.e., in Curculigo). Further, ingredients may have different names in different locales or in historical texts, and different preparations may have similar names for the same reason, which can create inconsistencies and confusion in the creation of medicinals, with the possible danger of poisoning. Edzard Ernst "concluded that adverse effects of herbal medicines are an important albeit neglected subject in dermatology, which deserves further systematic investigation." Research suggests that the toxic heavy metals and undeclared drugs found in Chinese herbal medicines might be a serious health issue.
Substances known to be potentially dangerous include aconite, secretions from the Asiatic toad, powdered centipede, the Chinese beetle (Mylabris phalerata, Ban mao), and certain fungi. There are health problems associated with Aristolochia. Toxic effects are also frequent with Aconitum. To avoid its toxic adverse effects Xanthium sibiricum must be processed. Hepatotoxicity has been reported with products containing Reynoutria multiflora (synonym Polygonum multiflorum), glycyrrhizin, Senecio and Symphytum. The evidence suggests that hepatotoxic herbs also include Dictamnus dasycarpus, Astragalus membranaceus, and Paeonia lactiflora; although there is no evidence that they cause liver damage. Contrary to popular belief, Ganoderma lucidum mushroom extract, as an adjuvant for cancer immunotherapy, appears to have the potential for toxicity.
Also, adulteration of some herbal medicine preparations with conventional drugs which may cause serious adverse effects, such as corticosteroids, phenylbutazone, phenytoin, and glibenclamide, has been reported.
However, many adverse reactions are due to misuse or abuse of Chinese medicine. For example, the misuse of the dietary supplement Ephedra (containing ephedrine) can lead to adverse events including gastrointestinal problems as well as sudden death from cardiomyopathy. Products adulterated with pharmaceuticals for weight loss or erectile dysfunction are one of the main concerns. Chinese herbal medicine has been a major cause of acute liver failure in China.
Most Chinese herbs are safe but some have shown not to be. Reports have shown products being contaminated with drugs, toxins, or false reporting of ingredients. Some herbs used in TCM may also react with drugs, have side effects, or be dangerous to people with certain medical conditions.
Efficacy
Only a few trials exist that are considered to have adequate methodology by scientific standards. Proof of effectiveness is poorly documented or absent. A 2016 Cochrane review found "insufficient evidence that Chinese Herbal Medicines were any more or less effective than placebo or hormonal therapy" for the relief of menopause related symptoms. A 2012 Cochrane review found no difference in decreased mortality for SARS patients when Chinese herbs were used alongside Western medicine versus Western medicine exclusively. A 2010 Cochrane review found there is not enough robust evidence to support the effectiveness of traditional Chinese medicine herbs to stop the bleeding from haemorrhoids. A 2008 Cochrane review found promising evidence for the use of Chinese herbal medicine in relieving painful menstruation, compared to conventional medicine such as NSAIDs and the oral contraceptive pill, but the findings are of low methodological quality. A 2012 Cochrane review found weak evidence suggesting that some Chinese medicinal herbs have a similar effect at preventing and treating influenza as antiviral medication. Due to the poor quality of these medical studies, there is insufficient evidence to support or dismiss the use of Chinese medicinal herbs for the treatment of influenza. There is a need for larger and higher quality randomized clinical trials to determine how effective Chinese herbal medicine is for treating people with influenza. A 2005 Cochrane review found that although the evidence was weak for the use of any single herb, there was low quality evidence that some Chinese medicinal herbs may be effective for the treatment of acute pancreatitis.
Successful results have been scarce: artemisinin is one of few examples, as effective treatment for malaria derived from Artemisia annua, which is traditionally used to treat fever. Chinese herbology is largely pseudoscience, with no valid mechanism of action for the majority of its treatments.
Ecological impacts
The traditional practice of using now-endangered species is controversial within TCM. Modern Materia Medicas such as Bensky, Clavey and Stoger's comprehensive Chinese herbal text discuss substances derived from endangered species in an appendix, emphasizing alternatives.
Parts of endangered species used as TCM drugs include tiger bones and rhinoceros horn. Poachers supply the black market with such substances, and the black market in rhinoceros horn, for example, has reduced the world's rhino population by more than 90 percent over the past 40 years. Concerns have also arisen over the use of turtle plastron and seahorses.
TCM recognizes bear bile as a medicinal. In 1988, the Chinese Ministry of Health started controlling bile production, which previously used bears killed before winter. Now bears are fitted with a sort of permanent catheter, which is more profitable than killing the bears. More than 12,000 asiatic black bears are held in "bear farms", where they suffer cruel conditions while being held in tiny cages. The catheter leads through a permanent hole in the abdomen directly to the gall bladder, which can cause severe pain.
Increased international attention has mostly stopped the use of bile outside of China; gallbladders from butchered cattle () are recommended as a substitute for this ingredient.
Collecting American ginseng to assist the Asian traditional medicine trade has made ginseng the most harvested wild plant in North America for the last two centuries, which eventually led to a listing on CITES Appendix II.
Herbs in use
Chinese herbology is a pseudoscientific practice with potentially unreliable product quality, safety hazards or misleading health advice. There are regulatory bodies, such as China GMP (Good Manufacturing Process) of herbal products. However, there have been notable cases of an absence of quality control during herbal product preparation. There is a lack of high-quality scientific research on herbology practices and product effectiveness for anti-disease activity. In the herbal sources listed below, there is little or no evidence for efficacy or proof of safety across consumer age groups and disease conditions for which they are intended.
There are over 300 herbs in common use. Some of the most commonly used herbs are Ginseng (), wolfberry ( (Angelica sinensis, ), astragalus (), atractylodes (), bupleurum (), cinnamon (cinnamon twigs () and cinnamon bark ()), coptis (), ginger (), hoelen (), licorice (), ephedra sinica (), peony (white: and reddish: ), rehmannia (), rhubarb (), and salvia ().
50 fundamental herbs
In Chinese herbology, there are 50 "fundamental" herbs, as given in the reference text, although these herbs are not universally recognized as such in other texts. The herbs are:
Other Chinese herbs
In addition to the above, many other Chinese herbs and other substances are in common use, and these include:
Akebia quinata ()
Arisaema heterophyllum ()
Chenpi (sun-dried tangerine (mandarin) peel) ()
Clematis ()
Concretio silicea bambusae ()
Cordyceps sinensis ()
Curcuma ()
Dalbergia odorifera ()
Myrrh ()
Frankincense ()
Persicaria ()
Patchouli' ()
Polygonum ()
Sparganium ()
Zedoary (Curcuma zedoaria) ()
See also
Chinese classic herbal formula
Chinese food therapy
Chinese Ophthalmology
Compendium of Materia Medica Hallucinogenic plants in Chinese herbals
Herbalism, for the use of medicinal herbs in other traditions.
Japanese star anise
Jiuhuang Bencao Kampo (traditional Japanese medicine)
Li Shizhen
Pharmacognosy
Star anise
Traditional Chinese medicine
Traditional Korean medicine
Traditional Vietnamese medicine
Yaoxing Lun''
References
External links
Plants used in traditional Chinese medicine
Pseudoscience
Traditional medicine
Traditional Chinese medicine
Alternative medicine
Herbalism
Chinese traditions
Pharmacognosy
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415074
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20and%20the%20Magic%20Railroad
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Thomas and the Magic Railroad
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Thomas and the Magic Railroad is a 2000 children's fantasy adventure film written and directed by Britt Allcroft and produced by Allcroft and Phil Fehrle. It is the only theatrical live-action/animated Thomas & Friends film in the franchise. The film stars Alec Baldwin as Mr. Conductor, Peter Fonda, Mara Wilson, Didi Conn, Russell Means, Cody McMains, Michael E. Rodgers, and the voices of Eddie Glen and Neil Crone. The film is based on the British children's book series The Railway Series by the Reverend W. Awdry, its televised adaptation Thomas & Friends by Allcroft, and the American television series Shining Time Station by Allcroft and Rick Siggelkow. The film tells the story of Lily Stone (Wilson), the granddaughter of the caretaker (Fonda) of an enchanted steam engine who is lacking an appropriate supply of coal, and Mr. Conductor (Baldwin) of Shining Time Station, whose provisions of magical gold dust are at a critical low. Lily and Mr. Conductor enlist the help of Thomas the Tank Engine (Glen), who confronts the ruthless, steam engine-hating Diesel 10 (Crone) along the way.
Thomas and the Magic Railroad premiered on July 9, 2000. It was panned by critics upon release with criticism of the acting, plot, special effects, and lack of fidelity to its source material. The film was a box office bomb, grossing $19.7 million worldwide against a production budget of $19 million; Allcroft resigned from her company in September 2000 due to the film's poor performance. HiT Entertainment acquired the company two years later, including the television rights to Thomas. As of October 2020, a second theatrical live-action/animated Thomas & Friends film is in development at Mattel Films, a division of Mattel, the current owner of HiT Entertainment, with Marc Forster serving as director.
Plot
Sir Topham Hatt and his family have left the Island of Sodor on holiday, leaving Mr. Conductor in charge. Gordon complains that Thomas was eight seconds late. Diesel 10 races by, scaring both engines. In Shining Time, Mr. Conductor is suffering a crisis; his supply of magic gold dust is too low for him to travel back from Sodor. At Tidmouth Sheds, Diesel 10 announces his plan to rid Sodor of steam engines by destroying Lady, the lost engine. Lady had been hidden in a workshop on Muffle Mountain by her driver, Burnett Stone, after Diesel 10's previous attempt to destroy her. Lady is unable to steam despite trying all of the coals in Indian Valley. The steam engines agree to find Lady before Diesel 10, unaware that Diesel 10's sidekicks, Splatter and Dodge, are spying on them. That night, Diesel 10 approaches the shed where the steam engines are sleeping and destroys the side of it with his claw. Mr. Conductor scares Diesel 10 away by threatening to pour a bag of sugar in his fuel tanks.
Mr. Conductor calls his cousin, Mr. C. Junior, to help him with the gold dust crisis. That night, Percy and Thomas conclude there is a secret railway between Sodor and Shining Time. Diesel 10 tells Splatter and Dodge of his plans to destroy Lady. Toby overhears and distracts Diesel 10, who knocks one of the shed supports with his claw, which collapses the roof on top of them. The next morning, Thomas is collecting coal trucks when one of them rolls through the buffers that lead to the secret railway. Mr. Conductor is abducted by Diesel 10, who threatens to drop him off a viaduct unless he divulges the location of the buffers. Mr. Conductor cuts one of the claw's hydraulic hoses and is thrown free. He lands at the Sodor windmill, where he finds a clue to the source of the gold dust.
Burnett's granddaughter Lily meets Patch, who takes her to Shining Time, where she meets Junior. Junior takes her through the Magic Railroad to Sodor, where they meet Thomas. Thomas is not happy to see Junior, but agrees to help and takes them to the windmill, where they find Mr. Conductor. Percy discovers that Splatter and Dodge have found the Sodor entrance to the Magic Railroad and goes to warn Thomas. While traveling through the Magic Railroad to take Lilly home, Thomas discovers the missing coal truck. Lily goes to find Burnett, leaving Thomas stranded. Thomas rolls down the mountain and re-enters the Magic Railroad through another secret portal.
Burnett explains the problem getting Lady to steam to Lily. Lily suggests using a special coal from Sodor, and Burnett uses it to start Lady. Lady takes them along the Magic Railroad. Thomas and Lily return to Sodor. Diesel 10 arrives with Splatter and Dodge, who decide to stop helping him. Diesel 10 tries to cross the viaduct, but it collapses under his weight, and he falls into a barge filled with sludge.
Lily combines water from a wishing well and shavings from the Magic Railroad to make more gold dust. Mr. Conductor gives Junior his conductor's hat. Lily, Burnett, Patch and Mutt return to Shining Time, and Lady returns to the Magic Railroad while Thomas travels home into the sunset.
Cast
Live-action cast
Alec Baldwin as Mr. Conductor, the railway conductor of Shining Time.
Peter Fonda as Burnett Stone, Lily's grandfather and Lady's caretaker and driver.
Jared Wall as young Burnett
Mara Wilson as Lily Stone, Burnett's granddaughter.
Michael E. Rodgers as Mr. C. Junior, Mr. Conductor's lazy cousin.
Cody McMains as Patch, a young teenage boy who works with Burnett Stone.
Didi Conn as Stacy Jones, Matt and Dan's aunt, and the manager of Shining Time.
Russell Means as Billy Twofeathers. He was previously played by Tom Jackson on Shining Time Station.
Voice cast
Eddie Glen as Thomas, a blue tank engine who runs his own branch line.
Britt Allcroft as Lady, a small Victorian-styled tank engine owned by Burnett Stone, who runs the Magic Railroad.
Neil Crone as
Gordon, the blue tender engine who pulls the main line express.
Diesel 10, an evil diesel engine with a hydraulic claw he affectionately calls "Pinchy", who hates steam engines and wants to destroy them, especially the magic engine Lady.
Splatter, a bumbling diesel, one of Diesel 10's sidekicks, and Dodge's twin.
A tumbleweed with a Southern-American accent
Production
Development
In the early 1990s, the character of Thomas the Tank Engine (adapted from the Rev. W. Awdry's Railway Series into the TV series Thomas the Tank Engine & Friends, created by Britt Allcroft) was at the height of his popularity following three successful series. At the same time, Shining Time Station (an American series that combined episodes from the previous series with original live-action characters and scenarios, also created by Allcroft along with Rick Siggelkow) was made, and also successful. As early as 1994, prior to the launch of Thomass fourth series, Britt Allcroft had plans to make a feature film based on both of these series, and would make use of the model trains from Thomas and the live-action aesthetic of Shining Time Station.
In mid to late 1995, Britt Allcroft was approached by Barry London, then vice-chairman of Paramount Pictures, with an idea for the Thomas film. In February 1996, Britt signed a contract to write the script for the film with the working title Thomas and the Magic Railroad. London's interest is thought to have stemmed from his three-year-old daughter, who was enthralled by Thomas. According to a press release, filming was to take place at Shepperton Studios, in the United Kingdom and the United States, with the theatrical release date set for 1997. However, later that year, after London left the company, Paramount shelved the plans for the film. This left Allcroft to seek other sources of funding. Discussions with PolyGram about the film were held, but not for long, because of the company being in the middle of a corporate restructuring and sale.
In the Summer of 1998, during Series 5 of Thomass production, Allcroft saw an Isle of Man Film Commission advert. They were offering tax incentives to companies wanting to film on the Island. Allcroft visited, and felt that the location was perfect. During that year, Barry London became Chairman of the newly founded Destination Films (owned by Sony Pictures). He renewed his interest in the project, and Destination Films became the main financial backer and studio for the film.
Casting
In early August 1999, it was announced that Alec Baldwin, Mara Wilson and Peter Fonda had joined the cast to play Mr. Conductor, Lily Stone and Burnett Stone respectively. David Jacobs, the former vice president of The Britt Allcroft Company, stated that Baldwin got involved in the project because his daughter Ireland was a fan of the series. John Bellis was originally attached to voice Thomas, but was replaced by Canadian actor Edward Glen. Ewan McGregor and Bob Hoskins had also expressed interest for the role. Michael Angelis, the UK narrator for the Thomas & Friends television series at the time, was originally cast to voice both James and Percy, but was later replaced by voice actresses Susan Roman and Linda Ballantyne. Keith Scott was originally set to voice Diesel 10, but was later replaced by Neil Crone in the final film. Patrick Breen (known as the narrator of Allcroft's Magic Adventures of Mumfie) was originally set to voice both Splatter and Dodge, but was eventually replaced by both Kevin Frank and Neil Crone.
Filming
Principal photography began on August 2, 1999, and wrapped on October 15, 1999. The movie was filmed at the Strasburg Rail Road in Strasburg, Pennsylvania (United States), as well as in Toronto, Ontario, Canada and on the Isle of Man. Castletown railway station on the Isle of Man Railway formed part of Shining Time Station and the goods shed at Port St Mary railway station became Burnett Stone's workshop. Running shots of the "Indian Valley" train were filmed at the Strasburg Rail Road location. The large passenger station where Lily boards the train is the Harrisburg Transportation Center. Norfolk & Western 4-8-0 475 was repainted as the Indian Valley locomotive. Sodor was realised using models and chroma key. The models were animated using live action remote control, as on the television series. The model sequences were filmed in Toronto instead of Shepperton Studios, the "home" of the original TV show; however, several of the show's key staff were flown over to participate. The Magic Railway was created using models, CGI, and water-coloured matte paintings.
Original version
In a 2007 interview with Sodor Island Forums & Fansite, writer and director Britt Allcroft revealed that before the film's theatrical release, she and editor Ron Wisman were forced to completely change the film from how she had originally written it, by removing Burnett's rival P.T. Boomer (played by Doug Lennox), who was the original antagonist and character originally responsible for wrecking Lady, because the test audiences at the March 2000 preview screenings in Los Angeles considered Boomer to "too scary" for young children. Despite most of his scenes being removed, Boomer can still be seen briefly in one scene, however the scene was redubbed with Boomer as a lost motorcyclist talking to Burnett for directions, as in the original cut, Boomer and Burnett were having a row.
Lily Stone (played by Mara Wilson) was intended to be the narrator of the story. Before filming, Thomas's voice was provided by John Bellis, a British fireman and part-time taxi driver who worked on the film as the Isle of Man transportation co-ordinator and facilities manager. Bellis received the role when he happened to pick up Britt Allcroft and her crew from the Isle of Man Airport in July 1999. According to Allcroft, after hearing him speak for the first time, she told her colleagues, "I have just heard the voice of Thomas. That man is exactly how Thomas would sound!" A few days later, she offered the role to Bellis, and he accepted. However, the test audiences felt that to his voice sounded "too old" for Thomas, although Bellis did receive onscreen credit as the Transportation Co-Ordinator, and a few of his lines remain intact in both the teaser trailer and the original UK trailer.
Crushed and angered by the changes, Bellis said he was "gutted", but still wished the filmmakers well. In an April 2000 interview, following the changes, he said, "It was supposed to be my big break, but it hasn't put me off and I am hoping something else will come along." English actor Michael Angelis, who was the UK narrator of the series at the time, was the original voice of both James and Percy, but was recast for the same reason as Bellis. Australian voice actor Keith Scott originally voiced Diesel 10 (as evidenced in both the US and UK trailers), but he believes that he was recast because test audiences claimed that his portrayal was "too scary" for young children. Additionally, American actor Patrick Breen was the original voice of both Splatter and Dodge, but he was also subsequently recast for unknown reasons.
Music and soundtrack
Thomas and the Magic Railroad is a soundtrack released on both CD and cassette on August 1, 2000. It features twelve music tracks from the feature film composed by Hummie Mann.
Release
Theatrical
Thomas and the Magic Railroad was released theatrically on July 14, 2000, in the United Kingdom and Ireland, and on July 26, 2000, in the United States and Canada. The film was also released in Australia on December 14, 2000, and in New Zealand on April 7, 2001. Before that, the film premiered at the Odeon Leicester Square; for the purpose, a steam locomotive, no. 47298 painted to resemble Thomas, was brought to the cinema by low loader on July 9, 2000. National press coverage was low, as many journalists were concentrating on the launch of the book, Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, for which a special train called "Hogwarts Express" would run from July 8 to 11. In September 2020, it was announced that the film would be re-released in theaters on October 24, 2020, for the film's 20th anniversary.
Home media
Thomas and the Magic Railroad was originally released onto VHS and DVD by Icon Home Entertainment on October 19, 2000, in the United Kingdom, and by Columbia TriStar Home Video on October 31, 2000, in the United States. In 2007, the film was released as part of a double feature with The Adventures of Elmo in Grouchland. It was also released as part of a triple feature with The Adventures of Milo and Otis and The Bear.
A re-release of the film on DVD and Blu-ray as a 20th anniversary edition from Shout! Factory and under license by Sony Pictures Home Entertainment was released on September 29, 2020. The 20th anniversary edition includes a two-part documentary of the film, new interviews with the cast and crew, and a rough cut version of the film including extended and deleted scenes as well as the storyline of P.T. Boomer.
Reception
Box office
The film grossed $19.7 million worldwide against a production budget of $19 million. During its second weekend of screening in Britain, it took in £170,000.
Critical response
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 21% based on 68 reviews, along with an average rating of 3.97/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Kids these days demand cutting edge special effects or at least a clever plot with cute characters. This movie has neither, having lost in its Americanization what the British original did so right." On Metacritic, the film has a score of 19 out of 100 based on 23 critics, indicating "overwhelming dislike". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale.
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film one star out of four, and wrote "(the fact) That Thomas and the Magic Railroad made it into theaters at all is something of a mystery. This is a production with 'straight to video' written all over it. Kids who like the Thomas books might kinda like it. Especially younger kids. Real younger kids. Otherwise, no." While he admired the models and art direction, he criticized how the engines' mouths did not move when they spoke, the overly depressed performance of Peter Fonda, as well as the overall lack of consistency in the plot. Elvis Mitchell of The New York Times gave the film a negative review, saying, "Mr. Baldwin's attack – there's no better way to put it – is unforgettable."
William Thomas of Empire gave the film a one out of five stars, he was critical of the films special effects, stating that "believe it or not, the true villains of the piece are, in fact, the 'special' effects. Quite how – in today's era of slo-mo and seamless digital wizardry – such a shoddy result can have been achieved is anyone's guess. With clunky bluescreen, spot-a-mile-off matte work and an absolute lack of synergy between real-life and animated action, it all conspires to provide an appropriately amateur sheen." Plugged In stated, "While the animation maintains its simple appearance, the plot is anything but simple. And that's not good news for the many tots who make up the majority of Thomas audience. Switching back and forth between Shining Time and Sodor, interweaving two relatively complex story lines, may confuse more than it challenges. Parents may well find that their children are squirming in their seats long before Thomas rides his magic rails into the sunset. That said, and the magic notwithstanding, tikes who do manage to grasp the complex story lines, and can sit still for an hour and a half, will learn good lessons about friendship, courage, hard work and being kind." Nell Minow of Common Sense Media gave the film three out of five stars and writing that it "will please [Thomas fans]" but that the plot "might confuse kids".
Accolades
In other media
Video game
A video game based on the film, titled Thomas and the Magic Railroad: Print Studio, was released in the United Kingdom. Published by Hasbro Interactive, it was released for PC on August 25, 2000.
20th Anniversary Video Presentation
A special video presentation commemorating the 20th anniversary of the film and the 75th anniversary of the Thomas & Friends franchise (produced by Rainbow Sun Productions) premiered on YouTube on July 20, 2020, and was available for viewing through August 2. The four-hour event, directed by Eric Scherer, was a virtual script reading of a "reimagined extended edition" of the film, utilizing elements from the May 1999 draft, the August 1999 filmed script, and the finished 2000 film, along with new original material and live performances of the film's songs being intercut with the reading.
It featured special appearances from stars of film, television, and theatre, including Scherer (Station Announcer/Adult Patch), Stephen J. Anderson (Diesel 10), Zackary Arthur (Young Burnett), Alexander Bello (Lily and Patch's son), Kimberly J. Brown (Stacy Jones), Chelsea Davis (Mutt), Lucas Davis (The Previous Mr. Conductor), Alice Fearn (Storyteller/Adult Lily), Jake Ryan Flynn (Patch), Irene Gallin (Young Tasha/Clarabel), Michael I. Haber (Newspaper Delivery Boy), Jessa Halterman (Lily's Mother), Logan Hart (Bertie), Alex Haynes (Thomas), Theresa Jett (Passenger), Richard Kind (P.T. Boomer), Victoria Kingswood (Lily), Miriam-Teak Lee (Lady), Killian Thomas Lefevre (Toby), Noel MacNeal (Edward), Tim Mahendran (Harold), Amy Matthews (Lady Hatt), John McGowan (Mr. C. Junior), Blake Merriman (George), Harper Miles (Annie), Colin Mochrie (Burnett Stone), Michael Moore (Splatter), Katie Nail (Station Master), Angelisse Perez (Dodge), Jonah Platt (Mr. Conductor), Rob Rackstraw (James), Kyle Roberts (Percy), John Scott-Richardson (Billy Twofeathers), Carolyn Smith (Lily and Patch's daughter), Keith Wickham (Sir Topham Hatt/Gordon) and J. Paul Zimmerman (Henry). Nick Cartell served as script narrator.
Irene Gallin, Logan Hart, Jessa Halterman and Victoria Kingswood opened the presentation with a performance of "Thomas' Anthem" and later on performed "He's a Really Useful Engine". Dayna Manning performed a new version of "I Know How The Moon Must Feel" during its respective scene in the presentation. Arun Blair-Mangat and Miriam-Teak Lee performed a cover of "Some Things Never Leave You", as did Eric Scherer and Katie Nail with "Shining Time". Scherer also performed "Summer Sunday" during the scene where Mr. Conductor calls Mr. C. Junior. Three songs from the original series that were not heard in the original film were covered in this version: Connor Warren Smith, Jake Ryan Flynn and Alexander Bello performed "It's Great to be an Engine" during the scene where Mr. C. Junior and Lily arrive in the Island of Sodor following their flight over the Magic Railroad; Eric Scherer and Katie Nail performed "Night Train" during the scene where Thomas and Percy come to the realization about the Magic Railroad's existence; and Bradley Dean and Alice Fearn performed "The Island Song" after the climatic chase scene. Cut and extended sequences, particularly those featuring P.T. Boomer, were restored for this reading. Edward and George the Steamroller, two characters from the franchise who did not appear in the original scripts and 2000 film, were incorporated into this version. Edward is portrayed here as the train who takes Sir Topham Hatt and Lady Hatt on their holiday, thus explaining his absence from the film.
The presentation concluded with a performance of "The Locomotion" by members of the Off-Broadway and West End companies of Bat Out of Hell: The Musical. 100% of the donations collected prior to and during the presentation went directly to the Autistic Self Advocacy Network.
Legacy
Cancelled sequel
On July 1, 2000, it was reported that Destination Films began development on a sequel, but it was quietly cancelled.
Potential animated adaptation film
HiT said that its theatrical division would be piloted by a Thomas film. Originally targeted for a late 2010 release, in September 2009 this was revised to Spring 2011. As of January 2011, the release date had been pushed back further, to 2012. The initial draft of the script was written by Josh Klausner, who has also said that the film would be set around the times of World War II; Will McRobb and Chris Viscardi also helped write the script. On June 8, 2011, it was announced that 9 director Shane Acker would direct the live-action adaptation of The Adventures of Thomas, with Weta Digital designing the film's visual effects.
On October 6, 2020, it was announced that Marc Forster would be directing a new theatrical live-action/animated Thomas & Friends movie.
Notes
References
External links
Official website archived from the original on August 15, 2000
Cinema.com: Thomas and the Magic Railroad
2000 films
2000 directorial debut films
2000 fantasy films
2000s children's adventure films
2000s children's fantasy films
2000s fantasy adventure films
American children's fantasy films
American children's adventure films
American fantasy adventure films
Animated films about trains
British children's adventure films
British children's fantasy films
British fantasy adventure films
Crossover films
Destination Films films
2000s English-language films
Films scored by Hummie Mann
Films about friendship
Films about size change
Films based on television series
Films directed by Britt Allcroft
Films produced by Britt Allcroft
Films set in Cumbria
Films set on islands
Films set on trains
Films shot in Ontario
Films shot in Pennsylvania
Films using stop-motion animation
Films with live action and animation
Films with screenplays by Britt Allcroft
Mattel Television films
Thomas & Friends films
Gullane Entertainment
Icon Productions films
2000s American films
2000s British films
Films shot in the Isle of Man
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chester%20Canal
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Chester Canal
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The Chester Canal was an English canal linking the south Cheshire town of Nantwich with the River Dee at Chester. It was intended to link Chester to Middlewich, with a branch to Nantwich, but the Trent and Mersey Canal were unco-operative about a junction at Middlewich, and so the route to Nantwich was opened in 1779. There were also difficulties negotiating with the River Dee Company, and with no possibility of through traffic, the canal was uneconomic. Part of it was closed in 1787, when Beeston staircase locks collapsed, and there was no money to fund repairs. When the Ellesmere Canal was proposed in 1790, the company saw it as a ray of hope, and somehow managed to keep the struggling canal open. The Ellesmere Canal provided a link to the River Mersey at Ellesmere Port from 1797, and the fortunes of the Chester Canal began to improve.
The Ellesmere Canal was also building branches in North Wales, which were intended to link up to the River Dee at Chester, but eventually linked to the Chester Canal at Hurleston Junction, just to the north of Nantwich, in 1805. The canal then became the middle section of a much longer and more profitable canal. The two companies merged in 1813, becoming the Ellesmere and Chester Canal. When the Birmingham and Liverpool Junction Canal was proposed in 1826, which would provide a link from Nantwich to Wolverhampton and the Birmingham canal system, the company saw it as an opportunity to build the Middlewich Branch, which would provide a connection to Manchester and the Potteries. The branch opened in 1833, and the Junction Canal opened in 1835. Amalgamation followed in 1845, with the new company retaining the name of the Ellesmere and Chester Canal. The following year, the Shropshire Union Railways and Canal Company was formed from the Ellesmere and Chester company, which also took over a number of canals which joined theirs. Plans to convert some of the canals to railways were put on hold in the 1847, when the canal company was leased to the London and North Western Railway. Under railway control, the canals continued to operate successfully, but decline set in during the 20th century, and when many of the adjoining canals were closed in 1944, the sections which had been the Ellesmere and Chester Canal and the Birmingham and Liverpool Junction Canal, together with the Middlewich Branch, were retained.
The canals were nationalised in 1948, and long-distance commercial traffic had all but ended by 1958. In 1963, the British Waterways Board was formed and the canal ceased to be operated by railway interests for the first time in over 100 years. It was designated as a cruising waterway in the Transport Act 1968, with potential for leisure use, and since then, it has been enjoyed by recreational boaters, by walkers and by fishermen. In 1997, the Chester Canal Heritage Trust was formed and has worked to promote the canal and its heritage. Responsibility for the canal passed from British Waterways to the newly formed Canal & River Trust in 2012.
History
In 1771, the people of Chester, fearing that the construction of the Trent and Mersey Canal would divert trade away from their city to Liverpool, announced in the Press that they would be applying to build a canal between Middlewich, on the Trent and Mersey, and Chester. The city was at the time served by the River Dee, and the River Dee Company had recently spent £80,000 on improvements to the river, but they realised that without a connection to the growing canal network, there was little future for the river or the Port of Chester. The idea had first been raised three years earlier, when merchants suggested a line from the Trent and Mersey to near Runcorn. There were no objections from the Corporation of Liverpool, but the canal company was non-committal. By 1770, the plans were a little clearer, with a main line from Chester to Middlewich and a branch to Nantwich. Although the Corporation of Chester subscribed £100 towards the scheme, and the societies and clubs of Chester put up another £2,000, there was little enthusiasm for it. Neither the Weaver Navigation nor the Trent and Mersey were supportive, as both might have lost some trade if the canal were built, and when the Duke of Bridgewater was approached for support, he replied that provided the canal did not physically link with the Trent and Mersey at Middlewich, he would not oppose the plans. Despite attempts at flattery, the Duke would not alter his position, and so the company promoting the bill in Parliament began with a serious disadvantage.
The bill became an Act of Parliament (12 Geo. 3. c. 75) on 1 April 1772, authorising the construction of a canal to run "from the River Dee, within the liberties of the city of Chester, to or near Middlewich and Nantwich". The Act allowed the company to raise £42,000 by issuing £100 shares, and an additional £20,000 if necessary. Of this, only £28,000 had been subscribed at the time of the Act, but construction began near Chester, with Samual Weston acting as engineer and John Lawton working as his assistant. Weston had previously worked as a surveyor, and had been involved in excavating canals as a contractor, but had no experience of managing a major engineering project. The Mayor of Chester cut the first sod at the end of April. There were concerns that while the canal was being constructed past Northgate Gardens, prisoners from Northgate Prison might escape, and the company had to give a bond against this possibility. The canal was conceived as a broad canal, designed with locks which were by suitable for broad-beam barges. Most of the Trent and Mersey Canal north of the proposed junction was suitable for barges which were wide, but the final three locks in Middlewich, and all of those south of the junction, are only suitable for narrow-beam barges.
The project was hampered by financial and engineering problems, and so progress was slow. At the Chester end, the River Dee Company had managed to insert a clause into the Act which restricted the width of the final lock into the river to . Although the lock was built, and some narrow boats capable of using it were constructed, agreement was reached on a wider connection after four years of argument. The solution adopted was a single pair of gates, which provided a entrance into a basin from which the canal rose to the Northgate level. The land on which the basin was built was owned by the River Dee Company, who therefore charged tolls on all traffic using it. In 1774, part of an aqueduct collapsed, and had to be dismantled and repaired.
Soon afterwards, Weston left the project, and Thomas Morris was recalled from Ireland to take over. He had previous experience building the extension of the Bridgewater Canal to Runcorn. Under his direction, the canal opened from Chester to Huxley Aqueduct on 16 January 1775, and to Beeston in June. Morris was sacked in September, to be replaced by Josiah Clowes. He too was sacked, and was followed by Moon, who had previously acted as assistant to Morris. The canal was completed under the direction of Joseph Taylor. In September 1776, the junction with the Dee was opened, but the project was now in financial difficulties. By late 1777, they had spent all of the share capital of £42,000 and another £19,000, which had been raised as a loan guaranteed by Samuel Egerton of Tatton. He was a shareholder in the company and related to the Duke of Bridgewater. They applied for another Act of Parliament (17 Geo. 3. c. 67), which allowed them to raise another £25,000, by additional calls on existing shareholders, and to borrow £30,000 as a mortgage. They succeeded in raising £6,000 by making additional calls, and borrowed £4,000 from Richard Reynolds, an ironmaster from Ketley, who was responsible for several of the East Shropshire Canals, including the Wombridge Canal and the Ketley Canal.
The money was used to complete the line to Nantwich, and to build a reservoir at Bunbury Heath. The work was completed in August 1779, and the company hoped to raise enough money to then build the line to Middlewich. They proposed building it with narrow locks, to reduce the cost, but the shareholders were not prepared to support them; instead they concentrated on trying to generate traffic on the line that had been built. They attempted to mine salt at Nantwich, but failed to find any, and tried running boats on the Trent and Mersey, from which goods were carried over land to Nantwich, for onward carriage to Liverpool. They also ran boats for cargo and passengers on the canal itself. By the end of 1781, the company had no money and was unable to meet interest payments on the loans. They decided to forfeit the canal to Egerton, the main mortgagee, but he did not respond to their offer. Angry landowners who had not been paid drained Bunbury reservoir in March 1782, but somehow the committee managed to keep the canal open, by selling boats and land. Disaster struck in November 1787, when Beeston Staircase Locks collapsed, and there was no money to fund repairs.
The impact of the Ellesmere Canal
In 1790 the plans for the Ellesmere Canal were published, and the directors of the Chester canal saw this as a chance to make the canal profitable again, and to build the Middlewich branch. Following the chairman's report to a meeting of the shareholders, they resolved to try to raise some money to carry out repairs, any by the end of the year reported that the canal was "nearly filled with water and business begins to stir." The Ellesmere scheme was extensive, with a line from the River Mersey at Netherpool (later renamed Ellesmere Port) to the River Dee near Chester, to give access to the Chester Canal, and branches to Shrewsbury, Ruabon, Llangollen, Bersham, Llanymynech and maybe Whitchurch and Wem. Although William Jessop estimated that the cost would be £196,898, it was the time of the Canal Mania, and 1,234 subscribers offered £967,700. Applications were scaled down and the company accepted £246,500. A rival group were proposing canals to the east, which resulted in the first group proposing a direct link with the Chester Canal from their Whitchurch Branch, and in February 1793, the two groups amalgamated. On 30 April they obtained an Act of Parliament (33 Geo. 3. c. 91) authorising them to raise £400,00 with an additional £100,000 if necessary. Jessop was assisted by John Duncombe, Thomas Denson and William Turner, and from 30 October, Thomas Telford was appointed to set out the line and oversee the construction.
Work began on the Wirral line from Ellesmere Port to Chester in November 1793, and packet boats began using most of it on 1 July 1795. The locks connecting it to the River Mersey were completed early the following year, and the connection to the Chester Canal opened in January 1797. The line was supplied with water from the Chester Canal, supplemented by a steam engine at Ellesmere Port which pumped water from the Mersey. Passenger boats along the canal proved very popular, with connections from Ellesmere Port to Liverpool provided by larger boats, although passenger services from Chester to Nantwich lasted for less than a year. Commercial traffic also grew steadily, helped by the construction of new basins at Chester and the provision of a tide lock into the Dee, which made access into the lower basin possible at all times, and helped to keep it free from silt.
The Ellesmere Canal company had been constructing canals to the west, linking Llangollen to Frankton, but the route from there to Chester had not been decided. In 1796, they obtained an Act of Parliament (36 Geo. 3. c. 71), authorising a line from near the great aqueduct at Pontcysyllte running roughly northwards through Ruabon, Bersham, Gwersyllt and Pulford to join the River Dee opposite the canal basin at Chester. The Chester company, who were trying to put their financial affairs into order, noticed that the 1796 Act failed to mention a connection with their canal. They decided to obtain an Act to enforce a connection, and to stop supplying water to the Wirral line. The Ellesmere company responded quickly, agreeing to make changes to their Act, and the Chester company continued to supply water. On the strength of this, they were also able to raise some money to put the canal into good order and to repay some of their debts. The Ellesmere company extended their canal eastwards from Frankton to Whitchurch, and in 1802, the two companies reached agreement on a line from near Whitchurch to Hurleston Junction, just to the north of Nantwich. It opened on 25 March 1805, and water supply was enhanced by the construction of a navigable feeder through Llangollen to Horseshoe Falls on the River Dee at Llantisilio.
In 1804, the Ellesmere company offered to buy out the Chester Canal for 1,000 of their shares, and to take over debts up to £4,000. The Chester Canal held out for more, and the negotiations failed. Three years later, the financial position of the Chester Canal was better, and they began paying off their debts. Finally in 1813, they agreed to amalgamate, and the action was authorised by a further Act of Parliament. The Ellesmere company paid just half of their 1804 offer, and the 500 Ellesmere shares were distributed between the various Chester shareholders. The Ellesmere and Chester Canal Company took over on 1 July 1813. A new section of canal and an iron lock were built at Beeston in 1827, to resolve continual problems with leakage there.
A new route to the south
In 1826, the Birmingham and Liverpool Junction Canal was authorised by an Act of Parliament, to construct a canal from Nantwich to a junction with the Staffordshire and Worcestershire Canal at Autherley in the Midlands. With the prospect of being part of a link between Liverpool and the Midlands, the joint company had again pressed for the construction of the Middlewich branch, which would give them an outlet to Manchester and the Potteries industrial centre around Stoke-on-Trent. The Trent and Mersey Canal refused to sanction the idea of a canal which would effectively reduce their income until the Birmingham and Liverpool Junction Canal was authorised. Once it was, the Ellesmere and Chester company obtained an Act of Parliament in 1827, but the Trent and Mersey insisted that they build a short connecting canal, the Wardle Canal, consisting of a lock and not much more, the tolls for which were exorbitant. The 1827 Act repealed all previous legislation for the Ellesmere and Chester Canals and consolidated their position. The branch was built as a narrow canal, and cost £129,000. It opened on 1 September 1833, but was little used until the Birmingham and Liverpool Junction Canal was completed. It finally opened on 2 March 1835, having suffered from engineering problems during construction. Again, it was a narrow canal, suitable for boats which were wide.
The two canal companies worked together from the start, in a bid to ensure that both remained profitable despite competition from the railways. This came soon, for the Grand Junction Railway from Warrington to Birmingham had been authorised before the canal opened, and was carrying goods by January 1838. Tolls on the canals were considerably lower than had been envisaged when the route was promoted. Experiments with steam tugs to haul trains of narrow boats were carried out in 1842, and a report in 1844 indicated that they were then used extensively. By the following year, however, the Ellesmere and Chester company were thinking about converting the canal to a railway, and argued that steam tugs were no cheaper than locomotive haulage on a railway. A merger with the Birmingham and Liverpool Junction Canal was discussed in 1844, and was authorised on 8 May 1845, the new company retaining the name of the Ellesmere and Chester Canal.
Part of the Shropshire Union
Almost immediately, the company began looking at the possibility of converting all or part of the system into railways. W. A. Povis, their engineer, was convinced that railways could be built along the routes at around half the cost of building a new line. The move was opposed by the Staffordshire and Worcestershire Canal who argued that closing bits of the inland waterways system would have serious repercussions on the parts left. Robert Stephenson suggested that a number of railways and canals should amalgamate, to reduce competition when bills were presented to Parliament. The canals to join the Ellesmere and Chester Company were the eastern and western branches of the Montgomeryshire Canal, the Shrewsbury Canal and the Shropshire Canal. Although some would be converted to railways, the route from Ellesmere Port to Middlewich via Barbridge Junction was part of the system that would be retained as a waterway, on which salt was a major source of revenue. The plans resulted in the formation of the Shropshire Union Railways and Canal Company in 1846. The new company could raise £3.3 million of new capital, in addition to that already in existence, with another £1.1 million if necessary. They prompted new railways, but before any of the existing canals were converted, the company was leased to the London and North Western Railway, who took control in June 1847. They allowed the Shropshire Union to continue to operate fairly independently, and by 1849, the idea of conversion had been dropped, as the canals could still operate profitably.
Profitability was maintained, with the result then when most of the Shropshire Union network of canals were abandoned in 1944, the sections which had originally been the Chester Canal, the northern part of the Ellesmere Canal, the Birmingham and Liverpool Junction Canal and the Middlewich Branch were all retained. The only other section which was not abandoned was the Llangollen branch; this was kept because of its function as a water supply channel, rather than for navigation.
Leisure era
In common with many operational canals, the remains of the Shropshire Union system, including what had been the Chester Canal, were nationalised on 1 January 1948, and became the responsibility of the Docks and Inland Waterways Executive, which was part of the British Transport Commission. At the time, the function of canals was still viewed as commercial. An official reply to the Inland Waterways Association in 1947 stated that the Ministry of Transport "... do not look very favourably upon any scheme for pleasure craft on the canals at the present time." Despite such official attitudes, Eric Wilson, who produced the first edition of Inland Waterways of Great Britain in 1939, noted that those wishing to use the Shropshire Union for leisure cruising should apply to the Agent at Chester. He advised that application should be made well in advance, in case there were problems due to the condition of the waterway and its locks.
Control of the canal passed to the British Waterways Board on 1 January 1963, and for the first time in over 100 years, it was managed by an organisation which was not under railway control. The Transport Act 1968 classified all waterways under the jurisdiction of British Waterways into commercial, cruising and remainder waterways. All of the remaining Shropshire Union network was designated as cruising waterway, with the potential for leisure use. By that time there was little commercial traffic. The branch to the River Dee at Chester had been unused since 1932–34, with the demise of steel traffic from Shotton steelworks to Ellesmere Port, and long distance carrying of tar from Ellesmere Port to the Midlands had ended in 1957–58.
The canal is popular with pleasure boaters, as much of it is pleasantly rural, with added interest provided by the city of Chester and Ellesmere Port with its waterways museum. The towpath through Chester provides an attractive route for walkers. The canal is well connected, with links to the Trent and Mersey Canal via the Middlewich Branch to the east, the Staffordshire and Worcestershire Canal via the former Birmingham and Liverpool Junction Canal to the south, and provides a route to the Llangollen Canal, from which the Montgomeryshire Canal, which is the subject of an ongoing restoration scheme, can be accessed. Boaters can also access the River Dee at Chester, although advance notice must be given, and the river is only accessible for four hours either side of high tide. At Ellesmere Port, the canal has connected to the Manchester Ship Canal since its opening in 1894. For many leisure cruisers, the requirements of the ship canal company for taking small boats onto a large commercial waterway are too daunting, and Ellesmere Port acts as the end of their journey.
The Chester Canal Heritage Trust was set up in 1997 to promote the canal and its heritage. Among other projects, they have received funding from the Local History Initiative and the Nationwide Building Society, which has allowed them to research the history of the canal and publish the results as a book. In 2012, responsibility for the canal passed from British Waterways to the newly formed Canal & River Trust.
Traffic
Although the Chester Canal was not a success as traffic was sparse, this changed once it was connected to the Ellesmere Canal. The Ellesmere company expected to carry limestone from the quarries at Llanymynech and Trevor, iron from the ironworks at Ruabon and Bersham, and coal from mines at Chirk, Ruabon and Wrexham to Chester, Liverpool and Shrewsbury. The canal to Bersham and Wrexham was not built, and that to Shrewsbury was built much later on, but trade in coal, limestone, lime and building materials developed within the network of canals, and traffic between the canals and Liverpool increased steadily, much of it passing along the former Chester Canal. Receipts for the Ellesmere Canal were £12,568 in 1807 and £15,707 just two years later.
In 1836, a review of trade on the canals showed that limestone from Llanymynech and coal from Chirk was used to produce lime at a number of locations along the canals. Coal from Chirk for industrial and household use was carried, although there was a competing trade in coal from Flintshire, which travelled along the River Dee and entered the canal system at Chester. There was trade in iron from Ruabon to Chester, but the tolls were very low, as the canal route was long, whereas the land journey was only . In 1838, the canals carried 60,406 tons of iron bound for Liverpool, most of it manufactured goods, of which 38,758 tons came from Staffordshire, 11,687 tons from North Wales and 9,961 tons from Shropshire. An additional 10,370 tons, most of which originated in North Wales, passed along the Middlewich Branch, bound for Manchester.
The canal company carried goods in their own boats, and produced a report on the four years from August 1846 to June 1850 in 1851. This showed an income of £180,746 from tolls, and identified six main types of traffic. These included iron goods from the Wolverhampton area to Liverpool; limestone from Trevor and Crickheath to Nantwich or Wappenshall on the Shrewsbury Canal, with a back trade in iron ore from near Burslem; general merchandise, which was carried between Chester and Liverpool; and general merchandise for Shropshire and North Wales. All of these were profitable. The carriage of general goods from Birmingham to Liverpool and the Chester coal trade both made a small loss.
Once the canals were owned by the London and North Western Railway, restrictions were imposed on what they could carry, and the canals failed to make sufficient money to cover the interest on mortgages. However, they made a substantial operating profit for some years. Around 1850, the average annual income was £104,638, which yielded a surplus of £45,885. Most of the income was from carrying, and by 1870, income had risen to £143,976, although this only yielded a surplus of £11,727. Total traffic was 855,462 tons in 1858, but this had dropped to 742,315 tons in 1868. The carrying business was expanded in the 1870s, but although turnover increased, operating profits fell dramatically, to just £1,568 in 1876. By 1905, total traffic was 469,950 tons, nearly all of it in boats owned by the company, and between the 1870s and the onset of the First World War the company sometimes made a small operating profit and sometimes a loss. Following the end of the war, working hours were cut, wages increased, and the cost of materials increased. Losses escalated, to £153,318 on an income of £227,845 in 1920, and carriage by the company ceased in 1921, in an attempt to reduce losses. 433,230 tons of goods carried in 1929 had dropped to 151,144 tons in 1940, by which time income from tolls was £17,763, and total income was £40,985.
Route
The River Dee branch heads eastwards from the river, and passes through two locks before turning to the north. Another two locks raise its level to that of the Ellesmere Canal, and the junction was the site of a historic boatyard. Originally, the branch continued eastwards after the first two locks, and another two brought it up to the level of the Chester Canal main line. From the junction, the Ellesmere main line headed south, to another right-angled band where it joined the Chester Canal. There are moorings at Tower Wharf, just before the bend. To the south of the canal is the old city, one of the few English cities which retains nearly all of its city walls, the cathedral much of which dates from 1092, and the King Charles' Tower, which overshadows the canal. After rising through the Northgate Staircase locks, which were cut out of solid rock, the canal enters a steep-sided rock cutting. After several bridges, the first of five locks which raise the level of the canal by another is reached. Between the fourth and fifth locks, the North Wales Coast railway line to crosses under the canal in a tunnel.
The canal passes along the south-western edge of Christleton, and through the centre of Waverton, where there is a large grade II listed mill building, which was once steam powered and includes bays in the right gable from which boats were loaded. The parish church is some distance from the main centre of population, on the edge of the flat Cheshire plain. The tall tower dates from the 16th century, and the roof of the nave is of hammer-beam construction, dating from 1635. There are several accommodation bridges on this section, all dating from the time of the construction of the canal, including Davies Bridge, Salmon's Bridge, and Faulkners Bridge, all built in orange brick and grade II listed structures. The railway line to Crewe follows the same general alignment as the canal, but a little further to the south, as both follow the valley of the River Gowy. The canal crosses from the south bank of the river to the north bank on an aqueduct and continues eastwards, passing the massive ruined remains of Beeston Castle, which was built in the 1220s by the Earl of Chester on top of a steep hill, and dominates the countryside.
The castle is opposite Wharton's Lock, which is followed by the village of Tiverton on the north bank. Immediately after a bridge carrying the A49 road over the canal is the first of the two Beeston locks. The first is called Beeston Iron Lock, and was built from cast iron plates in 1828 by Telford. Cast iron was used because of problems with running sand under the original stone locks. It is both a grade II* listed structure and a scheduled ancient monument, and is unique in England. Shortly afterwards is Beeston Stone Lock, also a listed structure, but dating from the construction of the canal and using conventional materials.
The next lock is Tilston Lock, situated about to the north of Bunbury. The railway crosses to the north side of the canal near Bunbury Staircase Locks, a staircase of two locks which share the intermediate gates. These are the last locks before the end of the Chester canal, and are the last locks which wide-beam boats can use when travelling south. As the canal approaches Barbridge Junction, the railway turns away, heading east, and the canal turns towards the south. The junction is the start of the Middlewich Branch, which descends through four locks to reach the Trent and Mersey Canal at Middlewich. After another , the Llangollen Canal turns off at Hurleston Junction immediately rising through four locks. Soon, Nantwich Basin is reached, which was the historic terminus of the Chester Canal. Telford's original plan was to terminate the Birmingham and Liverpool Junction Canal by running it across Dorfold Park and joining the basin end-on, but the owner objected, and an embankment had to be built around the edge of the park. This crossed the road on Nantwich Aqueduct, and joined the canal just to the north of the basin. Dorfold Hall, to the west of the basin, is a grade I listed mansion, built in 1616 for Ralph Wilbraham.
Boat sizes
As built, the locks on the Chester Canal were originally . Over the years the maximum size for vessels using the canal has altered. By 1985, it had been reduced to , and in 2009, sizes were quoted as .
Points of interest
See also
Canals of Great Britain
Chester Canal Heritage Trust
Bibliography
References
External links
Photographs of the Chester Canal
Chester
Canals in Cheshire
Canals opened in 1779
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billie%20Piper
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Billie Piper
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Billie Paul Piper (born Leian Paul Piper; 22 September 1982) is an English actress and former singer. She initially gained recognition as a singer after releasing her debut single "Because We Want To" at age 15, which made her the youngest female singer to enter the UK Singles Chart at number one; her follow-up single "Girlfriend" also entered at number one. In 1998, Piper released her debut studio album, Honey to the B, which was certified platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI). Her second studio album, Walk of Life, was released in 2000 and spawned her third number one single, "Day & Night". In 2003, Piper announced that she had ended her music career to focus on acting.
Piper appeared in the BBC One sci-fi series Doctor Who as Rose Tyler, companion to the Doctor, as a regular between 2005 and 2006, and additionally in 2008, 2010, and 2013. She starred as Belle de Jour in the drama series Secret Diary of a Call Girl (2007–2011), as Brona Croft/Lily in the Showtime horror series Penny Dreadful (2014–2016), and as Karen Mars in Netflix Original series Collateral (2018), for which she was nominated for a British Academy Television Award for Best Supporting Actress. Piper co-created and starred in the Sky Atlantic series I Hate Suzie (2020 and 2022), for which she earned a BAFTA nomination for Best Actress in 2021 and 2023.
Piper has starred in five plays since 2007 and won the 2017 Laurence Olivier Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role in a Play for her performance in Yerma, described as a "generation's best". She went on to win a total of six Best Actress awards for that performance, including the Olivier Award, making Piper the only actor to have won six out of an available six Best Actress awards for a single performance.
Early life
Piper was born in Swindon, Wiltshire on 22 September 1982. Her first name, Leian, was legally changed to Billie on 25 April 1983 by her parents, Mandy Kent and Paul Piper. She has one younger brother, Charley, and two younger sisters, Harley, and Elle. She started dance classes at age five. Two years later, she started off in soft-drink commercials for American TV before appearing as an extra in the 1996 film Evita, starring Madonna. She attended Bradon Forest School in Purton, near Swindon, but left at around the age of 12 after winning a scholarship to the Sylvia Young Theatre School in London.
Career
Music career
Piper's career began when she was selected to appear on the Saturday-morning children's television show Scratchy & Co. She later landed a role in a television commercial promoting the pop magazine Smash Hits. She was offered a record deal at the age of 15, and in 1998, became the youngest artist to debut at number one in the UK Singles Chart with "Because We Want To", released under the stage mononym "Billie". Her follow-up single "Girlfriend" also debuted at number one.
Piper's debut album Honey to the B was released immediately afterwards, and entered and peaked at number 14 on the UK Albums Chart, selling more than 300,000 copies in the United Kingdom alone along with a platinum certification, and a double-platinum certification in New Zealand, where it peaked at number three on the New Zealand Albums Chart. However, Honey to the B found limited success in other territories, such as Australia, where it entered and peaked at number 31 on the ARIA Albums Chart despite the success of "Honey to the Bee", and in the US it went almost completely unnoticed, peaking at number 17 on the Billboard Heatseekers Chart.
At the 1998 Smash Hits Poll Winners' party, Piper was nominated for Best New Act (for which she came second, it being won by B*Witched) and won Princess of Pop (she was the first to win this award). She then released "She Wants You" as the third single from the album. The song reached number three. "Honey to the Bee" was released as the fourth single from the album; like the previous single, it reached number three. At the same time, "She Wants You" was released in the US, reaching number 9 on the "Hot Club Dance Play" chart.
In 1999, Piper was nominated for two BRIT Awards and won two awards at the 1999 Smash Hits Poll Winners' party, although she was reduced to tears at the latter ceremony after being booed by fans of Ritchie Neville, whom she was dating at the time. She then started to tour and release in Asia. The singles and the album were released during mid-to-late 1999. In August of that year, the follow-up to "Because We Want To" was released in Japan, a single comprising "Girlfriend" and "She Wants You" combined. She recorded a song for Pokémon: The First Movie titled "Makin' My Way (Any Way That I Can)".
During that time, Piper recorded her second album. She decided to release further records under her full name of Billie Piper. She returned to the Singles Chart in May 2000 with her third number-one single "Day & Night". She waited until September to release "Something Deep Inside", which reached number four, but her success waned. In October 2000, Piper released her second album, Walk of Life, which reached No. 14 in the UK Album Chart, but quickly fell off the charts and was certified silver in the UK. The album charted in two other countries: New Zealand, where it reached No. 17, and Australia, where it peaked at No. 23. In Piper's autobiography, she states that the album was a "commercial bomb". The song "Walk of Life", the final single off the album, was released in December 2000 and reached No. 25 in the UK Singles Chart.
In February 2001, Piper appeared in court to testify against a woman named Juliet Peters. Peters was charged with, and eventually convicted of, stalking as well as making numerous threats against Piper and members of her family. Peters received psychiatric treatment as part of her sentence. According to her autobiography, Piper was reluctant about the court case, but was pushed by her parents and her label. She also stated in the book that this was why "The Tide Is High" was not released as a single, writing: "The court case succeeded in doing what I alone could not cutting the ties. Without it I might have been tempted back."
In January 2007, BBC Radio 1 DJ Chris Moyles started a campaign to get "Honey to the Bee" back into the top 100 on download sales as a way of testing out new chart rules that favour download sales. The campaign was successful, with "Honey to the Bee" re-entering the official UK singles chart at No. 17, eight years after it was first released.
Film and television performances
In 2004, Piper appeared in the films The Calcium Kid and Things to Do Before You're 30. Shortly before starting work on Doctor Who, she had a starring role in the horror film Spirit Trap, released in August 2005 to poor reviews. In November 2005, she starred as Hero in a BBC adaptation of Much Ado About Nothing, updated for the modern-day in a similar manner to the Canterbury Tales (2003) series in which she featured, with Hero now being a weather presenter in a television station.
In 2005, Doctor Who was resurrected after a sixteen-year absence from TV. Piper was cast as Rose Tyler, a travelling companion to the ninth incarnation of The Doctor (played by Christopher Eccleston). Piper won the Most Popular Actress category at the 2005 and 2006 National Television Awards for her work on Doctor Who. BBC News named her one of its "Faces of the Year" for 2005, primarily due to her success in Doctor Who. At The South Bank Show Awards in January 2006, she was awarded The Times Breakthrough Award for her successful transition from singing to acting. In March, the Television and Radio Industries Club named her as the best new TV talent at their annual awards ceremony. In September, she was named Best Actress at the TV Quick and TV Choice Awards.
After the completion of the very successful first series of the revamped Doctor Who, the British media regularly released conflicting reports about how long Piper would be staying with the show. In March 2006, she claimed that she would continue on Doctor Who into its third series in 2007. In May, however, she was reported to be considering quitting the series, although she did express an interest in playing a female version of the Doctor in the future (possibly related to a proposed Doctor Who spin-off series about Rose, which was later dropped). In June, the BBC announced that she was to depart in "Doomsday" (2006), the final episode of the second series. Her decision to leave had been made a year previously, but had not yet been made public. Although Piper was absent in the 2007 series, her character Rose was mentioned several times and seen in archive footage in The Runaway Bride.
Piper starred as Hannah Baxter in Secret Diary of a Call Girl (2007–2012), an ITV2 adaptation of Brooke Magnanti's The Intimate Adventures of a London Call Girl, a memoir detailing the life of a high-class prostitute who adopted "Belle de Jour" as her pseudonym, which aired from September 2007. As part of her preparation for the role, Piper met the memoir's author two years before her identity as a research scientist was revealed in a Sunday newspaper: "I absolutely had to meet the person behind the words to be able to take the part... people did ask me about her and I just had to smile, to avoid giving anything away."In November 2007, the BBC confirmed that she would reprise her role as Rose Tyler in the fourth series of Doctor Who for three episodes. Later, it was confirmed by Russell T Davies in Doctor Who Magazine that this return had been planned since she left. The series began in April 2008, and after several cameos, Piper made her official return as Rose in the series four final episodes "Turn Left", "The Stolen Earth", and "Journey's End". She did not initially state whether she would be reprising the role again. Interviewed on Doctor Who Confidential, she commented that "it's never really the end for the Doctor and Rose, but it's certainly the end for the foreseeable future".
Piper completed work on two stand-alone television productions. In the first, a BBC adaptation of Philip Pullman's historical novel The Ruby in the Smoke which was broadcast in December 2006, she played protagonist Sally Lockhart, a Victorian orphan. The BBC planned to film all four of Pullman's Sally Lockhart novels, with Piper continuing in the role in The Shadow in the North, which was shown in December 2007. Piper also appeared as Fanny Price in an adaptation of Jane Austen's novel Mansfield Park, screened on ITV1 in March 2007. This was her first acting role on television for a broadcaster other than the BBC. She then provided voice-overs for various television commercials, including one for Comfort fabric-softener airing in June 2007.
The second series of Secret Diary of a Call Girl, with Piper again in the starring role, started filming in May 2008, during which a body double was hired to hide Piper's pregnancy during the sex scenes. Piper was also quoted during this time as worrying that she may have "ruined her future career" due to the nature of the topless scenes and other sexual scenes required. The third series began airing in January 2010. For the third and fourth series Piper was credited as executive producer. In January 2010, tying in with the broadcast of the third series and following on from the real Belle de Jour confirming her real identity, ITV2 broadcast an interview special, Billie and the Real Belle Bare All, which saw Piper meeting with Dr Brooke Magnanti on camera for the first time.
She reprised her role as Rose Tyler in "The End of Time", the last of the 2008–2010 Doctor Who specials, as a younger version of Rose Tyler (specifically 3 months before her initial meeting with the Ninth Doctor in 2005 episode "Rose"). She also shared the role of Betty with Sue Johnston in the two-part TV adaptation of A Passionate Woman, screened on BBC 1 in April 2010. In May 2011, it was announced that Piper would join the cast of a romance-comedy film directed by Robin Sheppard titled Truth about Lies. In January 2013, Piper stated on The Graham Norton Show that she had not been asked to return for the 50th anniversary of Doctor Who, however, the BBC announced in the following March that she would be returning in the special, titled "The Day of the Doctor", which was broadcast in November 2013. Despite being credited as Rose Tyler, Piper's actual role in the episode is the consciousness of "The Moment", a sentient weapon which takes on the form of Rose's "Bad Wolf" personality.
On 11 May 2014, Showtime aired a new horror series called Penny Dreadful in which Piper plays Brona Croft, a poor Irish immigrant who is trying to escape a dark past. In the show's second series, Brona is resurrected by Victor Frankenstein as "Lily". She was nominated for Best TV Supporting Actress at the 2015 Fangoria Chainsaw Awards. The show was renewed for a third and final series, which she began filming on 17 September 2015.
Piper returned to the role of Rose Tyler alongside David Tennant in three stories that form the second volume of The Tenth Doctor Adventures audio drama series from Big Finish Productions. One story also featured Camille Coduri reprising her role as Rose's mother Jackie Tyler. The set was released in November 2017. It was later announced that Piper would be headlining her own audio drama titled Rose Tyler: The Dimension Cannon. The box set featured four stories with Rose Tyler alongside her parents Jackie (Coduri) and Pete Tyler (Shaun Dingwall) as well as featuring Clive from the episode "Rose", played by his original actor Mark Benton. The first volume was released in September 2019 with two more expected in October 2022 and September 2023.
In 2019, Piper wrote, starred in and made her directorial debut with the "anti-romcom" Rare Beasts, before appearing alongside Sally Hawkins, Alice Lowe, and David Thewlis in Eternal Beauty, directed by Craig Roberts. The following year, in August 2020, Piper co-created and starred in the critically acclaimed Sky Atlantic series I Hate Suzie. The series was also co-created and written by Secret Diary of a Call Girl creator Lucy Prebble. Piper portrays the titular Suzie Pickles, a former child screen star whose life and career are turned upside down by a compromising phone hack. Critics noted her own experience of having been a prodigious young singer-turned-actress who becomes famous at a young age would have informed her role as Pickles. The Guardian gave it a five-star review, describing Piper's character as "nude, lewd and joyously off the rails" in "this scabrously funny drama".
In March 2021, it was announced that Piper would appear in the film adaptation of a children's book called Catherine Called Birdy. In February 2023, it was announced she would play Sam McAlister, the TV producer who secured Newsnight's interview with Prince Andrew, in Scoop, a Netflix adaptation of McAlister's book.
Stage work
Piper made her stage debut in a touring production of Christopher Hampton's play Treats, which opened in early 2007 in Windsor, Berkshire. Treats was to have ended its tour in the West End, at the Garrick Theatre, starting in February 2007 with previews. The play officially closed in May.
Piper played Carly in the UK premiere of Neil LaBute's play Reasons to Be Pretty at the Almeida Theatre, running from November 2011 to January 2012. It received critical acclaim from The Guardian, The Observer, London Evening Standard, Metro, The Times, The Telegraph, Time Out, The Arts Desk, Daily Express and The Financial Times, all of which rated the production with a minimum of four stars. BBC Radio 4 described Piper as "fantastic, completely brilliant. Her performance is so convincing and moving, an absolutely terrific performance". The Jewish Chronicle hailed Piper's performance as second to none, being the best of the night, and stating that "no actor can cry more convincingly than Piper", giving the show four stars.
Piper made her National Theatre debut in The Effect by Lucy Prebble, which ran from November 2012 to February 2013. The play went on to become the most critically acclaimed show of the season and Piper was nominated for the WhatsOnStage Best Actress award for her work in The Effect. The play was also nominated for Best New Play and Best Set Designer. Due to success and demand, the show was extended for a further month and an online petition was started for the show to be added to the National Theatre's Live Programming. In 2013, Piper was nominated for Best Actress at the Olivier Awards and Evening Standard Theatre Awards for The Effect. Piper also starred in Great Britain at the Royal National Theatre in 2014. On 29 May 2014, Piper appeared alongside Ben Whishaw in the Playhouse Presents television special Foxtrot.
In 2016, Piper starred in an adaptation of Federico García Lorca's 1934 play Yerma at the Young Vic, written and directed by Simon Stone. Upon opening, the play received critical acclaim, mainly for Piper's performance. She was described as "earth-quaking" by The Guardian and "a generation's greatest performance" by The Stage. The Independent described her as "shattering" with the reviewer admitting he found himself "still visibly shaking from its effects on the Tube home afterwards." The Jewish Chronicle proclaimed, "This is the performance to which [Piper's] previous excellent appearances on stage have been leading. She's one of those rare actresses who can be monumentally tragic and almost casually realistic at the same time." Conversely, The Arts Desk warned its readers that her performance was "an utterly grueling, almost unbearable 100 minutes." Piper won all six of the available Best Actress awards for that one performance, making it one of the most acclaimed and awarded stage performances in British theatre history, and making her the only actor to have picked up all six Best Actress awards for a single performance, including the coveted Olivier Award.
On 31 August 2017, Yerma streamed live into more than 700 cinemas across the UK. Whilst ticket sales are yet to be confirmed, more than 100 cinemas confirmed they had sold out to capacity with many requesting encore copies. In an unprecedented event, after the live screening had finished, '#Yerma' trended on Twitter at number three, with some writers claiming Twitter had 'gone into complete meltdown' over Piper's performance. The play was streamed across the world from 21 September.
Piper reprised the performance in a limited run at New York's Park Avenue Armory during March and April 2018, her New York stage debut. She once again received unanimous critical praise. The New York Times said Piper's performance was "an unconditional victory" and "blisteringly powerful" awarding it five stars, whilst Hollywood Reporter found her "simply staggering" adding; "When the actress appears at the curtain call, looking emotionally and physical exhausted, you find yourself relieved that she's OK and concerned that she'll have to do it all over again the next night." Time Out likened Piper to an "angry beast" warning that her "astonishing" performance inflicted psychological-like emotions on the audience. NBC's Katie Englehart said, "Piper is so devastating I almost vomited in my seat – that doesn't sound like an endorsement but it is." Vogue hailed Piper as "one of the great talents of her generation" and described her performance as "astonishing, raw, feral and terrifying." The AM New York critic claimed to be left "gasping for air" whilst the New York Stage Review found Piper's "downward spiral into abyss utterly harrowing and blazingly remarkable."
Personal life
Piper married television presenter Chris Evans in a secret ceremony at the Little Church of the West in Paradise, Nevada near Las Vegas on 6 May 2001 after six months of dating. Their marriage attracted much comment because Piper was 18 and Evans was 35. The couple separated in 2004, and divorced in May 2007.
Piper married actor Laurence Fox on 31 December 2007, at St Mary's Church in Easebourne, West Sussex. They have two sons. By 24 March 2016, the pair had separated after eight years of marriage. No third party was involved in the separation. On 12 May 2016, Piper and Fox divorced.
Piper began dating Johnny Lloyd, the frontman of Tribes, in 2016. Their daughter was born on 2 January 2019.
Filmography
Film
Television
Audio
Theatre
Discography
Honey to the B (1998)
Walk of Life (2000)
Accolades
Piper has won and been nominated for more than 70 recognised awards. During her musical career, she was nominated for two BRIT Awards in 1999. In 2005 and 2006, she won two National Television Awards for Best Actress for her acting work in Doctor Who. She has also been nominated for two British Academy Television Awards for Best Supporting Actress and Best Actress for her performances in the television dramas Collateral (2018) and I Hate Suzie (2020–present), respectively.
For her role in the 2016 production of Federico García Lorca's Yerma, Piper has won a total of six Best Actress awards, including the Laurence Olivier Award, and is now the only actor to have earned all of the currently available UK theatre Best Actress awards for a single performance.
See also
List of British actors
References
Further reading
Piper, Billie (2007). Growing Pains. London: Hodder & Stoughton.
External links
1982 births
Living people
Actresses from Wiltshire
Alumni of the Sylvia Young Theatre School
English child singers
English dance musicians
English women pop singers
English film actresses
English stage actresses
English television actresses
English voice actresses
People from Hounslow
People from Swindon
Robin Fox family
Musicians from Wiltshire
Laurence Olivier Award winners
Child pop musicians
20th-century English actresses
20th-century English singers
21st-century English actresses
21st-century English singers
Innocent Records artists
Virgin Records artists
Actors from Swindon
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliott%20Abrams
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Elliott Abrams
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Elliott Abrams (born January 24, 1948) is an American politician and lawyer, who has served in foreign policy positions for presidents Ronald Reagan, George W. Bush, and Donald Trump. Abrams is considered to be a neoconservative. He is currently a senior fellow for Middle Eastern studies at the Council on Foreign Relations. He served as the U.S. Special Representative for Venezuela from 2019 to 2021 and as the U.S. Special Representative for Iran from 2020 to 2021.
His involvement in the Iran-Contra scandal during the Reagan administration led to his conviction in 1991 on two misdemeanor counts of unlawfully withholding information from Congress. He was later pardoned by president George H. W. Bush.
During George W. Bush's first term, he served as Special Assistant to the President and Senior Director on the National Security Council for Near East and North African Affairs. At the start of Bush's second term, Abrams was promoted to be his Deputy National Security Advisor for Global Democracy Strategy, in charge of promoting Bush's strategy of "advancing democracy abroad." In the Bush administration, Abrams was a supporter of the Iraq War.
On January 25, 2019, he was appointed as Special Representative for Venezuela. On September 1, 2020, he was further appointed to concurrently serve as the U.S. Special Representative for Iran.
Background
Elliott Abrams was born into a Jewish family in New York in 1948. His father was an immigration lawyer. Abrams attended the Little Red School House in New York City, a private high school whose students at the time included the children of many of the city's notable left-wing activists and artists. Abrams' parents were Democrats. His first cousin is attorney Floyd Abrams.
Abrams received his Bachelor of Arts from Harvard College in 1969, a master's degree in international relations from the London School of Economics in 1970, and his J.D. from Harvard Law School in 1973. He practiced law in New York in the summers for his father, and then at Breed, Abbott & Morgan from 1973 to 1975 and with Verner, Liipfert, Bernhard, McPherson and Hand from 1979 to 1981.
Abrams worked as an assistant counsel on the Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations in 1975, then worked as a staffer on Senator Henry "Scoop" Jackson's brief campaign for the 1976 Democratic Party presidential nomination. From 1977 through 1979, he served as special counsel and ultimately as chief of staff for the then-new senator Daniel Moynihan.
Dissatisfaction with President Carter's foreign policy led Abrams to campaign for Ronald Reagan in the 1980 presidential election.
Career
Assistant Secretary of State, 1980s
Abrams first came to national prominence when he served as Reagan's Assistant Secretary of State for Human Rights and Humanitarian Affairs in the early 1980s and later as Assistant Secretary for Inter-American Affairs. His nomination to Assistant Secretary of State for Human Rights and Humanitarian Affairs was unanimously approved by the Senate Foreign Relations Committee on November 17, 1981. Abrams was Reagan's second choice for the position; his first nominee, Ernest W. Lefever, had been rejected by the Senate Foreign Relations Committee on June 5, 1981.
During his time in the post, Abrams clashed regularly with church groups and human rights organizations, including Human Rights Watch. According to an article in The Washington Post, in a 1984 appearance on the program Nightline, Abrams clashed with Aryeh Neier, the executive director of Human Rights Watch and with the leader of Amnesty International, over the Reagan administration's foreign policies. They accused him of covering up atrocities committed by the military forces of U.S.-backed governments, including those in El Salvador, Honduras, and Guatemala, and the rebel Contras in Nicaragua. Abrams accused critics of the Reagan administration's foreign policy towards Latin America of being "Un-American" and "unpatriotic."
In an October 1981 memo, weeks prior to his confirmation in the Senate, Abrams asserted, "human rights is at the core of our foreign policy." Critics say that Abrams and the Reagan administration misappropriated the term human rights, with Tamar Jacoby writing in 1986, "in a period that more or less coincided with Abrams' tenure as assistant secretary of state for human rights, the White House endeavored to appropriate the banner of human rights for itself to use it in battle not only against communist regimes but also, in a more defensive way, against domestic opponents of its human rights policy." The Lawyers Committee, Americas Watch and Helsinki Watch wrote a report in 1985, charging that Abrams had "developed and articulated a human rights ideology which complements and justifies Administration policies" and undermined the purpose of the human rights bureau in the State Department.
According to American University political scientist William M. LeoGrande, Communist governments were the worst human rights violators in the world, Abrams believed, so virtually anything done to prevent Communists from coming to power (or to overthrow them) was justifiable on human rights grounds. This theory fit neatly into the Cold War presumptions that framed Reagan's foreign policy and allowed the administration to rationalize supporting murderous regimes so long as they were anti-Communists. In practice, it was little different from Henry Kissinger's realpolitik that discounted human rights issues entirely. Abrams was generally considered a skilled and influential bureaucrat in the human rights bureau.
Guatemala
As Assistant Secretary of State, Abrams advocated for aid to Guatemala under then dictator Efraín Ríos Montt, erroneously stating in 1983 that his reign had "brought considerable progress" on human rights. Ríos Montt came to power via a coup in 1982, overcoming the forces of General Fernando Romeo Lucas García. Thirty years later, Ríos Montt was found guilty of overseeing a campaign of mass murder and torture of indigenous people, genocide, in Guatemala. Ríos Montt, who claimed he had no operational control of the forces involved, was convicted of genocide against the Maya-Ixil population.
El Salvador
Abrams frequently defended the human rights record of the El Salvador government and attacked human rights groups as communist sympathizers when they criticized the El Salvador government. In early 1982, when reports of the El Mozote massacre of hundreds of civilians by the military in El Salvador began appearing in U.S. media, Abrams told a Senate committee that the reported number of deaths at El Mozote "was not credible," reasoning that the reported number of deaths was greater than the likely population, and that there were survivors. He said that "it appears to be an incident that is at least being significantly misused, at the very best, by the guerrillas." The massacre had come at a time when the Reagan administration was attempting to bolster the human rights image of the Salvadoran military. Abrams implied that reports of a massacre were simply FMLN propaganda and denounced U.S. investigative reports of the massacre as misleading. In March 1993, the Salvadoran Truth Commission reported that over 500 civilians were "deliberately and systematically" executed in El Mozote in December 1981 by forces affiliated with the Salvadoran government. A 1992 Human Rights Watch report criticized Abrams for downplaying the massacre.
Also in 1993, documentation emerged suggesting that some Reagan administration officials could have known about El Mozote and other human rights violations from the beginning. However, in July 1993, an investigation commissioned by Clinton Secretary of State Warren Christopher into the State Department's "activities and conduct" with regard to human rights in El Salvador during the Reagan years found that, despite U.S. funding of the Salvadoran government that committed the massacre at El Mozote, individual U.S. personnel "performed creditably and occasionally with personal bravery in advancing human rights in El Salvador." Abrams said in 2001 that Washington's policy in El Salvador was a "fabulous achievement." In 2019 he said that the "fabulous achievement" was that El Salvador "has been a democracy". In a 1998 interview, Abrams remarked, "While it was important to us to promote the cause of human rights in Central America it was more important to prevent a communist takeover in El Salvador."
Nicaragua
When Congress shut down funding for the Contras' efforts to overthrow Nicaragua's Sandinista government with the 1982 Boland Amendment, members of the Reagan administration began looking for other avenues for funding the group. Congress opened a couple of such avenues when it modified the Boland Amendment for fiscal year 1986 by approving $27 million in direct aid to the Contras and allowing the administration to legally solicit funds for the Contras from foreign governments. Neither the direct aid, nor any foreign contributions, could be used to purchase weapons.
Guided by the new provisions of the modified Boland Amendment, Abrams flew to London in August 1986 and met secretly with Bruneian defense minister General Ibnu to solicit a $10-million contribution from the Sultan of Brunei. Ultimately, the Contras never received this money because a clerical error in Oliver North's office (a mistyped account number) sent the Bruneian money to the wrong Swiss bank account.
Iran-Contra affair and convictions
In October 1986, a plane flown by Eugene Hasenfus, carrying military equipment intended for the Contras, a right-wing rebel group fighting against the socialist Sandinista government of Nicaragua, was shot down over Nicaragua. The Reagan administration publicly denied that Hasenfus sought to arm the Contras as part of a US government mission. However, the State Department was centrally involved in the covert plan to fund the Contras, which violated congressional legislation. In congressional testimony in October 1986, Abrams repeatedly and categorically denied that the US government was involved in arming the Contras. However, at the time, Abrams knew that "[Oliver] North was encouraging, coordinating and directing the activities of the contra-resupply operation and that North was in contact with the private citizens who were behind the lethal resupply fights."
During investigation of the Iran-Contra Affair, Lawrence Walsh, the Independent Counsel tasked with investigating the case, prepared multiple felony counts against Abrams. In 1991, Abrams admitted that he knew more than he acknowledged in his congressional testimony, cooperated with Walsh and entered into a plea agreement in which he pleaded guilty to two misdemeanor counts of withholding information from Congress. For failing to cooperate, he would have faced felony charges of perjury over his congressional testimony. He was sentenced to a $50 fine, probation for two years, and 100 hours of community service. Abrams was pardoned by President George H. W. Bush in December 1992.
In 1997, Abrams was publicly sanctioned by the District of Columbia Bar for giving false testimony to Congress about the Iran-Contra affair. Although several of the court's judges recommended disbarment, the court ultimately declined to disbar Abrams over questions related to the effect of Abrams' Presidential pardon for his prior criminal conduct.
Bush administration
President George W. Bush appointed Abrams to the post of Special Assistant to the President and Senior Director for Democracy, Human Rights, and International Operations at the National Security Council on June 25, 2001. Abrams was appointed special assistant to the President and the NSC's senior director for Near East and North African Affairs on December 2, 2002.
Human rights groups and commentators expressed disquiet over his White House appointment owing to his disreputable conduct and conviction in the Iran–Contra affair investigation and his role in overseeing the Reagan administration's foreign policy in Latin America.
The Observer wrote that Abrams had advance knowledge of, and "gave a nod to," the Venezuelan coup attempt of 2002 against Hugo Chávez.
The Intercept has reported that Abrams had a key role in disrupting a peace plan proposed by Iran, right after the U.S. invasion to Iraq in 2003. Abrams' office received this plan by fax. They should have passed the plan to Condoleezza Rice. But she never saw it. Later, Abrams's spokesperson was asked about the plan and he said “he had no memory of any such fax.”
On February 2, 2005, Bush appointed Abrams deputy national security adviser for Global Democracy Strategy, where he served until the end of his administration on January 20, 2009. Abrams accompanied Condoleezza Rice as a primary adviser on her visits to the Middle East in late July 2006 in the course of discussions relating to the 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict.
Post-Bush administration
On May 16, 2016, Abrams wrote a historical piece in The Weekly Standard predicting that Donald Trump would "fail colossally" in the 2016 election to which he drew parallels with the 1972 election.
On December 23, 2016, Abrams, a strong supporter of Israel, criticized Barack Obama for "undermining Israel's elected government, prevent its action against Iran's nuclear weapons program, and create as much daylight as possible between the United States and Israel." Abrams condemned Obama's decision not to block a UN resolution criticizing Israeli settlement building in the occupied Palestinian territories.
In February 2017, it was reported that Abrams was Secretary of State Rex Tillerson's first pick for Deputy Secretary of State, but that Tillerson was overruled by Trump. Trump aides were supportive of Abrams, but Trump opposed him because of Abrams' opposition during the campaign.
Abrams is a senior fellow for Middle Eastern studies at the Council on Foreign Relations. Additionally, he holds positions on the Committee for Peace and Security in the Gulf (CPSG), Center for Security Policy & National Secretary Advisory Council, Committee for a Free Lebanon, and the Project for the New American Century. He is a member of the U.S. Holocaust Memorial Council and maintained a CFR blog called "Pressure Points" about U.S. foreign policy and human rights.
He was on the faculty of Georgetown University.
Trump administration
On January 25, 2019, Secretary of State Mike Pompeo appointed Abrams as the United States' Special Representative for Venezuela. This came two days after American recognition of Venezuelan opposition leader Juan Guaidó as president, thus advocating for regime change in Venezuela.
Abrams's career and record on foreign policy was questioned by some opposition members in Congress. For example, in February 2019, Representative Ilhan Omar of Minnesota questioned whether Abrams was the correct choice for such a role because of his conviction of lying to Congress about his role in the Iran-Contra affair, and his historical support for previous instances of right-wing regime change in Central and South America in the 1970s and 1980s. Omar particularly criticized Abrams's description of the Reagan administration's "record in El Salvador [as] one of fabulous achievement," in light of the El Mozote massacre, a mass killing of over 800 Salvadorian civilians carried out by US-backed and trained "death squads."
Upon the resignation of Brian Hook, Abrams was selected to succeed him as United States Special Representative for Iran. Both positions were merged into the United States Special Representative for Iran and Venezuela as of September 1, 2020.
Biden administration
On July 3, 2023, Abrams was nominated to the U.S. Advisory Commission on Public Diplomacy by President Biden. He still needs to be confirmed by the Senate before serving on the commission.
Political views
Abrams is neoconservative and was one of the Bush administration's intellectual architects of the Iraq War. Abrams is also pro-Israel.
Abrams originally opposed Trump's candidacy for president, writing an op-ed in The Weekly Standard titled "When You Can't Stand Your Candidate." Abrams supported Ted Cruz and Marco Rubio during the Republican primaries for the 2016 presidential election. After his time working in the Trump administration, he confirmed that he has continued to believe the Donald Trump was unfit to be president. He agreed with Senator Mitch McConnell's assessment that Trump provoked the January 6 United States Capitol attack.
Abrams gave his impressions of working personally with three different U.S. Presidents, and the differences between their presidential styles, in an interview in 2023.
Personal life
Through Senator Moynihan, Abrams was introduced to Rachel Decter, the stepdaughter of Moynihan's friend Norman Podhoretz, editor of Commentary. They were married from 1980 until her death in June 2013. He has two sons, Jacob and Joseph, and one daughter, Sarah.
Books
Government
Religion
See also
List of people pardoned or granted clemency by the president of the United States
References
Further reading
Kamiya, Gary. "Bush's frightening Middle East appointment." Salon. December 10, 2002.
External links
The Weekly Standard archive
Audio interview with Abrams on Israel and Palestine
Membership at the Council on Foreign Relations
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1948 births
Living people
20th-century American diplomats
20th-century American lawyers
20th-century American non-fiction writers
20th-century American male writers
21st-century American lawyers
21st-century American non-fiction writers
21st-century American male writers
Alumni of the London School of Economics
American political writers
The American Spectator people
American Zionists
George W. Bush administration personnel
Harvard Law School alumni
Human rights in Latin America
Iran–Contra affair
Jewish American attorneys
Jewish American writers
New York (state) politicians convicted of crimes
New York (state) Republicans
Lawyers from New York City
Reagan administration personnel
Recipients of American presidential pardons
United States Assistant Secretaries of State
United States National Security Council staffers
United States presidential advisors
Lawyers from Washington, D.C.
The Weekly Standard people
Writers from New York City
Writers from Washington, D.C.
American male non-fiction writers
Harvard College alumni
Little Red School House alumni
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jo%20Stafford
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Jo Stafford
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Jo Elizabeth Stafford (November 12, 1917July 16, 2008) was an American traditional pop music singer, whose career spanned five decades from the late 1930s to the early 1980s. Admired for the purity of her voice, she originally underwent classical training to become an opera singer before following a career in popular music, and by 1955 had achieved more worldwide record sales than any other female artist. Her 1952 song "You Belong to Me" topped the charts in the United States and United Kingdom, becoming the second single to top the UK Singles Chart, and the first by a female artist to do so.
Born in remote oil-rich Coalinga, California, near Fresno in the San Joaquin Valley, Stafford made her first musical appearance at age 12. While still at high school, she joined her two older sisters to form a vocal trio named the Stafford Sisters, who found moderate success on radio and in film. In 1938, while the sisters were part of the cast of Twentieth Century Fox's production of Alexander's Ragtime Band, Stafford met the future members of the Pied Pipers and became the group's lead singer. Bandleader Tommy Dorsey hired them in 1939 to perform vocals with his orchestra. From 1940 to 1942, the group often performed with Dorsey's new male singer, Frank Sinatra.
In addition to her singing with the Pied Pipers, Stafford was featured in solo performances with Dorsey. After leaving the group in 1944, she recorded a series of pop songs now regarded as standards for Capitol Records and Columbia Records. Many of her recordings were backed by the orchestra of Paul Weston. She also performed duets with Gordon MacRae and Frankie Laine. Her work with the United Service Organizations giving concerts for soldiers during World War II earned her the nickname "G.I. Jo". Starting in 1945, Stafford was a regular host of the National Broadcasting Company (NBC) radio series The Chesterfield Supper Club and later appeared in television specialsincluding two series called The Jo Stafford Show, in 1954 in the U.S. and in 1961 in the UK.
Stafford married twice, first in 1937 to musician John Huddleston (the couple divorced in 1943), then in 1952 to Paul Weston, with whom she had two children. She and Weston developed a comedy routine in which they assumed the identity of an incompetent lounge act named Jonathan and Darlene Edwards, parodying well-known songs. The act proved popular at parties and among the wider public when the couple released an album as the Edwardses in 1957. In 1961, the album Jonathan and Darlene Edwards in Paris won Stafford her only Grammy Award for Best Comedy Album, and was the first commercially successful parody album. Stafford largely retired as a performer in the mid-1960s, but continued in the music business. She had a brief resurgence in popularity in the late 1970s when she recorded a cover of the Bee Gees hit, "Stayin' Alive" as Darlene Edwards. In the 1990s, she began re-releasing some of her material through Corinthian Records, a label founded by Weston. She died in 2008 in Century City, Los Angeles, and is interred with Weston at Holy Cross Cemetery, Culver City. Her work in radio, television, and music is recognized by three stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.
Early years
Jo Elizabeth Stafford was born in Coalinga, California, in 1917, to Grover Cleveland Stafford and Anna Stafford (née York)a second cousin of World War I hero Sergeant Alvin York. She was the third of four children. She had two older sisters, Christine and Pauline, and one younger sister, Betty. Both her parents enjoyed singing and sharing music with their family. Stafford's father hoped for success in the California oil fields when he moved his family from Gainesboro, Tennessee, but worked in a succession of unrelated jobs. Her mother was an accomplished banjo player, playing and singing many of the folk songs that influenced Stafford's later career. Anna insisted that her children should take piano lessons, but Jo was the only one among her sisters who took a keen interest in it, and through this, she learned to read music.
Stafford's first public singing appearance was in Long Beach, where the family lived when she was 12. She sang "Believe Me, If All Those Endearing Young Charms", a Stafford family favorite. Her second was far more dramatic. As a student at Long Beach Polytechnic High School with the lead in the school musical, she was rehearsing on stage when the 1933 Long Beach earthquake destroyed part of the school. With her mother's encouragement, Stafford originally planned to become an opera singer and studied voice as a child, taking private lessons from Foster Rucker, an announcer on California radio station KNX. Because of the Great Depression, she abandoned that idea and joined her older sisters Christine and Pauline in a popular vocal group the Stafford Sisters. The two older Staffords were already part of a trio with an unrelated third member when the act got a big booking at Long Beach's West Coast Theater. Pauline was too ill to perform, and Jo was drafted in to take her place so they could keep the engagement. She asked her glee club teacher for a week's absence from school, saying her mother needed her at home, and this was granted. The performance was a success, and Jo became a permanent member of the group.
The Staffords' first radio appearance was on Los Angeles station KHJ as part of The Happy Go Lucky Hour when Jo was 16, a role they secured after hopefuls at the audition were asked if they had their own musical accompanist(s). Christine Stafford said that Jo played piano, and the sisters were hired, though she had not previously given a public piano performance. The Staffords were subsequently heard on KNX's The Singing Crockett Family of Kentucky, and California Melodies, a network radio show aired on the Mutual Broadcasting System. While Stafford worked on The Jack Oakie Show, she met John Huddlestona backing singer on the program, and they were married in October 1937. The couple divorced in 1943.
The sisters found work in the film industry as backup vocalists, and immediately after graduating from high school, Jo worked on film soundtracks. The Stafford Sisters made their first recording,"Let's Get Together and Swing" with Louis Prima, in 1936. In 1937, Jo worked behind the scenes with Fred Astaire on the soundtrack of A Damsel in Distress, creating the arrangements for the film, and with her sisters she arranged the backing vocals for "Nice Work If You Can Get It". Stafford said that her arrangement had to be adapted because Astaire had difficulty with some of the syncopation. In her words: "The man with the syncopated shoes couldn't do the syncopated notes".
The Pied Pipers
By 1938, the Staffords were involved with Twentieth Century Fox's production of Alexander's Ragtime Band. The studio brought in many vocal groups to work on the film, including the Four Esquires, the Rhythm Kings, and the King Sisters, who began to sing and socialized between takes. The Stafford Sisters, the Four Esquires and the Rhythm Kings became a new vocal group called the Pied Pipers. Stafford later said, "We started singing together just for fun, and these sessions led to the formation of an eight-voice singing group that we christened 'The Pied Pipers. The group consisted of eight members, including StaffordJohn Huddleston, Hal Hooper, Chuck Lowry, Bud Hervey, George Tait, Woody Newbury, and Dick Whittinghill.
As the Pied Pipers, they worked on local radio and movie soundtracks. When Alyce and Yvonne King threw a party for their boyfriends' visit to Los Angeles, the group was invited to perform. The King Sisters' boyfriends were Tommy Dorsey's arrangers Axel Stordahl and Paul Weston, who became interested in the group. Weston said the group's vocals were unique for its time and that their vocal arrangements were much like those for orchestral instruments.
Weston persuaded Dorsey to audition the group in 1938, and the eight drove together to New York City. Dorsey liked them and signed them for 10 weeks. After their second broadcast, the sponsor visiting from overseas heard the group sing "Hold Tight (Want Some Seafood Mama)". Until this point, the sponsor knew only that he was paying for Dorsey's program and that its ratings were very good; transcription discs mailed to him by his advertising agency always arrived broken. He thought that the performance was terrible, and pressured the advertising agency representing his brand to fire the group. They stayed in New York for several months, landing one job that paid them $3.60 each, and they recorded some material for RCA Victor Records. Weston later said that Stordahl and he felt responsibility for the group, since Weston had arranged their audition with Dorsey. After six months in New York and with no work there for them, the Pied Pipers returned to Los Angeles, where four of their members left the group to seek regular employment. Shortly afterwards, Stafford received a telephone call from Dorsey, who told her he wished to hire the group, but wanted only four of them, including Stafford. After she agreed to the offer, the remaining Pied PipersStafford, Huddleston, Lowry, and Wilsontraveled to Chicago in 1939. The decision led to success for the group, especially Stafford, who featured in both collective and solo performances with Dorsey's orchestra.
When Frank Sinatra joined the Dorsey band, the Pied Pipers provided backing vocals for his recordings. Their version of "I'll Never Smile Again" topped the Billboard Chart for 12 weeks in 1940 and helped to establish Sinatra as a singer. Stafford, Sinatra, and the Pied Pipers toured extensively with Dorsey during their three years as part of his orchestra, giving concerts at venues across the United States. Stafford made her first solo recording"Little Man with a Candy Cigar"in 1941, after Dorsey agreed to her request to record solo. Her public debut as a soloist with the band occurred at New York's Hotel Astor in May 1942. Bill Davidson of Collier's reported in 1951 that because Stafford weighed in excess of 180 lb, Dorsey was reluctant to give her a leading vocal role in his orchestra, believing she was not sufficiently glamorous for the part. However, Peter Levinson's 2005 biography of Dorsey offers a different account. Stafford recalls that she was overweight, but Dorsey did not try hiding her because of it.
In November 1942, the Pied Pipers had a disagreement with Dorsey when he fired Clark Yocum, a guitarist and vocalist who had replaced Billy Wilson in the lineup, when he mistakenly gave the bandleader misdirections at a railroad station in Portland, Oregon. The remaining three members then quit in an act of solidarity. At the time, the number-one song in the United States was "There Are Such Things" by Frank Sinatra and the Pied Pipers. Sinatra also left Dorsey that year. Following their departure from the orchestra, the Pied Pipers played a series of vaudeville dates in the Eastern United States; when they returned to California, they were signed to appear in the 1943 Universal Pictures movie Gals Incorporated. From there, they joined the NBC Radio show Bob Crosby and Company. In addition to working with Bob Crosby, they also appeared on radio shows hosted by Sinatra and Johnny Mercer, and were one of the first groups signed to Mercer's new label, Capitol Records, which was founded in 1942. Weston, who left Dorsey's band in 1940 to work with Dinah Shore, became music director at Capitol.
Solo career
Capitol Records and United Service Organization
While Stafford was still working for Dorsey, Johnny Mercer told her, "Some day I'm going to have my own record company, and you're going to record for me." She subsequently became the first solo artist signed to Capitol after leaving the Pied Pipers in 1944. A key figure in helping Stafford to develop her solo career was Mike Nidorf, an agent who first heard her as a member of the Pied Pipers while he was serving as a captain in the United States Army. Having previously discovered artists such as Glenn Miller, Artie Shaw, and Woody Herman, Nidorf was impressed by Stafford's voice, and contacted her when he was demobilized in 1944. After she agreed to let him represent her, he encouraged her to reduce her weight and arranged a string of engagements that raised her profile and confidence.
The success of Stafford's solo career led to a demand for personal appearances, and from February 1945, she embarked on a six-month residency at New York's La Martinique nightclub. Her performance was well-received; an article in the July 1945 edition of Band Leaders magazine described it as "sensational", but Stafford did not enjoy singing before live audiences, and it was the only nightclub venue she ever played. Speaking about her discomfort with live performances, Stafford told a 1996 interview with The New Yorkers Nancy Franklin, "I'm basically a singer, period, and I think I'm really lousy up in front of an audienceit's just not me."
Stafford's tenure with the United Service Organizations during World War II, which often had her perform for soldiers stationed in the U.S., led to her acquiring the nickname "G.I. Jo". On returning from the Pacific theater, a veteran told Stafford that the Japanese would play her records on loudspeakers in an attempt to make the U.S. troops homesick enough to surrender. She replied personally to all the letters she received from servicemen. Stafford was a favorite of many servicemen during both World War II and the Korean War; her recordings received extensive airplay on the American Forces radio and in some military hospitals at lights-out. Stafford's involvement with servicemen led to an interest in military history and a sound knowledge of it. Years after World War II, Stafford was a guest at a dinner party with a retired naval officer. When the discussion turned to a wartime action off Mindanao, the officer tried to correct Stafford, who held to her point. He countered her by saying, "Madame, I was there". A few days after the party, Stafford received a note of apology from him, saying he had reread his logs and that she was correct.
Chesterfield Supper Club, duets, and Voice of America
Beginning on December 11, 1945, Stafford hosted the Tuesday and Thursday broadcasts of NBC musical variety radio program The Chesterfield Supper Club. On April 5, 1946, the entire cast, including Stafford and Perry Como, participated in the first commercial radio broadcast from an airplane. The initial plan was to use the stand-held microphones used in studios, but when these proved to be problematic, the cast switched to hand-held microphones, which because of the plane's cabin pressure became difficult to hold. Three flights were made that day; a rehearsal in the afternoon, then two in the eveningone for the initial 6:00 pm broadcast and another at 10:00 pm for the West Coast broadcast.
Stafford moved from New York to California in November 1946, continuing to host Chesterfield Supper Club from Hollywood. In 1948, she restricted her appearances on the show to Tuesdays, and Peggy Lee hosted the Thursday broadcasts. Stafford left the show when it was expanded to 30 minutes, making her final appearance on September 2, 1949. She returned to the program in 1954; it ended its run on NBC Radio the following year. During her time with Chesterfield Supper Club, Stafford revisited some of the folk music she had enjoyed as a child. Weston, her conductor on the program, suggested using some of the folk music for the show. With her renewed interest in folk tunes came an interest in folklore; Stafford established a contest to award a prize to the best collection of American folklore submitted by a college student. The annual Jo Stafford Prize for American Folklore was handled by the American Folklore Society, with the first prize of $250 awarded in 1949.
Stafford continued to record. She duetted with Gordon MacRae on a number of songs. In 1948, their version of "Say Something Sweet to Your Sweetheart" sold over a million copies. The following year, they repeated their success with "My Happiness", and Stafford and MacRae recorded "Whispering Hope" together. Stafford began hosting a weekly program on Radio Luxembourg in 1950; working unpaid, she recorded the voice portions of the shows in Hollywood. At the time, she was hosting Club Fifteen with Bob Crosby for CBS Radio.
Weston moved from Capitol to Columbia Records, and in 1950, Stafford followed suit. Content and very comfortable working with him, Stafford had had a clause inserted in her contract with Capitol stating that if Weston left that label, she would automatically be released from her obligations to them. When that happened, Capitol wanted Stafford to record eight more songs before December 15, 1950, and she found herself in the unusual situation of simultaneously working for two competing record companies, an instance that was very rare in an industry where musicians were seen as assets. In 1954, Stafford became the second artist after Bing Crosby to sell 25 million records for Columbia. She was presented with a diamond-studded disc to mark the occasion.
In 1950, Stafford began working for Voice of America (VOA), the U.S. government broadcaster transmitting programmes overseas to undermine the influence of communism. She presented a weekly show that aired in Eastern Europe, and Collier's published an article about the program in its April 21, 1951, issue that discussed her worldwide popularity, including in countries behind the Iron Curtain. The article, titled "Jo Stafford: Her Songs Upset Joe Stalin", earned her the wrath of the U.S. Communist Daily Worker newspaper, which published a column critical of Stafford and VOA.
Marriage to Paul Weston and later career
Although Stafford and Paul Weston had known each other since their introduction at the King Sisters' party, they did not become romantically involved until 1945, when Weston traveled to New York to see Stafford perform at La Martinique. They were married in a Roman Catholic ceremony on February 26, 1952, before which Stafford converted to Catholicism. The wedding was conducted at St Gregory's Catholic Church in Los Angeles by Father Joe Kearney, a former guitarist with the Bob Crosby band, who left the music business, trained as a priest, and served as head of the Catholic Labor Institute. The couple left for Europe for a combined honeymoon and business trip: Stafford had an engagement at the London Palladium. Stafford and Weston had two children; Tim was born in 1952 and Amy in 1956. Both children followed their parents into the music industry. Tim Weston became an arranger and producer who took charge of Corinthian Records, his father's music label, and Amy Weston became a session singer, performing with a trio, Daddy's Money, and singing in commercials.
In the 1950s, Stafford had a string of popular hits with Frankie Laine, six of which charted. Their duet of the Hank Williams song "Hey Good Lookin'" made the top 10 in 1951. She had her best-known hits"Jambalaya", "Shrimp Boats", "Make Love to Me", and "You Belong to Me"around this time. "You Belong to Me" was Stafford's biggest hit, topping the charts in the United States and the United Kingdom. In the UK, it was the first song by a female singer to top the chart. The record first appeared on U.S. charts on August 1, 1952, and remained there for 24 weeks. In the UK, it entered the charts on November 14, 1952, at number 2, reached number one on January 16, 1953, and stayed on the charts for 19 weeks. In a July 1953 interview, Paul Weston said his wife's big hit was really the "B" side of the single "Pretty Boy", which both Weston and Columbia Records believed would be the big seller.
In 1953, Stafford signed a 4-year $1 million deal with CBS-TV. She hosted the 15-minute The Jo Stafford Show on CBS from 1954 to 1955, with Weston as her conductor and music arranger. She appeared on NBC's Club Oasis in 1958, and on the ABC series The Pat Boone Chevy Showroom in 1959. In the early 1960s, Stafford hosted a series of television specials called The Jo Stafford Show, which were centered around music. The shows were produced in England and featured British and American guests including Claire Bloom, Stanley Holloway, Ella Fitzgerald, Mel Tormé, and Rosemary Clooney.
Both Stafford and Weston returned to Capitol in 1961. During her second stint at Capitol, Stafford also recorded for Sinatra's label Reprise Records. The albums issued by Reprise were released between 1961 and 1964, and were mostly remakes of songs from her past. Sinatra sold Reprise to Warner Bros. in 1963, and they retargeted the label at a teenage audience, letting go many of the original artists who had signed up with Sinatra. In late 1965, both Stafford and Weston signed to Dot Records.
Comedy performances
During the 1940s, Stafford briefly performed comedy songs under the name "Cinderella G. Stump" with Red Ingle and the Natural Seven. In 1947, she recorded a hillbilly-style parody of "Temptation", pronouncing its title "Tim-tayshun". Stafford created Stump after Weston suggested her for the role when Ingle said his female vocalist was unavailable for the recording session. After meeting Ingle at a recording studio, she gave an impromptu performance. The speed of her voice was intentionally increased for the song, giving it the hillbilly sound, and the listening public did not initially know that her voice was on the record. Because it was a lighthearted, impromptu performance and she accepted the standard scale pay, Stafford waived all royalties from the record. Stafford, along with Ingle and Weston, made a personal appearance tour in 1949, and she performed "Temptation" as Cinderella G. Stump. Stafford and Ingle performed the song on network television in 1960 for Startime. Stafford recorded a second song with Ingle in 1948. "The Prisoner of Love's Song" was a parody of "Prisoner of Love", and featured in an advertisement for Capitol releases in the January 8, 1949, edition of Billboard magazine.
Throughout the 1950s, Stafford and Weston entertained party guests by performing skits in which they impersonated a poor lounge act. Stafford sang off-key in a high pitched voice and Weston played songs on the piano in unconventional rhythms. Weston began his impression of an unskilled pianist in or around 1955, assuming the guise "when things got a little quiet, or when people began taking themselves too seriously at a Hollywood party." He put on an impromptu performance of the act the following year at a Columbia Records sales convention in Key West, Florida, after hearing a particularly bad hotel pianist. The audience was very appreciative of his rendition of "Stardust", particularly Columbia executives George Avakian and Irving Townsend, who encouraged Weston to make an album of such songs. Avakian named Weston's character Jonathan Edwards, for the 18th century Calvinist preacher of the same name, and asked him to record under this alias. Weston worried that he might not be able to find enough material for an entire album, and he asked his wife to join the project. Stafford named her off-key vocalist persona Darlene Edwards.
Stafford's creation of Darlene Edwards had its roots in the novelty songs that Mitch Miller, the head of Columbia's artists and repertoire department, had been selecting for her to sing. These included songs such as "Underneath the Overpass", and because she did not agree with Miller's music choices for her, Stafford and her studio musicians often recorded their own renditions of the music, performing the songs according to their feelings about them. Because she had some unused studio time at a 1957 recording session, as a joke Stafford recorded a track as Darlene Edwards. Those who heard bootlegs of the recording responded positively, and later that year, Stafford and Weston recorded an album of songs as Jonathan and Darlene, entitled The Piano Artistry of Jonathan Edwards.
As a publicity stunt, Weston and Stafford claimed that Jonathan and Darlene Edwards were a New Jersey lounge act they had discovered, and denied any personal connection. This ruse led to much speculation about the Edwardses' identities. In an article titled "Two Right Hands" in September 1957, Time reported that some people believed the performers were Harry and Margaret Truman, but the same piece identified Weston and Stafford as the Edwardses. In 1958, Stafford and Weston appeared as the Edwardses on Jack Benny's television program Shower of Stars, and in 1960 on The Garry Moore Show. The Piano Artistry of Jonathan Edwards was followed up with an album of popular music standards, Jonathan and Darlene Edwards in Paris, which was released in 1960 and won that year's Grammy Award for Best Comedy Album. The Academy issued two awards for the category that year; Bob Newhart also received an award for "Spoken Word Comedy" for his album The Button-Down Mind Strikes Back! The Grammy was Stafford's only major award.
The couple continued to release comedy albums for several years, and in 1977 released a cover of the Bee Gees' "Stayin' Alive" as a single, with an Edwards interpretation of Helen Reddy's "I Am Woman" as its "B" side. The same year, a brief resurgence in the popularity of Jonathan and Darlene albums occurred when their cover of "Carioca" was featured as the opening and closing theme to The Kentucky Fried Movie. Their last release, Darlene Remembers Duke, Jonathan Plays Fats, was issued in 1982. To mark the occasion, an interview with Stafford and Westonin which they assumed the persona of the Edwardsesappeared in the December 1982 edition of Los Angeles Magazine.
Retirement and later life
In 1959, Stafford was offered a contract to perform at Las Vegas, but declined it to concentrate on her family life. Because she disliked continuously traveling for television appearances that took her away from her children, and no longer found the music business fun, she went into semiretirement in the mid-1960s. She retired fully in 1975. Except for the Jonathan and Darlene Edwards material, and re-recording her favorite song "Whispering Hope" with her daughter Amy in 1978, Stafford did not perform again until 1990, at a ceremony honoring Frank Sinatra. The Westons devoted more time to Share Inc., a charity aiding people with developmental disabilities in which they had been active for many years. Around 1983, Concord Records tried to persuade Stafford to change her mind and come out of retirement, but although an album was planned, she did not feel she would be satisfied with the finished product, and the project was shelved.
Stafford won a breach-of-contract lawsuit against her former record label Columbia in the early 1990s. Because of a clause concerning the payment of royalties in her contract, she secured the rights to all of the recordings she made with the company, including those Weston and she made as Jonathan and Darlene Edwards. After the lawsuit was settled, Stafford and her son Tim reactivated Corinthian Records, which Weston, a devout Christian, had started as a label for religious music in the 1970s, and they began releasing some of her old material.
In 1996, Paul Weston died of natural causes; Stafford continued to operate Corinthian Records. In 2006, she donated the couple's library, including music arrangements, photographs, business correspondence and recordings, to the University of Arizona. Stafford began suffering from congestive heart failure in October 2007, from which she died aged 90 on July 16, 2008. She was buried with her husband at the Holy Cross Cemetery in Culver City, California.
Style, awards, and recognition
Stafford was admired by critics and the listening public for the purity of her voice, and was considered one of the most versatile vocalists of her era. Peter Levinson said that she was a coloratura soprano, whose operatic training allowed her to sing a natural falsetto. Her style encompassed a number of genres, including big band, ballads, jazz, folk and comedy. Music critic Terry Teachout described her as "rhythmically fluid without ever sounding self-consciously 'jazzy' ", while Rosemary Clooney said of her, "The voice says it all: beautiful, pure, straightforward, no artifice, matchless intonation, instantly recognizable. Those things describe the woman, too." Writing for the New York Sun, Will Friedwald described her 1947 interpretation of "Haunted Heart" as "effective because it's so subtle, because Stafford holds something back and doesn't shove her emotion in the listener's face." Nancy Franklin described Stafford's version of the folk song "He's Gone Away" as "wistful and tender, as if she had picked up a piece of clothing once worn by a loved one and begun singing." Frank Sinatra said, "It was a joy to sit on the bandstand and listen to her". The singer Judy Collins has cited Stafford's folk recordings as an influence on her own musical career. Country singer Patsy Cline was also inspired by Stafford's work.
In their guise of Jonathan and Darlene Edwards, Weston and Stafford earned admiration from their show-business peers. Pianist George Shearing was a fan and would play "Autumn in New York" in the style of Edwards if he knew the couple were in the audience. Ray Charles also enjoyed their performance. Art Carney, who played Ed Norton in the comedy series The Honeymooners, once wrote the Edwardses a fan letter as Norton. However, not everybody appreciated the Edwards act. Mitch Miller blamed the couple's 1962 album Sing Along With Jonathan and Darlene Edwards for ending his sing-along albums and television show, while in 2003, Stafford told Michael Feinstein that the Bee Gees had disliked the Edwards' version of "Stayin' Alive".
In 1960, Stafford said working closely with Weston had good and bad points. His knowledge of her made arranging her music easy for him, but sometimes it caused difficulties. Weston knew Stafford's abilities and would write or arrange elaborate music because he knew she was capable of performing it. She also said she did not believe she could perform in Broadway musicals because she thought her voice was not powerful enough for stage work. In 2003, she recalled that rehearsal time was often limited before she recorded a song, and how Weston would sometimes slip musical arrangements under the bathroom door as she was in the bath getting ready to go to the studio.
Her work in radio, television, and music is recognized by three stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. In 1952, listeners of Radio Luxembourg voted Stafford their favorite female singer. The New York Fashion Academy named her one of the Best Dressed Women of 1955. Songbirds magazine has reported that, by 1955, Stafford had amassed more worldwide record sales than any other female artist, and that she was ranked fifth overall. She was nominated in the Best Female Singer category at the 1955 Emmy Awards. She won a Grammy for Jonathan and Darlene Edwards in Paris, and The Pied Pipers' recording of "I'll Never Smile Again" was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame in 1982, as was Stafford's version of "You Belong to Me" in 1998. She was inducted into the Big Band Academy of America's Golden Bandstand in April 2007. Stafford and Weston were founding members of the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences.
Stafford's music has been referenced in popular culture. Her recording of "Blues in the Night" features in a scene of James Michener's novel The Drifters (1971), while a Marine Corps sergeant major in Walter Murphy's The Vicar of Christ (1979) hears a radio broadcast of her singing "On Top of Old Smoky" shortly before a battle in Korea. Commenting on the latter reference for his 1989 book Singers and the Song, which includes a chapter about Stafford, author Gene Lees says, "[it] somehow sets Stafford's place in the American culture. You're getting pretty famous when your name turns up in crossword puzzles; you are woven into a nation's history when you turn up in its fiction."
Discography
Film and television
Stafford appeared in films from the 1930s onwards, including Alexander's Ragtime Band. Her final on-screen appearance was in the Frank Sinatra tribute Sinatra 75: The Best Is Yet to Come in 1990. She declined several offers of television work because she was forced to memorize scripts (as she was unable to read the cue cards without her glasses), and the bright studio lights caused her discomfort.
Publications
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
[ Jo Stafford at Allmusic.com]
Discography at the University of Arizona's Paul Weston and Jo Stafford Collection
Presenting The Music of Jo Stafford and Paul Weston
Jo Stafford Interview NAMM Oral History Library (1995)
Listen
Interview by KUOW-FM's Amanda Wilde
Jo Stafford and Nelson Eddy 1951 mp3 recordings and information at maceddy.com/blog site
Personal Album Armed Forces Radio Service program featuring Jo Stafford
1917 births
2008 deaths
American women jazz singers
American jazz singers
Burials at Holy Cross Cemetery, Culver City
Capitol Records artists
Catholics from California
Columbia Records artists
Dot Records artists
Grammy Award winners
American parodists
Parody musicians
People from Coalinga, California
Reprise Records artists
Singers from California
Torch singers
Traditional pop music singers
Converts to Roman Catholicism
The Pied Pipers members
Jazz musicians from California
Long Beach Polytechnic High School alumni
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tribune%20%28magazine%29
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Tribune (magazine)
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Tribune is a democratic socialist political magazine founded in 1937 and published in London, initially as a newspaper, then converting to a magazine in 2001. While it is independent, it has usually supported the Labour Party from the left. Previous editors at the magazine have included Aneurin Bevan, the Minister of Health who spearheaded the establishment of the National Health Service, former Labour leader Michael Foot, and writer George Orwell, who served as Literary Editor.
From 2008 it faced serious financial difficulties until it was purchased by Jacobin in late 2018, shifting to a quarterly publication model. Since its relaunch the number of paying subscribers has passed 15,000, with columns from high-profile socialist politicians such as former leader of the Labour Party Jeremy Corbyn, former Second Deputy Prime Minister of Spain Pablo Iglesias and former Bolivian President Evo Morales. In January 2020, it was used as the platform on which Rebecca Long-Bailey chose to launch her Labour leadership campaign.
History
Origins
Tribune was founded in early 1937 by two wealthy left-wing Labour Party Members of Parliament (MPs), Sir Stafford Cripps and George Strauss, to back the Unity Campaign, an attempt to secure an anti-fascist and anti-appeasement united front between the Labour Party and socialist parties to the left. The latter included Cripps's (Labour-affiliated) Socialist League, the Independent Labour Party (ILP) and the Communist Party of Great Britain (CPGB).
The paper's first editor was William Mellor. Among its journalists were Michael Foot and Barbara Betts (later Barbara Castle), while the board included the Labour MPs Aneurin Bevan and Ellen Wilkinson, Harold Laski of the Left Book Club, and the veteran left-wing journalist and former ILP member H. N. Brailsford.
Mellor was fired in 1938 for refusing to adopt a new CPGB policy – supported by Cripps – of backing a popular front, including non-socialist parties, against fascism and appeasement; Foot resigned in solidarity. Mellor was succeeded by H. J. Hartshorn, a secret member of the CPGB. Meanwhile, Victor Gollancz, the Left Book Club's publisher, joined the board of directors. For the next year, the paper was little more than an appendage of the Left Book Club, taking an uncritical line on the Popular Front and the Soviet Union.
1940s
With the Nazi-Soviet pact and the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939, Tribune initially adopted the CPGB's position of denouncing the British and French declarations of war on Germany as imperialist. After the Soviet invasion of Finland, with Cripps off on a world tour, Strauss and Bevan became increasingly impatient with Hartshorn's unrelenting Stalinism. Strauss fired Hartshorn in February 1940, replacing him as editor with Raymond Postgate. Under Postgate's editorship, the Soviet fellow travellers at Tribune were either dismissed, or in Postgate's words, "left soon after in dislike of me". From then on, the paper became the voice of the pro-war democratic left in the Labour Party, taking a position similar to that adopted by Gollancz in the volume Betrayal of the Left he edited attacking the communists for backing the Nazi-Soviet pact.
Bevan ousted Postgate after a series of personality clashes in 1941, assuming the role of editor himself, although the day-to-day running of the paper was done by Jon Kimche. The Tribune campaigned vigorously for the opening of a second front against Adolf Hitler's Germany, was consistently critical of the Winston Churchill government's failings, and argued that only a democratic socialist post-war settlement in Britain and Europe as a whole was viable.
George Orwell was hired in 1943 as literary editor. In this role, as well as commissioning and writing reviews, he wrote a series of columns, most of them under the title "As I Please", that have become touchstones of the opinion journalist's craft. Orwell left the Tribune staff in early 1945 to become a war correspondent for The Observer, to be replaced as literary editor by his friend Tosco Fyvel, but he remained a regular contributor until March 1947.
Orwell's most famous contributions to Tribune as a columnist include "You and the atom bomb", "The sporting spirit", "Books v cigarettes", "Decline of the English Murder", and "Some Thoughts on the Common Toad", all of which have since appeared in dozens of anthologies.
Other writers who contributed to Tribune in the 1940s include Naomi Mitchison, Stevie Smith, Alex Comfort, Arthur Calder-Marshall, Julian Symons, Elizabeth Taylor, Rhys Davies, Daniel George, Inez Holden, and Phyllis Shand Allfrey.
Kimche left Tribune to join Reuters in 1945, his place being taken by Frederic Mullally. After the Labour landslide election victory of 1945, Bevan joined Clement Attlee's government and formally left the paper, leaving Mullally and Evelyn Anderson as joint editors, with Foot playing Bevan's role of political director. Over the next five years, Tribune was critically involved in every key political event in the life of the Labour government and reached its highest-ever circulation, of some 40,000. Foot persuaded Kimche to return as joint editor in 1946 (after Mullally's departure to the Sunday Pictorial) and in 1948 himself became joint editor with Anderson, after Kimche was fired for disappearing from the office to travel to Istanbul to negotiate the safe passage of two Jewish refugee ships through the Bosphorus and Dardanelles.
In the first few years of the Attlee administration, Tribune became the focus for the Labour left's attempts to persuade Ernest Bevin, the Foreign Secretary, to adopt a "third force" democratic socialist foreign policy, with Europe acting independently from the United States and the Soviet Union, most coherently advanced in the pamphlet Keep Left (which was published by the rival New Statesman).
After the Soviet rejection of Marshall Aid and the communist takeover of Czechoslovakia in 1948, Tribune endorsed the North Atlantic Treaty Organization and took a strongly anti-communist line, with its editor declaring in November 1948: "The major threat to democratic socialism and the major danger of war in Europe arises from Soviet policy and not from American policy. It is not the Americans who have imposed a blockade on Berlin. It is not the Americans who have used conspiratorial methods to destroy democratic socialist parties in one country after another. It is not the Americans who have blocked effective action through one United Nations agency after another".
Bevanism and Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament
Foot remained in the editorial chair until 1952 when Bob Edwards took over, but he returned after losing his parliamentary seat in Plymouth in 1955. During the early 1950s, Tribune became the organ of the Bevanite left opposition to the Labour Party leadership, turning against the United States over its handling of the Korean War, then arguing strongly against West German rearmament and nuclear arms. However, Tribune remained critical of the Soviet Union as it denounced Stalin on his death in 1953 and in 1956 opposed the Soviet suppression of the Hungarian Revolution and the British government's Suez adventure. The paper and Bevan parted company after his "naked into the conference chamber" speech at the 1957 Labour Party conference. For the next five years, Tribune was at the forefront of the campaign to commit Labour to a non-nuclear defence policy, "the official weekly of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament" (CND) as the direct actionists in the peace movement put it. CND's general secretary Peggy Duff had been Tribune general manager. Among journalists on Tribune in the 1950s were Richard Clements, Ian Aitken and Mervyn Jones, who related his experience on the paper in his autobiography Chances.
1960s and 1970s
After Foot was re-elected to Parliament in 1960 for Bevan's old seat of Ebbw Vale, Richard Clements became editor. During the 1960s and 1970s the paper faithfully expressed the ideas of the parliamentary Labour left and allied itself with the new generation of left-wing trade union leaders that emerged on the back of a wave of workplace militancy from the early 1960s onwards.
As such, it played a massive role in the politics of the time. Although it welcomed the election of Harold Wilson's Labour government in 1964—"Tribune takes over from Eton in the cabinet", exclaimed a headline—the paper became rapidly disillusioned. It denounced the Wilson government's timidity on nationalisation and devaluation, opposed its moves to join the European Communities (EC) and attacked it for failing to take a principled position against the Vietnam War. It also backed the unions' campaigns against the government's prices-and-incomes policies and against In Place of Strife, Barbara Castle's 1969 package of trade union law reforms.
The paper continued in the same vein after Edward Heath won the 1970 general election, opposing his Tory government's trade union legislation between 1970 and 1974 and placing itself at the head of opposition to Heath's negotiations for Britain to join the EEC. After Labour regained power in 1974, Tribune played a central part in the "no" campaign in the 1975 referendum on British EEC membership.
However, Tribune in this period did not speak to, let alone represent, the concerns of the younger generation of leftists who were at the centre of the campaign against the Vietnam War and the post-1968 student revolt, who found the paper's reformism and commitment to Labour tame and old-fashioned. Circulation, around 20,000 in 1960, was said by 1980 to be around 10,000, but it was in fact much less.
Brief support of Tony Benn
Clements resigned as editor in 1982 to become a political adviser to Foot (by now Labour leader), a role he continued under Foot's successor as Labour leader, Neil Kinnock. Clements was succeeded in the Tribune chair by Chris Mullin, who steered the paper into supporting Tony Benn (then just past the peak of his influence on the Labour left) and attempted to turn it into a friendly society in which readers were invited to buy shares, much to the consternation of the old Bevanite shareholders, most prominent among them John Silkin and Donald Bruce, who attempted unsuccessfully to take control of the paper. A protracted dispute ensued that at one point seemed likely to close the paper.
Paper of the soft left
Mullin left in 1984, with circulation at around 6,000, a level it roughly remained for the next ten years). He was replaced by his equally Bennite protege Nigel Williamson, who surprised everyone by arguing for a realignment of the left and took the paper into the soft left camp, supporting Kinnock, a long-time Tribune contributor and onetime board member, as Labour leader against the Bennites. The next two editors Phil Kelly and Paul Anderson took much the same line, although both clashed with Kinnock, particularly over his decision to abandon Labour's non-nuclear defence policy.
Under Kelly, Tribune supported John Prescott's challenge to Roy Hattersley as Labour Deputy leader in 1988 and came close to going bust, a fate averted by an emergency appeal launched by a front page exclaiming "Don't let this be the last issue of Tribune". Under Anderson, the paper took a strongly pro-European stance, supported electoral reform and argued for military intervention against Serbian aggression in Croatia and Bosnia. Throughout the 1980s and early 1990s, Tribune acted as a clearing house for arguments inside the Labour Party, with contributions from all major players.
Back to basics
From 1993, Mark Seddon shifted Tribune several degrees back to the left, particularly after Tony Blair became Labour leader in 1994. The paper strongly opposed Blair's abandonment of Clause Four of the Labour Party constitution and resisted his rebranding of the party as New Labour.
After Labour won the 1997 general election, the paper maintained an oppositionist stance, objecting to the Blair government's military interventions and its reliance on spin-doctors. In 2001, Tribune opposed the United States-led invasion of Afghanistan and it was outspoken against the invasion of Iraq in 2003. The paper under Seddon also reverted to an anti-European position very similar to that it adopted in the 1970s and early 1980s and campaigned for Gordon Brown to replace Blair as Labour Leader and Prime Minister.
Tribune changed format from newspaper to magazine in April 2001, but remained plagued by financial uncertainty, coming close to folding again in 2002. However, Seddon and the Chairman of Tribune Publications, Labour MP Peter Kilfoyle, led a team of pro-bono advisers who organised a rescue package with a consortium of trade unions (Unison, Amicus, Aslef, Communication Workers Union, Community, T&GWU), who became majority shareholders in return for a significant investment in the magazine in early 2004.
Whilst Tribune editor, Seddon was elected several times to the Labour Party National Executive Committee as a candidate of the Grassroots Alliance coalition of left-wing activists. He resigned as editor in summer 2004 and was succeeded by Chris McLaughlin, former political editor of the Sunday Mirror.
During 2007, Tribune spawned two offshoot websites: a Tribune Cartoons blog, put together by cartoonists who draw for the magazine; and a Tribune History blog.
In September 2008, the magazine's future was again in doubt thanks to problems with its trade union funding. An attempt by the Unite trade union to render Tribune its wholly owned subsidiary had a mixed response, but on 9 October it was announced that the magazine would close on 31 October if a buyer could not be found. The uncertainty continued until early December 2008, when it emerged that a 51% stake was being sold to an unnamed Labour Party activist for £1, with an undertaking to support the magazine for £40,000 per annum, and with debts written off by the trade union now-former owners.
Tribunes cartoonists were Alex Hughes, Matthew Buck, Jon Jensen, Martin Rowson and Gary Barker.
Changes of ownership (2009–2018)
In March 2009, 100% ownership of the magazine passed to Kevin McGrath through a new company, Tribune Publications 2009 Limited, with the intention of keeping Tribune a left-of-centre publication, though broadening the readership.
In late October 2011, the future of Tribune looked bleak once again when McGrath warned of possible closure because subscriptions and income had not risen as had been hoped. Unless a buyer could be found or a cooperative established, the last edition would have been published on 4 November. McGrath committed to paying off the magazine's debts. Another rescue plan saved the magazine at the end of October. In 2013, Tribune claimed a circulation of 5,000.
In the autumn of 2016, the journal was owned by the businessman Owen Oyston, who acquired its parent company London Publications Ltd. Oyston filed for bankruptcy and ceased to publish Tribune in January 2018.
Relaunch (2018–present)
In May 2018, it was announced that the Tribune IP had been sold to the American socialist magazine Jacobin. In August 2018, Jacobin publisher Bhaskar Sunkara confirmed the purchase of Tribune in media reports, stating that he aimed to relaunch the magazine ahead of the Labour Party Conference in September. At the official re-launch in September 2018, Tribune was announced as a bimonthly magazine with a high-quality design, concentrating on longer-form political analysis and industrial issues coverage, thus differentiating Tribune from other UK leftist media outlets such as Novara Media and the Morning Star. Tribune had 2,000 subscribers, with an aim of reaching 10,000 within a year. The magazine is currently published quarterly. In December 2020, the magazine's editor announced it had 15,000 subscribers.
Tribune often represents the views of Labour-aligned left, most notably for being the publication chosen to launch Rebecca Long-Bailey's leadership campaign. High-profile writers for the publication include former leader of the Labour Party Jeremy Corbyn, and other members of the Socialist Campaign Group of Labour MPs such as Lloyd Russell-Moyle. Issues have contained interviews with international socialist politicians such as Deputy Prime Minister of Spain Pablo Iglesias and former Bolivian President Evo Morales.
In February 2021, in an interview on Novara Media, editor Ronan Burtenshaw announced that Tribune was being sued in a libel case. Though he did not comment on the nature of the case, he commented: "It is not a case that has any substance, we are going to fight it and I think we are going to win it. I can't say anymore, I am legally restricted from saying any more about it, it's not related to the Labour Party before anybody goes on that tangent".
Connections to the Labour Party
Labour Party Conference
The magazine has historically hosted panels and rallies- or fringe events- at Labour Party Conference. In 2021 they invited Labour Party MP and SCG member Andy McDonald and US politician and organiser Nina Turner.
Tribune Group of MPs
The Tribune Group of Labour MPs was formed as a support group for the newspaper in 1964. During the 1960s and 1970s it was the main forum for the left in the Parliamentary Labour Party, but it split over Tony Benn's bid for the deputy leadership of the party in 1981, with Benn's supporters forming the Campaign Group (later the Socialist Campaign Group). During the 1980s the Tribune Group was the Labour soft left's political caucus, but its closeness to the leadership of Neil Kinnock meant that it had lost any real raison d'etre by the early 1990s. It ceased to promote a list of candidates for shadow cabinet elections.
The group was reformed in 2005, led by Clive Efford, MP for Eltham. Invitations to join the newly reformed group were extended to backbench Labour MPs only. The group, which included former cabinet minister Yvette Cooper and former Labour policy coordinator Jon Cruddas, relaunched themselves in April 2017 aiming to reconnect with traditional Labour voters while also appealing to the centre ground. They supported "opportunity and aspiration" being central to the party's programme, with policies supporting the "security of its people at its heart". While not critical of then-leader Jeremy Corbyn, it was considered as a group of centre-left and moderate Labour MPs who would resist a left-wing successor being selected. The group has no connection with the current incarnation of the newspaper. In 2018 it listed more than 70 MPs as members.
The group launched a new website in 2021, listing 78 MPs as members including Labour leader Keir Starmer.
Content
Aside from its online articles and quarterly newspaper, Tribune has other content and operations.
A World to Win podcast
On 19 August 2020, Tribune launched the podcast A World to Win alongside economist Grace Blakeley and with funding from The Lipman-Miliband Trust. Notable guests on the podcast include Jeremy Corbyn, Sinn Féin leader Mary Lou McDonald, philosopher and activist Cornel West, and academic and author Naomi Klein.
List of editors
William Mellor (1937–1938)
H. J. Hartshorn (1938–1940)
Raymond Postgate (1940–1941)
Aneurin Bevan and Jon Kimche (1941–1945)
Frederic Mullally and Evelyn Anderson (1945–1946)
Jon Kimche and Evelyn Anderson (1946–1948)
Michael Foot and Evelyn Anderson (1948–1952)
Bob Edwards (1952–1955)
Michael Foot (1955–1960)
Richard Clements (1960–1982)
Chris Mullin (1982–1984)
Nigel Williamson (1984–1987)
Phil Kelly (1987–1991)
Paul Anderson (1991–1993)
Mark Seddon (1993–2004)
Chris McLaughlin (2004–2017)
Ronan Burtenshaw (2018–present)
List of staff writers
Past
George Orwell (literary editor)
Current
Owen Hatherley (culture editor)
Grace Blakeley
Alex Niven
References
Further reading
Anderson, Paul (ed.), Orwell in Tribune: 'As I Please' and Other Writings. Methuen/Politico's, 2006.
Hill, Douglas (ed.), Tribune 40: the first forty years of a socialist newspaper. Quartet, 1977.
Thomas, Elizabeth (ed.), Tribune 21. MacGibbon and Kee, 1958.
External links
Tribune Cartoons (archived December 2014)
Tribune Cartoons (until May 2009)
Tribune History (archived May 2008)
Tribune of the People 1 - a Marxist history of Tribune from 1937 to 1950 by Chris Harman in International Socialism 21 (1965)
Tribune of the People 2: The Wasted Years - a Marxist history of Tribune from 1950 to 1965 by Chris Harman in International Socialism 24 (1966).
1937 establishments in England
Political magazines published in the United Kingdom
Weekly magazines published in the United Kingdom
Labour Party (UK) publications
Magazines established in 1937
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20McDonnell
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John McDonnell
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John Martin McDonnell (born 8 September 1951) is a British politician who served as Shadow Chancellor of the Exchequer from 2015 to 2020. A member of the Labour Party, he has been Member of Parliament (MP) for Hayes and Harlington since 1997.
McDonnell served as chair of the Socialist Campaign Group in Parliament and Labour Representation Committee; he also chaired the Public Services Not Private Profit Group. He is also parliamentary convenor of the Trade Union Co-ordinating Group of eight left-wing trade unions representing over half a million workers. McDonnell attempted to stand for the position of Labour Party leader following Tony Blair's resignation in 2007, but failed to get enough nominations. He was a candidate for the party leadership again in 2010 following Gordon Brown's resignation after Labour's electoral defeat, but withdrew in favour of Diane Abbott, feeling that he would be unable to secure enough nominations.
Alongside Jeremy Corbyn, McDonnell has been seen as a key figure on the left-wing of the party. After being elected Labour leader in 2015, Corbyn appointed McDonnell to his Shadow Cabinet as Shadow Chancellor of the Exchequer. As Shadow Chancellor, McDonnell pledged to increase spending on infrastructure and research, describing his vision for the economy as "socialism with an iPad".
Early life
McDonnell was born in Liverpool to a family with an Irish Catholic background. His father, Bob, was a docker who also served as a sergeant in the Sherwood Foresters during World War II, whilst his mother Elsie worked as a cleaner. He moved with his family to his mother's hometown, Great Yarmouth in Norfolk, when he was very young as his father was unable to find work at the docks; his father became a bus driver and was a branch secretary of the Transport and General Workers' Union and his mother worked for British Home Stores. McDonnell attended Great Yarmouth Grammar School. McDonnell received a Local Authority grant to attend St Joseph's College, Ipswich, a Roman Catholic boarding fee-paying independent school for boys (now co-educational). " McDonnell is now irreligious, but refers to himself as a "cultural Catholic" and is a regular churchgoer.
McDonnell failed his A-levels at grammar school, partly due to holding down part-time jobs in bars and a bingo hall. Upon leaving education, McDonnell held a series of unskilled jobs. After marrying his first wife, he returned to A-level studies at night school at Burnley Technical College, and at the age of 23, he moved to Hayes in Greater London, attended Brunel University, and earned a bachelor's degree in government and politics. During this period, he helped his wife run a small children's home in Hayes, and was active on behalf of his local community and for National Union of Public Employees. After completing his master's degree in politics and sociology at Birkbeck, University of London, he became a researcher and official with the National Union of Mineworkers from 1977 to 1978, and later the Trades Union Congress from 1978 until 1982. From 1985 to 1987, McDonnell was head of the policy unit at Camden Borough Council, then chief executive of the Association of London Authorities from 1987 to 1995, and the Association of London Government from 1995 until 1997.
Greater London Council (1981–1986)
In 1981, McDonnell was elected to the Greater London Council (GLC) as the member for Hayes and Harlington. He became the GLC's chair of finance and deputy leader to Ken Livingstone, who described him as having an "absolute grasp for detail and every year he produced a balanced budget, no borrowing". He was sacked by Ken Livingstone in 1985 over the strategy to oppose rate-capping—Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher's government had capped council rates (now called council tax), an action which the GLC had claimed, based on figures calculated by McDonnell, would lead to £135 million in cuts. However, Livingstone claimed in his autobiography to have found that the authority could actually still increase spending and cap the rates; Livingstone said that McDonnell had 'exaggerated' spending figures to support his case that the GLC had to ignore the rates cap, and that he confronted McDonnell, saying "If these figures are right we’re going to look like the biggest fucking liars since Goebbels." McDonnell described Livingstone's account as "complete fiction".
In an interview with Ronan Bennett for The Guardian newspaper, he described his role during this time as being "to translate policies into concrete realities on the ground." He further discussed his performance by indicating, "I was a fairly hard-nosed administrator. We set in train policies for which we were attacked from all sides but are now accepted as mainstream: large-scale investment in public services; raising the issue of Ireland and arguing for a dialogue for peace; equal opportunities; police accountability. We set up a women's committee, an ethnic minorities committee."
After the GLC (1986–1997)
Following the abolition of the GLC in 1986, McDonnell was employed as head of the policy unit at Camden London Borough Council. In 1987, he became Chief Executive of the Association of London Authorities (eventually the Association of London Government), where he represented all the London boroughs in their relations with central government and Europe. Having previously unsuccessfully contested Hampstead and Highgate in 1983, McDonnell fought for his home constituency of Hayes and Harlington at the 1992 general election, but lost by 53 votes, after three recounts, to the Conservative incumbent, Terry Dicks. During the campaign, Dicks sued for libel over critical material in McDonnell's campaign leaflets; McDonnell settled and paid Dicks damages of £15,000 plus legal costs of £55,000. McDonnell would later refer to Dicks as a 'stain' on the character of the House of Commons and a stain on the Conservative Party, and a 'malignant creature' during his maiden parliamentary speech.
Parliamentary backbencher (1997–2015)
When Terry Dicks then stood down, McDonnell became the MP for Hayes and Harlington at the 1997 general election, with 62 per cent of the vote and a majority of over 14,000. He made his maiden speech in the House of Commons on 6 June 1997, where he notably launched a scathing attack against his predecessor, against parliamentary tradition. He has been involved in several local community campaigns, including one opposing the expansion of Heathrow Airport and its impact on local communities. He opposed New Labour policies of the Iraq War, foundation hospitals, student top-up fees, trust schools and anti-terror laws. When Ken Livingstone was elected Mayor of London, as an independent in 2000, he appointed McDonnell to his cabinet with responsibility for local government in London.
Iraq War
McDonnell voted against the 2003 Iraq War, stating in 2007: In October 2006, McDonnell was one of 12 Labour MPs to back Plaid Cymru and the Scottish National Party's call for a parliamentary inquiry into the war in Iraq.
Irish Republican Army
In May 2003, he made controversial comments about the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA), saying:
Threatened with expulsion from the Labour Party, he went on to offer a rationale for his comments in an article written for The Guardian in June 2003 ("Expulsion would be an odd reward for telling hard truths"), stating:
According to a report in The Times published in November 2015, McDonnell had made similar comments at a Labour Committee on Ireland meeting in 1985, before the start of the Northern Ireland peace process. The Deptford Mercury asserted at the time that McDonnell had suggested there was a role for "the ballot, the bullet and the bomb" in achieving a United Ireland, and joked about "kneecapping" the "gutless wimp" Labour councillors who had declined to join the meeting.
In September 2015, McDonnell apologised on the BBC television programme Question Time for any offence caused by his remarks on the IRA. He said that his remarks in 2003 had been an attempt to persuade republicans to support the peace process and to afford the IRA the opportunity to disarm without humiliation stating: "There was a real risk of the Republican movement splitting and some of them continuing the armed process."
In his study at Hayes, McDonnell has a plaque presented to him by Gerry Kelly dedicated to the "H-Block Martyrs 1981", referring to those who died during the 1981 Irish hunger strike. A spokesman for McDonnell said the plaque "merely commemorates the peaceful protest in prison, not the prior actions of those involved".
Groups and campaigns in Parliament
McDonnell is a leading member of several all-party groups within Parliament, including groups representing individual trade unions, such as the Public and Commercial Services Union (PCS), the National Union of Rail, Maritime and Transport Workers (RMT), the Fire Brigades Union (FBU), the National Union of Journalists (NUJ) and justice unions such as NAPO. He is also a leading member of groups on a wide range of issues such as Britain's Irish community, the Punjabi community, endometriosis, and Kenya. McDonnell is a member of the Labour Land Campaign, which advocates introducing a land value tax.
McDonnell chairs the Labour Representation Committee (LRC), a left-wing group of Labour activists, local parties, trade unions and MPs that campaigns for the adoption of a raft of socialist policies by the Labour Government. The group was founded on Saturday, 3 July 2004, and currently has more than 800 members and 90 affiliates. He also chairs the Public Services Not Private Profit, an anti-privatisation campaign that brings together sixteen trade unions and several campaigning organisations, such as the World Development Movement, Defend Council Housing and the National Pensioners Convention. An early day motion in support of the campaign attracted more than ninety MPs. The campaign held a mass rally and lobby of Parliament on 27 June 2006, which was attended by more than 2,000 trade unionists.
Economic policy
In 2006, McDonnell said that "Marx, Lenin and Trotsky" were his "most significant" intellectual influences. Footage emerged of McDonnell in 2013 talking about the financial crisis of 2007–2008 and stating, "I've been waiting for this for a generation! We’ve got to demand systemic change. Look, I’m straight, I’m honest with people: I’m a Marxist." He was accused of celebrating the financial crisis of 2007–2008; McDonnell denied the allegation and claimed he was "joking". During an interview with Andrew Marr when the footage was played and McDonnell was asked, "Are you a Marxist?", he replied: "I believe there's a lot to learn from reading Kapital, yes of course there is, and that's been recommended not just by me but many others, mainstream economists as well." In 2018, McDonnell attended the Marx 200 conference, where he said, "Marxism is about the freedom of spirit, the development of life chances, the enhancement of democracy." In 2019, McDonnell during an interview stated that Marx’s Kapital is "one of the important analyses of the modern capitalist system".
Public services
McDonnell has consistently opposed the privatisation of public services and chaired the Public Services not Private Profit Campaign launched in 2006 and supported by sixteen trade unions linking up with students, pensioners, health campaigners and the World Development Movement.
McDonnell is "not supportive of PFI schemes", declaring that he has "opposed every PFI scheme that was proposed". In 2006, during the parliamentary debate on the Budget Resolutions, McDonnell warned against public-private finance initiatives (PFIs), calling for an inquiry:There are numerous examples. I refer hon. Members to the work of Alison Pollock and to the publications by Unison in recent months, which contain example after example in the public services, health and education where PFI has been used to exploit the public purse, has failed to deliver and has delivered large bonuses and profits to individual company directors. That is why I regret that the Chancellor is going along that line. I would welcome a Government inquiry into PFI, which would probably echo the work done by the Public Accounts Committee on individual PFI schemes, which has demonstrated their lack of deliverability and cost effectiveness.
Tax transparency
Throughout his time in Parliament, McDonnell has championed the cause of tax justice, hosting the Parliamentary launch of the Tax Justice Network in 2003.
In 2002, McDonnell worked with William Campbell-Taylor and Maurice Glasman, who challenged a parliamentary bill concerned with the City of London Corporation in relation to alleged tax avoidance:Apart from a couple of brave, independent-minded Labour MPs, notably John McDonnell, nobody supported Glasman and Campbell-Taylor to challenge the bill. Such is the fear that the corporation inspires in parliament.
Bank regulations
During the 2011 Budget Resolutions, McDonnell highlighted his long-term consistent work calling for better regulation of the banking and finance sector:We seem to forget that the cause of that crisis was the cause of this crisis—speculation by the banks and other speculators and, yes, a Government who failed to regulate. I have to say, however, that when a number of Members called for bank regulation in this House, there was an element of quietude on all sides. I remember fighting for four years, in almost a solitary capacity, to secure the passage of the City of London (Ward Elections) Bill at a time when we were pressing for regulation.
Anti-austerity
In February 2013, McDonnell was among those who supported the People's Assembly Against Austerity in a letter published by The Guardian newspaper.
Heathrow Airport expansion
McDonnell has been a vocal opponent of plans to expand Heathrow Airport with a third runway—the proposed site lies within his constituency. During a debate on the expansion of the airport on 15 January 2009, he was suspended for five days by Deputy Speaker Alan Haselhurst after disrupting Commons proceedings. McDonnell picked up the ceremonial mace and placed it down on an empty bench in the Commons while shouting that the lack of a vote on the third runway was "a disgrace to the democracy of this country."
Armed police and MI5
In 2015, McDonnell's name appeared on a letter calling for the armed police and MI5 to be disbanded. He claimed that he had not signed the letter, which was produced by the Socialist Campaign for a Labour Victory (SCLV), but he was photographed holding a copy of the letter, although he later said that he did not know that the demand was on the letter.
2007 Labour leadership campaign
On 14 July 2006, McDonnell announced his intention to stand for leadership of the Labour Party when Tony Blair announced the date of his resignation. He called for "a challenge to the present political consensus", and, "a real Labour government based upon the policies that our supporters expect from us". McDonnell said he would like to see a return to the Labour Party's more traditional areas.
Initially, McDonnell and Michael Meacher were the two candidates representing the left wing of the party. McDonnell's campaign concentrated on grassroots efforts, which earned him an endorsement from the Trades Union Congress. In a YouGov opinion poll of more than 1,100 Labour Party members asking their preferred choice in the leadership contest, McDonnell received 9% support, and was ranked second to Chancellor Gordon Brown, who led with 80% of the vote. Declared supporters included Diane Abbott, Tony Benn, and Ann Cryer. In total, eleven Labour MPs declared their support on McDonnell's campaign website.
Labour Party rules require candidates to be nominated by 12.5% of Labour MPs (45 out of a total of 355 in 2007). Gordon Brown received 313 (88.2%) nominations, while McDonnell failed to collect the 45 nominations required to proceed to the Electoral College. As the only nominated candidate, Gordon Brown was declared leader by the NEC.
2010 Labour leadership campaign
On 18 May 2010, news broke that McDonnell wanted to stand in the Labour Party leadership election, to be held following the resignation of Gordon Brown, and would announce it the following day at the Public and Commercial Services Union conference in Brighton. McDonnell noted that it would be "difficult" to get the 33 nominations needed from the Parliamentary Labour Party required to stand in the election.
During a hustings for the GMB Union on 7 June, McDonnell was asked what single act he would do to improve the world if he could travel back to the 1980s. His off-the-cuff reply was that "I was on the GLC that Mrs. Thatcher abolished, I worked for the NUM and we had the NUM strike, I think I would assassinate Thatcher". Conservative MP Conor Burns told the BBC that "[it was] very distasteful" and "a very silly remark". McDonnell told the BBC: "I'm sorry if I have caused offence to anyone. It was a joke and in that audience it was taken as a joke ... it was taken out of context, I can see if people are upset about that and if I have caused offence to anyone of course I apologise".
By 9 June 2010, the deadline for nominations, he had secured only 16 nominations and withdrew from the contest.
Shadow Chancellor of the Exchequer (2015–2020)
McDonnell was one of the thirty-six Labour MPs to nominate Jeremy Corbyn (who was elected as Labour leader with 59.5% of the vote) as a candidate in the Labour leadership election of 2015. McDonnell managed Corbyn's leadership campaign, and he was appointed Shadow Chancellor in September 2015.
In an article in The Guardian in the previous month, he set out the economic principles that a Corbyn government would follow:
McDonnell's first speech as Shadow Chancellor was at the 2015 Labour Party conference in Brighton. In the speech, he set out Labour's thinking and priorities in key areas, as well as encouraging Labour MPs who had refused to serve under Corbyn to return.
He surprised many by calling upon Labour MPs to back Conservative Chancellor George Osborne's Fiscal Charter, arguing that supporting the proposed deficit reduction framework showed Labour's commitment to "living within their means." However, he reversed that call in October, citing his trip to visit former steelworkers at a recently closed plant in Redcar as the reason for not wanting to be associated with supporting government cuts. McDonnell repeated the word "embarrassing" five times in his Commons response to the U-turn, adding that "a bit of humility amongst politicians never goes amiss".
In a November speech ahead of Osborne's Spending Review, McDonnell pledged that a Labour government would spend 3.5% of GDP on infrastructure and fund research through an Innovation Policy Council, describing his vision for the economy as "socialism with an iPad".
McDonnell has explored ideas surrounding "alternative models of ownership", publishing a report on the subject in June 2017 and hosting a discussion conference in London in February 2018. The report sets out the "practicality and necessity of a shift to a variety of alternative forms of ownership and control of productive enterprises, including co-operatives, municipal and locally-led ownership forms, and ... new democratic forms of national ownership".
During his response to the 2015 Autumn Statement in which he accused George Osborne of "sheer economic illiteracy", McDonnell highlighted that the government was "selling off at least £5,000,000,000 worth of our own assets" to foreign investors, emphasising China. To make this point he quoted from a copy of Chairman Mao Zedong's Little Red Book and then threw it across the despatch box towards the Conservative front bench. A clearly amused Chancellor Osborne, responded by quipping that it was McDonnell's own signed copy.
On 29 September 2016, he was appointed to the Privy Council of the United Kingdom and may therefore use the title The Right Honourable.
In the aftermath of the Grenfell Tower fire, McDonnell said those who died in it were "murdered" by political decisions, arguing "The decision to close fire stations and to cut 10,000 fire fighters and then to freeze their pay for over a decade contributed to those deaths inevitably". The use of the word "murder" was questioned by some of his colleagues as well as the Conservative Party, with Jim Fitzpatrick, leader of the All-Party Parliamentary Group on Fire Safety suggesting it was "premature" to draw conclusions about what caused the deaths.
McDonnell said that Grenfell "symbolised for many everything that's gone wrong in this country since austerity was imposed upon us" and used it to highlight pay cuts across the public sector, arguing that Conservatives praise the emergency services "every time there's a tragedy" while cutting jobs and wages.
McDonnell sparked controversy when he joked that Conservative politician Esther McVey should be lynched and described her as a "stain on humanity." He said that he was quoting a constituent speaking at a public meeting convened to oppose McVey's policies on benefits and did not endorse the sentiment. The Leader of the House of Commons, Andrea Leadsom, called the remark "truly evil."
In 2017, McDonnell said: "I will be the first socialist Labour Chancellor". McDonnell in his Who’s Who entry posted one of his hobbies as "fermenting [sic] the overthrow of capitalism". In 2018, McDonnell said that he "wants to "overthrow capitalism" and replace it with a "socialist society"". He also said Venezuela's economic problems were because it was no longer a socialist country.
In September 2018, McDonnell said he would only back a second referendum on the European Union if the option to remain is not present. He also agreed with shadow international trade secretary Barry Gardiner, when he suggested a second referendum could lead to social unrest.
In February 2019, McDonnell sparked controversy when he referred to the former Prime Minister Winston Churchill as a "villain." Writing on Twitter, Boris Johnson said: "JM should be utterly ashamed of his remarks and withdraw them forthwith."
During a comprehensive interview conducted by former Labour Party member Alastair Campbell for British GQ in October 2019, McDonnell stated his disapproval of the former's expulsion from the party and indicated he would support his return. He also expressed his own view that the next party leader should be female, and that the party should employ positive discrimination to aid that prospect if Jeremy Corbyn were to lose the next general election. When asked to name any current Tory politician whom he respected, he declined, subsequently stating that he "can't forgive any of them". Campbell followed up by asking the same question about any historic Tories, to which McDonnell replied "No".
Upon the election of Keir Starmer as Leader of the Labour Party, McDonnell stood down as Shadow Chancellor and was succeeded by Anneliese Dodds.
Return to the backbenches (2020–present)
In February 2020, McDonnell met with Julian Assange at HM Prison Belmarsh.
He is running a campaign to pass a motion supporting proportional representation at the 2022 Labour Party conference after it failed in 2021 due to a lack of trade union support.
On 24 February 2022, following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, McDonnell was one of 11 Labour MPs threatened with losing the party whip after they signed a statement by the Stop the War Coalition which questioned the legitimacy of NATO and accused the military alliance of "eastward expansion". All 11 MPs subsequently removed their signatures. McDonnell subsequently joined calls led by the Ukraine Solidarity Campaign for increased arms supplies to Ukraine and criticized those on the left who opposed it.
Personal life
McDonnell has two daughters from his first marriage, which ended in 1985, and a son from his second marriage to Cynthia Pinto in 1995.
In 2013, McDonnell suffered a heart attack and was forced to take time off work.
While raised as a Roman Catholic and attending a minor seminary, McDonnell now identifies as an atheist. Despite this McDonnell still respects the Church and acknowledges that he owes a "debt" to it for shaping his politics, later saying "The values of Catholicism are the inherent values of the Labour Party and the inherent values of socialism..."
See also
Economics for the Many
Labour Representation Committee
Socialist Campaign Group
References
External links
John McDonnell MP official constituency website
Website at ePolitix
Public Services Not Private Profit
Historical
John4Leader official 2007 Leader campaign website
John McDonnell, Labour MP for Hayes & Harlington official 2010 Leader campaign website
Speech by John McDonnell during Modern Slavery Bill debate in the House of Commons
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1951 births
Living people
Alumni of Birkbeck, University of London
Alumni of Brunel University London
British anti-capitalists
British Marxists
British religious sceptics
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European democratic socialists
English Marxists
English anti-fascists
English anti–Iraq War activists
English people of Irish descent
English republicans
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Labour Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
Left-wing politics in the United Kingdom
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People educated at Great Yarmouth Grammar School
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semitone
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Semitone
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A semitone, also called a half step or a half tone, is the smallest musical interval commonly used in Western tonal music, and it is considered the most dissonant when sounded harmonically.
It is defined as the interval between two adjacent notes in a 12-tone scale. For example, C is adjacent to C; the interval between them is a semitone.
In a 12-note approximately equally divided scale, any interval can be defined in terms of an appropriate number of semitones (e.g. a whole tone or major second is 2 semitones wide, a major third 4 semitones, and a perfect fifth 7 semitones.
In music theory, a distinction is made between a diatonic semitone, or minor second (an interval encompassing two different staff positions, e.g. from C to D) and a chromatic semitone or augmented unison (an interval between two notes at the same staff position, e.g. from C to C). These are enharmonically equivalent when twelve-tone equal temperament is used, but are not the same thing in meantone temperament, where the diatonic semitone is distinguished from and smaller than the chromatic semitone (augmented unison). See for more details about this terminology.
In twelve-tone equal temperament all semitones are equal in size (100 cents). In other tuning systems, "semitone" refers to a family of intervals that may vary both in size and name. In Pythagorean tuning, seven semitones out of twelve are diatonic, with ratio 256:243 or 90.2 cents (Pythagorean limma), and the other five are chromatic, with ratio 2187:2048 or 113.7 cents (Pythagorean apotome); they differ by the Pythagorean comma of ratio 531441:524288 or 23.5 cents. In quarter-comma meantone, seven of them are diatonic, and 117.1 cents wide, while the other five are chromatic, and 76.0 cents wide; they differ by the lesser diesis of ratio 128:125 or 41.1 cents. 12-tone scales tuned in just intonation typically define three or four kinds of semitones. For instance, Asymmetric five-limit tuning yields chromatic semitones with ratios 25:24 (70.7 cents) and 135:128 (92.2 cents), and diatonic semitones with ratios 16:15 (111.7 cents) and 27:25 (133.2 cents). For further details, see below.
The condition of having semitones is called hemitonia; that of having no semitones is anhemitonia. A musical scale or chord containing semitones is called hemitonic; one without semitones is anhemitonic.
Minor second
The minor second occurs in the major scale, between the third and fourth degree, (mi (E) and fa (F) in C major), and between the seventh and eighth degree (ti (B) and do (C) in C major). It is also called the diatonic semitone because it occurs between steps in the diatonic scale. The minor second is abbreviated m2 (or −2). Its inversion is the major seventh (M7 or Ma7).
. Here, middle C is followed by D, which is a tone 100 cents sharper than C, and then by both tones together.
Melodically, this interval is very frequently used, and is of particular importance in cadences. In the perfect and deceptive cadences it appears as a resolution of the leading-tone to the tonic. In the plagal cadence, it appears as the falling of the subdominant to the mediant. It also occurs in many forms of the imperfect cadence, wherever the tonic falls to the leading-tone.
Harmonically, the interval usually occurs as some form of dissonance or a nonchord tone that is not part of the functional harmony. It may also appear in inversions of a major seventh chord, and in many added tone chords.
In unusual situations, the minor second can add a great deal of character to the music. For instance, Frédéric Chopin's Étude Op. 25, No. 5 opens with a melody accompanied by a line that plays fleeting minor seconds. These are used to humorous and whimsical effect, which contrasts with its more lyrical middle section. This eccentric dissonance has earned the piece its nickname: the "wrong note" étude. This kind of usage of the minor second appears in many other works of the Romantic period, such as Modest Mussorgsky's Ballet of the Unhatched Chicks. More recently, the music to the movie Jaws exemplifies the minor second.
In other temperaments
In just intonation a 16:15 minor second arises in the C major scale between B & C and E & F, and is "the sharpest dissonance found in the [major] scale."
Augmented unison
The augmented unison, the interval produced by the augmentation, or widening by one half step, of the perfect unison, does not occur between diatonic scale steps, but instead between a scale step and a chromatic alteration of the same step. It is also called a chromatic semitone. The augmented unison is abbreviated A1, or aug 1. Its inversion is the diminished octave (d8, or dim 8). The augmented unison is also the inversion of the augmented octave, because the interval of the diminished unison does not exist. This is because a unison is always made larger when one note of the interval is changed with an accidental.
Melodically, an augmented unison very frequently occurs when proceeding to a chromatic chord, such as a secondary dominant, a diminished seventh chord, or an augmented sixth chord. Its use is also often the consequence of a melody proceeding in semitones, regardless of harmonic underpinning, e.g. D, D, E, F, F. (Restricting the notation to only minor seconds is impractical, as the same example would have a rapidly increasing number of accidentals, written enharmonically as D, E, F, G, A).
Harmonically, augmented unisons are quite rare in tonal repertoire. In the example to the right, Liszt had written an E against an E in the bass. Here E was preferred to a D to make the tone's function clear as part of an F dominant seventh chord, and the augmented unison is the result of superimposing this harmony upon an E pedal point.
In addition to this kind of usage, harmonic augmented unisons are frequently written in modern works involving tone clusters, such as Iannis Xenakis' Evryali for piano solo.
History
The semitone appeared in the music theory of Greek antiquity as part of a diatonic or chromatic tetrachord, and it has always had a place in the diatonic scales of Western music since. The various modal scales of medieval music theory were all based upon this diatonic pattern of tones and semitones.
Though it would later become an integral part of the musical cadence, in the early polyphony of the 11th century this was not the case. Guido of Arezzo suggested instead in his Micrologus other alternatives: either proceeding by whole tone from a major second to a unison, or an occursus having two notes at a major third move by contrary motion toward a unison, each having moved a whole tone.
"As late as the 13th century the half step was experienced as a problematic interval not easily understood, as the irrational remainder between the perfect fourth and the ditone ." In a melodic half step, no "tendency was perceived of the lower tone toward the upper, or of the upper toward the lower. The second tone was not taken to be the ‘goal’ of the first. Instead, the half step was avoided in clausulae because it lacked clarity as an interval."
However, beginning in the 13th century cadences begin to require motion in one voice by half step and the other a whole step in contrary motion. These cadences would become a fundamental part of the musical language, even to the point where the usual accidental accompanying the minor second in a cadence was often omitted from the written score (a practice known as musica ficta). By the 16th century, the semitone had become a more versatile interval, sometimes even appearing as an augmented unison in very chromatic passages. Semantically, in the 16th century the repeated melodic semitone became associated with weeping, see: passus duriusculus, lament bass, and pianto.
By the Baroque era (1600 to 1750), the tonal harmonic framework was fully formed, and the various musical functions of the semitone were rigorously understood. Later in this period the adoption of well temperaments for instrumental tuning and the more frequent use of enharmonic equivalences increased the ease with which a semitone could be applied. Its function remained similar through the Classical period, and though it was used more frequently as the language of tonality became more chromatic in the Romantic period, the musical function of the semitone did not change.
In the 20th century, however, composers such as Arnold Schoenberg, Béla Bartók, and Igor Stravinsky sought alternatives or extensions of tonal harmony, and found other uses for the semitone. Often the semitone was exploited harmonically as a caustic dissonance, having no resolution. Some composers would even use large collections of harmonic semitones (tone clusters) as a source of cacophony in their music (e.g. the early piano works of Henry Cowell). By now, enharmonic equivalence was a commonplace property of equal temperament, and instrumental use of the semitone was not at all problematic for the performer. The composer was free to write semitones wherever he wished.
Semitones in different tunings
The exact size of a semitone depends on the tuning system used. Meantone temperaments have two distinct types of semitones, but in the exceptional case of equal temperament, there is only one. The unevenly distributed well temperaments contain many different semitones. Pythagorean tuning, similar to meantone tuning, has two, but in other systems of just intonation there are many more possibilities.
Meantone temperament
In meantone systems, there are two different semitones. This results because of the break in the circle of fifths that occurs in the tuning system: diatonic semitones derive from a chain of five fifths that does not cross the break, and chromatic semitones come from one that does.
The chromatic semitone is usually smaller than the diatonic. In the common quarter-comma meantone, tuned as a cycle of tempered fifths from E to G, the chromatic and diatonic semitones are 76.0 and 117.1 cents wide respectively.
Extended meantone temperaments with more than 12 notes still retain the same two semitone sizes, but there is more flexibility for the musician about whether to use an augmented unison or minor second. 31-tone equal temperament is the most flexible of these, which makes an unbroken circle of 31 fifths, allowing the choice of semitone to be made for any pitch.
Equal temperament
12-tone equal temperament is a form of meantone tuning in which the diatonic and chromatic semitones are exactly the same, because its circle of fifths has no break. Each semitone is equal to one twelfth of an octave. This is a ratio of 21/12 (approximately 1.05946), or 100 cents, and is 11.7 cents narrower than the 16:15 ratio (its most common form in just intonation, discussed below).
All diatonic intervals can be expressed as an equivalent number of semitones. For instance a whole tone equals two semitones.
There are many approximations, rational or otherwise, to the equal-tempered semitone. To cite a few:
suggested by Vincenzo Galilei and used by luthiers of the Renaissance,
suggested by Marin Mersenne as a constructible and more accurate alternative,
used by Julián Carrillo as part of a sixteenth-tone system.
For more examples, see Pythagorean and Just systems of tuning below.
Well temperament
There are many forms of well temperament, but the characteristic they all share is that their semitones are of an uneven size. Every semitone in a well temperament has its own interval (usually close to the equal-tempered version of 100 cents), and there is no clear distinction between a diatonic and chromatic semitone in the tuning. Well temperament was constructed so that enharmonic equivalence could be assumed between all of these semitones, and whether they were written as a minor second or augmented unison did not effect a different sound. Instead, in these systems, each key had a slightly different sonic color or character, beyond the limitations of conventional notation.
Pythagorean tuning
Like meantone temperament, Pythagorean tuning is a broken circle of fifths. This creates two distinct semitones, but because Pythagorean tuning is also a form of 3-limit just intonation, these semitones are rational. Also, unlike most meantone temperaments, the chromatic semitone is larger than the diatonic.
The Pythagorean diatonic semitone has a ratio of 256/243 (), and is often called the Pythagorean limma. It is also sometimes called the Pythagorean minor semitone. It is about 90.2 cents.
It can be thought of as the difference between three octaves and five just fifths, and functions as a diatonic semitone in a Pythagorean tuning.
The Pythagorean chromatic semitone has a ratio of 2187/2048 (). It is about 113.7 cents. It may also be called the Pythagorean apotome or the Pythagorean major semitone. (See Pythagorean interval.)
It can be thought of as the difference between four perfect octaves and seven just fifths, and functions as a chromatic semitone in a Pythagorean tuning.
The Pythagorean limma and Pythagorean apotome are enharmonic equivalents (chromatic semitones) and only a Pythagorean comma apart, in contrast to diatonic and chromatic semitones in meantone temperament and 5-limit just intonation.
Just 5-limit intonation
A minor second in just intonation typically corresponds to a pitch ratio of 16:15 () or 1.0666... (approximately 111.7 cents), called the just diatonic semitone. This is a practical just semitone, since it is the difference between a perfect fourth and major third ().
The 16:15 just minor second arises in the C major scale between B & C and E & F, and is, "the sharpest dissonance found in the scale."
An augmented unison in just intonation is another semitone of 25:24 () or 1.0416... (approximately 70.7 cents). It is the difference between a 5:4 major third and a 6:5 minor third. Composer Ben Johnston uses a sharp () to indicate a note is raised 70.7 cents, or a flat () to indicate a note is lowered 70.7 cents.
Two other kinds of semitones are produced by 5-limit tuning. A chromatic scale defines 12 semitones as the 12 intervals between the 13 adjacent notes forming a full octave (e.g. from C4 to C5). The 12 semitones produced by a commonly used version of 5-limit tuning have four different sizes, and can be classified as follows:
Just, or smaller, or minor, chromatic semitone, e.g. between E and E (6/5 and 5/4):
Larger, or major, chromatic semitone, or larger limma, or major chroma, e.g. between C and C (1/1 and 135/128):
Just, or smaller, or minor, diatonic semitone, e.g. between C and D (1/1 and 16/15):
Larger, or major, diatonic semitone, e.g. between A and B (5/3 and 16/9):
The most frequently occurring semitones are the just ones (S3 and S1): S3 occurs six times out of 12, S1 three times, S2 twice, and S4 only once.
The smaller chromatic and diatonic semitones differ from the larger by the syntonic comma (81:80 or 21.5 cents). The smaller and larger chromatic semitones differ from the respective diatonic semitones by the same 128:125 diesis as the above meantone semitones. Finally, while the inner semitones differ by the diaschisma (2048:2025 or 19.6 cents), the outer differ by the greater diesis (648:625 or 62.6 cents).
Extended just intonations
In 7-limit there is the septimal diatonic semitone of 15:14 () available between the 5-limit major seventh (15:8) and the 7-limit minor seventh (7:4). There is also a smaller septimal chromatic semitone of 21:20 () between a septimal minor seventh and a fifth (21:8) and an octave and a major third (5:2). Both are more rarely used than their 5-limit neighbours, although the former was often implemented by theorist Henry Cowell, while Harry Partch used the latter as part of his 43-tone scale.
Under 11-limit tuning, there is a fairly common undecimal neutral second (12:11) (), but it lies on the boundary between the minor and major second (150.6 cents). In just intonation there are infinitely many possibilities for intervals that fall within the range of the semitone (e.g. the Pythagorean semitones mentioned above), but most of them are impractical.
In 13-limit tuning, there is a tridecimal 2/3 tone (13:12 or 138.57 cents) and tridecimal 1/3 tone (27:26 or 65.34 cents).
In 17-limit just intonation, the major diatonic semitone is 15:14 or 119.4 cents (), and the minor diatonic semitone is 17:16 or 105.0 cents, and septendecimal limma is 18:17 or 98.95 cents.
Though the names diatonic and chromatic are often used for these intervals, their musical function is not the same as the two meantone semitones. For instance, 15:14 would usually be written as an augmented unison, functioning as the chromatic counterpart to a diatonic 16:15. These distinctions are highly dependent on the musical context, and just intonation is not particularly well suited to chromatic usage (diatonic semitone function is more prevalent).
Other equal temperaments
19-tone equal temperament distinguishes between the chromatic and diatonic semitones; in this tuning, the chromatic semitone is one step of the scale (), and the diatonic semitone is two (). 31-tone equal temperament also distinguishes between these two intervals, which become 2 and 3 steps of the scale, respectively. 53-ET has an even closer match to the two semitones with 3 and 5 steps of its scale while 72-ET uses 4 () and 7 () steps of its scale.
In general, because the smaller semitone can be viewed as the difference between a minor third and a major third, and the larger as the difference between a major third and a perfect fourth, tuning systems that closely match those just intervals (6/5, 5/4, and 4/3) will also distinguish between the two types of semitones and closely match their just intervals (25/24 and 16/15).
See also
List of meantone intervals
List of musical intervals
List of pitch intervals
Approach chord
Major second
Neutral second
Pythagorean interval
Regular temperament
References
Further reading
Grout, Donald Jay, and Claude V. Palisca. A History of Western Music, 6th ed. New York: Norton, 2001. .
Hoppin, Richard H. Medieval Music. New York: W. W. Norton, 1978. .
Minor intervals
Seconds (music)
Units of level
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City%20Island%2C%20Bronx
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City Island, Bronx
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City Island is a neighborhood in the northeastern Bronx in New York City, located on an island of the same name approximately long by wide. City Island is located at the extreme western end of Long Island Sound, south of Pelham Bay Park, and east of Eastchester Bay.
At one time the island was incorporated within the boundaries of Pelham, Westchester County, New York, but the island is now part of New York City. City Island is part of the Pelham Islands, a group of islands that once belonged to Thomas Pell. The body of water between City Island and the even smaller, uninhabited Hart Island to the east is known as City Island Harbor. The small island adjacent to the northeast is High Island. The Stepping Stones Light, marking the main shipping channel into New York, is off the southern tip of City Island, near the Long Island shore.
As of the 2020 Census, the island had a population of 4,417. Its land area is . The island is part of Bronx Community District 10, and its ZIP Code is 10464.
History
Prior to European colonialism, the island now known as City Island was inhabited by Native Americans, possibly the Wiechquaeskeck band of the Lenape people who left shell middens indicating that they had gathered, cooked, and consumed oysters and clams on the island. The island was part of a very large property, about 50,000 acres, to which the English physician Thomas Pell established ownership in a treaty signed by five Lenape sachems in 1654.
The island, known by different names including: Minnewits, Minneford, Minefer's, Great Mulberry Island, was purchased in 1761 by Benjamin Palmer of New York, who planned to make it a major seaport in western Long Island Sound. Palmer changed the name to New City Island, later dropping the “New.”
Up to this point the island had been inhabited by only a few homes and farms. It had a population of about 1000 people, who tended farms and livestock. Palmer had the vision of developing the island into a port, which could rival that of New York. He knew that ships heading north and south passed City Island using Long Island Sound as a safe inshore waterway. He envisioned shipyards, and stores that could cater to the ships. He went as far as to have the island mapped out in different plots designated as shipyards, docks, business, farms, homes, schools, and houses of worship, along with streets, paths, and access routes. Benjamin Palmer appealed to the British Crown and received letters patent that covered the ownership of waterfront properties 400 feet out from the high tide mark under water and around the perimeter of the Island. This patent, known as the "Palmer Grant" is unique to City Island; it has been contested in courts since, but has always been upheld.
Palmer also is responsible for changing the name from Minefer's Island to City Island in anticipation of things to come. Palmer's vision never fully materialized, however, as the timing just before the American Revolution halted all progress, and the war depleted the capital of Palmer and his investors. It would be another sixty years before the island again started to be developed when oystermen, pilots of Hell Gate, a set of nearby narrows, and eventually shipbuilders arrived and introduced these industries.
In 1819, City Island was annexed to the town of Pelham, Westchester County. It narrowly voted to become a part of New York City in 1895, in exchange for a new bridge to the mainland, and was consolidated as part of the Bronx in 1898. The island continued to host harbor defenses through the early 20th century. In the mid-20th century, City Island developed as a shipbuilding community, before becoming a daytrippers' destination. City Island has generally remained sparsely developed with a suburban feel. A 43-unit condo complex called On the Sound, built in 2015, was the first major residential project on the island since around 2000.
According to local tradition, anyone actually born on the island is known as a "clam digger". A City Island resident not born on the island is known as a "mussel sucker".
Demographics
As of the 2020 Census, the island had a population of 4,417.
For census purposes, the New York City government classifies City Island as part of a larger neighborhood tabulation area called Pelham Bay-Country Club-City Island. Based on data from the 2010 United States Census, the population of Pelham Bay-Country Club-City Island was 26,583, a decrease of 557 (2.1%) from the 27,140 counted in 2000. Covering an area of , the neighborhood had a population density of . The racial makeup of the Pelham Bay-Country Club-City Island neighborhood was 62.0% (16,488) White, 2.9% (773) African American, 0.1% (36) Native American, 3.6% (969) Asian, 0.0% (5) Pacific Islander, 0.4% (110) from other races, and 0.9% (252) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 29.9% (7,950) of the population.
The entirety of Community District 10, which comprises City Island, Co-op City, Country Club, Pelham Bay, Schuylerville,
Throgs Neck and Westchester Square, had 121,868 inhabitants as of NYC Health's 2018 Community Health Profile, with an average life expectancy of 81.1 years. This is about the same as the median life expectancy of 81.2 for all New York City neighborhoods. Most inhabitants are youth and middle-aged adults: 20% are between the ages of between 0–17, 26% between 25 and 44, and 27% between 45 and 64. The ratio of college-aged and elderly residents was lower, at 9% and 18% respectively.
As of 2017, the median household income in Community District 10 was $59,522. In 2018, an estimated 14% residents of Community District 10 lived in poverty, compared to 25% in all of the Bronx and 20% in all of New York City. One in eleven residents (9%) were unemployed, compared to 13% in the Bronx and 9% in New York City. Rent burden, or the percentage of residents who have difficulty paying their rent, is 45% in Community District 10, compared to the boroughwide and citywide rates of 58% and 51% respectively. Based on this calculation, , Community District 10 is considered high-income relative to the rest of the city and not gentrifying.
Land use
Most businesses are clustered along the central City Island Avenue. There is one small supermarket, a gas station, a pharmacy, a bank, a hardware store and a variety of other small shops. The island is most famous for its numerous seafood restaurants and antique stores, which line both sides of the avenue.
At the southernmost section of City Island is Belden Point, named for William Belden, a developer who opened an amusement park and resort in the area in 1887. In the early part of the 20th century, the area was a favored recreation location for business tycoons including Vincent Astor, J.P. Morgan and William Randolph Hearst. Today, Belden Point is home to a number of popular seafood restaurants. A new public greenspace was dedicated in 2016 at its waterfront tip.
In 1960 City Island became the last community in New York City to get dial telephone service. Until then eight operators in a private home on Schofield Street connected all calls. The dial exchange began as Area Code 212-TT5. Now Area Code 718–885.
Geology
City Island was created by glacial deposits at the end of the last ice age. There is a layer of bedrock and then a thick layer of red clay topped with sand, with topsoil above that. The southern end has deposits of rare blue clay. The area is strewn with glacial erratic boulders. Local bedrock is Manhattan schist with glacial striations.
Endemic wildlife
The forms of animal life on the island are not much different from that of the surrounding region, and are typical of a suburban environment: raccoons, squirrels, rabbits, skunk, and occasional deer. Coyotes and turkeys have also been sighted.
The real diversity of wildlife on and around City Island is among birds, especially aquatic species. There are many varieties of duck; buffleheads, goldeneyes, mallards, and cormorants. Canada geese are common, as are mute swans, great blue herons, great white egrets, and several types of gull. A small protected wetlands area on west Ditmars Street is home to many of these species as well as the feral pigeon.
Bright green parrots (monk parakeets), originally imported from South America as pets, have adapted to the climate and breed in the wild in New York. They are a common sight on City Island and in nearby Pelham Bay Park. Rafters of wild turkeys also are often seen in the park. Deer are occasionally seen on the island, although more commonly in Pelham Bay Park. Another, nonnative species of the island is the brown or De Kay's snake, which has adapted to life among the island's growing community.
Activities
Local points of interest
The island is famous for its seafood restaurants; lobster is a popular specialty. Over 30 eating establishments compete for business, ranging from fast food (Johnny's Reef), to The Black Whale, famous for its desserts. While a few of the restaurants close during the winter months, most are open year-round.
The City Island Nautical Museum displays maritime artifacts and antiques. It is located at 190 Fordham Street and is open only on Saturday and Sunday afternoons (other times by appointment). Admission is eight dollars and there is a small gift shop. The Museum is located in the PS17 building, a historic school building built in 1897 before the City Island Bridge.
The Island has landmarks such as the Samuel Pell Mansion on City Island Avenue, near St. Mary Star of the Sea Church. It is where Arsenic and Old Lace was filmed for TV in 1969. There are a number of old Victorian mansions located throughout City Island, mostly on the Sound side, complete with tall pointy spires and gables with gazebos, such as Delmours Point on Tier Street.
The City Island Theater Group, a local community theater established in 1999, produces shows year round.
Boating
The island has three yacht clubs situated on the Eastchester Bay side of the island. They are, from north to south, the Harlem Yacht Club, the City Island Yacht Club, and the Morris Yacht and Beach Club. The Touring Kayak Club is on the west side of the island. Barron's Boatyard, the North Minneford Yacht Club and the South Minneford Yacht Club are on the east side of the island. There are two active sail lofts (UK-Halsey and Doyle). The island also has several commercial marinas.
The island has what are called "special anchorages" where boats of all sizes are freely moored or anchored, and there are many docks with boat slips for mooring boats in a secure and restricted way. There are also many large piers around the island that can receive large ships.
The island is home to the Columbia University Sailing Team, whose fleet of dinghies is docked at City Island Yacht Club. The team comes from Manhattan four times a week to practice off the western shore of City Island. Fordham University's Sailing Team sails out of Morris Yacht and Beach Club. Many of the boats which competed and won in the America's Cup in years past were built in the Nevins Boat Yard on City Island. The Eastchester Bay Yacht Racing Association is the major organizer for sailboat races in the area. J/24 sailboats are the one active design racing fleet on the island.
A small fleet of head boats takes paying passengers on fishing trips to Long Island Sound. Smaller boats are also available for rent by the day. The sail and power boating industry has been declining in recent years, as boatyards are being sold and being converted into condominiums.
Local organizations
City Island Civic Association
American Legion - Leonard H. Hawkins Post 156
Cub Scouts Troop 211
Boy Scouts Troop 211
City Island Nautical Museum
Garden Club of City Island
AARP 318
U.S. Coast Guard Auxiliary Flotilla 014-05-04 City Island
U.S. Power Squadron City Island
City Island Republicans
American Legion Auxiliary Post 156
City Island Rising
City Island Little League
Bronx Masonic District
City Island Indivisible
City Island Oyster Reef, Inc
The Island Current
The Island Current is a local newspaper printed monthly. The first issue was printed in October 1971 and the newspaper focuses on local issues, gatherings and businesses, as well as boating information. The newspaper maintains a close relationship to the City Island Chamber of Commerce.
Police and crime
City Island is patrolled by the 45th Precinct of the NYPD, located at 2877 Barkley Avenue in Throggs Neck. The 45th Precinct ranked 28th safest out of 69 patrol areas for per-capita crime in 2010. , with a non-fatal assault rate of 53 per 100,000 people, Community District 10's rate of violent crimes per capita is less than that of the city as a whole. The incarceration rate of 243 per 100,000 people is lower than that of the city as a whole.
The 45th Precinct has a lower crime rate than in the 1990s, with crimes across all categories having decreased by 67% between 1990 and 2022. The precinct reported five murders, 13 rapes, 235 robberies, 265 felony assaults, 108 burglaries, 609 grand larcenies, and 323 grand larcenies auto in 2022.
Fire safety
City Island is served by the New York City Fire Department (FDNY)'s Engine Co. 70/Ladder Co. 53, located at 169 Schofield Street.
Health
, preterm births are more common in Community District 10, which comprises City Island, Co-op City, Country Club, Pelham Bay, Schuylerville, Throgs Neck and Westchester Square, compared to other places citywide, although births to teenage mothers are less common. In Community District 10, there were 110 preterm births per 1,000 live births (compared to 87 per 1,000 citywide), and 10.3 births to teenage mothers per 1,000 live births (compared to 19.3 per 1,000 citywide). Community District 10 has a low population of residents who are uninsured. In 2018, this population of uninsured residents was estimated to be 7%, lower than the citywide rate of 14%, though this was based on a small sample size.
The concentration of fine particulate matter, the deadliest type of air pollutant, in Community District 10 is , the same as the city average. Fourteen percent of Community District 10 residents are smokers, which is the same as the city average of 14% of residents being smokers. In Community District 10, 24% of residents are obese, 13% are diabetic, and 37% have high blood pressure—compared to the citywide averages of 24%, 11%, and 28% respectively. In addition, 25% of children are obese, compared to the citywide average of 20%.
Eighty-seven percent of residents eat some fruits and vegetables every day, which is the same as the city's average of 87%. In 2018, 77% of residents described their health as "good", "very good", or "excellent", about the same as the city's average of 78%. For every supermarket in Comm, there are seven bodegas.
The nearest large hospitals are Calvary Hospital, Montefiore Medical Center's Jack D. Weiler Hospital, and Jacobi Medical Center in Morris Park. The Albert Einstein College of Medicine campus is also located in Morris Park.
Post office and ZIP Code
City Island is located within ZIP Code 10464. The United States Postal Service operates the City Island Station post office at 199 City Island Avenue.
Education
Community District 10, which comprises City Island, Co-op City, Country Club, Pelham Bay, Schuylerville, Throgs Neck and Westchester Square, generally has a lower rate of college-educated residents than the rest of the city . While 34% of residents age 25 and older have a college education or higher, 16% have less than a high school education and 50% are high school graduates or have some college education. By contrast, 26% of Bronx residents and 43% of city residents have a college education or higher. The percentage of Community District 10 students excelling in math rose from 29% in 2000 to 47% in 2011, and reading achievement increased from 33% to 35% during the same time period.
Community District 10's rate of elementary school student absenteeism is slightly higher than the rest of New York City. In Community District 10, 21% of elementary school students missed twenty or more days per school year, a little more than the citywide average of 20%. Additionally, 75% of high school students in Community District 10 graduate on time, the same as the citywide average of 75%.
Schools
The public school on City Island is operated by the New York City Department of Education. PS 175, located on City Island Avenue, serves grades K-8 for the island.
The School of St. Mary Star of the Sea was a Roman Catholic grade school, serving grades PreK-8 on City Island, until it closed in the end of the 2012–2013 school year. The church operated Holy Rosary Early Childhood Academy at St. Mary Star Of The Sea until its closure in 2010.
The former Public School 17 houses the City Island Historical Society and Nautical Museum. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1984.
Library
The New York Public Library (NYPL)'s City Island branch is located at 320 City Island Avenue. The branch has been operating since 1903, but moved to its current building in 1970; a renovation in 1997 doubled the size of the branch. The City Island branch contains a "ship collection" of over a thousand ship-related media, as well as a collection of materials about City Island's history.
Religion
Houses of worship are Saint Mary Star of the Sea Holy Roman Catholic Church, Trinity United Methodist Church, Grace Episcopal Church, and Temple Beth El (founded in 1934).
Transportation
Starting in 1760, a small rope ferry ran between the mainland and City Island. In 1873 a bridge was built by a syndicate of City Island businessmen, including G.W. Horton, Ben Hedgeman, and David Carll. It was replaced by steel, three-lane City Island Bridge in 1901. In 2014, the New York City Department of Transportation had proposed replacing it with a cable-stayed bridge hanging from a 160-foot tower but the design faced intense community opposition and the city submitted a redesign which was approved. A temporary bridge was used from December 2015 until October 2017 which allowed for the demolition of the old bridge and the construction of its replacement. The New City Island Causeway Bridge opened to traffic on October 29, 2017.
There is another small, private bridge on the northeastern end of City Island connecting it to High Island, site of the radio transmitter for WFAN (660 AM) and WCBS (880 AM). A security gate prevents public access.
The Pelham Park & City Island Railway connected City Island to Pelham Bay Park from 1887 to 1919. Originally composed of two separate railroads, the narrow-gauge horsecar route was operated by the Pelham Park Railroad Company, which ran service between the Bartow station of the Harlem River & Port Chester Railroad and Brown's Hotel on City Island. The route was complete by 1892. The Interborough Rapid Transit Company, which operated part of the modern-day New York City Subway, absorbed the two companies in 1902 and started designing its own monorail in 1908. The monorail's first journey in July 1910 ended with the monorail toppling on its side. Although service resumed in November 1910, the monorail went into receivership in December 1911, and the monorail ceased operation on April 3, 1914. In July 1914, the IRT sold the company to the Third Avenue Railway, which ceased operation of the City Island Railroad on August 9, 1919.
Today, the only public transportation to City Island are two bus routes operated by the Metropolitan Transportation Authority. The island is served by MTA Regional Bus Operations's Bx29 local route, which operates to the New York City Subway's Pelham Bay Park station, and two rush-hour extended round-trips of the BxM8 express route, which runs to Manhattan. The Bronx Tourism Council ran the City Island Seaside Trolley, which later became a ferry service. This ferry service was retired in 2020.
In popular culture
Films
A very early film shot in a City Island studio was Richard III (1912), the oldest surviving American feature-length film.
The movie City Island (2009), starring Andy García and Julianna Margulies, is set on City Island and was shot there. The film won the Audience Favorite Award at the 2009 Tribeca Film Festival.
Butterfield 8 starring Elizabeth Taylor
Long Day's Journey into Night (1962), with Katharine Hepburn
Awakenings, with Robert De Niro and Robin Williams
Love Is All There Is, with Lainie Kazan and Angelina Jolie
A Bronx Tale, with De Niro and Chazz Palminteri, which featured the City Island Bridge and one scene filmed in the parking lot of Johnny's Reef Restaurant.
Don't Say a Word at the Hart Island Ferry and Hart Island, with Michael Douglas
Wes Anderson's The Royal Tenenbaums was filmed at Delmours Point, which is the mansion where Long Days Journey into Night was filmed.
Louis Lombardi shot many scenes from Dough Boys (2008) on the island.
The Groomsmen (2006), directed by Edward Burns, was filmed at many locations on City Island.
Margot at the Wedding (2006), starring Nicole Kidman and Ciarán Hinds, which was filmed on City Island Avenue and other locations on the island.
Michael Douglas returned to City Island with actor Danny DeVito to film Solitary Man (2009) in the City Island Diner.
Jessica Alba was filmed in An Invisible Sign of My Own (2009) there.
The documentary film Weiner (2016) includes a scene at a meeting of Democratic party voters on City Island.
Literature
James Gregory Kingston's novel, The City Island Messenger, uses City Island as the backdrop for a story about a young boy delivering Western Union telegrams that break the sad news of soldiers' deaths to families, over a span of a week during World War II, during the Battle of Midway
In Kurt Vonnegut's novel Bluebeard, the character Dan Gregory states that his yacht, the Ararat, was dry-docked on City Island
William Fisher's 1952 novel, The Waiters, is about African American workers at an enormous seafood restaurant on City Island.
In Holly Black's Ironside, Kaye and Corny go to City Island as a means to get to Hart Island.
Television
Numerous television shows have featured or been shot on City Island. For example:
Car 54, Where Are You?
Comedian Jerry Seinfeld visited City Island Diner on the island with Ricky Gervais in one of the webisodes of his Comedians in Cars Getting Coffee
Coronet Blue
The Law & Order episode "Maritime" showed the City Island bridge.
The Law & Order: Criminal Intent episode "Sound Bodies", which was based on a real-life story of several local teenagers who drowned in Long Island Sound near City Island.
The Law & Order: Special Victims Unit episode "Melancholy Pursuit" partially takes place on City Island.
The fictional city of Hyde in the series finale of the US version of Life on Mars was filmed on City Island.
The Amazon series Sneaky Pete filmed on City Island during season 1.
Production company
Since 2002, the film production company Harrington Talents has had its offices and studio located on City Island. Notable celebrities who have worked on their productions include rapper and actor Ice-T, and professional wrestler Bruno Sammartino.
Notable residents
Notable current and former residents of the island include:
Anthony Amato (1920–2011) and Sally Amato (1917–2000), founders and former directors of Amato Opera
Harry Carey (1878–1947), one of silent film's earliest superstars
Adolfo Carrión Jr. (born 1961), former Bronx Borough President
Clinton Leupp (born 1965), drag performer, better known by his drag persona Coco Peru and actor (films To Wong Foo, Thanks for Everything! Julie Newmar and Trick)
Bruce McRae (1867–1927), silent film actor
George Meany (1894–1980), union leader who served as president of the AFL–CIO
Henry B. Nevins (1878–1959), master yacht builder
Vincent Pastore (born 1946), actor known for his portrayal of Salvatore "Big Pussy" Bonpensiero on the TV series The Sopranos
Carlos D. Ramirez (1946–1999), publisher of El Diario La Prensa
Red Buttons (1919–2006), comedian-actor who got his start at Ryan's Inn wearing a bellhop uniform with large red buttons.
Oliver Sacks (1933–2015), who wrote the book Awakenings, whose adaptation was filmed at a house similar to his own, but on a different street on the island He would routinely swim around the entire island, or swim vast distances away from the island and back.
Eric W. Sanderson, conservation ecologist and author.
Salvatore Santoro (1913–2000), Lucchese crime family underboss
Frank Scalice (1893–1957), Italian-American mobster who led the future Gambino crime family from 1930 to 1931, and was underboss from 1951 to 1957.
Richard Waring (1911–1994), television and film actor
See also
Cuban Ledge
Execution Rocks Lighthouse
Fort Slocum
Green Flats Reef
Hart Island
Pelham Islands
References
Further reading
Maps and charts
City Island Tide Chart
Articles
"Close-up on City Island" . The Village Voice. 2002.
The City Island Digital Image Gallery
Literature
External links
The Island Current
City Island Webcam
City Island Branch Library
P.S. 175 City Island School
Islands of the Bronx
Islands of New York City
Long Island Sound
Neighborhoods in the Bronx
Populated coastal places in New York (state)
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Institute of Economic Affairs
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The Institute of Economic Affairs (IEA) is a right-wing, free market think tank registered as a UK charity. Associated with the New Right, the IEA describes itself as an "educational research institute" and says that it seeks to "further the dissemination of free-market thinking" by "analysing and expounding the role of markets in solving economic and social problems". The IEA was established to promote free-market solutions to economic challenges by targeting influential academics and journalists, as well as students, in order to propagate these ideas widely. Adopting as its credo FA Hayek's view that "yesterday's dissent becomes today's consensus," the IEA says that it prioritises producing work with a focus on economic insights over partisan politics.
The IEA subscribes to a neoliberal world view and advocates positions based on this ideology. It published climate change denial material between 1994 and 2007, and has advocated for privatisation of elements of, and abolition of complete government control of, the National Health Service (NHS), in favour of a healthcare system with market mechanisms. It has received more than £70,000 from the tobacco industry (although it does not reveal its funders), and IEA officers have been recorded offering "cash for access". The IEA is headquartered in Westminster, London, England.
Founded by businessman and battery farming pioneer Antony Fisher in 1955, the IEA was one of the first modern think tanks, and promoted Thatcherite right-wing ideology, and free market and monetarist economic policies. The IEA has been criticised for operating in a manner closer to that of a lobbying operation than as a genuine think tank. The IEA publishes an academic journal (Economic Affairs), a student magazine (EA), books and discussion papers, and holds regular lectures.
History
In 1945, Antony Fisher read an article in Reader's Digest that was a summary of The Road to Serfdom by Friedrich Hayek. Later that year, Fisher visited Hayek at the London School of Economics. Hayek dissuaded Fisher from embarking on a political and parliamentary career to try to prevent the spread of socialism and central planning. Instead, Hayek suggested the establishment of a body which could engage in research and reach the intellectuals with reasoned argument. The IEA's first location was a cramped, £3-a-week room with one table and chair at Oliver Smedley's General Management Services, which housed various free-trade organisations at 4 Austin Friars, a few dozen yards from the Stock Exchange in the heart of the City of London.
In June 1955, The Free Convertibility of Sterling by George Winder was published, with Fisher signing the foreword as Director of the IEA. In November 1955, the IEA's Original Trust Deed was signed by Fisher, John Harding and Oliver Smedley. Ralph Harris (later Lord Harris) began work as part-time General Director in January 1957. He was joined in 1958 by Arthur Seldon who was initially appointed Editorial Advisor and became the Editorial Director in 1959. Smedley wrote to Fisher that it was "imperative that we should give no indication in our literature that we are working to educate the public along certain lines which might be interpreted as having a political bias. … That is why the first draft [of the IEA's aims] is written in rather cagey terms".
The Social Affairs Unit was established in December 1980 as an offshoot of the Institute of Economic Affairs to carry the IEA's economic ideas onto the battleground of sociology. "Within a few years the Social Affairs Unit became independent from the IEA, acquiring its own premises." In 1986, the IEA created a Health and Welfare Unit to focus on these aspects of social policy. Discussing the IEA's increasing influence under the Conservative government in the 1980s in relation to the "advent of Thatcherism" and the privatisation of public services, Dieter Plehwe, a Research Fellow at the WZB Berlin Social Science Center, has written thatThe arguably most influential think tank in British history... benefited from the close alignment of IEA's neoliberal agenda with corporate interests and the priorities of the Thatcher government.
In 2007, British journalist Andrew Marr called the IEA "undoubtedly the most influential think tank in modern British history". Damien Cahill, a Professor of Political Economy at the University of Sydney, has characterised the IEA as, "Britain's oldest and leading neoliberal think tank". Sir Oliver Letwin once said: "...without the IEA and its clones, no Thatcher and quite possibly no Reagan; without Reagan, no Star Wars; without Star Wars, no economic collapse of the Soviet Union. Quite a chain of consequences for a chicken farmer!"
In October 2009, the IEA appointed Mark Littlewood as its Director General, with effect from 1 December 2009.
In September 2022, an associated think tank, the Free Market Forum was founded.
Purpose and aims
In 2018 the IEA's director Mark Littlewood said "We want to totally reframe the debate about the proper role of the state and civil society in our country … Our true mission is to change the climate of opinion." While there is no corporate view, and while the IEA has a tradition of welcoming discussion, debate, and papers from those on the left, the IEA promotes the market and has two prominent themes in its publications: first, a belief in limited government and, second, "the technical (and moral) superiority of markets and competitive pricing in the allocation of scarce resources."
The IEA is described as a "university without students" because its primarily target is not politicians but "the gatekeepers of ideas", namely the intellectuals, academics, and journalists. The IEA believe that a change in the intellectual climate is a pre-condition for any ideological shift within political parties or government institutions.
The IEA has written policy papers arguing against government funding for pressure groups and charities involved in political campaigning. The IEA does not receive government funding. As a registered charity, the IEA must abide by Charity Commission rules, that state that "an organisation will not be charitable if its purposes are political". In July 2018 the Charity Commission announced that it was to investigate whether the IEA had broken its rules.
The investigation concluded that one of the IEA's reports on Brexit was too political. The regulator thus asked the IEA to remove the report from its website in early November 2018, and issued an official warning in February 2019. It required trustees to provide written assurances that the IEA would not engage in campaigning or political activity contravening legal or regulatory requirements. The IEA removed the report on 19 November and said it complied with the Commission's other guidance by 23 November. IEA trustees were also required to set up a system whereby research reports and launch plans are signed off by trustees.
Following the IEA's compliance, the Charity Commission withdrew the official warning in June 2019. A compliance case into the IEA remained open, examining concerns about the trustees' management and oversight of the charity's activities.
According to George Monbiot, the IEA supports privatising the National Health Service (NHS); campaigns against controls on junk food; attacks trades unions; and defends zero-hour contracts, unpaid internships and tax havens. IEA staff are frequently invited by the BBC and other news media to appear on broadcasts.
The IEA published, between 1994 and 2007, "at least four books, as well as multiple articles and papers, ... suggesting manmade climate change may be uncertain or exaggerated [and that] climate change is either not significantly driven by human activity or will be positive", according to an October 2019 Guardian article. Specifically, in 2003, the IEA published the book Climate Alarmism Reconsidered which concluded that government intervention in the name of sustainability is the major threat to energy sustainability and the provision of affordable, reliable energy to growing economies worldwide. It further advocated that free-market structures and the wealth generated by markets help communities to best adapt to climate change.
Concerns about political independence; investigation
The Observer reported on 29 July 2018 that the director of the IEA was secretly recorded in May and June. He was recorded telling an undercover reporter that funders could get to know ministers on first-name terms and that his organisation was in "the Brexit influencing game". While seeking funding, Littlewood said that the IEA allowed donors to affect the "salience" of reports and to shape "substantial content". The recording was to be given to the Charity Commission on 30 July.
The Charity Commission, considering that the allegations raised by the recordings were "of a serious nature", on 20 July 2018 opened a regulatory compliance case into the IEA due to concerns about its political independence. Previously, it had become known that the IEA offered potential US donors access to ministers while raising funds for research to promote free-trade deals favoured by proponents of a "hard Brexit". The Commission has powers to examine IEA financial records, legally compel it to provide information, and to disqualify trustees. The IEA denies it has breached charity law.
It was also revealed that, after the IEA published a report recommending more casinos, the casino industry donated £8,000 to the IEA.
Jon Trickett, the shadow Cabinet Office minister, welcoming the investigation into the IEA, said "on the road to Brexit, a small group of establishment figures, funded to the tune of millions, are covertly pursuing a political campaign in favour of extreme free trade, acting in effect as lobbyists for secretive corporate interests...there are serious questions that high-ranking Conservative ministers must now answer about their dealings with the IEA."
It was also revealed that Jersey Finance, representing financial interests in Jersey, paid for an IEA report saying that tax havens (such as Jersey) benefited the wider economy, and did not diminish tax revenues in other countries. The report recommended that their status be protected. The IEA did not disclose the funding from Jersey Finance. A similar IEA report about neighbouring Guernsey was funded by the financial services industry there. Following this, the IEA said that funding they received never influenced the conclusions of reports, and that their output was independent and free from conflict of interest.
Separately, the register of lobbyists concluded in 2019 that the IEA had not participated in consultant lobbying for E Foundation.
Freer launch
In March 2018 the IEA offshoot Freer was founded to promote a positive message of liberal, supply-side Conservative renewal. Freer held two meetings at the 2018 Conservative conference (with none in any other political parties' conferences), and remains entirely within the IEA's structural and organisational control.
Cabinet ministers and MPs (including Michael Gove and Liz Truss) spoke at the organisation's launch. Truss called for a neoliberal "Tory revolution" spearheaded by "Uber-riding, Airbnb-ing, Deliveroo-eating freedom-fighters", comments which were criticised by the Morning Star for failing to take into consideration the quality of employment within the companies mentioned. Conservative blogger Paul Staines said that the launch "piqued the interest of senior ministers including Michael Gove, Dom Raab and Brexit brain Shanker Singham". The organisation has 24 parliamentary supporters – including prominent figures such as Liz Truss, Chris Skidmore, Priti Patel, Ben Bradley and Kemi Badenoch – all of whom are Conservative MPs. Freer also holds events and publishes pamphlets for Conservative MPs, and has been referred to the Charity Commission by Private Eye for political bias.
Funding
The IEA is a registered educational and research charity. The organisation states that it is funded by "voluntary donations from individuals, companies and foundations who want to support its work, plus income from book sales and conferences", and says that it is "independent of any political party or group". The Charity Commission listed total income of £2.34 million and expenditure of £2.33 million for the financial year ending 31 March 2021.
The IEA does not disclose their sources of funding, and has been criticised by health charities and by George Monbiot in The Guardian for receiving funds from major tobacco companies whilst campaigning on tobacco industry issues. British American Tobacco (BAT) confirmed it had donated £40,000 to the IEA in 2013, £20,000 in 2012 and £10,000 in 2011, and Philip Morris International and Japan Tobacco International also confirmed they provide financial support to the IEA. In 2002, a leaked letter revealed that a prominent IEA member, the right-wing writer Roger Scruton, had authored an IEA pamphlet attacking the World Health Organisation's campaign on tobacco, whilst failing to disclose that he was receiving £54,000 a year from Japan Tobacco International. In response, the IEA said it would introduce an author declaration policy. The IEA also says that it "accepts no tied funding".
An organisation called 'American Friends of the IEA' had received US$215,000 as of 2010 from the U.S.-based Donors Trust and Donors Capital Fund, donor-advised funds which support right-wing causes.
The Think tank Transparify, which is funded by the Open Society Foundations, in 2015 ranked the IEA as one of the top three least transparent think tanks in the UK in relation to funding. The IEA responded by saying "it is a matter for individual donors whether they wish their donation to be public or private – we leave that entirely to their discretion", and that it has not "earmarked money for commissioned research work from any company".
Funding to the IEA from the alcohol industry, food industry, and sugar industry has also been documented. IEA Research Fellow Christopher Snowdon disclosed alcohol industry funding in a response to a British Medical Journal article in 2014.
In October 2018, an investigation by Greenpeace found that the IEA was also receiving funding from the oil giant BP, which was "[using] this access to press ministers on issues ranging from environmental and safety standards to British tax rates." In May 2019, the British Medical Journal revealed that British American Tobacco was continuing to fund the IEA.
In November 2022, the funding transparency website Who Funds You? rated the Institute as E, the lowest transparency rating (rating goes from A to E).
Reception
In early 2019, on national radio station LBC, James O'Brien called the IEA a politically motivated lobbying organisation funded by "dark money", of "questionable provenance, with dubious ideas and validity", staffed by people who are not proper experts on their topic. The IEA complained to UK media regulator Ofcom that those remarks were inaccurate and unfair. In August 2021, Ofcom rejected the complaint.
Publications
Arthur Seldon proposed a series of Papers for economists to explore the neoliberal approach to the issues of the day. Eventually, these emerged as the Hobart Papers; 154 had been published by August 2006. In addition, 32 Hobart Paperbacks had been released along with 139 Occasional Papers, 61 Readings and 61 Research Monographs. Numerous other titles have been published in association with trade and university presses.
Research
According to the IEA, although not an academic body, the institute's research activities are aided by an international Academic Advisory Council and a panel of Honorary Fellows. The IEA's work is generally more theoretical than political, and has a refereeing process for all its publications. They note that their papers are subjected to the same refereeing process used by academic journals, and that the views expressed in IEA papers are those of the authors and not of the IEA, its trustees, directors, or advisors.
The IEA has also published research in areas including business ethics, economic development, education, pensions, regulation, taxation, and transport.
Notable people
Honorary Fellows
Armen Alchian
Samuel Brittan
James M. Buchanan
Ronald Coase
Terence W. Hutchison
David Laidler
Alan T. Peacock
Anna Schwartz
Vernon L. Smith
Gordon Tullock
Alan Walters
Basil Yamey
Personnel and Fellows
As of 2023, the IEA had full and part time 32 employees, 9 trustees (unpaid volunteers) and 2 former chairmen who serve as life vice presidents; additionally, the IEA has an Academic Advisory Council with dozens of professors and other academics.
Mark Littlewood, Director General and Ralph Harris Fellow
Philip Booth, Editorial and Programme Director
John Blundell (died 2014), IEA Distinguished Senior Fellow
Robert L. Bradley, IEA Energy and Climate Change Fellow
Dennis O'Keeffe, IEA Education and Welfare Fellow
Richard D. North, IEA Media Fellow
Mark Pennington, IEA Political Economy Fellow
Vladimir Krulj, IEA Economics Fellow
Directors-General
Ralph Harris 1957–1988
Graham Mather 1988–1993
John Blundell 1993–2009
Mark Littlewood 2009–2023
Chairmen of the Board of Trustees
Antony Fisher 1955 -- 1988
Nigel Vinson 1988 -- 1995
Harold Rose (economist) 1995 -- 1998
Sir Peter Walters 1998 -- 2001
Professor D.R. Myddelton 2001-- 2015
Neil Record 2015--2023
Linda Edwards 2023 --
Members of the Board of Trustees (current and former)
Kevin Bell
Christian Bjornskov
Robert Boyd
Tim Congdon
Linda Edwards
Robin Edwards
Antony Fisher
Mike Fisher
Tom Harris
Michael Hintze
Malcolm McAlpine
Patrick Minford
David Myddelton
Mark Pennington
Bruno Prior
Neil Record
Sir Michael Richardson
Martin Ricketts
Harold Rose (economist)
Len Shackelton
Nigel Vinson
Linda Whetstone
Geoffrey Wood
See also
List of think tanks in the United Kingdom
Hayek Lecture
Economists for Free Trade
References
Further reading
External links
Institute of Economic Affairs
IEA Blog
Political and economic think tanks based in the United Kingdom
Economic research institutes
Non-profit organisations based in London
1955 establishments in the United Kingdom
Organisations based in the City of Westminster
Think-tanks established in 1955
Advocacy groups in the United Kingdom
Libertarian think tanks
Neoliberal organizations
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Eight%20Conference
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Big Eight Conference
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The Big Eight Conference was a National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA)-affiliated Division I-A college athletic association that sponsored football. It was formed in January 1907 as the Missouri Valley Intercollegiate Athletic Association (MVIAA) by its charter member schools: the University of Kansas, University of Missouri, University of Nebraska, and Washington University in St. Louis. Additionally, the University of Iowa was an original member of the MVIAA, while maintaining joint membership in the Western Conference (now the Big Ten Conference).
The conference's membership at its dissolution consisted of the University of Nebraska, Iowa State University, the University of Colorado at Boulder, the University of Kansas, Kansas State University, the University of Missouri, the University of Oklahoma, and Oklahoma State University. The Big Eight’s headquarters were located in Kansas City, Missouri.
In February 1994, all 8 members of the Big Eight Conference and 4 of the members of the Southwest Conference announced that the 12 schools had reached an agreement to form the Big 12 Conference. From a conventional standpoint, the Big 12 was a renamed and expanded Big Eight. But from a legal standpoint, the Big Eight ceased operations in 1996, and its members joined with the four SWC schools (Texas, Texas A&M, Baylor, and Texas Tech) to form the Big 12 the following year.
History
Formation
The conference was founded as the Missouri Valley Intercollegiate Athletic Association (MVIAA) at a meeting on January 12, 1907, of five charter member institutions: the University of Kansas, the University of Missouri, the University of Nebraska, Washington University in St. Louis, and the University of Iowa, which also maintained its concurrent membership in the Western Conference (now the Big Ten Conference). However, Iowa only participated in football and outdoor men's track and field for a brief period before leaving the conference in 1911.
Early membership changes
In 1908, Drake University and Iowa Agricultural College (now Iowa State University) joined the MVIAA, increasing the conferences membership to seven. Iowa, which was a joint member, departed the conference in 1911 to return to sole competition in the Western Conference, but Kansas State University joined the conference in 1913. Nebraska left in 1918 to play as an independent for two seasons before returning in 1920. In 1919, the University of Oklahoma and Saint Louis University applied for membership, but were not approved due to deficient management of their athletic programs. The conference then added Grinnell College in 1919, with the University of Oklahoma applying again and being approved in 1920. Oklahoma A&M University (now Oklahoma State University) joined in 1925, bringing conference membership to ten, an all-time high.
Conference split
At a meeting in Lincoln, Nebraska, on May 19, 1928, the conference split up. Six of the seven state schools (all except Oklahoma A&M) formed a conference that was initially known as the Big Six Conference. Just before the start of fall practice, the six schools announced they would retain the MVIAA name for formal purposes. However, fans and media continued to call it the Big Six. The three private schools – Drake, Grinnell, and Washington University – joined with Oklahoma A&M to form the Missouri Valley Conference (MVC). The old MVIAA's administrative staff transferred to the MVC.
The similarity of the two conferences' official names, as well as the competing claims of the two conferences, led to considerable debate over which conference was the original and which was the spin-off, though the MVIAA went on to become the more prestigious of the two. For the remainder of the Big Eight's run, both conferences claimed 1907 as their founding date, as well as the same history through 1927. To this day, it has never been definitively established which conference was the original.
Conference membership grew with the addition of the University of Colorado on December 1, 1947, from the Mountain States Conference. Later that month, Reaves E. Peters was hired as "Commissioner of Officials and Assistant Secretary" and set up the first conference offices in Kansas City, Missouri. With the addition of Colorado, the conference's unofficial name became the Big Seven Conference, coincidentally, the former unofficial name of the MSC.
The final membership change happened ten years later, when Oklahoma A&M joined (or rejoined, depending on the source) the conference on June 1, 1957, and the conference became known as the Big Eight. That same year, Peters' title was changed to "Executive Secretary" of the conference. He retired in June 1963 and was replaced by Wayne Duke, whose title was later changed to "Commissioner".
In 1964, the conference legally assumed the name "Big Eight Conference". In 1968 the conference began a long association with the Orange Bowl, sending its champion annually to play in the prestigious bowl game in Miami, Florida, all except the 1974 Orange Bowl and the 1975 Orange Bowl. Instead, Big 8 representative Nebraska Cornhuskers played in the 1974 Cotton Bowl Classic and the 1974 Sugar Bowl.
Formation of the Big 12 Conference
In the early 1990s, most of the colleges in Division I-A (now known as the Football Bowl Subdivision) were members of the College Football Association; this included members of the Big Eight and Southwest Conferences. Following a Supreme Court decision in 1984, the primary function of the CFA was to negotiate television broadcast rights for its member conferences and independent colleges. In February 1994, the Southeastern Conference announced that they, like the Big Ten, Pac-10, and Notre Dame before them, would be leaving the CFA and negotiate independently for a television deal that covered SEC schools only. This led The Dallas Morning News to proclaim that "the College Football Association as a television entity is dead". More significantly, this change in television contracts ultimately would lead to significant realignment of college conferences, with the biggest change being the dissolution of the Big Eight and Southwest Conferences and the formation of the Big 12.
After the SEC's abandonment of the CFA, the Southwest Conference and the Big Eight Conference saw potential financial benefits from an alliance to negotiate television deals, and quickly began negotiations to that end, with ABC and ESPN. On February 25, 1994, it was announced that a new conference would be formed from the members of the Big Eight and four of the Texas member colleges of the Southwest Conference. Though the name would not be made official for several months, newspaper accounts immediately dubbed the new entity the "Big 12". Charter members of the Big 12 included the members of the Big Eight plus Baylor, Texas, Texas A&M and Texas Tech.
Dissolution
Following the formation of the Big 12 Conference in 1994, the Big Eight continued operations until August 30, 1996, when the conference was formally dissolved and its members officially began competition in the Big 12 Conference.
Although the Big 12 was essentially the Big Eight plus the four Texas schools, the Big 12 regards itself as a separate conference and does not claim the Big Eight's history as its own.
Members
Final members
(*In the early 1980s, Colorado's colors were sky blue and gold.)
Previous members
Membership timeline
Subsequent conference affiliations
Colorado left the Big 12 for the Pac-12 beginning with the 2011–12 season. It will rejoin the Big 12 on July 1, 2024.
Drake withdrew from the Missouri Valley Conference from 1951 to 1956. The MVC stopped sponsoring football in 1985; Drake remains a member for all non-football sports. The football program dropped to Division III in 1987, playing as an independent until a change in NCAA rules forced the program to play in Division I. When the new rule took effect in 1993, Drake joined the newly formed Pioneer League, a football-only league playing at the FCS level that prohibits the awarding of football scholarships.
Grinnell joined the Midwest Collegiate Athletic Conference beginning with the 1939–40 season; their affiliation from 1928 to 1939 is unclear. The MCAC merged with the Midwest Athletic Conference for Women to form the Midwest Conference beginning with the 1994–95 season.
Missouri left the Big 12 for the SEC beginning with the 2012–13 season.
Nebraska left the Big 12 for the Big Ten beginning with the 2011–12 season.
Oklahoma will leave the Big 12 for the SEC beginning with the 2024–25 season.
Washington University left the MVC in 1946; it joined the College Athletic Conference from 1962 through 1971, and became a charter member of the University Athletic Association, which began play with the 1986–87 season. It was independent in all other years. Washington University is now a football-only affiliate member of the College Conference of Illinois and Wisconsin.
Commissioners
Reaves Peters (1947–1963) as Executive Secretary
Wayne Duke (1963–1971)
Chuck Neinas (1971–1980)
Carl C. James (1980–1996)
Conference champions
Men's basketball
Following are the MVIAA/Big Eight regular-season conference champions from 1908 to 1996 (showing shared championships in italics):
Football
Shared championships are shown in italics:
† Kansas would have won the 1960 title, but after found to be using an ineligible player they were forced to forfeit their victories over Missouri and Colorado, which meant that Missouri was awarded the 1960 Big Eight title.
‡ Oklahoma initially won the 1972 title, but after it was found that they used ineligible players, they were penalized by the NCAA, though they did not force OU to forfeit games. The Big Eight asked them to forfeit three games and awarded the title to Nebraska, but Oklahoma still claims these wins and this title.
National championships won by MVIAA/Big Eight members
The following is a complete list of the 100 AIAW, NCAA and college football championships won by teams that were representing the Big Eight Conference in NCAA- or AIAW-recognized sports at the time of the championship.
Football (11):
1950 – Oklahoma
1955 – Oklahoma
1956 – Oklahoma
1970 – Nebraska
1971 – Nebraska
1974 – Oklahoma
1975 – Oklahoma
1985 – Oklahoma
1990 – Colorado
1994 – Nebraska
1995 – Nebraska
Baseball (4):
1951 – Oklahoma
1954 – Missouri
1959 – Oklahoma State
1994 – Oklahoma
Men's basketball (2):
1952 – Kansas
1988 – Kansas
Men's Cross Country (3):
1953 – Kansas
1989 – Iowa State
1994 – Iowa State
Women's Cross Country (5):
1975 – Iowa State
1976 – Iowa State
1977 – Iowa State
1978 – Iowa State
1981 – Iowa State
Men's golf (9):
1963 – Oklahoma State
1976 – Oklahoma State
1978 – Oklahoma State
1980 – Oklahoma State
1983 – Oklahoma State
1987 – Oklahoma State
1989 – Oklahoma
1991 – Oklahoma State
1995 – Oklahoma State
Men's gymnastics (14):
1971 – Iowa State
1973 – Iowa State
1974 – Iowa State
1977 – Oklahoma
1978 – Oklahoma
1979 – Nebraska
1980 – Nebraska
1981 – Nebraska
1982 – Nebraska
1983 – Nebraska
1988 – Nebraska
1990 – Nebraska
1991 – Oklahoma
1994 – Nebraska
Men's/Women's Skiing (14):
1959 – Colorado
1960 – Colorado
1972 – Colorado
1973 – Colorado
1974 – Colorado
1975 – Colorado
1976 – Colorado
1977 – Colorado
1978 – Colorado
1979 – Colorado
1982 – Colorado (men's)
1982 – Colorado (women's)
1991 – Colorado
1995 – Colorado
Men's Indoor Track (4):
1965 – Missouri
1966 – Kansas
1969 – Kansas
1970 – Kansas
Women's Indoor Track (3):
1982 – Nebraska
1983 – Nebraska
1984 – Nebraska
Men's Outdoor Track (3):
1959 – Kansas
1960 – Kansas
1970 – Kansas
Women's volleyball (1):
1995 – Nebraska
Wrestling (27):
1928 – Oklahoma State
1933 – Iowa State
1936 – Oklahoma
1951 – Oklahoma
1952 – Oklahoma
1957 – Oklahoma
1958 – Oklahoma State
1959 – Oklahoma State
1960 – Oklahoma
1961 – Oklahoma State
1962 – Oklahoma State
1963 – Oklahoma
1964 – Oklahoma State
1965 – Iowa State
1966 – Oklahoma State
1968 – Oklahoma State
1969 – Iowa State
1970 – Iowa State
1971 – Oklahoma State
1972 – Iowa State
1973 – Iowa State
1974 – Oklahoma
1977 – Iowa State
1987 – Iowa State
1989 – Oklahoma State
1990 – Oklahoma State
1994 – Oklahoma State
National team titles by institution
The national championships listed below are for the final eight members of the conference, as of July 2014. Football, Helms, and equestrian titles are included in the total, but excluded from the column listing NCAA and AIAW titles.
Racial integration
The history of the Big Eight Conference straddles the era of racial segregation in the United States, particularly as it relates to African Americans.
Before the formation of the conference, three African-American brothers at the University of Kansas are the first known to have participated in organized sports for a league school: Sherman Haney played baseball for KU beginning in 1888, followed by Grant Haney and then Ed Haney, the last of whom also played football at KU in 1893. At the same time, the University of Nebraska football team had on its roster George Flippin, the son of a slave, beginning in 1891. Nebraska's football team featured three more African-American players over the next 12 years. Notable among these NU players was Clinton Ross, who in 1911 apparently became the first African-American to participate in sport in the MVIAA, following the league's formation in 1907.
Race relations in the United States, however, deteriorated in the early 20th century, and African-American athletes disappeared almost entirely from the conference in the four decades after Ross's final season at NU in 1913. The lone exception during the following decades was Iowa State. In 1923 Jack Trice became the first African-American athlete at Iowa State – and the only one in the conference. Tragically, Trice died two days after playing his second football game with Iowa State, due to injuries suffered during the game (against Minnesota). Jack Trice Stadium at Iowa State is now named in his honor. Trice was followed at Iowa State by Holloway Smith, who played football for ISU in 1926 and 1927. After Smith, the league's teams were all-white for more than two decades. (During this time all of the major professional sports leagues in the U.S. were also segregated.)
Modern era
The modern era of full integration of league sports began at Kansas State, with Harold Robinson. In 1949, Harold Robinson played football for Kansas State with an athletic scholarship. In doing so, Robinson broke the modern "color barrier" in conference athletics, and also became the first ever African-American athlete on scholarship in the conference. Harold Robinson later received a letter of congratulations from Jackie Robinson, who had reintegrated major league baseball in 1947 while playing with the Brooklyn Dodgers.
In the spring of 1951 the conference's baseball color barrier was broken by Kansas State's Earl Woods, and in the winter of 1951–1952 Kansas State's Gene Wilson and Kansas's LaVannes Squires jointly broke the conference color barrier in basketball.
Nebraska was the third league school to (re)integrate its athletic teams, with Charles Bryant joining the football team in 1952. Iowa State would be next, with Harold Potts and Henry Philmon reintegrating the Cyclone football team in 1953. The following season, Franklin Clarke became the first varsity African-American football player at the University of Colorado. In 1955, Homer Floyd became the first African-American to play football for Kansas since Ed Haney in 1893. Sports teams at the remaining three conference schools (Oklahoma, Missouri and Oklahoma State) were subsequently all integrated by the end of the 1950s. Most notably, Prentice Gautt became the first black player for Bud Wilkinson at Oklahoma in 1956.
Every college football team of the Big Eight was fully integrated by the end of the 1950s, and this gave the conference an advantage throughout the 1960s, as many opposing conferences had not yet integrated their sports teams. The Southeastern Conference (SEC), the last major college sports conference to oppose integration, had particular trouble against the Big Eight during its final years fielding all-white teams. The first SEC school to integrate, Kentucky, did so in 1967, and the last school to do so, Mississippi, did so in 1972. During the SEC’s eight-year national championship drought between 1965 and 1973, the Big Eight teams repeatedly defeated the SEC teams in inter-conference games, largely due to their integrated teams.
The 1971 football season ended with three Big Eight schools—Nebraska, Oklahoma, and Colorado—ranked first, second, and third the final AP poll, the only season in college football history that three teams from the same conference finished in the top three rankings. During the 1971 season, those three Big Eight teams beat three SEC schools—Alabama, Auburn, and LSU—in decisive victories (Colorado defeated LSU, 31–21 in September; Nebraska defeated Alabama, 38–6 in the Orange Bowl; Oklahoma defeated Auburn, 40–22 in the Sugar Bowl). In each of the Big Eight victories throughout this period, and especially in the 1971 season, the performance of the Big Eight schools’ black players was considered a deciding factor in their teams' victories. These players' performance contributed to the SEC schools recruitment of black players—the next national championship won by the SEC was by the 1973 Alabama team, which was fully integrated.
Conference facilities
This is a listing of the conference facilities as of the final athletic season of the conference, 1995–1996.
The Colorado Buffaloes baseball program, which played home games at Prentup Field, was discontinued in June 1980.
See also
List of Big Eight Conference champions
References
External links
BigEightSports.com
Big Eight baseball conference champions
Big 12 Conference
Sports organizations established in 1907
Organizations disestablished in 1996
1907 establishments in the United States
Articles which contain graphical timelines
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoids
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Zoids
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, also referred to as simply , is a Japanese science fiction media franchise created by Tomy that feature giant robots (or "mecha") called Technozoidaryans, otherwise known as Technozoids, Zoidaryans or Zoids for short. A Zoid is essentially a large mechanical animal, with designs being based on animals; including dinosaurs, insects, arachnids and mythological creatures.
The franchise started with a model-kit-based toy line and includes five main anime TV series (Chaotic Century, New Century, Fuzors, Genesis and Wild) as well as several video games and manga products.
Model kit lines
There have been a number of different Zoids model lines over the years, both in Japan and other countries. Between these lines, over 200 different designs have been released, some several times over. Several companies outside of Takara-Tomy have produced Zoids kits. This has led to Zoids being made as die-cast figures, highly detailed posing kits, smaller action figures and even PVC figurines.
Mechabonica
The predecessors to Zoids. Released in 1982, "Mechabonica" was technically not a Zoids line, but is counted as such by collectors as it consisted of three models that would later be re-released as the first three Zoids (Garius, Elephantus, and Glidoler). The line was not very successful and was quickly dropped by Tomy.
Starzeta
Starzeta was the Spanish version of the Mechabonica line. Since Tomy had no direct marketing power in Spain during the 80s the models were released under licence by a smaller company (Feber) but unfortunately the line performed even worse than its Japanese counterpart. The same 3 models were released but bizarrely they were given new color schemes; grey parts became silver and the dark blue caps became bright blue. The models were not given names but are listed as Starzeta I, II and III.
SZ IV (Garantula), SZ V (Aquadon) and SZ VI (Gorgodos) were supposedly planned as a continuation of the series but their release status is currently unknown.
The models are incredibly rare (even more so than the Japanese Mechabonica) and demand is boosted even further by their unique color schemes.
Original American release
TOMY sold the Mechabonica line in the United States and Europe in late 1982, under the name Zoids. The line was far more successful than Mechabonica, which led TOMY to reintroduce the line in Japan under the new name.
Later, a pair of original Zoids, the Power Zoids Tank and Serpent, were created exclusively for the European and North American markets and were never released in Japan. Other Zoids like the Bigasaur (renamed to Giant ZRK) were also released. Radio Shack released the Mammoth Zoid in the US at the same time. While not a part of the release, it is generally counted with them.
The Original American Release is commonly abbreviated as OAR by fans and collectors.
Original Japanese Release
In 1983, following the success of the OAR, TOMY reintroduced the Zoids line in Japan. The relaunched Japanese line, now entitled Zoids, was a success, running from 1983 until 1990. The Zoids line had its own "Battle Story" that was told serially on the backs of the model boxes and in catalogues.
Initially, the Zoids were divided into two distinct factions, the Helic Republic and the Zenebas Empire. In 1989, the Zenebas Empire was replaced with the Guylos Empire.
The Original Japanese Release is commonly abbreviated as OJR.
Original European Release
Zoids were also released in Europe, (and to a limited extent in Australia, South Africa and South-East Asia), from 1984 to 1987 by TOMY. The models in this release were a mixture of ones directly ported over from the OJR, as well as recolored Zoids, including the rare Ghost Zoids line. Additionally, the Tank and Serpent Power Zoids from the OAR were released. Most of the Zoids in the line were renamed.
The Zoids in the release were divided into two distinct factions, which are the Blue Guardians and the Red Mutants. The line had its own story told in the UK Zoids comic.
The Original European Release is commonly abbreviated as OER.
Robo Strux
Robo Strux were released in the US and Canada by TOMY, in 1985–86. All the Zoids in the line were OJR Zoids, however, some versions of the same model retained their original (OJR) color scheme, whereas other versions of the same model received a distinctive Robo Strux color scheme. Thus, the Robo Strux line had two differently colored releases of several models. Based on their color schemes, the Zoids were divided into two factions, the heroic Blue Guardians and the evil Red Mutants. However, there was no accompanying story or media.
Due to the lack of marketing and the relatively high prices of the models, Robostrux was rather short-lived.
Robostrux is commonly abbreviated as RS.
1:24 Scale Zoids
In 1988, TOMY launched a sub-line of the OJR, featuring larger-scale Zoids. The 1:24 line featured Zoids of similar size to existing ones, but scaled for larger pilots. Each kit came with a 3 inch tall action figure of the pilot. Like the regular Zoids line, the Zoids were divided into Helic and Zenebas factions.
The 1:24 Zoids were not a success, and were discontinued after a year.
Zevle
In 1990, TOMY re-released several of the 1:24 scale Zoids in a new line called Zevle. The Zoids were recolored from the OJR versions, and came with detailed, 3 inch tall action figures of the pilot and crew. The pilot figures were unpainted and on sprues, much like a model kit, and had to be assembled. The crew figures also came with accessories of guns and beam sabers. Zevle featured its own "Battle Story" on the boxes, but while it was similar to the Zoids Battle Story, it was unrelated to it.
Like the 1/24th Zoids, Zevle was a commercial failure and was discontinued.
Technozoids
Kenner acquired the rights to release Zoids in North America, releasing the Technozoids line in 1995–1996. The Zoids in the line were all recolors of earlier Zoids released in the OJR, although some were directly imported from the Zoids2 line. There were no distinct factions for the Zoids, and no backstory was given.
The Technozoids line was a failure and was discontinued after one year. A number of Zoids were left unreleased at the end of the line.
Technozoids is commonly abbreviated as TZ.
Zoids 2
TOMY released another line of Zoids in the UK and Europe (with a re-release in Australia and South-East Asia) in 1994. The Zoids 2 line featured very bright color schemes, with all the Zoids having at least some chromed parts. The Zoids also had unique stickers with odd swirling designs. The Zoids 2 line did not feature distinctive factions for the Zoids, but did have a backstory loosely based on (but not a continuation of) the UK Zoid comic, with the Zoids invading Earth and humanity's last hope being to turn the Zoids against each other.
Like Technozoids, Zoids 2 was eventually discontinued.
Zoids 2 is commonly abbreviated as Z2.
New Japanese Release
In 1999, TOMY relaunched the Zoids line in Japan, with subsequent releases elsewhere in Asia. Initially, the line consisted of recolored re-releases of older Zoids, but TOMY quickly began producing new Zoids designs. The Zoids were divided into Helic and Guylos factions, with the Zenebas Empire returning later. The OJR battle story was continued on the NJR boxes, with the Zoids Anime and Manga drawing on alternate versions of the New Battle Story's events.
The line was abruptly discontinued in August 2004. By the end of the line, there were still thirty-three Zoids from the OJR line that had yet to be re-released.
The New Japanese Release is unofficially abbreviated as NJR.
Customise Parts
Along with the re-launch of the Zoids line, TOMY also launched a line known as Customise Parts or simply CP. The line consisted of additional weapons and equipment that could be added onto Zoids models. The line was a mixture of new parts and re-issues of parts originally included in various OJR models (as well as the Empire and Republic Customization Kits).
The Customise Parts line was discontinued in 2002.
Blox
In 2002, TOMY introduced a new line of non-motorised Zoids called Blox, which featured flexible construction. Blox Zoids can be easily disassembled and combined with each other, as well as with regular Zoids.
Toys Dream Project
In 2002, Toys Dream Project began a line of limited Zoids releases. The line consisted of a mixture of new recolors of existing Zoids and re-releases of older versions of some Zoids in their OJR colors, as well as kits paired with uniquely colored customize parts.
Zoids: Build Customize Mobilize
Following the launch of the NJR, Hasbro licensed Zoids for release in North America and South-East Asia in 2001. Like the NJR, the line was divided into Republic and Empire factions, with the Anime providing the backstory. Initially, the Hasbro line consisted of just re-releases of Zoids from the NJR. However, they later began developing their own Zoid designs, as well as co-developing others with TOMY. Additionally, Hasbro had planned to re-release several OJR Zoids that had not been released in the NJR.
Although it was initially successful, Hasbro suspended the line in 2004, due to poor sales. The cancellation of the line left a number of new Zoids unreleased, including most of those not yet re-released by TOMY. Much of the leftover stock was later released by Hasbro in Australia and the UK.
In Australia and South-East Asia, these Zoids were released by TOMY. These countries were identical to Hasbro's Zoids, but featured TOMY branding on the box. In the UK the Zoids boxes featured slightly different logos to both Australia and the US. The UK release featured several Zoids designs and color schemes that were not available in the US.
Z-Builders
Any Blox Zoids that were released by Hasbro were sold as part of the line known as Z-Builders. Most of the Z-Builders were re-releases of the NJR Blox line, but the line included several Hasbro-designed Zoids, as well as individual releases of Blox Zoids that did not occur in Japan. The Z-Builders line was suspended alongside the motorized models. Z-Builders was released in Australia and the Pacific featuring TOMY branding instead of Hasbro branding.
Fuzors
In late 2004, TOMY launched a new Zoids line to tie into the Zoids: Fuzors anime that was then showing on Japanese TV. The line was composed entirely of recolors of older Blox and Zoids. Some models were altered slightly, or packaged with additional parts, mainly to allow different Zoids to connect (or "fuse"). The line also featured a number of Zoids that were previously only released in North America.
The line was abruptly halted in early 2005, with several items unreleased.
Fuzors is commonly abbreviated as FZ.
Genesis
In early 2005, another new Zoid line was launched, to tie into the Zoids: Genesis anime. The line consists of a mixture of old designs, new designs and older designs with new parts. The line is most notable for the much-anticipated reissues of Houndsoldier and Gilvader.
Reactions to the line were mixed; the re-releases of older designs (which included several OJR Zoids not previously re-released) were well received. The new designs, namely the Bio-Zoids which had rubber armor, did not do so well, having been plagued by quality control issues and production errors.
Genesis is commonly abbreviated as GZ. An alternate abbreviation, GB, is used for the Bio-Zoids released as part of this line.
Neo-Blox
Released in May 2006, the Neo-Blox are an improvement on the previous Blox line, primarily due to the greater range of poseability the 'Blox and peg' connection system has.
Two sublines have also been released. The first is the Legends Series, which features Zoids from previous releases, but redesigned to be the same size as the Neo-Blox Zoids, and modified to use the same connector system. The second are the Custom Blox; subline appeared to be on hold, with Tomy instead focusing on the Legend Blox sub-line. With the cancellation of all unreleased Neo-Blox in early 2007, the line was effectively dead.
The Neo-Blox is abbreviated as either NBZ or NB. Alternate abbreviations are used for the Legends Series (LB) and the Custom Blox (CBZ).
Academy Zoids
Academy, a company from Korea better known for model airplanes and ships, re-released many of the NJR Zoid models, as well as some Zoids from the Customize Parts, Fuzors and Genesis series. In most cases, these Academy Zoids have nearly identical packaging to their Japanese predecessors save for the Korean language and a sticker bearing the Academy logo. Though the quality of the Academy Zoids were on par with their Japanese counterparts in the early 2000s, the age and repeated use of some molds, such as Command Wolf and Liger Zero, has caused degradation in the line. The line continues to sell Zoids exclusively in Korean markets.
High-end Master Model
Starting in late 2006, the High-end Master Model line, commonly abbreviated HMM, is a joint effort between Tomy and Kotobukiya. The line advertises high-quality, highly detailed, pose-able model kits based on designs of existing Zoids.
Evo Drive Zoids
Miniature Zoids
Starting in late 2006, the High-end Master Model line, commonly abbreviated HMM, is a joint effort between Tomy and Kotobukiya. The line advertises high-quality, highly detailed, pose-able model kits based on designs of existing Zoids.
Zoids Graphics
Released in Summer 2007 onward, the Graphics line are reissues of the OJR model kits released in the 1980s. They feature the model kit in special windowed packaging along with bonus parts or miniature figures and a booklet with early battle story information.
Zoids 25th: Rebirth Century
Starting in 2008 as part of the line's 25th anniversary, this new Zoids line contains both re-releases of 80s Zoids and entirely new designs. The backstory is set between the end of the original line and the start of the new Japanese release, covering the Zoidians' efforts to rebuild after the meteor disaster and the conflicts that come with it.
Zoids Anime 10th Anniversary
Starting in 2009, as a tribute to both the NJR Zoids Release and the Chaotic Century Anime series, the Anime 10th Anniversary is a limited line of correctly colored model kits based on those piloted by characters in the Anime series. The line abruptly stopped after just two of the kits were released. Zoids: Chaotic Century is what this 10th anniversary is based upon. It was only ended in 1999.
Revoltech Zoids
A company called Kaiyodo released four Zoids as Revoltech figures under the Yamaguchi line. Two Zoid types, the Blade Liger and the Geno Breaker, were produced with the Liger coming in three different colors. These Zoids were made to be highly pose-able, having more joints than any Revoltech before. These Zoids are smaller than the motorized Zoid models but larger than the Hasbro action figures.
Yamato Zoids
Yamato released two Shield Ligers and a set of Beam-Cannons for the Zoids between 2010 and 2012. These Zoids had die-cast metal parts as well as fine details and many points of articulation for movable parts. The action models dwarfed their predecessors in size and weight. The first Shield Liger was colored like the hero Zoid of the Chaotic Century series and included three small character figures. The second was painted black and silver and included the Beam Cannon like the limited NJR model, the Shield Liger DCS-J, it was based on. The Yamato Shield Liger was released in the United States and is the only line to be sold in the U.S. since Z-Builders.
Modeler's Spirit Series
For the 30th anniversary of Tomy's main Zoids line, the franchise was treated to a new line of Zoids kits. Abbreviated MSS, the Modeler's Spirit Series were produced by TOMYTEC at a 1:144 scale, much smaller than previous lines. These Zoids are not motorized but do feature posing gimmicks similar to Mobile Suit models, which have used the word 'gimmick' for movable parts longer. Zoids in the MSS line also include a display base. The first MSS Zoids, released in January 2013, were a Shield Liger and Hammer Rock.
Zoids Original
Another event for the 30th anniversary was announced on Takara-Tomy's main Zoids web page. Titled Zoids Original, the line features redesigned motorized kits. As with other core Zoids lines, the new series includes a tie-in Battle Story. A model called the Mirage Fox was the first kit to be released in the new line.
Battle story
"Battle story" is a fictitious timeline of events that features on the boxes, manuals and cataloges of some Zoid model kits. Battle Story allows collectors to piece together information about the Zoids universe from the perspective of certain Zoids, and their roles in the various timelines. None of the English-language model kits feature this story.
Original battle story
Beginning fairly early after the start of the original Japanese Zoid releases, the battle story first introduced the conflict between two rival nations: the Helic Republic and Zenebas Empire. Their main weapons were Zoids, living war machines built from metal-based lifeforms native to planet Zi. The Zenebas Zoids were mostly red and silver and more armored, the Helic more skeletal and favoring blue and grey.
The line expanded and drew in fans, and was thus given a proper ongoing story, with the creators wanting to appeal to fans of science fiction and animation. The two nations' conflict turned into an ongoing series of stories included on the boxes and published in various magazines and books. History of Zoids, published in 1985, covered Zi's history as a planet wrecked by natural disasters and conflict, King Helic's uniting the original tribes and formation of the Republic, the Empire's bitter splitting off after his son Helic II took over and the younger Zenebas was betrayed by the era's politicians, and much of the earlier battles in the resulting war over territory on the Central Continent.
As more advanced model kits were added to the line, a human element was added to the story: mainly, a ship from Earth (the Globally 3) crashlanding on Zi. Earth technology made its way to both sides, accelerating the arms race and making for many stronger Zoids.
In 1986, the Ultrasaurus was released, and billed in-story as the machine that would defeat the Empire. It nearly succeeded, but Zenebas and his forces fled to the Dark Continent Nyx, soon returning with new-model Zoids like the Death Saurer. The Republic was driven back and forced to hold the Empire off with guerrilla warfare in the mountains, paving the way for the brief 1/24 scale line (notable for featuring the Battle Rover as the winner of a fan design contest). The Republic's counterattack came in the form of the Mad Thunder, and as Zenebas again turned to the Dark Continent for help, he was betrayed by Guylos, whose new "Dark Army" Zoids attacked and absorbed the Empire Army.
1989 thus marked a drastic change in the line's focus, the first catalogue even calling it "Zoids New Century" (a title unrelated to the anime series Zoids New Century /Zero). The more ambiguous conflict became more "good versus evil", with Guylos described as having a "merciless, cruel fighting style [...] beyond imagination" in Tomy's material, and Shogakukan's version of the battle story abandoning telling things from both sides to give only the viewpoint of a Republic soldier portrayed as a hero. There were no windup kits released after the Cannonfort in April 1989, the toys instead focusing on "Gradeups", curvy techno-organic designs with vacuum metalized parts, build-it-yourself motor boxes, and interchangeable custom parts.
The line ended in the late months of 1990, King Gojulas and Descat marking the final designs. Battle story Zi came down to a final showdown between the nigh-unstoppable King Gojulas and various Dark Army Zoids (including Gilvader), only to have the conflict cut short as a comet struck Zi's third moon, raining down meteor destruction and leaving the entire planet in disarray.
New battle story
The Zoids revival in 1999 included both an anime and a new battle story. After decades of peace, the current Emperor died, leaving only the young Rudolph as his heir. His regent, Prozen, took the opportunity to resume the conflict between the Guylos Empire and the Republic. Early on, both sides used their past Zoids, the model line focusing entirely on reissues of popular past kits.
As technology advanced, entirely new designs were produced, the first being the Rev Raptor and Geno Saurer. Many of them were also tie ins to the Chaotic Century anime, including special pilot figures of characters who used them while the Zoids did different things in the battle story. The accelerating arms race came to a head with the Death Stinger, which proved an uncontrollable berserker and only served to further the Guylos Empire's gradual loss.
Their retreat to the Dark Continent was not as it seemed, and in 2004 (four years after the first anime series finished its run), Prozen was revealed to be Zenebas' son...and the current ruler of the Republic his daughter under the alias Louise Elena Camford. The entire war until now had been a ruse to weaken both nations, and in a bitter coup ending with his own death Prozen engineered the rise of Neo Zenebas. His son took over the reins, driving the Republic forces back to the Eastern Continent.
The toyline shifted to match, introducing the new posable "Blox" kits (first sold in 2002) as the creation of humans who had fled there to remain neutral in the original conflict. They sold their work to both sides during the Republic's bid to regain their homeland. The ensuing battles—and the battle story portion of the toyline—ended with the Republic reclaiming their capital, forcing the Zenebas Empire back to the western half of the Central Continent.
Three Tigers
Providing a glimpse into Zi's future and released in 2004, the Three Tigers line consisted of all of six kits: three legendary Tiger-type Zoids (one formed via a combination of two separate kits) and the Dekalt Dragon (also a combination). It was very closely followed by the Fuzors line and its direct anime tie-in (also in 2004), and featured a similar setting: Zoids are owned mainly by private citizens, with fightworthy ones restricted to peacekeeping forces and licensed sports battlers.
Two large Zoid manufacturing corporations, ZOITEC and Zi-Arms, became considerable powers on Zi. Discovering the cores of ancient tiger Zoids, they set out to create their own versions. Part of Zi-Arms proved to have an ulterior motive: seizing power and reviving the glory days of the Empire with the Dekalt Dragon, Brastle Tiger, and a Mega Death Saurer. The two ZOITEC Tigers (Whitz and Rayse) team up with a rebelling Brastle to stop the Saurer, however ... and then vanish, the story booklet included with the Brastle Tiger kit describing them as "disappearing back into legend".
Rebirth Century
While the old battle story and the 1999 revival left nearly thirty years post meteor disaster undetailed, Tomy's Rebirth Century revival (2008–2010) picks up where the old story left off. After retelling the final battle with King Gojulas, it moves on to a Zi torn by magnetic storms and faction tensions, using it as a reason to rerelease both old kits (Gilvader and King Gojulas included) and new designs.
Onslaught
For the 30th anniversary of the OJR line, Takara-Tomy revived the Battle Story on the main Zoids website. Prior to the anniversary, this story was released as a book series titled Zoids Concept Art in 2010. Though the overall plot is the same, some differences between the OJR and the Onslaught version occur. Also, the new version of the Battle Story is digitally illustrated with highly stylized Zoids instead of featuring pictures of the actual Zoids models like the older lines did. Episodes of this story can be viewed on the Tomy's main Zoids web page.
Anime
The six anime series pertaining to Zoids are: Zoids: Chaotic Century and its sequel series Zoids: Guardian Force, Zoids: New Century Zero, Zoids: Fuzors, Zoids: Genesis, and Zoids Wild. The first four series take place on the fictitious planet Zi. Zoids Wild is set on a post-apocalyptic version of Earth. Chaotic Century and Guardian Force aired as one series in the US, but they are considered two separate series by Takara Tomy.
Chaotic Century (1999)
Zoids: Chaotic Century is the first two Zoids anime series and consists of Chaotic Century and Guardian Force. Its setting is loosely based on that of Battle Story, and follows Van Flyheight as he meets an amnesiac girl called Fiona and an organoid called Zeke. As the series progresses, Van meets various opponents, such as Raven, and friends, like Moonbay and Irvine, and eventually ends up helping Fiona in her quest to regain her memory and to find a mysterious entity called the "Zoid Eve". Their quest takes them into the thick of an ongoing war between the two factions of the Helic Republic and the Guylos Empire.
In the US the story of Chaotic Century is split into two seasons, with a time skip in the middle. In Japan Guardian Force is considered the second series. Three to four years after the initial arc ("Chaotic Century"), the second story (Guardian Force) begins. The two warring nations seen in the first arc have made peace, and to ensure it remains, they establish a joint military task force called the Guardian Force. Van becomes a part of this force, and after some time again goes searching for the elusive Zoid Eve. On the way, he meets up with both old and new friends and foes.
Despite being the first series created in Japan, Chaotic Century was the second series to be broadcast in English, following New Century.
As well as the anime series, there was a Chaotic Century manga published in Japan. It was later reproduced in English in North America by Viz Communications, and in Singapore in English by Chuang Yi. There are significant differences between the anime and manga, becoming more striking in the later issues.
New Century (2001)
Zoids: New Century takes place some time after the events of Guardian Force, however, aside from a few cameo appearances, there is no direct relation to the past series. In New Century Zoid battles have become a tournament-based fighting competition. The main character is Bit Cloud, a junk dealer, who forms part of the Blitz Team. He becomes a pilot of their Zoid, the Liger Zero, a temperamental Zoid that previously had been unpilotable. Bit and Liger form a partnership and end up joining the Blitz Team in their various league matches. He is aided by his teammates, Leena Toros, Brad Hunter, Jamie Hemeros, as well as their leader, Dr. Steve Toros.
Along the way, Bit's unique Zoid gets the attention of the Backdraft Group, an organization who is trying to take over Zoid battles and make them more "interesting" by using illicit battles, often with no rules or regard to pilot safety. The Backdraft attempts to acquire the Liger Zero by any means possible.
New Century Zero has a number of animation cameos with Zoids from Chaotic Century and Guardian Force, which are the cause of much fan speculation but not explained. Moonbay's Gustav can be seen in the background in one of the later episodes, the Backdraft shoots judge satellites down with a Death Stinger tail, the Death Saurer appearing as a model and in a background TV show, the three Geno Saurers that attack Berserk Fury, and the Ultrasaurus wreck on which Bit Cloud claims victory carries the Gravity Cannon on its side.
This was the first Zoids series to appear on American television, airing in Cartoon Network's Toonami block.
Fuzors (2003)
Zoids: Fuzors follows the adventures of team Mach Storm and RD, a novice Liger Zero pilot. They live in the technologically advanced Blue City, competing in Zoid battles. When a top team is wiped out by a pair of Zoids able to combine, it leads to a series of discoveries relating to special "Fuzor" Zoids and combinations: RD's Liger Zero ends up partnered with the Fire Phoenix and later the Jet Falcon.
There's something more sinister lurking behind the sports battles and RD's rivalry with team Savage Hammer. As the series unfolds RD and his friends Helmut, Sigma, Hop, Sweet and Matt get caught up in a plot to take over the city. Eventually RD discovers the secret behind the mysterious "Alpha Zoid" and with the help of pilots from all over the city, defeats the Seismosaurus holding it under siege.
About half-way through the series, the show was removed from America's Cartoon Network, ending on a cliffhanger. This was most likely a result of flagging ratings and toy sales, although its timeslot did not help matters. However, the full series aired in Australia and was later shown in Japan, getting full DVD releases in both countries.
Genesis (2005)
Zoids: Genesis aired in 2005. At a certain point in time, there was a great quake on Planet Zi. An enormous crack ran through the planet, stretching as far as the seabeds to the high mountains. Volcanoes erupted with fire, and the sky was covered in darkness. Many cities were destroyed as they were swallowed in large areas, sinking underwater. This was known as "God's Fury."
Before this large series of natural disasters, all civilizations were at their peak. All were destroyed by the disasters, and it was several thousand years before the inhabitants of Zi were able to re-establish themselves in any meaningful form. Survivors of the disasters gathered together and formed new civilizations; these groups searched for Zoids that are buried underground for human use.
The story begins in a village whose most precious item, a giant blade, is worshipped as a holy symbol. Ruuji, a teenage boy, discovers an ancient Liger-type Zoid, the Murasame Liger, while on a deep water salvage operation. His village is suddenly attacked by skeletal "Bio-Zoids" intent on securing the powerful Generator located in the village. During the attack, Ruuji awakens Murasame Liger and fends off the Bio-Zoids, however the Generator on which the village depends becomes damaged in subsequent attacks. Seeking to repair it, Ruuji sets off on a journey to find a mechanic capable of fixing a generator.
Wild (2018)
Zoids Wild is the newest Zoids anime series. It began airing on July 7, 2018 on Mainichi Broadcasting System and Tokyo Broadcasting System. It is notable that characters are depicted riding on top of Zoids rather than within an enclosed cockpit as in previous Zoids media.
UK Zoids comics
In the 1980s, a Zoids tie-in strip was published in the Marvel UK title Secret Wars. On the back of this, it gained its own weekly title, Spider-Man and Zoids. This story has no continuity with any Japanese anime (which didn't exist at the time) and it was created to go along with the original UK (and subsequently Australian) release of model kits. The comic is notable for featuring early work by Grant Morrison, including the epic and apocalyptic Black Zoid storyline.
References
External links
TOMYTEC's official Zoids site
Sho-Pro's official Zoids anime site
Zoidstar UK Zoids Comics
1980s toys
Fictional extraterrestrial robots
Fictional giants
Fictional robots
Mass media franchises
Shogakukan franchises
Takara Tomy
Takara Tomy franchises
Toonami
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptorchidism
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Cryptorchidism
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Cryptorchidism, also known as undescended testis, is the failure of one or both testes to descend into the scrotum. The word is from Greek () 'hidden' and () 'testicle'. It is the most common birth defect of the male genital tract. About 3% of full-term and 30% of premature infant boys are born with at least one undescended testis.
However, about 80% of cryptorchid testes descend by the first year of life (the majority within three months), making the true incidence of cryptorchidism around 1% overall. Cryptorchidism may develop after infancy, sometimes as late as young adulthood, but that is exceptional.
Cryptorchidism is distinct from monorchism, the condition of having only one testicle. Though the condition may occur on one or both sides, it more commonly affects the right testis.
A testis absent from the normal scrotal position may be:
Anywhere along the "path of descent" from high in the posterior (retroperitoneal) abdomen, just below the kidney, to the inguinal ring
In the inguinal canal
Ectopic, having "wandered" from the path of descent, usually outside the inguinal canal and sometimes even under the skin of the thigh, the perineum, the opposite scrotum, or the femoral canal
Undeveloped (hypoplastic) or severely abnormal (dysgenetic)
Missing (also see anorchia).
About two-thirds of cases without other abnormalities are unilateral; most of the other third involve both testes. In 90% of cases, an undescended testis can be felt in the inguinal canal. In a small minority of cases, missing testes may be found in the abdomen or appear to be nonexistent (truly "hidden").
Undescended testes are associated with reduced fertility, increased risk of testicular germ-cell tumors, and psychological problems when fully-grown. Undescended testes are also more susceptible to testicular torsion (and subsequent infarction) and inguinal hernias. Without intervention, an undescended testicle will usually descend during the first year of life, but to reduce these risks, undescended testes can be brought into the scrotum in infancy by a surgical procedure called an orchiopexy.
Although cryptorchidism nearly always refers to congenital absence or maldescent, a testis observed in the scrotum in early infancy can occasionally "reascend" (move back up) into the inguinal canal. A testis that can readily move or be moved between the scrotum and canal is referred to as retractile.
Cryptorchidism, hypospadias, testicular cancer, and poor semen quality make up the syndrome known as testicular dysgenesis syndrome.
Signs and symptoms
Infertility
Many men who were born with undescended testes have reduced fertility, even after orchiopexy in infancy. The reduction with unilateral cryptorchidism is subtle, with a reported infertility rate of about 10%, compared with about 6% reported by the same study for the general population of adult men.
The fertility reduction after orchiopexy for bilateral cryptorchidism is more marked, about 38%, or six times that of the general population. The basis for the universal recommendation for early surgery is research showing degeneration of spermatogenic tissue and reduced spermatogonia counts after the second year of life in undescended testes. The degree to which this is prevented or improved by early orchiopexy is still uncertain.
Cancer risk
One of the strongest arguments for early orchiopexy is reducing the risk of testicular cancer. About one in 500 men born with one or both testes undescended develops testicular cancer, roughly a four- to 40-fold increased risk. The peak incidence occurs in the third and fourth decades of life. The risk is higher for intra-abdominal testes and somewhat lower for inguinal testes, but even the normally descended testis of a man whose other testis was undescended has about a 20% higher cancer risk than those of other men.
The most common type of testicular cancer occurring in undescended testes is seminoma. It is usually treatable if caught early, so urologists often recommend that boys who had orchiopexy as infants be taught testicular self-examination, to recognize testicular masses and seek early medical care for them. Cancer developing in an intra-abdominal testis would be unlikely to be recognized before considerable growth and spread, and one of the advantages of orchiopexy is that a mass developing in a scrotal testis is far easier to recognize than an intra-abdominal mass.
Orchidopexy was originally thought to result in easier detection of testicular cancer, but did not lower the risk of actually developing cancer. However, recent data have shown a paradigm shift. The New England Journal of Medicine published in 2007 that orchidopexy performed before puberty resulted in a significantly reduced risk of testicular cancer than if done after puberty.
The risk of malignancy in the undescended testis is 4 to 10 ten times higher than that in the general population and is about one in 80 with a unilateral undescended testis and one in 40 to one in 50 for bilateral undescended testes. The peak age for this tumor is 15–45 years old. The most common tumor developing in an undescended testis is a seminoma (65%); in contrast, after orchiopexy, seminomas represent only 30% of testicular tumors.
Causes
Environmental hypotheses
In most full-term infant boys with cryptorchidism but no other genital abnormalities, a cause cannot be found, making this a common, sporadic, unexplained (idiopathic) birth defect. A combination of genetics, maternal health, and other environmental factors may disrupt the hormones and physical changes that influence the development of the testicles.
Severely premature infants can be born before descent of testes. Low birth weight is also a known factor.
A contributing role of environmental chemicals called endocrine disruptors that interfere with normal fetal hormone balance has been proposed. The Mayo Clinic lists "parents' exposure to some pesticides" as a known risk factor.
Risk factors may include exposure to regular alcohol consumption during pregnancy (five or more drinks per week, associated with a three-fold increase in cryptorchidism when compared to nondrinking mothers. Cigarette smoking is also a known risk factor.
Family history of undescended testicles or other problems of genital development
Cryptorchidism occurs at a much higher rate in a large number of congenital malformation syndromes. Among the more common are Down syndrome, Prader–Willi syndrome, and Noonan syndrome.
In vitro fertilization, use of cosmetics by the mother, and pre-eclampsia have also been recognized as risk factors for development of cryptorchidism.
Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome generally manifests itself in Cryptorchidism. In CAIS the testis are generally located completely undescended where the ovaries usually are, in PAIS the testis are generally partially undescended. This also occurs with 5α-Reductase 2 deficiency (DHT insensitivity) however the testis generally descend during puberty.
In 2008, a study was published that investigated the possible relationship between cryptorchidism and prenatal exposure to a chemical called phthalate (DEHP), which is used in the manufacture of plastics. The researchers found a significant association between higher levels of DEHP metabolites in pregnant mothers and several sex-related changes, including incomplete descent of the testes in their sons. According to the lead author of the study, a national survey found that 25% of U.S. women had phthalate levels similar to the levels that were found to be associated with sexual abnormalities.
A 2010 study examined the prevalence of congenital cryptorchidism among offspring whose mothers had taken mild analgesics, primarily over-the-counter pain medications including ibuprofen (e.g. Advil) and paracetamol (acetaminophen). Combining the results from a survey of pregnant women prior to their due date in correlation with the health of their children and an ex vivo rat model, the study found that pregnant women who had been exposed to mild analgesics had a higher prevalence of baby boys born with congenital cryptorchidism.
New insight into the testicular descent mechanism has been hypothesized by the concept of a male programming window derived from animal studies. According to this concept, testicular descent status is "set" during the period from 8 to 14 weeks of gestation in humans. Undescended testis is a result of disruption in androgen levels only during this programming window.
Sexually antagonistic epigenetic marker hypothesis
William R. Rice et al. propose that cryptorchidism arises as a result of un-erased sexually discordant epimarks. They propose that ontogeny is canalized with epigenetic marks (epimarks) that make XY fetuses sensitive to fetal androgens, and decrease sensitivity of XX fetuses. Sometimes these markers go unerased, carrying over generations, and produce mosaicism in opposite sex offspring in which a trait is discordant with gonads.
Mechanism
Normal development
The testes begin as an immigration of primordial germ cells into testicular cords along the gonadal ridge in the abdomen of the early embryo. The interaction of several male genes organizes this developing gonad into a testis rather than an ovary by the second month of gestation. During the third to fifth months, the cells in the testes differentiate into testosterone-producing Leydig cells, and anti-Müllerian hormone-producing Sertoli cells. The germ cells in this environment become fetal spermatogonia. Male external genitalia develops during the third and fourth months of gestation and the fetus continues to grow, develop, and differentiate.
The testes remain high in the abdomen until the seventh month of gestation when they move from the abdomen through the inguinal canals into the two sides of the scrotum. Movement has been proposed to occur in two phases, under the control of somewhat different factors. The first phase, movement across the abdomen to the entrance of the inguinal canal, appears controlled (or at least greatly influenced) by anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH). The second phase, in which the testes move through the inguinal canal into the scrotum, is dependent on androgens (most importantly testosterone). In rodents, androgens induce the genitofemoral nerve to release calcitonin gene-related peptide, which produces rhythmic contractions of the gubernaculum, a ligament which connects the testis to the scrotum, but a similar mechanism has not been demonstrated in humans. Maldevelopment of the gubernaculum or deficiency or insensitivity to either AMH or androgen can, therefore, prevent the testes from descending into the scrotum. Some evidence suggests an additional paracrine hormone, referred to as descendin, may be secreted by the testes.
In many infants with inguinal testes, further descent of the testes into the scrotum occurs in the first six months of life. This is attributed to the postnatal surge of gonadotropins and testosterone that normally occurs between the first and fourth months of life.
Spermatogenesis continues after birth. In the third to fifth months of life, some of the fetal spermatogonia residing along the basement membrane become type A spermatogonia. More gradually, other fetal spermatogonia become type B spermatogonia and primary spermatocytes by the fifth year after birth. Spermatogenesis arrests at this stage until puberty.
Most normal-appearing undescended testes are also normal by microscopic examination, but reduced spermatogonia can be found. The tissue in undescended testes becomes more markedly abnormal ("degenerates") in microscopic appearance between two and four years after birth. Some evidence indicates early orchiopexy reduces this degeneration.
Pathophysiology
At least one contributing mechanism for reduced spermatogenesis in cryptorchid testes is temperature. The temperature of testes in the scrotum is at least a few degrees cooler than in the abdomen. Animal experiments in the middle of the 20th century suggested that raising the temperature could damage fertility. Some circumstantial evidence suggests tight underwear and other practices that raise the testicular temperature for prolonged periods can be associated with lower sperm counts. Nevertheless, research in recent decades suggests that the issue of fertility is more complex than a simple matter of temperature. Subtle or transient hormone deficiencies or other factors that lead to a lack of descent also may impair the development of spermatogenic tissue.
The inhibition of spermatogenesis by ordinary intra-abdominal temperature is so potent that continual suspension of normal testes tightly against the inguinal ring at the top of the scrotum by means of special "suspensory briefs" has been researched as a method of male contraception, and was referred to as "artificial cryptorchidism" by one report.
An additional factor contributing to infertility is the high rate of anomalies of the epididymis in boys with cryptorchidism (over 90% in some studies). Even after orchiopexy, these may also affect sperm maturation and motility at an older age.
Diagnosis
The most common diagnostic dilemma in otherwise normal boys is distinguishing a retractile testis from a testis that will not descend spontaneously into the scrotum. Retractile testes are more common than truly undescended testes and do not need to be operated on. In normal males, as the cremaster muscle relaxes or contracts, the testis moves lower or higher ("retracts") in the scrotum. This cremasteric reflex is much more active in infant boys than older men. A retractile testis high in the scrotum can be difficult to distinguish from a position in the lower inguinal canal. Though various maneuvers are used to do so, such as using a cross-legged position, soaping the examiner's fingers, or examining in a warm bath, the benefit of surgery in these cases can be a matter of clinical judgment.
In the minority of cases with bilaterally nonpalpable testes, further testing to locate the testes, assess their function, and exclude additional problems is often useful. Scrotal ultrasound or magnetic resonance imaging performed and interpreted by a radiologist can often locate the testes while confirming absence of a uterus. At ultrasound, the undescended testis usually appears small, less echogenic than the contralateral normal testis and usually located in the inguinal region. With color Doppler ultrasonography, the vascularity of the undescended testis is poor.
A karyotype can confirm or exclude forms of dysgenetic primary hypogonadism, such as Klinefelter syndrome or mixed gonadal dysgenesis. Hormone levels (especially gonadotropins and AMH) can help confirm that hormonally functional testes are worth attempting to rescue, as can stimulation with a few injections of human chorionic gonadotropin to elicit a rise of the testosterone level. Occasionally, these tests reveal an unsuspected and more complicated intersex condition.
In the even smaller minority of cryptorchid infants who have other obvious birth defects of the genitalia, further testing is crucial and has a high likelihood of detecting an intersex condition or other anatomic anomalies. Ambiguity can indicate either impaired androgen synthesis or reduced sensitivity. The presence of a uterus by pelvic ultrasound suggests either persistent Müllerian duct syndrome (AMH deficiency or insensitivity) or a severely virilized genetic female with congenital adrenal hyperplasia. An unambiguous micropenis, especially accompanied by hypoglycemia or jaundice, suggests congenital hypopituitarism.
Treatment
The primary management of cryptorchidism is watchful waiting, due to the high likelihood of self-resolution. Where this fails, orchiopexy is effective if inguinal testes have not descended after 4–6 months. Surgery is often performed by a pediatric urologist or pediatric surgeon, but in many communities still by a general urologist or surgeon.
When the undescended testis is in the inguinal canal, hormonal therapy is sometimes attempted and very occasionally successful. The most commonly used hormone therapy is human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG). A series of hCG injections (10 injections over five weeks is common) is given and the status of the testis/testes is reassessed at the end. Although many trials have been published, the reported success rates range widely, from roughly 5% to 50%, probably reflecting the varying criteria for distinguishing retractile testes from low inguinal testes. Hormone treatment does have the occasional incidental benefits of allowing confirmation of Leydig cell responsiveness (proven by a rise of the testosterone by the end of the injections) or inducing additional growth of a small penis (via the testosterone rise). Some surgeons have reported facilitation of surgery, perhaps by enhancing the size, vascularity, or healing of the tissue. A newer hormonal intervention used in Europe is the use of GnRH analogs such as nafarelin or buserelin; the success rates and putative mechanism of action are similar to hCG, but some surgeons have combined the two treatments and reported higher descent rates. Limited evidence suggests that germ cell count is slightly better after hormone treatment; whether this translates into better sperm counts and fertility rates at maturity has not been established. The cost of either type of hormone treatment is less than that of surgery and the chance of complications at appropriate doses is minimal. Nevertheless, despite the potential advantages of a trial of hormonal therapy, many surgeons do not consider the success rates high enough to be worth the trouble, since the surgery itself is usually simple and uncomplicated.
In cases where the testes are identified preoperatively in the inguinal canal, orchiopexy is often performed as an outpatient and has a very low complication rate. An incision is made over the inguinal canal. The testis with accompanying cord structure and blood supply is exposed, partially separated from the surrounding tissues ("mobilized"), and brought into the scrotum. It is sutured to the scrotal tissue or enclosed in a "subdartos pouch". The associated passage back into the inguinal canal, an inguinal hernia, is closed to prevent reascent.
In patients with intra-abdominal maldescended testis, laparoscopy is useful to see for oneself the pelvic structures, position of the testis and decide upon surgery (single or staged procedure ).
Surgery becomes more complicated if the blood supply is not ample and elastic enough to be stretched into the scrotum. In these cases, the supply may be divided, some vessels sacrificed with expectation of adequate collateral circulation. In the worst case, the testis must be "autotransplanted" into the scrotum, with all connecting blood vessels cut and reconnected (anastomosed).
When the testis is in the abdomen, the first stage of surgery is exploration to locate it, assess its viability, and determine the safest way to maintain or establish the blood supply. Multistage surgeries, or autotransplantation and anastomosis, are more often necessary in these situations. Just as often, intra-abdominal exploration discovers that the testis is nonexistent ("vanished"), or dysplastic and not salvageable.
The principal major complication of all types of orchiopexy is a loss of the blood supply to the testis, resulting in loss of the testis due to ischemic atrophy or fibrosis.
Other animals
Cryptorchidism is seen in all domestic animals, most commonly in stallions, boars, and canines. The prevalence of this condition can vary depending on species and breed. Evidence of this condition is more likely in companion animals and swine than ruminants. The cause of this condition can vary from a combination of genetics, environment, and epigenetics.
Dogs
Cryptorchidism is common in male dogs, occurring at a rate up to 10%. This condition is one of the most common congenital defects in purebred dogs (11%), with 14% reported in Siberian Huskies. Although the genetics are not fully understood, it is thought to be a recessive, and probably polygenetic, trait. Some have speculated that it is a sex-limited autosomal recessive trait; however, it is unlikely to be simple recessive. Dog testes usually descend by 10 days of age and it is considered to be cryptorchidism if they do not descend by the age of eight weeks. Cryptorchidism can be either bilateral (causing sterility) or unilateral, and inguinal or abdominal (or both). Because it is an inherited trait, affected dogs should not be bred and should be castrated. The parents should be considered carriers of the defect and a breeder should thoughtfully consider whether to breed the carrier parent or not. Littermates may be normal, carriers, or cryptorchid. Castration of the undescended teste(s) should be considered for cryptorchid dogs due to the high rate of testicular cancer, especially Sertoli cell tumors. The incidence of testicular cancer is 13.6 times higher in dogs with abdominally retained testicles compared with normal dogs. Testicular torsion is also more likely in retained testicles. Surgical correction is by palpation of the retained testicle and subsequent exploration of the inguinal canal or abdomen, but showing altered dogs is against AKC rules, making this correction pointless for breeding stock. Orchiopexy is an option for pet dogs that will not be used for breeding.
Commonly affected breeds include:
Alaskan Klee Kai
Boxer
Chihuahua
Dachshund (miniature)
Bulldog
Maltese
Miniature Schnauzer
Pekingese
Pomeranian
Poodle (toy and miniature)
Pug
Shetland Sheepdog
Siberian Husky
Whippet
Yorkshire Terrier
Cats
Cryptorchidism is rarer in cats than it is in dogs. In one study, 1.9% of intact male cats were cryptorchid. Persians are predisposed. Normally, the testicles are in the scrotum by the age of six to eight weeks. Male cats with one cryptorchid testicle may still be fertile; however, male cats with two cryptorchid testicles are most likely to be sterile. Urine spraying is one indication that a cat with no observable testicles may not be neutered; other signs are the presence of enlarged jowls, thickened facial and neck skin, and spines on the penis (which usually regress within six weeks after castration). Most cryptorchid cats present with an inguinal testicle.
Testicular tumors and testicular torsion are rare in cryptorchid cats, but castration is usually performed due to unwanted behavior such as urine spraying.
Horses
In horses, cryptorchidism is sufficiently common that affected males (ridglings) are routinely gelded.
Rarely, cryptorchidism is due to the presence of a congenital testicular tumor such as a teratoma, which has a tendency to grow large.
References
External links
Kidshealth.org: Cryptorchidism
Congenital disorders of male genital organs
Testicle
Scrotum
Intersex variations
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Whale%20%28SS-239%29
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USS Whale (SS-239)
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, a Gato-class submarine, was the second ship of the United States Navy to be named for a whale, an extremely large, aquatic mammal that is fishlike in form. The USS Cachalot (SS-170) (Cachalot, another name for a Sperm Whale) commissioned on 1 December 1933 preceded the Whale.
Her keel was laid down on 28 June 1941 by the Mare Island Naval Shipyard of Vallejo, California. She was launched on 14 March 1942 (sponsored by Mrs. A. D. Denny, wife of Captain A. D. Denny, the commanding officer of the shipyard), and commissioned on 1 June 1942, with Lieutenant Commander (Lt. Cmdr.) John B. Azer in command.
Dock trials and initial shakedown training commenced on 30 July. The submarine—escorted by destroyer —departed San Francisco, California, on 4 August and arrived at San Diego, California, two days later. Between 30 July and 9 September, she conducted type training in the San Diego and San Francisco areas.
First war patrol, October – November 1942
Whale got underway from San Francisco on 23 September and arrived at Pearl Harbor four days later. The submarine departed Hawaii on 9 October 1942, headed via Midway Island for "Imperial Waters" (the seas surrounding The Empire of Japan), and conducted training dives and battle surface drills en route. She arrived at her assigned patrol area off Kii Suido on 25 October and began to reconnoiter the vicinity which had been designated for a naval minefield. Her original plans had called for the submarine to lay mines offshore. However, after sighting several outbound freighters about from the coast, executive officer Frederick "Fritz" Harlfinger II (who later commanded ) convinced Azer that the mines be planted as close in as possible. Hence Whale's first war patrol was conducted "within spitting distance" of the Japanese beach. Whale was the first American submarine to plant mines in Empire waters. During the war, no one on the American side knew how effective these mines proved to be, but a postwar analysis of Japanese shipping records credited Whale's minefield with sinking five enemy ships.
The following day, Whale arrived at Seto Saki hoping to intercept some inbound freighter traffic. By the light of a full moon, she sighted a large freighter directly ahead and fired a three-torpedo spread at the target. Two torpedoes hit the cargo ship, and she went down by the bow with her screws in the air. Whale sighted a second target astern of the freighter, launched three torpedoes, and observed that target listing slightly to port and heading for the beach. Whale fired a stern shot at a third freighter and heard a heavy torpedo explosion after 43 seconds.
From 27 to 29 October, Whale patrolled the entrance to Bungo Suido. On 30 October, while off Ichie Saki, Whale spotted two freighters and a torpedo boat as escort; she launched two torpedoes at each of the ships, but scored only one hit. The torpedoes alerted the escort which bore down on the submarine and attacked her with depth charges. A 17-hour chase ensued in which Whale was badly damaged yet managed to shake the torpedo boat three times.
After an unsuccessful search for a disabled sampan, Whale made rendezvous with an escort and proceeded to Pearl Harbor where she underwent repairs from 10 November 1942 through 2 January 1943. The next day, Whale got underway from the Submarine Base, Pearl Harbor, bound for the Marshall Islands. After conducting training dives and drills en route, she arrived in the Wotje and Kwajalein area on 10 January for two days' patrol off those atolls.
Second war patrol, January – February 1943
On 13 January 1943, Whale began cruising the shipping lane from Kwajalein to Truk. She sighted a freighter and pursued her quarry for before finally managing to work into position dead ahead of the target. She then launched four torpedoes. The first hit struck the freighter aft and broke off about of the stern; the second struck just forward of the bridge, and the fourth also exploded on target. Within six minutes, 3,559 ton Iwashiro Maru had sunk about 40 nautical miles north of Kwajalein, 09°54'N, 167°07'E., and Whale resumed her voyage toward Truk, running submerged.
Whale conducted surface patrols on the Truk-Empire shipping lanes until 17 January when she sighted a passenger/freighter bringing in troop reinforcements. Through the periscope, Whale observed hundreds of uniformed soldiers crowding the decks. She fired nine torpedoes and scored eight direct hits. All hits were necessary to sink the 9,816 ton Heiyo Maru north-east of Truk in position 10°13'N, 151°25'E.; the cargo must have been of such a nature as to prevent her from sinking more rapidly.
The next seven days were spent patrolling the Caroline Islands. On 25 January while on a surface patrol along the Truk–Empire line, Whale sighted smoke in the bright moonlight and fired a three-torpedo spread from the stern tubes at the target. Only one torpedo scored a hit. The damaged tanker, Syoyo Maru, sent up a flare which summoned an escort to her rescue. Whale went deep and sustained light damage from several depth charges.
The following evening, Whale sighted the smoke of a steamer about on her starboard bow. She closed and launched one torpedo. A dull thud was heard throughout the boat, and no explosion occurred. The next morning (27 January), the submarine fired a three torpedo spread at the steamer but heard no explosions. A fourth torpedo also failed to explode, and the target, transport Shoan Maru (5624 GRT) attacked in the central Pacific in position 14°24'N, 153°30'E.turned away from the submarine, presenting only her stern to view. Whale fired a fifth and sixth torpedo; the latter passed directly below the target's stern and must have run under its full length without detonating. The Japanese ship then began dropping depth charges as she drew away. Whale fired her last remaining torpedo which hit the target just abaft her stack, causing her to lose power. Although Whale was credited with the kill, the Shoan Maru is towed to Saipan and grounded. After this action, Whale set her course for Midway, where she arrived 2 February 1943 and commenced preparations for her next patrol.
Third war patrol, February – April 1943
Refitting was completed on 16 February. Four days later, Lt. Cmdr. Azer was relieved of command by Lt. Cmdr. Albert C. Burrows. On the last day of the month, after various test dives and underway tests, Whale got underway for the Mariana Islands on her third war patrol. She arrived off Tanapag Harbor, Saipan, on 10 March and began patrolling the shipping lanes between the Mariana Islands and Japan.
On the evening of 19 March, Whale sighted two large freighters and one torpedo boat or destroyer as escort. Just after daylight the next morning, the submarine finally worked into a favorable attack position; she fired spreads of three torpedoes at each freighter, and hit both. The first target, tentatively identified as Mogamigawa Maru, sank rapidly by the stern. The second, a cargo ship resembling Arizona Maru, was plagued by several heavy internal explosions following a second torpedo hit. Whale, mistaking these secondary explosions for bombs, went deep. Upon discovering her mistake, she started to surface but was greeted by a barrage of depth charges from the escort. Whale dove again but again came under attack – this time from the air – when she attempted to return to examine the wreckage. The submarine suffered extensive damage during this attack, which prevented her learning the fate of her targets. This was by far Whale'''s closest escape.Whale continued to patrol shipping lanes to Kobe and Tokyo and, while off Tanapag Harbor on the evening of 22 March, she sighted the masts of two ships and the smoke of a third, all leaving the harbor. Whale tried to close but lost contact. The next morning, the submarine gained a position ahead of two freighters and fired two spreads of three torpedoes each. Two hits were observed on each target, one under each stack and a second under each stern. The closer freighter, Kenyo Maru, blew up with a tremendous explosion and sank in four minutes leaving no survivors. Part of the stern of the farther ship blew into the air, and she appeared to be sinking slowly by the stern as she signaled rapidly with a blinker light.
Fearing the approach of an escort, Whale fired a fourth torpedo which ran "hot, straight and normal" for one minute, then circled, heading back in the direction of Whale. "We went to and prayed", the commanding officer later reported. The erratic torpedo changed its mind after reaching Whales beam and headed back for the freighter, finally exploding. The target was awash from stern to stack and on fire forward. At morning twilight, the ship was still burning with her bow up and her stern under.
The submarine spent the next two days patrolling the Kobe-Saipan, Empire-Truk shipping routes. On the morning of 25 March, she sighted the smoke of a small freighter and pursued it throughout the remainder of that day and the next, firing seven torpedoes at the target, all misses. Either the target's draft had been overestimated or the torpedoes ran too deep, or both. This poor torpedo performance was bitterly disappointing to the submarine's crew. "The thought of the fuel expended," her commanding officer lamented, "on the long, endaround runs, coupled with the loss of the torpedoes themselves, made 'heartbreaking' but an inadequate euphemism."
On 28 March, Whale was on the surface, intending to cross the Saipan-Truk route, when she spotted the smoke of a small freighter headed for Truk. She fired a three torpedo spread; the target made an unanticipated zig, and all three torpedoes missed. A lack of fuel forced Whale to abandon her quarry, and she headed north along the Empire–Truk route.
Whale headed homeward on 31 March, and she arrived at Midway on 6 April. She refueled there, had her last torpedo removed, and sailed for Hawaii the following day, conducting daily training of gun crews and test dives for radio reception en route. She arrived at Pearl Harbor on 11 April and underwent refitting, subsequent tests, and then training. Whale got underway westward again on 5 May and arrived at Midway four days later to undergo repairs to her hydraulic system and her air search radar. Whale departed Midway to begin her fourth war patrol on 10 May.
Fourth war patrol, May – June 1943
Whale was ordered to take station east of Wake Island at 05:00 on 16 May, to assist in guiding in the Army Air Corps B-24 Liberator bombers to that island for a bombing attack and to pick up the crews from any plane that was shot down or ditched. She arrived on 15 May and was ordered to remain on the surface until released by the Bombardment Group Commander or attacked by the enemy. Whale sat surfaced in broad daylight until 09:45 waiting for the bombing to commence. At that time, observers on the submarine saw a flight of seven Liberators heading for Wake, and the attack began. Radar picked up a contact at and coming in fast. As Whale submerged, a bomb exploded astern of the submarine, causing no damage. At 19:22, Whale received a message releasing her from duty, and she proceeded to the Saipan area.
From 20 – 24 May, Whale patrolled the shipping lanes between Japan, Truk, and Saipan. On the latter day, she conducted a search for a submarine base reportedly on Rota; finding nothing, she surfaced and headed for Guam.
The following day, Whale sighted the masts of three ships in the harbor at Apra, Guam, anchored in such a way as to be protected by reef islands. A retriever type sampan appeared to be the only antisubmarine measure. Waiting outside the harbor, Whale sighted and then tracked the 3,580 ton auxiliary gunboat Shoei Maru. At 00:14 on 26 May, Whale fired her first torpedo which hit with a blinding, orange flash midway between the stack and bow of the freighter. The explosion blew away the ship's entire bow, and she sank in four minutes with no survivors. The vessel sank about 17 nautical miles north-northwest of Rota Island, Mariana Islands in position 14°17'N, 144°54'E.
On 5 June, Whale sighted the masts of a seaplane tender, and tracked and closed the target. The submarine launched four torpedoes, scoring three hits. The target's screws stopped instantly, and powerful, rumbling explosions came from the target. However, the tender must have managed to limp to port since postwar study of Japanese records did not confirm a kill. An escort was "running wild" toward Whale, so she went deep and eluded her pursuer.
The submarine spent the next three days patrolling the Saipan area and, on 8 June, set a course for the Empire–Truk route through the Mariana Islands. The next day, she sighted the masts and kingposts of two large freighters about abeam of each other with an escort ahead of and between them. Whale launched three torpedoes at the first freighter, scoring two hits. She then shifted to the second freighter and fired the fourth, fifth, and sixth torpedoes. Tremendous explosions from the first ship were followed by two more explosions. The submarine commander concluded that one or more of the latter spread of torpedoes—aimed at the second freighter—hit the first, already damaged target. Whale fired another three-torpedo spread at the second freighter and soon heard two heavy explosions followed by a deep, rumbling detonation with the accompanying water noises which suggested that a ship was breaking up. Whale then headed eastward and touched at Midway on 17 June, before continuing on toward Hawaii. She arrived at Pearl Harbor on 21 June and commenced refitting.
Fifth war patrol, July – September 1943
After almost a month there, Whale returned to Midway, completed her refitting, and sailed for the Tokyo–Truk shipping lanes to begin her fifth war patrol. Stormy weather, heavy seas, and poor visibility persisted from 4–6 August. A wave washed over and covered the entire bridge structure, and large amounts of water flooded into the conning tower and down to the control room and the pump room. Whale headed southwest, to the east of the Bonin Islands. The continual pounding in heavy seas had cracked a number of battery jars, bringing the total of disabled cells to 10 forward and 13 aft.
On 7 August 1943, Whale covered the Tokyo-Truk lane east of the Bonins. The following day, Whale'''s periscope watch sighted a large aircraft ferry and her escort. When everything was ready to fire a spread of bow shots, the forward gyro regulator failed, and it was necessary to shift to manual operation. After one torpedo hit, 7,148 ton Naruto Maru stopped dead in her tracks, listed to starboard and started going down slowly by the stern. Whale fired another torpedo which hit amidships and prodded the ship into sinking faster; the vessel sank northwest of the Mariana Islands in position 24°12'N, 142°52'E. Whale survived a counter-attack by the escorting Japanese destroyer Asanagi. The submarine escaped aircraft bombs and set course for the Tokyo-Truk route.
From 9–19 August, she patrolled the Tokyo-Truk route, the Bonin area, and the East China Sea where, on 20 August, she was caught in a typhoon. She weathered the three-day storm with her only severe problem being a low main storage battery. On 24 August, Whale positioned herself west of Kusakaki Shima and intercepted an enemy convoy headed for Nagasaki. Whale fired a salvo of four torpedoes and, other than hearing four explosions, did not manage to ascertain their effect. The ships were last seen going over the horizon, and pursuit was impractical due to the submarine's proximity to Nagasaki and the condition of her battery.Whale was en route to Midway when she sighted two large cargo ships and a destroyer escort. She fired a salvo of three torpedoes, followed by a fourth stern shot. All four shots missed, and Whale continued toward home, touching at Midway on 2 September and pushing on toward Hawaii the following day. Whale arrived at Pearl Harbor on 7 September and commenced a major overhaul which lasted until 7 December.
Sixth war patrol, December 1943 – February 1944Whale arrived at Midway on 25 December 1943 and departed for her sixth war patrol. For two weeks, Whale patrolled the Tokyo–Truk shipping lanes, Minami Shima, and the Mariana, Ryukyu, and Bonin Island areas. On 14 January 1944, she received a dispatch from submarine stating that a convoy was headed in Whale's direction. Seawolf attacked the convoy the next day and sank a tanker, expending all of her torpedoes. Seawolf continued to trail the convoy, and Whale made radar contact on 16 January. Whale launched three torpedoes and sank the larger of the freighters, transport ship Denmark Maru (5869 GRT) about 400 nautical miles southeast of Okinawa in position 23°09'N, 135°14'E. However, she suffered minor damage from an ensuing barrage of depth charges. Seawolf verified the sinking and reported that the last freighter headed south alone. Since she lacked torpedoes, Seawolf unsuccessfully tried to engage the freighter with gunfire. But she assisted by driving the freighter in Whale's direction and by passing along the target's zig zag plan and speed. Whale fired four straight bow shots with one hit observed between the bow and stack. Four other explosions were heard and assumed to be either internal explosions or the torpedoes. The target seemed undamaged except for a slight trim down by the bow, and it was imperative that the ship be sunk expeditiously in order to avoid further depth charges by the escorts. Whale fired another stern shot which hit squarely under the stack, and the target, Tarushima Maru,(4865 GRT, torpedoed earlier that day by USS Seawolf) in position 22°50'N, 135°40'E. started down by the bow while Whale filmed her sinking. However, a postwar analysis of Japanese losses does not credit Whale with this kill.Whale patrolled the Marianas and the Bonins from 18 to 23 January. On 24 January, she made contact with an enemy submarine and attempted an end-around, but her maneuver was thwarted by a fire in the trim pump which filled the control room with smoke, forcing Whale to surface. Two days later Whale—low on fuel—headed for Midway, arriving on 3 February for refitting. Lt. Cmdr. James B. Grady relieved Burrows as commanding officer on 9 February. A casualty to the starboard propeller necessitated a trip to Pearl Harbor, and it was not until 13 March that Whale returned to Midway, the staging port for her seventh patrol.
Seventh war patrol, March – May 1944
The next day, Whale got underway for a rendezvous point where she joined submarine on 23 March and patrolled along a likely shipping route east of Tori Shima and the Bonins. On 25 March, Whale changed course, passed between Tokara Shima, entered the East China Sea on 29 March, and conducted patrols off the western coast of Kyūshū, including Quelpart Island and Iki Shima. On 8 April, she torpedoed an unescorted freighter, Honan Maru(5401 GRT) off the north-western coast of Kyushu in position 33°45'N, 128°42'E which exploded and sank within 15 seconds. Nine days later, Whale made contact with two small destroyers or torpedo boats but was unable to close. She headed toward Nagasaki and patrolled uneventfully until 23 April when she was detected by a patrol boat east of Asuseki Shima. Whale "turned tail at high speed and soon lost contact." She proceeded toward the Bonin Islands and made rendezvous with destroyer escort on 2 May. The following day, she entered Majuro for refitting and a three-day training period.
Eighth war patrol, May – July 1944
Again ready for sea, Whale (with destroyer as escort) departed Majuro on 28 May for her eighth war patrol. She released the destroyer the following day and proceeded to the Japanese home islands. On 7 June, she made contact with a convoy traveling in two parallel columns: four freighters in the starboard column and two in the port. They were screened by three escorts. Whale chose the largest ship, a transport of about 10,000 tons, as her first target. She fired a three-torpedo spread, then shifted to a second freighter and fired another three-torpedo spread. A hit under the stack of the first target was followed by two timed hits on the second target. The two vessels sank were the Japanese transport Shinroku Maru (2857 GRT) and damaged the Japanese transport Sugiyama Maru (4379 GRT) north-northeast of the Bonin Islands in position 31°06'N, 142°34'E. Immediately, depth charges began to drop, Whale cleared the area to the southeast and later received a report of a crippled freighter in tow north of her.
From 12 June to 4 July 1944, Whale patrolled off the southern coasts of Japan. She sighted several Japanese aircraft and a properly lighted hospital ship. On 5 July, Whale surfaced and set course for Midway where she arrived on 11 July. She pushed on toward Hawaii the following day and arrived at Pearl Harbor after a four-day passage. An extensive refitting lasted until 12 August and was followed by training exercises.
Ninth war patrol, August – October 1944Whale got underway on 24 August for her ninth patrol. Shortly before, Admiral William "Bull" Halsey had requested a sizable force of submarines to form a reconnaissance line between the western Caroline Islands and the Philippine Islands to act as offensive scouts during Operation "Stalemate", the invasion of the Palau Islands. This flotilla, nicknamed the "Zoo", consisted of nine submarines organized into three "wolfpacks" under the overall command of Captain Charles W. ("Weary") Wilkins in submarine . Whale and joined Wilkins' own pack, which was known as the "Bears."Whale arrived at Tanapag Harbor, Saipan, on 3 September and the next day got underway in company with the other "Bears" and coastal minesweeper which acted as their escort. She proceeded to a rendezvous with on 8 September about from Samar Island, Philippines. She spent the next eight days making emergency repairs and conducting training dives, patrolling on station, and submerging to avoid detection by unidentified aircraft.
On 17 September, the position of the "Bear Pit" was changed to the southeast of Formosa, and Whale arrived on station on 20 September. Four days later, she received orders to disband and proceed as a coordinated attack group of four submarines called the "Bears" to "Convoy College", the north end of the South China Sea, between Luzon, Formosa, and China. She entered those strategic waters on 25 September and, the following day, she surfaced in Bashi Channel, from Y'Ami Island of the Batan Islands, and proceeded to her patrol station south of Garan Bi, Formosa. On 27 September, Whale evaded a small patrol craft and the next day submerged for a periscope patrol south of Formosa. On 29 September, she made rendezvous with Seahorse, received written instructions for conducting the remainder of the patrol; and set her course for a new station southwest of Formosa. The submarine arrived on station on 3 October and submerged some north of Cape Borjeador, Luzon, and patrolled around Calayan and Dalupiri islands in the Babuyan group.
"Wilkins' Bears" searched the Luzon Strait on 6 October and found a convoy of at least nine ships. Using a high periscope, Whale could see two large tankers, a large tender, and two Hibiki-class destroyers patrolling ahead of the tanker. Whale fired six bow tube shots at the tanker, then submerged quickly to avoid detection. The escorts dropped 34 depth charges, none of which was uncomfortably close. The sinking vessel was the Japanese tanker Akane Maru (10241 GRT) west of the Balintang Channel, North-North-West of Luzon in position 19°40'N, 118°05'E.Meanwhile, Seahorse verified the sinking of Whales target, Akane Maru, and herself sank a destroyer that was picking up survivors from the tanker.
The next day, Whale received a message extending her patrol for seven days and ordering her to rendezvous with submarines and in the area northwest of Luzon on 9 and 10 October, respectively. Whale was harassed by plane contacts throughout the daylight hours of 16 October and she ordered to take a new station at the southwest end of Ryukyu Shoto in anticipation of a Japanese fleet sortie which never occurred. Three days later, Whale was ordered to head for Midway for refitting; she arrived there on 29 October.
Tenth war patrol, November 1944 – January 1945
Whale got underway on 21 November for her tenth war patrol. She reached the Ryukyus on 4 December and operated off those islands through the end of the year. On 22 December, she sighted eight twin engine planes and three trawlers. She launched four torpedoes at the trawlers without scoring a hit and then cleared the area. The following day, while submerged southeast of Nakano Jima, Whale sighted four trawlers. She went to gun-action stations and fired at the ships using four-inch (102 mm) and .50-caliber guns. None of the fishing vessels fought back, and all were sunk within 80 minutes.
On 4 and 5 January 1945, Whale and sister ship searched unsuccessfully in the waters near Sufu Gan for a life raft containing 11 survivors of a downed B-29 Superfortress. There were heavy seas and visibility was only , and the B-29 did not answer calls on the lifeguard frequency. That lack of communication greatly hampered the rescue operation. On 6 January, Whale received orders to proceed via Midway to Hawaii, arriving at Pearl Harbor on 15 January. She soon pushed on to the west coast and entered the Mare Island Navy Yard on 26 January 1945 for an overhaul.
Eleventh war patrol, June – August 1945
After she returned to Pearl Harbor via San Francisco, California, it was discovered that the submarine's hydraulic plant required an overhaul. This delayed departure on patrol for one month. Meanwhile, Lt. Cmdr. Freeland H. Carde, Jr., relieved Commander (Cmdr.) James B. Grady. On 15 June, fully loaded with provisions and torpedoes, Whale commenced her 11th war patrol. En route to the Marianas, Whale conducted training drills – emphasizing evasive dives from aircraft – and battle surface drills. She arrived at Saipan on 21 June and, the next day, commenced patrolling across the Japan–Wake Island supply lines until 30 June when she headed for Guam. She arrived there on 6 July and got underway the following day for lifeguard duty. From 8–23 July, Whale conducted lifeguard patrols in the areas of Nanpō Islands, Marianas, and Bungo Suido. Whale sighted several American B-29 Superfortress and B-24 Liberator bombers overhead. She also encountered a few freighters afloat but could not get in position to attack. On occasion at night, she spotted Japanese planes that were searching the water for lights. During this period, Whale rescued 15 downed aviators, saving several under adverse conditions. For example, on 26 July, while going in close for a rescue, Whale sighted 43 floating naval mines in 20 minutes, many close aboard. As a result of this lifeguard duty, Whale discovered many flaws in the air-sea rescue doctrine and made several noteworthy recommendations to improve future operations.
Whale commenced patrol east of Okino Shima on 30 July and ran into heavy seas: "Couldn't hold our own with this current, so took soundings each half hour." On 4 August, she submerged for patrol off Bungo Suido and, four days later, made rendezvous with submarine to take on board a rescued pilot. On 9 August, Whale received 16 aviators and one patient who were transferred from submarine , using a rubber boat with lines on bow and stern for propulsion. On 11 August, Whale received orders to proceed to Saipan for fuel and to Midway for refitting. She arrived at Saipan on 14 August. The next day, President of the United States Harry S. Truman announced the final Japanese capitulation. Whale sailed in company with submarine for Hawaii and arrived at Pearl Harbor on 25 August 1945.
Post-war operations, August 1945–1960
Whale departed Pearl Harbor on 30 August, bound for the Panama Canal, and arrived there on 14 September. After a three-day stay, Whale sailed for New York City and arrived at Tompkinsville, Staten Island, on 23 September. In October, she moved north via Newport, Rhode Island, and entered Boston, Massachusetts, harbor on 23 September for the Navy Day celebration. She arrived at New London, Conn., on 30 October 1945 to prepare for inactivation.
Whale was decommissioned in January 1947, berthed in New London, Connecticut, and placed in the Atlantic Reserve Fleet. She was towed to Portsmouth, New Hampshire, where she arrived on 8 April 1948. Whale made several visits to Portsmouth and New London during the summer, and she finally came to rest at New London on 11 September 1948. The submarine was partially activated from 14 November to 14 December 1956 in order to replace submarine . Whale departed New London on 12 January 1957 and, on 22 January, arrived at New Orleans, Louisiana, where she was recommissioned upon arrival.
Whale was decommissioned for the last time in September 1957 and was struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 1 March 1960. While at New Orleans, she was sold for scrap on 29 September 1960.
Whale earned 11 battle stars during World War II, sinking 57,716 tons of Japanese shipping.
References
External links
navsource.org: USS Whale
hazegray.org: USS Whale
Kill Record: USS Whale
Gato-class submarines
World War II submarines of the United States
Ships built in Vallejo, California
1942 ships
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lytham%20St%20Annes
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Lytham St Annes
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Lytham St Annes () is a seaside town in the Borough of Fylde in Lancashire, England. It is on the Fylde coast, directly south of Blackpool on the Ribble Estuary. The population of the built-up area at the 2021 census was 42,695. The town is made up of the four areas of Lytham, Ansdell, Fairhaven and St Annes-on-the-Sea.
Lytham is the older settlement, and the parish of Lytham used to cover the whole area. St Annes was founded as a new seaside resort in the 1870s on open land at the western end of the parish. From 1878 the two towns were administered separately (with Fairhaven and Ansdell being part of Lytham). They were reunited in 1922 under the compound name "Lytham St Annes". A civil parish called "Saint Anne's on the Sea" was created in 2005 just covering the western part of the built-up area.
Lytham St Annes has four golf courses and links, the most notable being the Royal Lytham & St Annes Golf Club, which regularly hosts the Open Championship.
Lytham St Annes is a reasonably affluent area with residents' earnings among the highest in the North of England.
Towns and districts
Lytham St Annes consists of four main areas: Lytham, Saint Annes-on-the-Sea, Ansdell and Fairhaven.
Lytham
The name Lytham comes from the Old English hlithum, plural of hlith meaning '(place at) the slopes'.
The Green, a strip of grass running between the shore and the main coastal road, is a notable Lytham landmark—the restored Windmill and Old Lifeboat House Museum are here. The Green overlooks the estuary of the River Ribble and the Welsh mountains. The centre of Lytham contains many notable buildings, such as the former Lytham public library, Lytham railway station, market hall, the Clifton Arms Hotel and Lytham Methodist Church.
Lytham is home to a number of bars and pubs, from the wine bars on Henry Street and Dicconson Terrace to real ale pubs such as The Taps and the Craft House (micropub). The Lytham Brewery is a microbrewery founded in 2007 and the owners operate a production facility on the outskirts of the town.
Until the middle of the 20th century, the Clifton family was the leading family in Lytham and two of the town's main thoroughfares are named in their honour, with the main shopping street being named Clifton Street and one of two roads to Blackpool being Clifton Drive. Their estate on the outskirts of Lytham and Ansdell originally occupied a large area. Lytham Hall, the family seat, remained in the family's ownership until 1963, after which time it was passed on to Guardian Royal Exchange Insurance, and then to Lytham Town Trust in 1997. The grounds of the Hall are open during the week and on Sunday and events are organised, such as open-air plays and car shows. Several of the ornate gates to the estate and much of the distinctive pebble-bricked boundary wall survive. The parish church for Lytham is St Cuthbert's Church, on Church Road.
Lytham is the location of the Foulnaze cockle fishery. The fishery has only opened the cockle beds on the Lancashire coast three times in twenty years, most recently in August 2013.
Lytham Library closed in September 2016 as part of Lancashire County Council budget cuts.
St Annes
St Annes-on-the-Sea (also known as St Annes-on-Sea or St Annes) was a 19th-century planned town. St Anne's Church was built as a chapel of ease in 1873, in which year St Annes-on-the-Sea railway station also opened. An official founding ceremony for the town was held on 31 March 1875, when the cornerstone of the St Anne's Hotel was laid. The town was developed from 1875 after Thomas Fair, agent to the Clifton Estate, sold leases to the St Anne's on the Sea Land and Building Company. Plans for the town were laid out by the Bury firm of architects Maxwell and Tuke who later went on to construct Blackpool Tower. There was an open-air seawater swimming pool from 1916 until the mid-1980s.
St Annes is the original home of Premium Bonds and their prize-selecting computer ERNIE, which were on a site between Shepherd Road and Heyhouses Lane. Premium Bonds operated from there for more than 40 years before moving to Blackpool. The shopping area declined towards the end of the 20th century and was redeveloped in an attempt to attract more retailers and shoppers. As part of this project, a restaurant quarter was established, centred around Wood Street. The work included a £2m restoration of Ashton Gardens, a park near the town centre, in 2009.
The beach to the north of St Anne's Pier was an internationally renowned sand yachting venue for many years, but this activity has been suspended since 2002 when a visitor to the beach died after being hit by a sand yacht. St Annes Beach hosts a number of kite flying events each year. In 2006 kite enthusiasts raised concerns about the future of these activities following a decision by Fylde Borough Council in 2006 to ban the flying of kites with two or more lines anywhere in the Fylde. Following representations from kite-fliers and completion of a risk assessment, the council rescinded the ban on condition that kite fliers remain at least 50m from the sand dunes.
A memorial statue of a lifeboatman looking out to sea was placed on the promenade at St Anne's after the Mexico Disaster of 1886. The original lifeboat station was established in 1881 but closed in 1925 due to silting of the channel (a secondary channel of the Ribble that ran past the pier). A lifeboat continued to operate from Lytham, but the main channel of the river also became silted up, so the lifeboat was moved to a new all-weather RNLI base a few hundred yards south of St Annes pier which opened in 2000. St Annes-on-the-Sea Carnegie Library is just outside the town centre in an Edwardian, Carnegie-funded building.
There is some confusion, even among residents of the town, about whether the correct name is "St Annes" or "St Anne's". The apostrophe has been dropped from the name by many residents and has long been absent in many formal uses, such as the Lytham St Annes Express newspaper, St Annes Parish Church, and Lytham St Annes High School, although the spelling St. Anne's is still sometimes used. The area takes its name from St Annes Parish Church.
In October 2008, a bronze statue by sculptor Graham Ibbeson of comedian Les Dawson, who lived in the town, was unveiled by Dawson's widow and daughter in the ornamental gardens next to St Annes Pier. Comedian George Formby, Jr. also lived in the town, and there is a plaque outside the house where he lived from 1953 until his death in 1961.
Ansdell
Ansdell is a small district between Lytham and St Annes, on the landward side of the railway line. It has its own railway station (shared with Fairhaven), the Ansdell Institute club and a public library. It is named for Richard Ansdell (1815–1885), an artist who lived in the area and painted numerous oils depicting hunting scenes. Ansdell enjoys the distinction of being the only place in England to be named after an artist.
Ansdell hosts the largest school in Lancashire, Lytham St Annes High School, with around 1500 students, a dedicated technology and IT department, and an integrated A-Level College. Ansdell also encompasses the southern end of Royal Lytham & St Annes Golf Club. Ansdell is also the home of Fylde Rugby Club (FRC), established in May 1920, later to be closed during the war effort, and re-opened in 1946. FRC has reared many eminent players, notably Malcolm Phillips (a former President of the club) and Bill Beaumont.
Fairhaven
Fairhaven is the district between Lytham and St Annes on the coastal side of the railway. It has been suggested it is named after Thomas Fair, the land agent for the Clifton estate. It is believed by other researchers that Thomas Riley named his Master Plan for Fairhaven after the Bible passage Acts 27 verse 8 referring to Paul's journey to Rome; many of the road names are connected to Paul and his journey.
Its main claim to fame is an artificial lake, known as Fairhaven Lake. In 1923 the new borough of Lytham St Annes was formed and subsequently purchased the lake with money quietly donated by Lord Ashton. In recognition of this, after extensive landscaping designed by T H Mawson, the lake was formally re-opened in 1926 and named Ashton Marine Park. After continuing confusion with Ashton Park in St Annes, in 1974 the name reverted to Fairhaven Lake. It is an important wildfowl habitat.
Its other famous landmark is the Fairhaven United Reformed Church, which is of unusual design, being built in Byzantine style and faced with glazed white tiles, and commonly known as the White Church. Fairhaven contains the former King Edward VII and Queen Mary School, which has now merged with Arnold School of Blackpool to become AKS Lytham.
The sands and tidal mudflats of the area (the mouth of the River Ribble) are an important feeding area for wintering waders. The RSPB operate a visitor centre from Fairhaven Lake to provide information and guided walks. The lake has been flooded by the sea in the distant past but is now protected by a substantial sea defence wall.
Fairhaven occupies an area of former sand dunes previously known as Starr Hills, which extended as far as St Annes town centre along the southern side of the railway. The name Starr Hills is still used for a residential home named after the eponymous residence constructed in the 1860s for Richard Ansdell, which was transformed into a hospital during World War I, before assuming its present use. The Fairhaven Estate was first laid out in 1892. Beginning in 1895, the estate was divided into parcels of land which could be purchased or leased for residential development.
History
The area is known to have been populated during the Bronze Age, and scattered hamlets have existed there ever since, including a village called Kilgrimol or Kilgrimhow, which is believed to have been founded in around 900 AD by Vikings expelled from Dublin. The area including the Fylde was known in Anglo-Saxon and medieval times as Amounderness. Lytham is mentioned in the Domesday Book as Lidun. In 1199 Richard Fitzroger gave his Lytham estates (then known as Lethun) to the Benedictine monks of Durham. The monks established a priory (although it was really too small to be called that as it comprised three or four monks only) on the site of the present Lytham Hall. The priory existed until 1539; in 1540 the monastery at Durham was dissolved and the Crown became Lord of the Manor.
The manor of Lytham passed through several owners until in 1606 it was sold to Cuthbert Clifton for £4,300. Clifton enlarged the manor house and made it the family seat. The house was replaced in 1757 with the present Lytham Hall, designed by architect John Carr of York. At this time St Annes did not exist, but Lytham was large enough to be called a town, with its own promenade and a reputation as a resort.
Northwards along the coast from Lytham, within the Clifton estates, were mostly sand dunes. The only habitations were the tiny hamlet of Heyhouses and the rural Trawl Boat Inn (a name resurrected in recent times for a public house in Wood Street in St Annes, opened by Wetherspoons). In 1873 the Cliftons built a Chapel of Ease dedicated to St Anne in this area, to encourage better religious observance, as most inhabitants found the long journey to St Cuthbert's in Lytham too onerous. This became the parish church of St. Anne's. At the time it was built the church had no tower. On 14 October 1874 the St Anne's-on-the-Sea Land and Building Company Ltd was registered, mainly at the instigation of Elijah Hargreaves, a wealthy Lancashire mill owner from Rawtenstall whose intention was to develop the area as a resort. The land of St Annes was leased from the Clifton estate for 999 years, although the lease still gave the Cliftons the right to kill game on the land for this period. Building rapidly commenced with the St Anne's Hotel (built in 1875, since demolished), the Hydro Terrace, which later became St Annes Square, and the railway station being among the first buildings. A separate company was formed to finance the construction of the pier, which was opened on 15 June 1885. At that time the main channel of the River Ribble ran by the end of the pier, and boats would bring people in from Lytham and Southport. The Ribble Navigation Act of 1883, which came into force in 1889, was intended to stabilise the often silted River Ribble to allow a steady trade into Preston docks. However, this work moved the main channel much further out and left St Annes Pier on flat sandbanks, where no ships could dock. In June 1910 the Floral Hall was opened at the end of the pier. It was a popular attraction and stars including Gracie Fields, Leslie Henson and Claude Hulbert performed there. Lytham and St Annes were consolidated in 1922. In 1974 a major fire seriously damaged the hall. It was restored to some extent, it ended up being used as a skatepark (skateboards) before another fire in July 1982 destroyed it. About half the pier was then demolished to make the beach safe to use.
The Lytham St Annes Civic Society operates a local blue plaque scheme. These commemorate historic buildings and residents, including Sir John Alcock and George Formby.
The 2012 Olympic torch relay passed through St Annes, Fairhaven and then Lytham before continuing onto nearby Warton and Freckleton.
Governance
There are two tiers of local government covering all of Lytham St Annes, at district and county level: Fylde Borough Council and Lancashire County Council. Fylde Borough Council has its headquarters at Lytham St Annes Town Hall on South Promenade in St Annes. There is also a civil parish called Saint Anne's on the Sea just covering the western part of the built-up area, governed by St Anne's on the Sea Town Council, which forms a third tier of local government for that area. The town council is based at West Lodge in Ashton Gardens on St George's Road.
Lytham had anciently been a chapelry in the parish of Kirkham, but became a separate parish in the Middle Ages. Improvement commissioners were established in 1847 to govern the eastern part of the parish, including the settlement of Lytham itself. The western part of the parish was subsequently made a local government district in 1878, called "Saint Anne's-on-the-Sea", governed by a local board. Both the Lytham commissioners' district and the St Anne's local government district were reconstituted as urban districts in 1894, at which point the old parish of Lytham was split into two civil parishes to match the two urban districts.
St Anne's-on-the-Sea Urban District Council built itself St Anne's Public Offices in Clifton Drive in 1902 to serve as its headquarters. In 1922 the two urban districts merged to form a municipal borough called Lytham St Annes. Since the re-organisation of local government in 1974, the town has been administered by Fylde District Council which is based at Lytham St Annes Town Hall on the South Promenade.
St Annes-on-the-Sea was made a civil parish in 2005. The remainder of Lytham St Annes, roughly corresponding to the pre-1922 Lytham Urban District, is an unparished area.
Transport
Disability access
Lytham town centre has limited disabled parking. There are other car parks outside the immediate town centre however these may be too far away for those with restricted mobility.
Railway
Lytham station, St Annes-on-the-Sea station and Ansdell & Fairhaven station all lie on the single-track Blackpool South to Preston branch of the Blackpool Branch Lines. Prior to the closure of Blackpool Central in 1964 the Coast Road, as it was known, was the mainline into Blackpool, although the Lytham St. Annes stations were bypassed by the direct line from Kirkham to Blackpool South. It has been reported that Central station in Blackpool could handle with ease one million people, in and out, in one day. Today the line is truncated at South station and the branch is operated euphemistically as "one engine in steam" but in fact is just a long siding from Kirkham. Trains run between Colne railway station and Blackpool South railway station on this line through Lytham St. Anne's.
Previously there were stations in Station Road, Lytham (1846–1874) and at near the Old Links Golf Course, St Annes (1913–1949).
Local issues
Lowther Pavilion Lytham
In 2008 local residents became aware that Fylde Borough Council was struggling financially, and in particular was becoming unable to subsidise local amenities. The closure of St. Annes swimming pool demonstrated how serious the situation was. It was felt that a group needed to take immediate action if they wished to reduce the subsidy from the council and ensure that Lowther Pavilion, the only purpose-built theatre in the area, remained open. In November 2008 Friends of Lowther Pavilion was formed, with the stated purposes of reducing the subsidy required from the council; securing the future of Lowther Pavilion, raising money for improvements, and ultimately generate profits; involving the local community in the running of the theatre and making it part of the town; and becoming the basis of a networking forum for the participating groups.
Closure of public facilities
In 2008 Fylde Borough Council announced that the borough's two public swimming pools, in Kirkham and St Annes, would be closed. Public campaigns were started to oppose both closures, and they reopened in 2010 under management by Fylde Coast YMCA, with financial support from the council.
Property developments
the most controversial political issue in Lytham St Annes concerned property development. No more greenfield sites were available and developers were seeking to replace existing buildings or to build on open spaces such as Ashton Gardens in St Annes. Many historic buildings had been demolished and replaced with larger modern constructions of standard design as can be found in many other places. For example, the art deco former headquarters of the Football League was demolished and replaced with a block of flats.
In 2005 a property development company submitted a proposal for a 2,800 apartment development called Lytham Quays to be built on industrial brownfield sites in the east of Lytham. The developer, Kensington Developments, claimed in a 2008 article in the Daily Telegraph that "In truth, the majority of people were for it".
Wildlife
The Ribble Estuary and sands of St Annes and Lytham are an Important Bird Area, mainly as a feeding ground for waders during winter and spring. There are flocks of thousands of red knot, dunlin, sanderling, bar-tailed godwit and other waders; over 100,000 birds winter there. Flocks of pink-footed geese are commonly seen in winter as they fly over St Annes between their feeding grounds around Southport and Over Wyre. Many pintail and other ducks feed and rest in the estuary.
There are 80 hectares of sand dune habitat on the coast of Lytham St Annes which is home to a wide variety of rare and interesting plants and wildlife communities. The Lytham St Annes Nature Reserve has around 250 different plant species include internationally rare plants not found outside the UK. Common lizards are found across the dune system and it is an important habitat for various breeding birds including European stonechat, skylark, linnet and reed bunting. The grayling butterfly, which is a coastal specialist, is also found on the dunes.
The Witchwood is a narrow strip of woodland protected by a tree preservation order and partly a Site of Special Scientific Interest. The strip, which runs alongside the railway line, between Blackpool Road to Ballam Road, was originally part of Lytham Hall parkland and was created by Lytham St. Annes Civic Society which joined this area with land leased from British Rail. A limited company to own and manage the wood and society members cleared undergrowth, removed rubbish and introduced a path. On advice from the Forestry Commission, invasive sycamore and elm are being replaced by indigenous English species such as oak, beech, ash, horse chestnut, birch and rowan. The walk was officially opened in 1974 by Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh and is a haven for wildlife.
Culture
Art and architecture
The following organisations are currently active:
Lytham St Annes Art Society (founded 1912)
Lytham St Annes Civic Society (founded c. 1955)
Lytham Heritage Group
Friends of the Lytham St Annes Art Collection
Friends of Lytham Hall
Fylde Arts Association
Fylde Decorative and Fine Arts Society (Fylde DFAS)
A series of public artworks were commissioned as improvement works to The Square for Saint-Annes-on-the-Sea including a mosaic by artist Gary Drostle in 2005.
Music and entertainment
Notable musicians, actors and, entertainers who were born or live(d) in Lytham St Annes include entertainer George Formby, comedians Les Dawson, Bobby Ball and Roy Walker, comedian and broadcaster Jenny Eclair, actors Stephen Tompkinson, Jonas Armstrong, Ian Anderson, Dean Lennox Kelly and Craig Kelly, composer Peter Dickinson, guitarist Mario Parga, drummer with Alien Sex Fiend and UFX/Uncle Fester Ratfink (Andrew Wilson), variety hall entertainer Betty Jumel, singer-songwriter Marli Harwood and Gigwise.com founder Andy Day. In 1999 Susan Swindells (now Susan Wood) created the idea for the Lytham Proms Festival for the local community to raise funds for charity and boost Fylde Coast tourism. It came to fruition with funding from her employer, BAE Systems.
Festivals
Beer Festival
Lytham Beer Festival has been held annually in September since 2007, although this was moved to October in 2012. It is organised by the Blackpool, Fylde and Wyre branch of CAMRA and offers a choice of around 90 real ales as well as a selection of ciders and foreign bottled beers.
Lytham Festival
Lytham Green sees an annual five-day musical festival branded as the Lytham Festival and operated by Cuffe & Taylor, part of Live Nation UK. Live performances on the promenade first began under the name "Lytham Proms" in 1999. In 2009, Daniel Cuffe and Peter Taylor took over operation of festivals on the green with a one-night concert by English soprano singer Lesley Garrett. The festival has since seen a variety of leading bands and musicians including The Human League, Madness, Nile Rodgers & Chic, The Human League, Kylie Minogue, Rod Stewart, Diana Ross, Duran Duran and Tears for Fears.
Sport
Golf
The Royal Lytham & St Annes Golf Club was founded in March 1886 and moved to its present site in 1926. Many world tournaments have been, and are, played there, including the Ryder Cup, the Open Championship and the Dunlop Masters.
Lytham Green Drive Golf Club was founded in 1913 and has hosted qualifying matches for Open Championship. The clubhouse is on Ballam Road.
There are two other golf clubs in the area, which have all hosted qualifying for The Open Championship. They are Fairhaven Golf Club and perhaps the most well known, St Annes Old Links Golf Club, which has also hosted many other top events in the golfing calendar. The Old Links course runs northwards from Highbury Road on the landward side of the railway line.
Rugby
Fylde Rugby Club, who compete in English National League one, play at the Woodlands Memorial Ground, which is shared with Blackpool Rugby League Club, who compete in National League Two. Amongst their notable former players are two British and Irish Lions, Brian Ashton and Bill Beaumont.
Football
The headquarters of the English Football League were in the former Sandown Hotel in Clifton Drive in St Annes between 1959 and 2017.
Cricket and hockey
St Annes Cricket Club are based at Vernon Road, St Annes. England and Lancashire cricketer Andrew Flintoff played for St Annes, starting as a 12-year-old in 1989.
Lytham Cricket and Sports Club is based in Church Road, Lytham. It is the home of Lytham St Annes Hockey Club.
Health care
Primary care is the responsibility of NHS North Lancashire Primary Care Trust.
There have been a number of recent reorganisations and building for general practice in the area.
General practice in Lytham is based at a health centre opened in 2009 called the Lytham Primary Care Centre. This building is on the site of the original Lytham Hospital. Two practices are housed in this building: Holland House Surgery and Fernbank Surgery.
Secondary care is mainly provided by the Blackpool, Fylde and Wyre Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, whose nearest hospital is Blackpool Victoria Hospital.
Religion
Lytham
Lytham Methodist Church, Park Street; opened in September 1868
St Cuthbert's (Church of England), Church Road; built in 1834.
St John the Divine Church (Church of England), East Beach; built 1848–49 by Edwin Hugh Shellard.
St Peter's Roman Catholic Church, Clifton Street; built 1838, the tower was added in 1878.
Lytham Christian Centre, Preston Road.
Lytham United Reformed Church, Bannister Street; founded 1863.
St Annes
Church Road Methodist Church, Church Road.
St Anne's Church, Church of England parish church, Oxford Road – built in 1873 by Paley and Austin. The tower was added in 1887.
St Annes Baptist Church, St.Andrews Road South – opened on Christmas Day 1886.
St Annes on Sea United Reformed Church, Clifton Drive – built by W.J. Porritt from 1880 onwards.
St Annes Hebrew Congregation, Orchard Road.
Our Lady Star of the Sea Church, Roman Catholic church, St Annes Road East, built in 1890 by Pugin & Pugin.
St Thomas' Church, St Thomas Road – built in 1899 by Austin and Paley.
Fylde Christian Service Church, St.Andrews Road South – based in the former St Annes Baptist chapel.
St Margaret of Antioch, St.Leonards Road West – founded in 1925.
St Alban RC Church, Kilnhouse Lane – founded in 1964.
St. Gregory's Eastern Orthodox Chapel, Orchard Road – established in 2017.
Ansdell and Fairhaven
The Well Church, Ansdell Road North; founded 1908.
Ansdell Unitarian & Free Christian Church, Channing Road; opened 1930, new hall added 1968.
St Joseph's RC Church, Woodlands Road; opened 20 September 1914; built 1909 by Pugin & Pugin.
Fairhaven United Reformed Church, Clifton Drive South; opened 17 October 1912; built by Briggs, Wolstenholme & Thornley; known locally as the "White Church".
St Paul's CofE Church, Clifton Drive; built 1902 by Medland Taylor.
Fairhaven Methodist Church, Clifton Drive; founded 1909.
Twin towns/Sister cities
Lytham St Annes is twinned with:
Werne, Germany
Caudry, France
Notable people
John Talbot Clifton (1819–1882) of Lytham Hall, MP for North Lancashire
John Talbot Clifton (1868–1928) of Lytham Hall, traveller
Violet Clifton (1883–1961) of Lytham Hall, traveller and writer
Albert Cordingley (1871–1939), first-class cricketer, club professional for Lytham Cricket Club in the mid-1890s
Larry L'Estrange (1934–2007), born in Lytham, Irish rugby player and British soldier
See also
Listed buildings in Lytham
Listed buildings in Saint Anne's on the Sea
Notes
References
Harrison, Gabriel (1971) Rage of Sand: the story of the men who built their own seaside town, London : Benn,
Pevsner, Nikolaus (1969) The Buildings of England – North Lancashire, Penguin, .
External links
Lytham St Anne's News
Visit Lytham
Seaside resorts in Lancashire
Towns in Lancashire
Geography of the Borough of Fylde
Beaches of Lancashire
1875 establishments in England
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angel%20Stadium
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Angel Stadium
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Angel Stadium of Anaheim, better known simply as Angel Stadium, is a baseball stadium located in Anaheim, California, United States. Since its opening in 1966, it has served as the ballpark of Major League Baseball's Los Angeles Angels. It served as the home stadium of the Los Angeles Rams of the National Football League (NFL) from 1980 to 1994.
The stadium is often referred to by its unofficial nickname The Big A, coined by Herald Examiner Sports Editor, Bud Furillo. It is the fourth-oldest active ballpark in the majors, behind Fenway Park, Wrigley Field, and Dodger Stadium, and hosted the All-Star Game in 1967, 1989, and 2010.
ARTIC (Anaheim Regional Transportation Intermodal Center) servicing the Metrolink Orange County Line and Amtrak Pacific Surfliner, is located nearby on the other side of the State Route 57 and accessed through the Douglass Road gate at the northeast corner of the parking lot. The station provides convenient access to the stadium, the nearby Honda Center, and Disneyland from various communities along the route, which links San Luis Obispo, Los Angeles, and San Diego. The Anaheim Resort Transit stops at the center along with Orange County Transportation Authority buses.
Aside from professional baseball and football, Angel Stadium has hosted high school and college football games, the short-lived World Football League, two crusades by evangelist Billy Graham, 20 consecutive annual crusades by evangelist Greg Laurie, Eid el Fitr celebrations, concerts, and 2 to 3 AMA Supercross Championship races a year.
The stadium also houses the studios and offices of the Angels' owned and operated flagship radio station, KLAA (830 AM).
Location and "Big A"
Angel Stadium and its surrounding parking lot are roughly bounded by Katella Avenue to the north, the Orange Freeway to the east, Orangewood Avenue to the south, and State College Boulevard to the west.
The landmark "Big A" sign, which originally served as a scoreboard support in left field, is located near the eastern boundary of the parking lot. The halo located near the top of the tall, 210-ton sign was once illuminated following games in which the Angels won (both at home and on the road), a practice broadcaster Victor Rojas was known for referring to by saying "Light that baby up!" after a victory. Since the halo was replaced with LED lighting, it remains lit at all times, although it shines brighter when the Angels win.
History
Beginnings
Angel Stadium has been the home of the Angels since their move from Los Angeles. On August 31, 1964, ground was broken for Anaheim Stadium and in 1966, the then-California Angels moved into their new home after having spent four seasons renting Dodger Stadium (referred to in Angels games as Chavez Ravine Stadium) from the Dodgers. (In their inaugural season of 1961, the Angels played their home games at Los Angeles' Wrigley Field.)
The stadium was built on a parcel of about of flat land originally used for agricultural purposes by the Allec, Russell, and Knutzen families in the southeast portion of Anaheim. Consistent with many major-league sports stadiums built in the 1960s, it is located in a suburban area, though one that is host to major tourist attractions.
The field dimensions (333 feet) were derived from a scientific study conducted by the Angels. Based on the air density at normal game times (1:30 pm and 8 pm), the Angels tried to formulate dimensions that were fairly balanced between pitcher, hitter, and average weather conditions. The Angels tinkered with those dimensions several times, expanding or contracting parts of the outfield by a few feet, to refine that balance. is the shortest center-field in the American League, and tied for 3rd-shortest in the major leagues with Petco Park behind only Oracle Park at and Dodger Stadium at . Despite this, Angels Hall of Fame pitcher Nolan Ryan still threw two of his seven no-hitters in the ballpark, alongside 2,416 of his 5,714 career strikeouts.
The Rams
In the late 1970s, Los Angeles Rams owner Carroll Rosenbloom was looking for a more modern venue than the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum, and also wanted a stadium small enough to prevent Rams games from being blacked out on local television. The Coliseum seated almost 100,000 people, and the Rams had trouble filling it even in their best years. Rosenbloom eventually brokered a deal by which the Rams would move from Los Angeles to an expanded Anaheim Stadium. To add more seats (eventually about 23,000) for football games, the mezzanine and upper decks were extended completely around the playing field, resulting in a roughly trapezoidal, completely enclosed stadium. Elevated bank of bleachers was built in right and left fields, and temporary seats were placed underneath to be pulled out for football games.
Additionally, the Big A scoreboard support that stood in left field, and was the inspiration for the stadium's nickname, was moved to its present site in the parking lot, adjoining the Orange Freeway beyond the right-field stands; its usage changed from scoreboard to electronic marquee advertising upcoming events at the stadium. A black and amber scoreboard/instant replay video board was installed above the newly constructed upper deck seats in left field. Swift technical innovations in scoreboards in the 1980s quickly made the 1979 display obsolete, and the visual quality was washed out during day games as it was in direct sunshine, leading a Sony Jumbotron color board to replace it in 1988, alongside amber matrix displays installed above the right field upper deck and along the infield balcony. A triangular metal spire was added to the top of the Jumbotron to evoke the original emplacement of the "Big A".
As with the addition of football seats to Candlestick Park a decade before to accommodate the rival San Francisco 49ers, the changes ultimately disadvantaged the Angels and their fans. Originally no seat had been further than from the field when first designed for baseball, but afterwards this was no longer the case. Also, while the expanded capacity allowed the Angels to set attendance records that still stand today, on most occasions even crowds of 40,000 left swaths of unusable and empty seats. It also did not completely solve the television blackout issue which inspired the Rams to move from the Coliseum, as the stadium would not sell out if the Rams weren't competitive or if the opposing team did not draw their own fans to Anaheim to sell out the game.
The expansion was completed in time for the 1980 NFL season, and the Rams played in Anaheim Stadium from then until their move to St. Louis after the 1994 season. The Rams would later return to Los Angeles in 2016, playing their games at the Memorial Coliseum again for four seasons; the team moved into the new SoFi Stadium in Inglewood in 2020.
The January 17, 1994 Northridge earthquake on Martin Luther King Jr. Day caused the left-field Jumbotron to collapse onto the upper deck seats beneath it. As the Rams and Angels were both out of season and it occurred in the pre-dawn hours, nobody was injured. The damaged section was deconstructed and rebuilt with a new scoreboard structure and Jumbotron, eliminating the A-frame spire that evoked the Big A.
The Disney era
In 1996, The Walt Disney Company, a minority owner of the team since its inception (the stadium is located less than east of Disneyland and across from the Honda Center, the home venue of the then Disney-owned Mighty Ducks of Anaheim), gained enough support on the board to effectively take control of the team. Soon afterward, the Angels and the city of Anaheim agreed to a new deal that would keep the Angels in Anaheim until 2031, with an option to leave the facility after the 2016 season. As part of the deal, the stadium underwent an extensive renovation, returning the stadium to its original role as a baseball-only facility. Before the 1997 baseball season, the section behind the outfield wall was demolished. Disney briefly considered moving the Big A scoreboard to its original location, but decided against such a move, citing costs as well as the fact that the Big A had become a Southern California landmark in its parking lot location.
Despite the fact that much of the stadium was still a hard-hat zone, the demolition and construction being only half-completed, the Angels played their 1997 season in Anaheim. Fans were greeted by a restored view of the San Gabriel and Santa Ana Mountains, the Brea Hills, and the 57 freeway beyond the outfield.
Work that did not interfere with game play continued throughout the 1997 season, with major renovations resuming in the winter of 1997. These included the installation of outfield bleacher pavilions, a video display board and an out-of-town scoreboard below the right field seats. All of the multicolored seats were replaced by green seats. The exterior of the stadium was also renovated. The concrete structure and ramps were painted a combination of green and sandstone. Much of the façade of the stadium was torn down to create a more open feeling for visitors.
The most notable feature of the entire renovation, however, was a "California Spectacular" in which geysers erupt and a stream cascades down a mountainside (Pride Rock) covered with real trees, artificial rocks behind the left-center field fence, and new bullpens. Fireworks shoot out of the display at the start of games, after every Angel home run and after every Angel win (previously they had been shot off from a parking garage).
The field dimensions of the renovated stadium became somewhat asymmetrical, with the high fence in right center field (which earlier hid the football-only bleacher section) replaced by a high wall which contains a scoreboard displaying out-of-town scores of other games. A plaza was built around the perimeter of the stadium, and inside are statues depicting longtime Angel owner and chairman Gene Autry and Michelle Carew, daughter of former Angel Rod Carew, who died of leukemia at the age of 18.
The main entrance includes two giant Angels hats complete with New Era tags on the sweatband (including one indicating the hats' size: 649½). The hats were originally blue and featured the Angels' "winged" logo designed by Disney for the 1997 season, and were repainted red and decorated with the present-day halo insignia for the 2002 season. Also outside home plate gate is a full-sized brick infield complete with regulation pitcher's mound and lighted bases, with bricks at each player position engraved with the names of Angels players who played at that position on Opening Day of each season since the Angels began play in 1961. For a fee, the green infield bricks can be engraved with fans' names or personalized messages. The Angels opened their "new" stadium on April 1, 1998, with a 4–1 victory over the New York Yankees. The renovated stadium has 5,075 club seats and 78 luxury suites.
In 1998, the stadium was renamed Edison International Field of Anaheim after local utility Edison International reached a deal giving it naming rights over the stadium for 20 years, and during this time, the stadium was referred to as the "Big Ed". However, after the 2003 season, Edison International exercised its option to exit the sponsorship deal. On December 29, 2003, the Angels announced that from then on the stadium would be known as Angel Stadium (in full, Angel Stadium of Anaheim); Disney sold the Angels around this time as well.
Video improvements and cancelled sale
In 2009, Brookings, South Dakota-based Daktronics installed light emitting diode (LED) displays at the stadium. The largest video display measures high by wide. Two smaller displays flank the large display, and a field-level display sits in the centerfield fence.
During the 2017-2018 offseason, the Angels upgraded the existing video boards in left and right field. The new left field video board measures , while the new right field board measures , the fourth largest scoreboard in MLB. In addition to this, the out of town scoreboard was upgraded, new video ribbons stretch from foul pole to foul pole, and a new sound system was added. Because of the new out of town scoreboard, the Angels moved the home run line in right field down from to , though the height of the right field wall remains the same.
The Angels opted out of their lease in October 2018, largely to avoid a contractual provision which would have forced them to remain in the stadium until 2029, though the club then had no new stadium proposals or moving plans. In December 2019, the city of Anaheim agreed to sell the stadium and surrounding land to an Arte Moreno-affiliated management company for $325 million, with the team committed to remain in Anaheim until at least 2050, with options to remain until at least 2065. The deal, made behind closed doors, has led to allegations of corruption and violations of the state's Surplus Land Act. An ongoing FBI investigation into the city's internal affairs and the stadium sale eventually led to the resignation of Anaheim mayor Harry Sidhu on May 23, 2022, putting the stadium's pending sale into question. On May 24, 2022, the Anaheim City Council voted to cancel the sale to Moreno's SRB Management, in light of the corruption probe.
Seating capacity
Notable events
Baseball
The stadium was host to the 1967 MLB All-Star Game, the first All-Star Game to be played on prime-time television. This was the first time an All-Star Game was held at night since World War II. Angel Stadium again hosted All-Star Games in 1989 and 2010.
It hosted seven American League Division Series (2002, 2004, 2005, 2007, 2008, 2009, and 2014) and six American League Championship Series (1979, 1982, 1986, 2002, 2005, and 2009). Most notably, it hosted the 2002 World Series, which the Angels won over the San Francisco Giants.
Angel Stadium hosted several games during Round 2 of the 2006 World Baseball Classic.
Famous individual baseball milestones attained in the stadium included Mickey Mantle's last game-winning home run, Nolan Ryan's striking out of nine consecutive Boston Red Sox players (and two of his seven no-hitters), Reggie Jackson's 500th career home run, Rod Carew's 3,000th career base hit, Don Sutton's 300th career win, Vladimir Guerrero's 400th career home run, George Brett's 3,000th career base hit, and Albert Pujols' 600th career home run.
On Saturday, August 9, 2014, the stadium hosted a 6-hour, 31-minute game between the Angels and the Boston Red Sox that extended for 19 innings, before Albert Pujols gave the Angels a 5-4 win.
The stadium is currently designated to host softball and baseball events for the 2028 Summer Olympics along with Dodger Stadium.
Football
A "Battle of the Bell" game between Fountain Valley High School and Edison High School was hosted in the stadium sometime during the 1970s.
Eric Dickerson broke the NFL single-season rushing record in game 15 of the 1984 season, finishing with 2,007 yards. (He would go on accumulate 2,105 yards that season.)
In December 2017, the Philadelphia Eagles used Angel Stadium as their practice field, as part of the Eagles’ two game west coast road trip.
Soccer
Anaheim Stadium hosted five group stage matches of the 1996 CONCACAF Gold Cup, including two involving the United States national team.
Concerts
Angel Stadium has hosted concerts including bands such as The Rolling Stones, The Who, The Osmonds, Pink Floyd, Alice Cooper, The Grateful Dead, Madonna, the Eagles, Jackson Browne, Linda Ronstadt, and Toots and the Maytals.
Motion picture set
Several major motion pictures have been shot at Angel Stadium. The final sequence of The Naked Gun: From the Files of Police Squad! (1988) featured an electronically manipulated Reggie Jackson trying to shoot Queen Elizabeth II. Exteriors were shot at the ballpark, but most baseball scenes were shot at Dodger Stadium. The 1988 sci-fi comedy My Stepmother Is an Alien features a scene shot in Angel Stadium of Kim Basinger speaking to an extraterrestrial counsel. The 1990 comedy Taking Care of Business featured a World Series matchup between the Angels and the Chicago Cubs, with the baseball scenes in the movie having been filmed in the stadium. The Disney remake of Angels in the Outfield (1994) prominently uses the ballpark; however, many of the interior shots were filmed at the Oakland–Alameda County Coliseum. The stadium served as a stand-in for Candlestick Park in filming of The Fan (1996). Scenes from Deuce Bigalow: Male Gigolo and Air Bud: Seventh Inning Fetch were also filmed here.
Other events
On November 16, 1979, Anaheim Stadium hosted Motorcycle speedway when it was the venue for the American Final, a qualifying round for the 1980 Speedway World Championship. Future dual World Champion Bruce Penhall won the Final from Scott Autrey and Dennis Sigalos. Penhall and Autrey qualified to the Intercontinental Final in England held over 6 months later. Penhall qualified through to his first World Final held at the Ullevi Stadium in Gothenburg, Sweden where he finished in 5th place.
Anaheim Stadium has hosted an AMA Supercross Championship round from 1976 to 1979, 1981 to 1987, 1989 to 1996, and 1999 to the present.
The stadium is also host to Monster Jam, which hosts several shows every year.
Angel Stadium has been the site of annual Christian Harvest Crusades since 1990. It has also hosted Muslim Eid el Fitr celebrations. In 2014, Barack Obama gave a commencement speech for University of California, Irvine graduates, which was held at the stadium due to capacity and security concerns.
Regular season home attendance
References
External links
Angel Stadium at ballparksofbaseball.com
Ballpark Digest Visit to Angel Stadium
Angel Stadium's Major Renovations
MLB's Ballpark History
Sports venues completed in 1966
American football venues in California
Anaheim Angels stadiums
Baseball venues in California
Cal State Fullerton Titans baseball
Cal State Fullerton Titans football
California Angels stadiums
a
CONCACAF Gold Cup stadiums
Defunct college football venues
Defunct National Football League venues
Defunct soccer venues in the United States
Long Beach State Dirtbags baseball
Long Beach State 49ers football
Los Angeles Angels stadiums
Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim stadiums
Los Angeles Rams stadiums
Major League Baseball venues
Motorsport venues in California
National Football League venues in Los Angeles
North American Soccer League (1968–1984) stadiums
Rugby union stadiums in California
Soccer venues in California
Softball venues in California
Sports venues in Anaheim, California
Venues of the 2028 Summer Olympics
Venues of defunct NCAA bowl games
World Baseball Classic venues
World Football League venues
Olympic baseball venues
Olympic softball venues
1966 establishments in California
Populous (company) buildings
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preity%20Zinta
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Preity Zinta
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Preity G Zinta (pronounced ; born 31 January 1975) is an Indian entrepreneur and former actress primarily known for her work in Hindi films. After graduating with degrees in English honours and criminal psychology, Zinta made her acting debut in Dil Se.. in 1998, followed by a role in Soldier in the same year. These performances earned her the Filmfare Award for Best Female Debut, and she was later recognised for her role as a teenage single mother in Kya Kehna (2000). She subsequently established a career as a leading actress of Hindi cinema with a variety of character types. Her roles, often deemed culturally defiant, along with her unconventional screen persona have been credited with contributing to a change in the concept of Indian film heroines, and won her several accolades.
Following critically appreciated roles in Chori Chori Chupke Chupke (2001), Dil Chahta Hai (2001), Dil Hai Tumhaara (2002), and Armaan (2003), Zinta received the Filmfare Award for Best Actress for her performance in Kal Ho Naa Ho (2003). She starred in two consecutive annual top-grossing films in India, Koi... Mil Gaya (2003) and Veer-Zaara (2004), and was noted for her portrayal of independent, modern Indian women in Salaam Namaste (2005) and Kabhi Alvida Naa Kehna (2006), top-grossing productions in domestic and overseas markets. For her first international role in the Canadian drama Heaven on Earth (2008) she was awarded the Silver Hugo Award for Best Actress and nominated for the Genie Award for Best Actress. She followed this with a hiatus from acting work for several years, with the exception of her self-produced comeback film, Ishkq in Paris (2013), which failed to leave a mark.
Zinta is also a social activist, television presenter and stage performer. Between 2004 and 2005, she wrote a series of columns for BBC News Online South Asia. She is the founder of the production company PZNZ Media, a co-owner of the Indian Premier League cricket team Punjab Kings since 2008, and the owner of the South-African T20 Global League cricket team Stellenbosch Kings since 2017. Zinta is known in the Indian media for publicly speaking her mind, and consequently has sparked the occasional controversy. These controversies include her being the sole witness not to retract in court her earlier statements against the Indian mafia during the 2004 Bharat Shah case, for which she was awarded the Godfrey Phillips National Bravery Award.
Early life and background
Preity Zinta was born on 31 January 1975 into a Hindu Rajput family from Shimla district, Himachal Pradesh. Her father, Durganand Zinta, was an officer in the Indian Army. He died in a car accident when she was thirteen; the accident also involved her mother, Nilprabha, who was severely injured and consequently remained bedridden for two years. Zinta called the tragic accident and her father's death a significant turning point in her life, which forced her to mature rapidly. She has two brothers; Deepankar and Manish, a year older and a year younger, respectively. Deepankar is a commissioned officer in the Indian Army, while Manish lives in California.
Zinta, who describes herself as having been a tomboy as a child, has emphasised her father's military background as having given her a lasting impression on how family life was to be conducted. He asserted the importance of discipline and punctuality to the children. She studied at the Convent of Jesus and Mary boarding school in Shimla. Although she confesses to loneliness in the boarding school, she noted that it was compensated by her finding a "...perfect set of friends" there. As a student, she developed a love for literature, particularly the works of William Shakespeare and poetry. According to Zinta, she enjoyed schoolwork and received good grades; in her free time she played sports, especially basketball.
After her schooling at Convent of Jesus and Mary, Shimla, Zinta enrolled at St. Bede's College in Shimla, a branch of Himachal Pradesh University. She graduated with an English honours degree, and then started a graduate programme in psychology. She earned a postgraduate degree in criminal psychology, but later took up modelling. Zinta's first television commercial was for Perk chocolates, the result of a chance meeting with a director at a friend's birthday party in 1996. The director persuaded Zinta to audition for the spot, and she was selected. Afterwards, she appeared in other catalogues and commercials, including one for the soap Liril.
Acting career
Debut and early roles (1998–1999)
In 1997, Zinta met Shekhar Kapur when she accompanied a friend to an audition in Mumbai, and was asked if she would audition too. Upon seeing her audition, Kapur insisted that she become an actress. She was originally scheduled to make her screen debut in Kapur's Tara Rum Pum Pum opposite Hrithik Roshan, but the filming was cancelled. She reminisced the experience: "I began to recognise the power of destiny. I had no intention ever to be an actress." Kapur later recommended her for director Mani Ratnam's Dil Se.. (1998), a romantic thriller about a terrorist group in New Delhi. Zinta often recalls that when she joined the film industry her friends teased her that she would typically "wear white saris and dance in the rain", thereby motivating her to play different parts.
Zinta commenced shooting for Kundan Shah's Kya Kehna, whose release was delayed until 2000. The delay of another film, Soldier (1998), meant that her first release was Dil Se.. opposite Shahrukh Khan and Manisha Koirala. She was introduced as Preeti Nair, a middle-class Delhi girl and Khan's fiancée. The film was considered an unusual launch for a newcomer, as her role called for only twenty minutes of screen time. However, she was eventually noticed for her role, particularly for the forthright character she played. Her scene with Khan, in which she asked him, "Are you a virgin?", became well-known, and her portrayal earned her a nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actress. Khalid Mohamed of Bombay Talkies said that she "radiates confidence and spunk even if she's given just scraps of footage". The film did not attract a wide audience in India but was the first Hindi film to enter the UK's top 10 box-office charts. Zinta's second release of 1998 was Abbas–Mustan-directed action-drama Soldier, one of the biggest commercial hits of the year. She won the Filmfare Award for Best Female Debut for her performance in both Dil Se.. and Soldier.
Zinta next acted in two Telugu films, Premante Idera (1998) and Raja Kumarudu (1999). She followed with the leading role in Sangharsh, a 1999 thriller directed by Tanuja Chandra and written by Mahesh Bhatt. Zinta portrayed Reet Oberoi, a Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) officer who falls in love with a captured killer played by Akshay Kumar. Having been impressed with Zinta's work in Dil Se.., Chandra approached her for the part after several leading actresses had refused the offer, which Zinta viewed as an opportunity to expand her range. Sangharsh was not a box-office success, although Zinta's performance received favourable comments by critics. An article published by The Tribune described her performance as "an amazing act" in an "intense film", documenting her career path thus far with the observation: "She wowed the audiences with her cameo in Dil Se.., then she zapped the viewers with her sensuality in Soldier and now Preity Zinta is all set to shock everybody with her stark performance [in Sangharsh]." Subhash K. Jha reflected in 2013 that Sangharsh marked a rare occasion in Hindi cinema at the time where a top male star played a secondary role to the leading lady.
Breakthrough and career advancement (2000–2002)
Zinta's first role in 2000 was in the drama Kya Kehna, which exceeded expectations to emerge a major box-office success. The film addressed themes of single parenthood and teenage pregnancy, and gained Zinta wider recognition from the public as well as film critics. Her portrayal of Priya Bakshi, a teenage single mother who fights social prejudice, earned her several award nominations, including her first nomination for Best Actress at the Filmfare Awards. Anupama Chopra from India Today reported that Zinta belonged to a new breed of Hindi film actors that breaks away from character stereotypes. Further positive feedback came her way that year for her starring role in the romantic comedy Har Dil Jo Pyar Karega. She next appeared alongside Sanjay Dutt and Hrithik Roshan in Vidhu Vinod Chopra's drama Mission Kashmir (2000). Set in the valley of Kashmir during the Indo-Pakistani conflicts, the film dealt with the topic of terrorism and crime; it was an economic success, becoming the year's third-highest-grossing release in India. Zinta's role was that of Sufiya Parvez, a TV reporter and Roshan's childhood love. A review in The Hindu noted her for lending colour to an otherwise serious subject matter, and she shared similar sentiments about the character, citing its positive nature within the dark film as having sparked her interest in the part.
In 2001, Zinta was paired with Sunny Deol in the action film Farz. Her role was dismissed by critics, and the film failed commercially. Abbas–Mustan's family drama Chori Chori Chupke Chupke was released later that year after a one-year delay due to the trial of producer Bharat Shah and opened to a wide audience. One of the first Hindi films to address the controversial issue of surrogate childbirth, it starred Zinta as Madhubala, a golden-hearted prostitute hired as a surrogate mother. Initially reluctant to play the part, she eventually accepted it at the directors' persuasion and, to prepare for it, visited several bars and nightclubs at Mumbai's red-light areas to study the lingo and mannerisms of sex-workers. Reviews of the film were varied, but critics singled out Zinta for praise. She received a second Best Supporting Actress nomination at the Filmfare Awards for her performance, of which reviewer Sukanya Verma wrote: "Preity Zinta, who clearly has the meatiest part of all, makes the best of it. Her transformation from the cocky and unabashed prostitute to a sensitive and warm person is amazingly believable."
Two more 2001 releases featured Zinta, including Farhan Akhtar's coming-of-age Dil Chahta Hai. Depicting the contemporary routine life of Indian affluent youth, it focuses on a period of transition in the lives of three young friends (Aamir Khan, Saif Ali Khan and Akshaye Khanna). Zinta played Aamir Khan's love interest Shalini, who is conflicted about her upcoming, loveless marriage. Dil Chahta Hai was popular with critics, some of whom believed it broke new ground with an unusually realistic portrayal of India's urban milieu. It was named Best Feature Film in Hindi at the 49th National Film Awards and received the Filmfare Critics Award for Best Film. A moderate box-office success in India, it performed well in the big cities but failed in the rural areas, which was attributed by trade analysts to the city-oriented lifestyle it presented. Dinesh Raheja took note of Zinta's "casual and appealing acting", and Sita Menon described her as "beautiful and vibrant, wavering between endearingly naive and confused". Next followed Deepak Shivdasani's Yeh Raaste Hain Pyaar Ke, a romantic drama co-starring Ajay Devgn and Madhuri Dixit which was commercially and critically unsuccessful.
In 2002, Zinta collaborated once again with director Kundan Shah, as the protagonist in the family drama Dil Hai Tumhaara, alongside Rekha, Mahima Chaudhry and Arjun Rampal. She played Shalu, an adopted daughter craving love, a role she identified with due to its rebellious nature. Billed as a star vehicle for Zinta, Dil Hai Tumhaara did not succeed financially, but her portrayal was uniformly acclaimed by critics, with those critical of the film marking her presence as its main highlight. Taran Adarsh from entertainment portal Bollywood Hungama noted: "...Preity Zinta, in an author-backed role... steals the show with a sterling performance... Here's a performance that is sure to win accolades from the junta and critics whole-heartedly."
Established actress (2003–2007)
Zinta's career surged significantly in 2003 as she was the lead in India's three highest-grossing films of the year: The Hero: Love Story of a Spy, Koi... Mil Gaya and Kal Ho Naa Ho. The Hero, co-starring Sunny Deol and Priyanka Chopra, is an action drama about a Research and Analysis Wing (RAW) secret agent on a mission to gather intelligence about terrorist activity from across the border of Kashmir. Zinta played the part of Reshma, a Kashmiri villager who falls in love with the agent and becomes part of this network. The film, involving stunts never seen before in the cinematic history of Bollywood, became the most expensive Hindi film ever produced at the time. The third-highest-grossing film of the year, it was labelled a disappointment against its high production costs. She next starred in Honey Irani's directorial debut, Armaan; the drama is set in a hospital and follows the travails of its personnel and its principal, Dr. Akash (Anil Kapoor), who struggles arduously to sustain the institution financially and enters into a marriage of convenience to save it. Zinta played Akash's egocentric, excessively possessive and capricious wife Sonia Kapoor, a role written specially for her and which she considered her best to that point. The film received predominantly positive reviews, and Zinta was particularly praised. Khalid Mohamed called her a "peppy scene-stealer, achieving her manic mood swings dexterously", and Vinayak Chakravorty of Hindustan Times concluded that she "takes over the script and, indeed, the film, unleashing a brilliant act as the deceptively bubbly but manipulative wife". For her performance, she received nominations for Best Performance in a Negative Role at different award ceremonies, including Filmfare.
Rakesh Roshan's science-fiction film Koi... Mil Gaya, about a developmentally disabled young man (Hrithik Roshan) coming in contact with an alien, followed. Zinta's portrayal of Nisha, a young woman whom Roshan befriends and falls in love with, was deemed "fresh and inspired" by The Times of India. Regarded as the "most novel Bollywood movie of the year" by Empire magazine, the film emerged as India's most popular film of the year with a domestic total of . It went on to spawn two superhero sequelsKrrish and Krrish 3making it the first of the Krrish film series, to which Zinta did not proceed.
Set in New York City, Nikhil Advani's romantic drama Kal Ho Naa Ho starred Zinta as Naina Catherine Kapur, an insecure and irritable Indian-American who falls for a man with a fatal heart disease (Shah Rukh Khan). The film earned over worldwide: the second-biggest hit of the year after Koi... Mil Gaya in India and the top-grossing Hindi film overseas. Critics received Kal Ho Naa Ho favourably, and Ram Kamal Mukherjee of Stardust asserted that it exclusively rested on Zinta's "astounding performance", noting her for having "skillfully handled the hues of the complex character". At the 49th Filmfare Awards, Zinta received two Best Actress nominations: one for Koi... Mil Gaya, which was named Best Film, and another for Kal Ho Naa Ho, for which she won the award, in addition to accolades from other functions, including IIFA and Stardust.
In 2004, Zinta played TV journalist Romila Dutta in Farhan Akhtar's war drama Lakshya, alongside Hrithik Roshan. The film is based on the historical events of the 1999 Kargil War, and Zinta's character is modelled after Barkha Dutt, the only female reporter who covered the conflict. She called it the toughest film she had worked on and said it made her respect journalists. To provide an accurate portrayal, she watched a number of Dutt's television shows and read books on the conflict. The film was a critical success, yet her performance received mixed reviews; Namrata Joshi of Outlook likened her to "a teenybopper trying to do a TV newsreading skit for her college fest", and Rediff.com's Rajeev Pai observed that despite a good part, she only "does a fairly decent job of it without ever being spectacular". Lakshya failed to attract an audience, grossing against its budget.
For the lead part in his cross-border romance Veer-Zaara (2004), Yash Chopra was looking for an actress whose "look and personality could be transformed". Having identified this opportunity in Zinta, who was mostly known for playing westernised characters, he cast her in the title role of Zaara Haayat Khan, a feisty Pakistani woman whose love story with Indian officer Veer Pratap Singh (Shah Rukh Khan) spans three decades amid trials and tribulations. Highly anticipated pre-release, the film had a strong international release, including a screening at the Berlin International Film Festival, and was named Best Film at major Indian award functions. With revenues of over , it was that year's top-grossing Hindi film both in India and abroad. Zinta's part required her to master the fine nuances of the Urdu language. Though excited at first, she later "got knots in her stomach" worrying about her performance, but Chopra assured her. Her work resulted in a fourth Filmfare Best Actress nomination, among others. Jitesh Pillai wrote of her "tremendous restraint", and Avijit Ghosh of The Telegraph likewise believed she had delivered her most nuanced performance. Derek Elley of Variety hailed her as "the most interesting young actress of her generation". Veer-Zaara was Zinta's second highest-grossing film and third major success in two consecutive years.
Zinta starred opposite Govinda in the 2005 folk comedy Khullam Khulla Pyaar Karen, a production that had been delayed since 2002. The film garnered negative reviews and poor box office returns, and Subhash K. Jha found Zinta's work to be incompatible with her screen image and acting style. Critics and moviegoers were more appreciative that year of Siddharth Anand's comedy-drama Salaam Namaste, which saw Zinta and Saif Ali Khan as a contemporary cohabiting Indian couple in Australia dealing with an unexpected pregnancy. Produced on a big budget by Yash Raj Films, it was the first Indian feature filmed entirely in Australia and became the year's highest-grossing Indian production outside of India and overall third-highest-grossing Hindi film, earning . Zinta received a number of Best Actress nominations for playing the protagonist Ambar Malhotra, a single modern young woman who leaves India to make her own life in Melbourne and works as a radio host while studying medicine. Devyani Srivastava of Mid-Day considered the independent, strong-minded character of Ambar to be a rare Hindi film heroine, and Taran Adarsh argued that Zinta had given "her most accomplished performance to date". Anita Gates of The New York Times noted Ambar's negative shades but admired Zinta's positive personality, by which she remains likable even despite uncharitable traits in her characters.
Zinta received further success in 2006, starring in Karan Johar's drama Kabhi Alvida Naa Kehna alongside Shah Rukh Khan, Rani Mukerji, Abhishek Bachchan, and Amitabh Bachchan. The film became one of the biggest box-office hits in India, earning , and grossed over abroadthe biggest Bollywood success of all-time in the overseas market up until then. It was Zinta's fourth overseas top-earner in four consecutive years. Revolving around two unhappily married couples in New York, the film featured Zinta as Rhea Saran, an ambitious fashion magazine editor whose husband begins an adulterous affair with a family acquaintance. She described the part as an attempt to shed her vivacious public image. Kabhi Alvida Naa Kehna polarised critics, but The Indian Express approved of Zinta's effort, noting her for having "walked with poise, sat with grace, smiled with composure and spoken with calmness". Other reviews questioned the limited length of her role. In later years, Filmfare and Verve lauded the character for breaking stereotypes of screen portrayals of married women in Hindi films.
Zinta next appeared in Shirish Kunder's romantic musical Jaan-E-Mann (2006). She played Piya, the cynosure of two men in the United States (Salman Khan and Akshay Kumar). The film opened to mixed reviews from critics and its eventual box office profit was poor. Despite being mostly criticised for taking a role of minimal importance, she was complimented on her performance and appearance. She said the film was a great relief after the more emotionally intense Kabhi Alvida Naa Kehna, as Jaan-E-Mann was "easy, happy and much more simple". Even less successful was her next turn as British Pakistani woman Alvira Khan in her third project with Yash Raj Films, the musical comedy Jhoom Barabar Jhoom (2007), co-starring Abhishek Bachchan, Bobby Deol and Lara Dutta. The film was a commercial failure in India and critics panned her performance; The Times of India described her as "too plastic" and Rediff.com concluded, "From accent to emotion, Preity is plain and simple insufferable in this film."
Professional expansion (2007–2008)
Following the failure of two of her commercial releases, Zinta decided to venture into art films, a movement of neo-realistic films known in India as parallel cinema. She acted alongside Amitabh Bachchan in her first English-language film, Rituparno Ghosh's film-within-a-film drama The Last Lear (2007). Zinta played Shabnam, a struggling film actress working on a new project opposite Shakespearean actor Harish Mishra (Bachchan) in the midst of a turbulent relationship with her possessive husband. The film premiered at the 2007 Toronto International Film Festival and was received well. Later reviews in India were approving, with Rajeev Masand writing that she "gets through her scenes competently, never allowing her cute-as-a-button image to take away from the impact she makes here as a conflicted, mature woman". Sukanya Verma called Zinta "palpably vulnerable" but lamented the English dialogue, finding it distracting "from the seriousness of the situation". The Last Lear was named the Best English Film at the 55th National Film Awards. Initially dismissive of art films, Zinta eventually spoke positively of her experiment with the genre, confessing, "I did think with art films that they don't pay you, they don't feed you, but I was wrong, and I'm so happy to be here."
Zinta next starred in Samir Karnik's Heroes (2008), a three-chapter road movie about two film students who, as part of an assignment, travel across North India to deliver three un-posted letters written by army personnel who lost their lives during the 1999 Kargil war to their families. Zinta is featured in the first chapter as Salman Khan's war widow, Kuljeet Kaur, a woman who becomes the sole breadwinner of the family and single-handedly raises her son. In preparation for the role Zinta attended Anupam Kher's acting school, "Actor Prepares" to learn the dialect and mannerisms of a Punjabi woman. The film was released to a mixed critical reaction, but her performance received rave reviews; Anand Singh of Hindustan Times wrote: "Karnik is merely interested in wringing tears the old-fashioned way, and not in starting a debate. He succeedsmainly because Preity Zinta brings to a role a gravitas and dignity that is seen on the faces of ordinary womenthis may be her coming of age as an actress."
In the same year she played the leading role of Chand in Deepa Mehta's Canadian film Heaven on Earth, a Punjabi-language mystical drama based on the true story of a young Indian woman who, after an arranged marriage to a non-resident Indian man from Canada, migrates to Toronto and becomes a victim of severe domestic abuse. Zinta described Mehta as one director she was longing to work with to fulfill her desire for "a new kind of acting challenge". To prepare for the part, she studied extensively the subject of domestic violence and took a crash course in Punjabi, a language that was totally alien to her. She confessed to not being able to emotionally disconnect from the part during the making of the film: "I never knew a character would affect me so deeply. I've become completely withdrawn and introspective... I can't snap out of the character." She eventually called it her most challenging project, as it helped her "shed everything that Preity Zinta was about". Heaven on Earth was first screened at several film festivals and garnered career-best reviews for Zinta. Peter Debruge of Variety wrote of her "stunning psychological transformation" in the part and Will Sloan of Exclaim! labelled her "a revelation". Her performance earned her the Silver Hugo Award for Best Actress at the 2008 Chicago International Film Festival, for "her strong yet subtle performance as a woman struggling to keep her dreams despite brutal realities". She was also nominated for the Genie Award for Best Actress.
Hiatus and occasional returns (2009–present)
Following Heaven on Earth, Zinta took a two-year sabbatical from films, later explaining that she had chosen to focus on her work with her cricket team. In 2011, she launched her own production company, PZNZ Media. Two years later and following numerous delays, she starred in her first film under the bannerthe Prem Raj-directed romantic comedy Ishkq in Paris, which she also co-wrote. An Indo-French collaboration, the film saw Zinta as a half-Indian half-French Parisian woman alongside Rhehan Malliek and Isabelle Adjani. Zinta's role required her to learn French and follow a strict diet and fitness regime, for which she hired the services of celebrity trainer Tracy Anderson. Whilst the film bombed at the box office and received mostly negative reviews, Zinta's performance attracted a mixed critical reception. Sonia Chopra of Sify called her "hugely likeable", and added that she is a "good actress, astute producer and... writer". Shilpa Jamkhandikar from Deccan Herald, critical of both the film and Zinta's work, concluded a scathing review by calling it "a mediocre film, one that was supposed to showcase one of our favourite leading ladies, but instead just shows us what a shadow of her past she's become".
Following a five-year sabbatical, Zinta starred opposite Sunny Deol as an aggressive Varanasi-based wife in Neeraj Pathak's action comedy Bhaiaji Superhit (2018). Ajit Duara of Open magazine called the film a "rude, sexist, and completely mixed-up farce" and bemoaned that the "once vivacious [Zinta] appears completely disinterested in her surroundings and in her co-actors". In 2020, Zinta appeared alongside Vir Das in an episode of the American sitcom Fresh Off the Boat, titled "The Magic Motor Inn"; she was set to reprise her role in a spin-off series, centered around her character's family, but in June ABC announced that it would not be moving forward with the spin-off.
Other work
Column writing
In 2004, Zinta joined a group of South Asian commentators for BBC News Online. She expressed joy at participating in the project, saying, "I am pretty outspoken and have my own view on every subject. So it will be a good platform for me to air my views." Her first column, "The changing face of Bollywood", published in January 2004, discussed the evolution of Bollywood in the past decade. The column became one of the site's ten most read stories of the day. In her second column, "Odds stacked against Indian women", Zinta analysed the eve teasing phenomenon in India, and criticised those who practice it. She wrote, "Incidents like these take away a woman's dignity, her space and her freedom... why the state is so helpless in protecting the women. Why should women feel unsafe in a country which had an internationally revered woman prime minister?" The column caught the attention of readers worldwide, and she received thousands of e-mails about it. It was applauded particularly by women for its stand against abuse of Indian women. Her third column, "The darkness that all actors fear", was a more personal column and dealt with her stardom, fans, insecurity and fears as an actor. Her fourth and final column, titled "Facing death in Sri Lanka and Thailand", described her two near-death experiences in late 2004.
Stage performances and television presenting
Zinta has taken part in several stage shows and world tours since 2001. Her first world tour, a series of concerts called "Craze 2001", was performed across the US alongside Anil Kapoor, Aamir Khan, Aishwarya Rai and Gracy Singh. The show faced early cancellation due to the 11 September 2001 attacks, and the team prepared to return to India as soon as possible. However, the shows continued successfully in Canada. In 2002, she participated in the show "From India With Love" in the UK, along with Amitabh Bachchan, Aamir Khan, Shah Rukh Khan and Aishwarya Rai. It took place at two outdoor venues, Manchester's Old Trafford and London's Hyde Park, with more than 100,000 spectators.
Zinta's largest world tour was in 2004, when she joined a group of stars (Shah Rukh Khan, Rani Mukerji, Saif Ali Khan, Arjun Rampal and Priyanka Chopra) in the "Temptation 2004" tour. Showcased in more than 22 countries across the world, it became Bollywood's most prominent international concert. In 2006, Zinta was part of the "Heat 2006" world tour, along with Akshay Kumar, Saif Ali Khan, Sushmita Sen and Celina Jaitley. "The Unforgettable Tour" (2008) saw Zinta performing with the Bachchan family and Ritesh Deshmukh in a forty-day show staged in eleven cities across North America, Europe and the Caribbean. In December 2012 Zinta returned to the stage with the "Temptation Reloaded" concert in Jakarta (joined by Shah Rukh Khan, Rani Mukerji and Bipasha Basu).
In 2011, Zinta made her television debut as the host of the show Guinness World Records – Ab India Todega on Colors Channel. An Indian version of Guinness Book of World Records, the show premiered on 18 March to an audience measurement of 3.3 rating points, which made it occupy the seventh position on the chart of celebrity-driven reality shows on Hindi entertainment channels. In a four-star review for Hindustan Times, critic Rachana Dubey wrote, "Preity is a riot. She's vivacious and knows exactly when she needs to be serious and when she can crack jokes." Later that year Zinta started hosting the celebrity-based chat show Up Close & Personal with PZ, shot at her own penthouse in Mumbai and broadcast on the newly launched channel UTV Stars. The first episode aired on 3 September. In 2015, Zinta featured as a talent judge for the seventh season of the dance reality show Nach Baliye.
Humanitarian work
During her years in the film industry, Zinta has been involved with different charitable organisations and has particularly supported women's causes in India, for instance protesting against female infanticide. She has also participated in AIDS awareness drives and campaigns to clean up Mumbai.
Along with other Bollywood stars, Zinta performed at the "HELP! Telethon Concert" in 2005 to raise money for victims of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. The following year, as an ambassador of the Godfrey Phillips National Bravery Movement, Zinta attended a blood donation camp organised by the Rotary Club of Delhi and the Godfrey Phillips Awards. She lent her support to the cause of women's empowerment and promoted blood donation. She said, "Donating blood doesn't kill one but goes on to save somebody's life... Once blood is donated it becomes universal and might be used by anyone in need, irrespective of community, caste or region. It binds people together."
In 2007, as part of the NDTV show Jai Jawan, Zinta visited Hisar, Haryana, where she spent a day at the army training base to boost the morale of the jawan troops and met children with disabilities at a special school maintained by the army. In August, along with Mumbai-based artist Gurcharan Singh, Zinta painted for the cause of street children for the non-governmental organisation Khushi. In December she joined the efforts of the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) to curb human trafficking in India. She spoke on behalf of awareness against the practice, the need for protection and rehabilitation for those rescued from it, and punishment for perpetrators. In 2009, on her 34th birthday, Zinta adopted 34 girls from the Mother Miracle orphanage in Rishikesh and took the responsibility of financially supporting their education, food and clothing. She expressed her excitement at doing so and recounted her full commitment to their upbringing.
In January 2010 Zinta was appointed the brand ambassador of The Loomba Trust, an organisation that works for the welfare of widows and their children. She said, having lost her father at thirteen, she could relate to the problems faced by widowed women. Later in the year, she joined the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) as their Goodwill Ambassador in India, to promote public awareness on HIV prevention, treatment and support, with emphasis on women and children, and combat discrimination against it. Speaking of her appointment, Zinta expressed hope to be "the voice for the voiceless" and bring about a "transformation in the minds of people" through collaborative work. In October 2010 Zinta was awarded an Honorary Doctorate of Arts from the University of East London. It was awarded in honour of both her cultural contribution and her humanitarian work, with the citation describing her as "an international actress, pioneering star of Hindi cinema and devoted humanitarian. Preity has carved a path for women to follow."
Ownership of cricket teams
Along with Ness Wadia, Mohit Burman and others, Zinta acquired ownership rights in 2008 for the Mohali-based Twenty20 cricket team of the Indian Premier League (IPL). The group paid $76million for the franchise and named the team Kings XI Punjab (it was renamed Punjab Kings in 2021). Until 2009, Zinta was the only woman to own an IPL team, and was the league's youngest owner. She has been involved with launching ticket sales and promoting the team. She said, "My involvement with the team is total. I am extremely passionate about our team and I do believe that I am the team's good luck factor, so I want to be there for everything." In September 2017, she became the owner of the Stellenbosch Kings franchise team of South Africa's Mzansi Super League. Further business expansion took place in 2021 as Zinta and her Punjab Kings partners bought Saint Lucia's representative team in the Caribbean Premier League (CPL), which was rebranded as Saint Lucia Kings.
Personal life
Zinta used to visit her native town Shimla when she was not busy shooting. In 2006, she moved into her own home in Mumbai. She does not identify with any particular religion. In an interview with The Times of India, she commented: "I believe in good deeds, in karma, I don't believe in going to temples. For me, religion is very personal. It's all about having faith... We have heard and read that all religions are equal. Now I am increasingly believing in this." She narrowly escaped death twice in late 2004: first after an explosion at a Temptation concert in Colombo, Sri Lanka; and second during the Indian Ocean earthquake.
Zinta has been the subject of several controversies. In 2003, as a witness in the Bharat Shah case, she testified against the Indian mafia. Bharat Shah, the financer of Chori Chori Chupke Chupke, was arrested in 2000 for having connections with Chhota Shakeel, a Mumbai underworld boss. Unlike several of her colleagues, Zinta repeated in court her earlier statement that she had received extortion threats from the mafia during the shooting of the film. After her testimony, she was given witness protection and was forced to stay out of the public eye for two months. Thirteen other witnesses before her, including celebrities Salman Khan and Shahrukh Khan, were witnesses in the case but later retracted their earlier statements. Zinta was the only witness who did not become hostile to the prosecution. Her actions met with nationwide public resonance and applause. Consequently, she was the first recipient of Godfrey's Mind of Steel Award at the annual Red and White Bravery Awards, given to her for the "courageous act" of standing against the Mumbai Underworld. On receiving the award, she said, "To be brave is not to be fearless. It is when you fear and you get over it, then you can be called brave. I am human. It is not that I fear nothing. But getting over a fear is a continuous process and I have been successful so far." Since 2006, Zinta has been the brand ambassador for the Godfrey Phillips Bravery awards.
Tabloids have often linked Zinta romantically with other Bollywood stars, but she has strongly denied any such rumours. In 2000, Zinta began dating model Marc Robinson. They separated the following year, and according to Zinta remained on good terms. Zinta dated the Bombay Dyeing heir, businessman Ness Wadia from February 2005 until May 2009. Their relationship was often reported on by the media, with frequent speculation about an engagement or a break-up. On 13 June 2014, Zinta filed a complaint with the Mumbai police against Ness Wadia alleging he had molested, threatened, and abused her at an IPL match at the Wankhede Stadium in Mumbai on 30 May. Wadia denied the allegations. In 2018, the Bombay High Court quashed this complaint after the issue was amicably settled.
On 29 February 2016, Zinta married her American partner Gene Goodenough at a private ceremony in Los Angeles. Goodenough is Senior Vice-president for Finance at NLine Energy, a US-based hydroelectric power company. Zinta moved to Los Angeles following the marriage; she visits India on a frequent basis. In 2021, she and her husband became parents to twins, a boy and a girl, through surrogacy.
Media image and artistry
Zinta is known in the Indian media for her straightforward nature and for honestly expressing her opinions in public, be it about her on-screen or off-screen life or her raising a voice against social injustice. While she does not believe she is "as tough as people portray [her] to be", she asserts having no qualms about speaking her mind, even if faced with surmounting opposition, as long as she stands "by what's right". These features were noted during the Bharat Shah case, when she testified against the underworld; following this incident she was often called by journalists "the only man in Bollywood", a label she was unhappy with for its underlying misogynist connotations. Film actor Amitabh Bachchan, describing her as "frank and painfully honest", lauded her "drive and guts in a world that can be most cruel to a single girl". Author and columnist Shobhaa De, while commending her for lodging a molestation complaint against Ness Wadia in 2014, expressed concern regarding Zinta's repeated quest for justice, believing it could eventually play against her: "India is not terribly kind to strong-willed, outspoken women who are dubbed 'trouble makers' if they dare to raise their voices, especially against men. Zinta is such a woman."
Her characteristic dimple has been cited by the media as her trademark. At the beginning of her career, she was often described by the press as having a vivacious personality and a bubbly, outgoing persona, an image she had confessed to disliking. According to film critic Sukanya Verma, Zinta's energetic nature extends from her real life into her screen appearances and is an integral part of her technique. Discussing Hindi film actresses and their flair for comedy, Verma wrote of Zinta: "What can you say about an actress who giggles non-stop in a tone that is anything but prim and propah? She is carefree. She is animated. She talks non-stop. She laughs all the time. She has a chilled out sense of humour. And a tomboyish streak too. Preity Zinta is all that and more. All this greatly contributes to her style of acting."
Director Tanuja Chandra ascribed Zinta's screen appeal to her lack of acting pretense, commenting, "She doesn't act, she's so real that you just can't look away from her." Reviewing Chori Chori Chupke Chupke (2001) for Hindustan Times, Vinayak Chakravorty noted that "there is an admirable zest that Preity pumps into every role she does". Farhan Akhtar, who directed her in two films, believes she is an actress who "can mould herselfthe way she speaks, works and her body languageand adapt herself to roles", while Vidhu Vinod Chopra (director of the 2000 film Mission Kashmir) credits her with the ability to "make the viewer believe even in the most convoluted situation." In a review of Salaam Namaste, Australian film critic Jake Wilson observed, "While Preity Zinta isn't the subtlest actress, she's quite a comediennefor a Hollywood equivalent to her combination of beauty, high-strung emotion and facial gymnastics you might have to go back to Natalie Wood." American critic Derek Elley considers her to be "one of Bollywood's best pure actresses."
Zinta's variety of characters, such as Dil Se (1998), Sangharsh (1999), Kya Kehna (2000), Chori Chori Chupke Chupke (2001), Salaam Namaste (2005) and Kabhi Alvida Naa Kehna (2006), gained her a reputation for playing roles that go against Indian traditional mores. These roles were cited by critics as having contributed to a new image for Indian screen women by means of departure from the conventional parts previously played by leading actresses in mainstream Hindi films. Karan Johar describes her as "a new-wave actress" who has the advantage of working at a time when "films portray a woman who knows her mind". The character of Preeti from Dil Se was noted by gender scholar Janell Hobson as one that breaks the stereotypes that Westerners have of South Asian women. Author Monika Mehta notes the similarity between Zinta's public image as an independent and opinionated woman and her culturally defiant character in Salaam Namaste. According to Jennifer Thomas, who analysed Zinta's roles for a chapter in the book Once Upon a Time in Bollywood (2007), Zinta "resists patriarchal constraints through her modern lifestyle and the controversial roles she chooses".
Zinta is one of the best-known celebrities in India; at her career peak she was one of Hindi cinema's most celebrated stars and was acknowledged for having managed a career without any traditional assistance or family relations in the film industry. She featured in Box Office India's top actress listing for seven years and ranked first for two consecutive years (2003–2004). In 2003, Zinta appeared in the number one spot on Rediff.com's "Top Bollywood Female Stars". She was ranked second for the following three years. She has been featured frequently on other Rediff.com lists, including "Bollywood's Most Beautiful Actresses", "Bollywood's Best Dressed Women" and "Women of Many Faces". Between 2006 and 2008 Zinta made three consecutive appearances at the Cannes Film Festival. At first she attended the 2006 Film Festival along with filmmaker Karan Johar to represent the Hindi film industry and promote Kabhi Alvida Naa Kehna, returning in later years as the brand ambassador of Chopard, the maker of luxury watches and jewellery.
In September 2006 the UK magazine Eastern Eye ranked her among "Asia's Sexiest Women". In 2010, Time magazine selected her as one of the candidates for its list of the world's 100 most influential people. She was the only Indian actress nominated for the poll and eventually did not make it to the final list, ranked at 144. This was followed, however, by a marked period of decline in her popularity when she restricted her work in films, which was further decreased with the debacle of her self-produced comeback vehicle. Film journalists like Khalid Mohamed and Subhash K. Jha have written columns in which they lament her absence from the movies and encourage her to return to acting.
See also
List of Indian film actresses
List of people from Himachal Pradesh
References
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
1975 births
Living people
People from Shimla
Actresses from Himachal Pradesh
Female models from Himachal Pradesh
Indian film actresses
Indian television actresses
Actresses in Hindi cinema
Actresses in Telugu cinema
Indian Premier League franchise owners
Cricket patrons
Filmfare Awards winners
Screen Awards winners
International Indian Film Academy Awards winners
Zee Cine Awards winners
Indian expatriate actresses in the United States
20th-century Indian actresses
21st-century Indian actresses
St. Bede's College, Shimla alumni
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English%20as%20a%20second%20or%20foreign%20language
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English as a second or foreign language
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English as a second or foreign language is the use of English by speakers with different native languages. Language education for people learning English may be known as English as a foreign language (EFL), English as a second language (ESL), English for speakers of other languages (ESOL), English as an additional language (EAL), or English as a New Language (ENL).
The aspect in which EFL is taught is referred to as teaching English as a foreign language (TEFL), teaching English as a second language (TESL) or teaching English to speakers of other languages (TESOL). Technically, TEFL refers to English language teaching in a country where English is not the official language, TESL refers to teaching English to non-native English speakers in a native English-speaking country and TESOL covers both. In practice, however, each of these terms tends to be used more generically across the full field. TEFL is more widely used in the United Kingdom and TESL or TESOL in the United States.
The term "ESL" has been seen by some to indicate that English would be of subordinate importance; for example, where English is used as a lingua franca in a multilingual country. The term can be a misnomer for some students who have learned several languages before learning English. The terms "English language learners" (ELL), and, more recently, "English learners" (EL), have been used instead, and the students' native languages and cultures are considered important.
Methods of learning English are highly variable, depending on the student's level of English proficiency and the manner and setting in which they are taught, which can range from required classes in school to self-directed study at home, or a blended combination of both. In some programs, educational materials (including spoken lectures and written assignments) are provided in a mixture of English, and the student's native language. In other programs, educational materials are always in English, but the vocabulary, grammar, and context clues may be modified to be more easily understood by students with varying levels of comprehension. Adapting comprehension, insight-oriented repetitions, and recasts are some of the methods used in training. However, without proper cultural immersion (social learning grounds) the associated language habits and reference points (internal mechanisms) of the host country are not completely transferred through these programs. The major engines that influence the language are the United States and the United Kingdom and they both have assimilated the language differently so they differ in expressions and usage. This is found to a great extent primarily in pronunciation and vocabulary. Variants of the English language also exist in both of these countries (e.g. African American Vernacular English).
The English language has a great reach and influence, and English is taught all over the world. In countries where English is not usually a native language, there are two distinct models for teaching English: educational programs for students who want to move to English-speaking countries, and other programs for students who do not intend to move but who want to understand English content for the purposes of education, entertainment, employment or conducting international business. The differences between these two models of English language education have grown larger over time, and teachers focusing on each model have used different terminology, received different training, and formed separate professional associations. English is also taught as a second language for recent immigrants to English-speaking countries, which faces separate challenges because the students in one class may speak many different native languages.
Terminology and types
The many acronyms and abbreviations used in the field of English teaching and learning may be confusing and the following technical definitions may have their currency contested upon various grounds. The precise usage, including the different use of the terms ESL and ESOL in different countries, is described below. These terms are most commonly used in relation to teaching and learning English as a second language, but they may also be used in relation to demographic information.
English language teaching (ELT) is a widely used teacher-centered term, as in the English language teaching divisions of large publishing houses, ELT training, etc. Teaching English as a second language (TESL), teaching English to speakers of other languages (TESOL), and teaching English as a foreign language (TEFL) are also used.
Other terms used in this field include English as an international language (EIL), English as a lingua franca (ELF), English for special purposes and English for specific purposes (ESP), and English for academic purposes (EAP). Those who are learning English are often referred to as English language learners (ELL). The learners of the English language are of two main groups. The first group includes the learners learning English as their second language i.e. the second language of their country and the second group includes those who learn English as a totally foreign language i.e. a language that is not spoken in any part of their county.
English outside English-speaking countries
EFL, English as a foreign language, indicates the teaching of English in a non–English-speaking region. The study can occur either in the student's home country, as part of the normal school curriculum or otherwise, or, for the more privileged minority, in an anglophone country that they visit as a sort of educational tourist, particularly immediately before or after graduating from university. TEFL is the teaching of English as a foreign language; note that this sort of instruction can take place in any country, English-speaking or not. Typically, EFL is learned either to pass exams as a necessary part of one's education or for career progression while one works for an organization or business with an international focus. EFL may be part of the state school curriculum in countries where English has no special status (what linguistic theorist Braj Kachru calls the "expanding circle countries"); it may also be supplemented by lessons paid for privately. Teachers of EFL generally assume that students are literate in their mother tongue. The Chinese EFL Journal and Iranian EFL Journal are examples of international journals dedicated to specifics of English language learning within countries where English is used as a foreign language.
English within English-speaking countries
The other broad grouping is the use of English within the English-speaking world. In what Braj Kachru calls "the inner circle", i.e., countries such as the United Kingdom and the United States, this use of English is generally by refugees, immigrants, and their children. It also includes the use of English in "outer circle" countries, often former British colonies and the Philippines, where English is an official language even if it is not spoken as a mother tongue by a majority of the population.
In the US, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand this use of English is called ESL (English as a second language). This term has been criticized on the grounds that many learners already speak more than one language. A counter-argument says that the word "a" in the phrase "a second language" means there is no presumption that English is the second acquired language (see also Second language). TESL is the teaching of English as a second language. There are also other terms that it may be referred to in the US including ELL (English Language Learner) and CLD (Culturally and Linguistically Diverse).
In the UK and Ireland, the term ESL has been replaced by ESOL (English for speakers of other languages). In these countries TESOL (teaching English to speakers of other languages) is normally used to refer to teaching English only to this group. In the UK and Ireland, the term EAL (English as an additional language) is used, rather than ESOL, when talking about primary and secondary schools, in order to clarify that English is not the students' first language, but their second or third. The term ESOL is used to describe English language learners who are above statutory school age.
Other acronyms were created to describe the person rather than the language to be learned. The term Limited English proficiency (LEP) was first used in 1975 by the Lau Remedies following a decision of the U.S. Supreme Court. ELL (English Language Learner), used by United States governments and school systems, was created by James Crawford of the Institute for Language and Education Policy in an effort to label learners positively, rather than ascribing a deficiency to them. Recently, some educators have shortened this to EL – English Learner.
Typically, a student learns this sort of English to function in the new host country, e.g., within the school system (if a child), to find and hold down a job (if an adult), or to perform the necessities of daily life (cooking, taking a cab/public transportation, or eating in a restaurant, etc.). The teaching of it does not presuppose literacy in the mother tongue. It is usually paid for by the host government to help newcomers settle into their adopted country, sometimes as part of an explicit citizenship program. It is technically possible for ESL to be taught not in the host country, but in, for example, a refugee camp, as part of a pre-departure program sponsored by the government soon to receive new potential citizens. In practice, however, this is extremely rare.
Particularly in Canada and Australia, the term ESD (English as a second dialect) is used alongside ESL, usually in reference to programs for Aboriginal peoples in Canada or Australians. The term refers to the use of standard English by speakers of a creole or non-standard variety. It is often grouped with ESL as ESL/ESD.
Umbrella terms
All these ways of denoting the teaching of English can be bundled together into an umbrella term. Unfortunately, not all of the English teachers in the world would agree on just only a simple single term(s). The term TESOL (teaching English to speakers of other languages) is used in American English to include both TEFL and TESL. This is also the case in Canada as well as in Australia and New Zealand. British English uses ELT (English language teaching), because TESOL has a different, more specific meaning; see above.
Difficulties for learners
Language teaching practice often assumes that most of the difficulties that learners face in the study of English are the consequence of the degree to which their native language differs from English (a contrastive analysis approach). A native speaker of Chinese, for example, may face many more difficulties than a native speaker of German, because German is more closely related to English than Chinese. This may be true for anyone of any mother tongue (also called the first language, normally abbreviated L1) setting out to learn any other language (called a target language, second language or L2). See also second-language acquisition (SLA) for mixed evidence from linguistic research.
Language learners often produce errors of syntax, vocabulary, and pronunciation thought to result from the influence of their L1, such as mapping its grammatical patterns inappropriately onto the L2, pronouncing certain sounds incorrectly or with difficulty, and confusing items of vocabulary known as false friends. This is known as L1 transfer or "language interference". However, these transfer effects are typically stronger for beginners' language production, and SLA research has highlighted many errors which cannot be attributed to the L1, as they are attested in learners of many language backgrounds (for example, failure to apply 3rd person present singular -s to verbs, as in 'he make' not 'he makes).
Some students may have problems due to certain words being usable, unchanged, as different parts of speech. For example, the word "suffering" in "I am suffering terribly" is a verb, but in "My suffering is terrible" is a and confounding matters is the fact that both of these sentences express the same idea, using the same words. Other students might have problems due to the prescribing and proscribing nature of rules in the language formulated by amateur grammarians rather than ascribing to the functional and descriptive nature of languages evidenced from distribution. For example, a cleric, Robert Lowth, introduced the rule to never end a sentence with a preposition, inspired from Latin grammar, through his book A Short Introduction to English Grammar. The inconsistencies brought from Latin language standardization of English language led to classifying and sub-classifying an otherwise simple language structure. Like many alphabetic writing systems, English also has incorporated the principle that graphemic units should correspond to the phonemic units; however, the fidelity to the principle is compromised, compared to an exemplar language like the Finnish language. This is evident in the Oxford English Dictionary; for many years it experimented with various spellings of 'SIGN' to attain a fidelity with the said principle, among which were SINE, SEGN, and SYNE, and through the diachronic mutations eventually settled on SIGN. Cultural differences in communication styles and preferences are also significant. For example, a study among Chinese ESL students revealed that preference for not using the tense marking on verb present in the morphology of their mother tongue made it difficult for them to express time-related sentences in English. Another study looked at Chinese ESL students and British teachers and found that the Chinese learners did not see classroom 'discussion and interaction' type of communication for learning as important but placed a heavy emphasis on teacher-directed lectures.
Pronunciation
English contains a number of sounds and sound distinctions not present in some other languages. These sounds can include vowels and consonants, as well as diphthongs and other morphemes. Speakers of languages without these sounds may have problems both with hearing and pronouncing them. For example:
The interdentals, ('three') and ('thee'), both written as th, are relatively rare in other languages.
Phonemic contrast of with (beat vs bit vowels), of with (fool vs full vowels), and of with (bet vs bat vowels) is rare outside northwestern Europe, so unusual mergers or exotic pronunciations such as for bit may arise. Note that [bɪt] is a pronunciation often used in England and Wales for bet, and also in some dialects of American English. See Northern cities vowel shift, and Pin-pen merger.
Native speakers of Japanese, Korean, and most Chinese dialects have difficulty distinguishing and , as do speakers of certain Caribbean Spanish dialects when these sounds are at the ends of syllables, a phenomenon known as lambdacism, which is one form of lallation.
Native speakers of Brazilian Portuguese, Spanish or Galician, and Ukrainian may pronounce -like sounds where a , , or , respectively, would be expected, as those sounds often or almost always follow this process in their native languages, what is known as debuccalization.
Native speakers of Arabic, Tagalog, Japanese, Korean, and important dialects of all current Iberian Romance languages (including most of Spanish) have difficulty distinguishing and , what is known as betacism.
Native speakers of almost all of Brazilian Portuguese, of some African Portuguese registers, of Portuguese-derived creole languages, some dialects of Swiss German, and several pontual processes in several Slavic languages, such as Bulgarian and Ukrainian, and many dialects of other languages, have instances of or always becoming at the end of a syllable in a given context, so that milk may be variously pronounced as . This is present in some English known as but may be shunned as substandard or bring confusion in others.
Native speakers of many widely spoken languages (including Dutch and all the Romance ones) distinguish voiceless stop pairs from their voiced counterparts merely by their sound (and in Iberian Romance languages, the latter trio does not even need to be stopped, so its native speakers unconsciously pronounce them as , , and voiced fricatives or approximants in the very same mouth instead much or most of the time, that native English speakers may erroneously interpret as the or , and , , or of their language). In English, German, Danish, and some other languages, though, the main distinguishing feature in the case of initial or stressed stopped voiceless consonants from their voiced counterparts is that they are aspirated (unless if immediately preceded or followed by ), while the voiced ones are not. As a result, much of the non-English and will sound to native English ears as and instead (i.e. parking may sound more like b''arking).
Ukrainian, Turkish and Azeri speakers may have trouble distinguishing between and as both pronunciations are used interchangeably for the letter v in those languages.
Languages may also differ in syllable structure; English allows for a cluster of up to three consonants before the vowel and five after it (e.g. strengths, straw, desks, glimpsed, sixths). Japanese and Brazilian Portuguese, for example, broadly alternate consonant and vowel sounds so learners from Japan and Brazil often force vowels between the consonants (e.g. desks becomes or , and milk shake becomes or , respectively). Similarly, in most Iberian dialects, while a word can begin with , and within a word can be followed by a consonant, a word can never both begin with and be immediately followed by a consonant, so learners whose mother tongue is in this language family often have a vowel in front of the word (e.g. school becomes , , or for native speakers of Spanish, Brazilian and European Portuguese, and Catalan, respectively).
Grammar
Tense, aspect, and mood – English has a relatively large number of tense–aspect–mood forms with some quite subtle differences, such as the difference between the simple past "I ate" and the present perfect "I have eaten". Progressive and perfect progressive forms add complexity. (See English verbs.)
Functions of auxiliaries – Learners of English tend to find it difficult to manipulate the various ways in which English uses auxiliary verbs. These include negation (e.g. "He hasn't been drinking."), inversion with the subject to form a question (e.g. Has he been drinking?), short answers (e.g. Yes, he has.) and tag questions (has he?). A further complication is that the dummy auxiliary verb do/does/did is added to fulfil these functions in the simple present and simple past, but not to replace the verb to be (He drinks too much./Does he? but He is an addict/Is he?).
Modal verbs – English has several modal auxiliary verbs, each with a number of uses. These verbs convey a special sense or mood such as obligation, necessity, ability, probability, permission, possibility, prohibition, or intention. These include "must", "can", "have to", "need to", "will", "shall", "ought to", "will have to", "may", and "might".
For example, the opposite of "You must be here at 8" (obligation) is usually "You don't have to be here at 8" (lack of obligation, choice). "Must" in "You must not drink the water" (prohibition) has a different meaning from "must" in "You must have eaten the chocolate" (deduction). This complexity takes considerable work for most English language learners to master.
All these modal verbs or "modals" take the first form of the verb after them. These modals (most of them) do not have past or future inflection, i.e. they do not have past or future tense (exceptions being have to and need to).
Idiomatic usage – English is reputed to have a relatively high degree of idiomatic usage. For example, the use of different main verb forms in such apparently parallel constructions as "try to learn", "help learn", and "avoid learning" poses difficulty for learners. Another example is the idiomatic distinction between "make" and "do": "make a mistake", not "do a mistake"; and "do a favor", not "make a favor".
Articles – English has two forms of article: the (the definite article) and a and an (the indefinite article). In addition, at times English nouns can or indeed must be used without an article; this is called the zero article. Some of the differences between definite, indefinite, and zero articles are fairly easy to learn, but others are not, particularly since a learner's native language may lack articles, have only one form, or use them differently from English. Although the information conveyed by articles is rarely essential for communication, English uses them frequently (several times in the average sentence) so that they require some effort from the learner.
Vocabulary
Phrasal verbs – Phrasal verbs (also known as multiple-word verbs) in English can cause difficulties for many learners because of their syntactic pattern and because they often have several meanings. There are also a number of phrasal verb differences between American and British English.
Prepositions – As with many other languages, the correct use of prepositions in the English language is difficult to learn, and it can turn out to be quite a frustrating learning experience for ESL/EFL learners. For example, the prepositions on (rely on, fall on), of (think of, because of, in the vicinity of), and at (turn at, meet at, start at) are used in so many different ways and contexts, it is very difficult to remember the exact meaning for each one. Furthermore, the same words are often used as adverbs (come in, press on, listen in, step in) as part of a compound verb (make up, give up, get up, give in, turn in, put on), or in more than one way with different functions and meanings (look up, look on, give in) (He looked up her skirt/He looked up the spelling/Things are looking up/When you're in town, look me up!; He gave in his homework/First he refused but then he gave in; He got up at 6 o'clock/He got up the hill/He got up a nativity play). Also, for some languages, such as Spanish, there is/are one/some prepositions that can mean multiple English prepositions (i.e. en in Spanish can mean on, in, or at). When translating back to the ESL learners' respective L1, a particular preposition's translation may be correct in one instance, but when using the preposition in another sense, the meaning is sometimes quite different. "One of my friends" translates to (transliterated) wahed min isdiqa'i in Arabic. Min is the Arabic word for "from", so it means one "from" my friends. "I am on page 5" translates to ich bin auf Seite 5 in German just fine, but in Arabic it is Ana fee safha raqm 5 (I am "in" page 5).
Word formation – Word formation in English requires much rote learning. For example, an adjective can be negated by using the prefixes un- (e.g. unable), in- (e.g. inappropriate), dis- (e.g. dishonest), non- (non-standard) or a- (e.g. amoral), as well as several rarer prefixes.
Size of lexicon – The history of English has resulted in a very large vocabulary, including one stream from Old English and one from the Norman infusion of Latin-derived terms. (Schmitt & Marsden claim that English has one of the largest vocabularies of any known language.) One estimate of the lexicon puts English at around 250,000 unique words. This requires more work for a learner to master the language.
Collocations – Collocation in English is the tendency for words to occur together with others. For example, nouns and verbs that go together ("ride a bike" or "drive a car"). Native speakers tend to use chunks of collocations and ESL learners make mistakes with collocations.
Slang and colloquialisms – In most native English-speaking countries, many slang and colloquial terms are used in everyday speech. Many learners may find that classroom based English is significantly different from how English is usually spoken in practice. This can often be difficult and confusing for learners with little experience of using English in Anglophone countries. Also, slang terms differ greatly between different regions and can change quickly in response to popular culture. Some phrases can become unintentionally rude if misused.
Silent letters - Within English, almost every letter has the 'opportunity' to be silent in a word, except F, J, Q, R, V, and Y. The most common is e, usually at the end of the word and used to elongate the previous vowel(s). The common usage of silent letters can throw off how ESL learners interpret the language (especially those who are fluent in a Germanic language), since a common step to learning words in most languages is to pronounce them phonetically. Words such as queue, Colonel, knight and Wednesday tend to throw off the learner, since they contain large amounts of silent letters.
First-language literacy
Learners who have had less than eight years of formal education in their first language are sometimes called adult ESL literacy learners. Usually, these learners have had their first-language education interrupted. Many of these learners require a different level of support, teaching approaches and strategies, and a different curriculum from mainstream adult ESL learners. For example, these learners may lack study skills and transferable language skills,Bigelow, M., & Schwarz, R. L. (2010). Adult English Language Learners with Limited Literacy. National Institute for Literacy. pp. 5, 13. and these learners may avoid reading or writing. Often these learners do not start classroom tasks immediately, do not ask for help, and often assume the novice role when working with peers. Generally, these learners may lack self-confidence. For some, prior schooling is equated with status, cultured, civilized, high class, and they may experience shame among peers in their new ESL classes.Bigelow, M., & Schwarz, R. L. (2010). Adult English Language Learners with Limited Literacy. National Institute for Literacy. p. 13.
Second-language literacy
Learners who have not had extensive exposure to reading and writing in a second language, despite having acceptable spoken proficiency, may have difficulties with the reading and writing in their L2. Joann Crandall (1993) has pointed out that most teacher training programs for TESOL instructors do not include sufficient, in most cases "no", training for the instruction in literacy. This is a gap that many scholars feel needs to be addressed.
Social and academic language acquisition
Basic interpersonal communication skills (BICS) are language skills needed in social situations. These language skills usually develop within six months to two years.
Cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP) refers to the language associated with formal content material and academic learning. These skills usually take from five to seven years to develop.
Importance of reading in ESL instruction
According to some English professionals, reading for pleasure is an important component in the teaching of both native and foreign languages:
Differences between spoken and written English
As with most languages, written language tends to use a more formal register than spoken language.
Spelling and pronunciation: probably the biggest difficulty for non-native speakers, since the relation between English spelling and pronunciation does not follow the alphabetic principle consistently. Because of the many changes in pronunciation which have occurred since a written standard developed, the retention of many historical idiosyncrasies in spelling, and the large influx of foreign words (mainly from Norman French, Classical Latin and Greek) with different and overlapping spelling patterns, English spelling and pronunciation are difficult even for native speakers to master. This difficulty is shown in such activities as spelling bees. The generalizations that exist are quite complex and there are many exceptions, leading to a considerable amount of rote learning. The spelling and pronunciation system causes problems in both directions: a learner may know a word by sound but be unable to write it correctly (or indeed find it in a dictionary) or they may see a word written but not know how to pronounce it or mislearn the pronunciation. However, despite the variety of spelling patterns in English, there are dozens of rules that are 75% or more reliable.
There is also debate about "meaning-focused" learning and "correction-focused" learning. Supporters for the former think that using speech as the way to explain meaning is more important. However, supporters of the latter do not agree with that and instead think that grammar and correct habit is more important.
Technology
Technology plays an integral part in our lives and has become a major instrument in the field of education. Educational technologies make learning and teaching of English language more convenient and enable new opportunities. The video talks about the history of technology in education and its current integration in learning. Computers have made an entry into education in the past decades and have brought significant benefits to teachers and students alike. Computers help learners by making them more responsible for their own learning. Studies have shown that one of the best ways of improving one's learning ability is to use a computer where all the information one might need can be found. In today's developed world, a computer is one of a number of systems that help learners to improve their language. Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) is a system which aids learners to improve and practice language skills. It provides a stress-free environment for learners and makes them more responsible. Computers can provide help to ESL learners in many different ways such as teaching students to learn a new language. The computer can be used to test students about the language they already learn. It can assist them in practicing certain tasks. The computer permits students to communicate easily with other students in different places. In recent years the increasing use of mobile technology, such as smartphones and tablet computers, has led to a growing usage application created to facilitate language learning, such as The Phrasal Verbs Machine from Cambridge. In terms of online materials, there are many forms of online materials such as blogs, wikis, webquests. For instance, blogs can allow English learners to voice their opinions, sharpen their writing skills, and build their confidence. However, some who are introverted may not feel comfortable sharing their ideas on the blog. Class wikis can be used to promote collaborative learning through sharing and co-constructing knowledge. On-line materials are still just materials and thus need to be subject to the same scrutiny of evaluation as any other language material or source.
Augmented reality (AR) is another emerging technology that has an important place in language education. It allows for merging of the virtual objects into the real world, as if they co-exist in the same time and place. The research has shown 8 benefits of AR in the educational setting: 1. Collaboration; 2. Connectivity; 3. Student centred; 4.Community; 5. Exploration; 6. Shared knowledge; 7. Multisensory experience; 8. Authenticity. Learners have mentioned that AR increased classroom engagement and student motivation. Two applications that have been tested in the ESL setting are QuiverVision and JigSpace. QuiverVision offers colouring pages that can be brought to life using Android or iOS devices. JigSpace can be a helpful resource in learning complex scientific, technical and historical concepts for ESL students.
Increasing social nature of internet opened up new opportunities for language learners and educators. Videos, memes and chats are all sources of authentic language that are easily accessible via mobile devices or computers. Additional benefit for English language learners is that non-textual representation can be more beneficial for students with various learning preferences.
Integration of games and gaming in language learning has recently received a surge of interest. There are games that have been specifically designed for English language learning while there are others that can be adapted to this context. Games to Learn English includes multiple games that can be played to develop language skills. Trace Effects is a game developed by U.S. Department of State which helps learners not only increase their language knowledge but also explore American culture. The most important features of gaming are their collaborative and interactive nature which makes learning engaging for learners.
The learning ability of language learners can be more reliable with the influence of a dictionary. Learners tend to carry or are required to have a dictionary which allows them to learn independently and become more responsible for their own work. In these modern days, education has upgraded its methods of teaching and learning with dictionaries where digital materials are being applied as tools. Electronic dictionaries are increasingly a more common choice for ESL students. Most of them contain native-language equivalents and explanations, as well as definitions and example sentences in English. They can speak the English word to the learner, and they are easy to carry around. However, they are expensive and easy to lose, so students are often instructed to put their names on them.
Varieties of English
The English language in England (and other parts of the United Kingdom) exhibits significant differences by region and class, noticeable in structure (vocabulary and grammar), accent (pronunciation) and in dialect.
The numerous communities of English native speakers in countries all over the world also have some noticeable differences like Irish English, Australian English, Canadian English, Newfoundland English, etc. For instance, the following are words that only make meaning in originating culture: Toad in the hole, Gulab jamun, Spotted Dick, etc.
Attempts have been made to regulate English to an inclination of a class or to a specific style of a community by John Dryden and others. Auspiciously, English as a lingua franca is not racialized and has no proscribing organization that controls any prestige dialect for the language – unlike the French Academie de la langue française, Spain's Real Academia Española, or Esperanto's Akademio.
Teaching English, therefore, involves not only helping the student to use the form of English most suitable for their purposes, but also exposure to regional forms and cultural styles so that the student will be able to discern meaning even when the words, grammar, or pronunciation are different from the form of English they are being taught to speak. Some professionals in the field have recommended incorporating information about non-standard forms of English in ESL programs. For example, in advocating for classroom-based instruction in African-American English (also known as Ebonics), linguist Richard McDorman has argued, "Simply put, the ESL syllabus must break free of the longstanding intellectual imperiousness of the standard to embrace instruction that encompasses the many "Englishes" that learners will encounter and thereby achieve the culturally responsive pedagogy so often advocated by leaders in the field."
Social challenges and benefits
Class placement
ESL students often suffer from the effects of tracking and ability grouping. Students are often placed into low ability groups based on scores on standardized tests in English and math. There is also low mobility among these students from low to high performing groups, which can prevent them from achieving the same academic progress as native speakers. Similar tests are also used to place ESL students in college-level courses. Students have voiced frustration that only non-native students have to prove their language skills, when being a native speaker in no way guarantees college-level academic literacy. Studies have shown that these tests can cause different passing rates among linguistic groups regardless of high school preparation.
Dropout rates
Dropout rates for ESL students in multiple countries are much higher than dropout rates for native speakers. The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) in the United States reported that the percentage of dropouts in the non-native born Hispanic youth population between the ages of 16 and 24 years old is 43.4%. A study in Canada found that the high school dropout rate for all ESL students was 74%. High dropout rates are thought to be due to difficulties ESL students have in keeping up in mainstream classes, the increasing number of ESL students who enter middle or high school with interrupted prior formal education, and accountability systems.
The accountability system in the US is due to the No Child Left Behind Act. Schools that risk losing funding, closing, or having their principals fired if test scores are not high enough begin to view students that do not perform well on standardized tests as liabilities. Because dropouts actually increase a school's performance, critics claim that administrators let poor performing students slip through the cracks. A study of Texas schools operating under No Child Left Behind found that 80% of ESL students did not graduate from high school in five years.
Access to higher education
ESL students face several barriers to higher education. Most colleges and universities require four years of English in high school. In addition, most colleges and universities only accept one year of ESL English. It is difficult for ESL students that arrive in the United States relatively late to finish this requirement because they must spend a longer time in ESL English classes in high school, or they might not arrive early enough to complete four years of English in high school. This results in many ESL students not having the correct credits to apply for college, or enrolling in summer school to finish the required courses.
ESL students can also face additional financial barriers to higher education because of their language skills. Those that don't place high enough on college placement exams often have to enroll in ESL courses at their universities. These courses can cost up to $1,000 extra, and can be offered without credit towards graduation. This adds additional financial stress on ESL students that often come from families of lower socioeconomic status. The latest statistics show that the median household income for school-age ESL students is $36,691 while that of non-ESL students is $60,280. College tuition has risen sharply in the last decade, while family income has fallen. In addition, while many ESL students receive a Pell Grant, the maximum grant for the year 2011–2012 covered only about a third of the cost of college.
Interaction with native speakers
ESL students often have difficulty interacting with native speakers in school. Some ESL students avoid interactions with native speakers because of their frustration or embarrassment at their poor English. Immigrant students often also lack knowledge of popular culture, which limits their conversations with native speakers to academic topics. In classroom group activities with native speakers, ESL students often do not participate, again because of embarrassment about their English, but also because of cultural differences: their native cultures may value silence and individual work at school in preference to social interaction and talking in class.
These interactions have been found to extend to teacher-student interactions as well. In most mainstream classrooms, a teacher-led discussion is the most common form of lesson. In this setting, some ESL students will fail to participate, and often have difficulty understanding teachers because they talk too fast, do not use visual aids, or use native colloquialisms. ESL students also have trouble getting involved with extracurricular activities with native speakers for similar reasons. Students fail to join extra-curricular activities because of the language barrier, the cultural emphasis of academics over other activities, or failure to understand traditional pastimes in their new country.
Social benefits
Supporters of ESL programs claim they play an important role in the formation of peer networks and adjustment to school and society in their new homes. Having class among other students learning English as a second language relieves the pressure of making mistakes when speaking in class or to peers. ESL programs also allow students to be among others who appreciate their native language and culture, the expression of which is often not supported or encouraged in mainstream settings. ESL programs also allow students to meet and form friendships with other non-native speakers from different cultures, promoting racial tolerance and multiculturalism.
Controversy over ethical administration of ESL programs
ESL programs have been critiqued for focusing more on revenue-generation than on educating students.Friesen, N., & Keeney, P. (2013). Internationalizing the Canadian campus: ESL students and the erosion of higher education. University Affairs. Retrieved from This has led to controversy over how ESL programs can be managed in an ethical manner.
Professional and Technical Communication Advocacy
The field of technical and professional communication has the potential to disrupt barriers that hinder ESL learners from entering the field, although it can just as easily perpetuate these issues. One study by Matsuda & Matsuda sought to evaluate introductory-level textbooks on the subject of technical communication. Among their research, they found that these textbooks perpetuated the "myth of linguistic homogeneity—the tacit and widespread acceptance of the dominant image of composition students as native speakers of a privileged variety of English." While the textbooks were successful in referencing global and international perspectives, the portrayal of the intended audience, the you of the text, ultimately alienated any individual not belonging to a predominantly white background and culture. In constructing this guise, prospective ESL learners are collectively lumped into an "other" group that isolates and undermines their capacity to enter the field.
Furthermore, this alienation is exacerbated by the emergence of English as the pinnacle language for business and many professional realms. In Kwon & Klassen's research, they also identified and criticized a "single native-speaker recipe for linguistic success," which contributed to anxieties about entering the professional field for ESL technical communicators. These concerns about an English-dominated professional field indicate an affective filter that provides a further barrier to social justice for these ESL individuals. These misconceptions and anxieties point towards an issue of exclusivity that technical and professional communicators must address. This social justice concern becomes an ethical concern as well, with all individuals deserving usable, accessible, and inclusive information.
There is a major concern about the lack of accessibility to translation services and the amount of time and attention their English proficiency is given throughout their educational experiences. If a student lacks an understanding of the English language and still needs to participate in their coursework, they will turn to translations in order to aid their efforts. The issue is that many of these translations rarely carry the same meaning as the original text. The students in this study said that a translated text is "pretty outdated, covers only the basics or is terribly translated," and that "The technical vocabulary linked to programming can be complicated to assimilate, especially in the middle of explanatory sentences if you don't know the equivalent word in your native language." Students can't be proficient in their given subjects if the language barrier is complicating the message. Researchers found that syntax, semantics, style, etc., scramble up the original messages. This disorientation of the text fogs up the message and makes it difficult for the student to decipher what they are supposed to be learning. This is where additional time and attention are needed to bridge the gap between native English speakers and ESL students. ESL students face difficulties in areas concerning lexico-grammatical aspects of technical writing., overall textual organization and comprehension, differentiation between genres of technical communication and the social hierarchies that concern the subject matter. This inhibits their ability to comprehend complex messages from English texts, and it would be more beneficial for them to tackle these subjects individually. The primary issue with this is the accessibility to more instruction. ESL students need an individual analysis of their needs and this needs to revolve around the student's ability to communicate and interpret information in English. Due to the civil rights decision of Lauv v. Nichols school districts are required to provide this additional instruction based on the needs of students, but this requirement still needs to be acted on.
Many ESL students have issues in higher-level courses that hinder their academic performances due to the complicated language used in these courses being at a more complex level than what many ESL students were taught. In many cases of ESL students learning Computer Programming, they struggle with the language used in instructional manuals. Writing media centers have caused ESL students issues with universities unable to provide proofreading in their writing media center programs. This causes many ESL students to have difficulties writing papers for high-level courses that require a more complex lexicon than what many of them were taught. Fortunately, university tutors have had successes with teaching ESL students how to write a more technically complex language that ESL students need to know for their courses, but it raises the question of if ESL learners need to know a more complex version of the English language to succeed in their professional careers.
Peer tutoring for ESL students
Peer tutoring refers to an instructional method that pairs up low-achieving English readers, with ESL students that know minimal English and who are also approximately the same age and same grade level. The goal of this dynamic is to help both the tutor, in this case, the English speaker, and the tutee, the ESL student. Monolingual tutors are given the class material in order to provide tutoring to their assigned ESL tutee. Once the tutor has had the chance to help the student, classmates get to switch roles in order to give both peers an opportunity to learn from each other. In a study, which conducted a similar research, their results indicated that low-achieving readers that were chosen as tutors, made a lot of progress by using this procedure. In addition, ESL students were also able to improve their grades due to the fact that they increased their approach in reading acquisition skills.
Importance
Since there is not enough funding to afford tutors, and teachers find it hard to educate all students who have different learning abilities, it is highly important to implement peer-tutoring programs in schools. Students placed in ESL program learn together along with other non-English speakers; however, by using peer tutoring in a classroom it will avoid the separation between regular English classes and ESL classes. These programs will promote community between students that will be helping each other grow academically. To further support this statement, a study researched the effectiveness of peer tutoring and explicit teaching in classrooms. It was found that students with learning disabilities and low performing students who are exposed to the explicit teaching and peer tutoring treatment in the classroom, have better academic performance than those students who do not receive this type of assistance. It was proven that peer tutoring is the most effective and no cost form of teaching
Benefits
It has been proven that peer-mediated tutoring is an effective tool to help ESL students succeed academically. Peer tutoring has been utilized across many different academic courses and the outcomes for those students that have different learning abilities are outstanding. Classmates who were actively involved with other peers in tutoring had better academic standing than those students who were not part of the tutoring program. Based on their results, researchers found that all English student learners were able to maintain a high percentage of English academic words on weekly tests taught during a tutoring session. It was also found that the literature on the efficacy of peer tutoring service combined with regular classroom teaching, is the best methodology practice that is effective, that benefits students, teachers, and parents involved.
Research on peer English immersion tutoring
Similarly, a longitudinal study was conducted to examine the effects of the paired bilingual program and an English-only reading program with Spanish speaking English learners in order to increase students' English reading outcomes. Students whose primary language was Spanish and were part of the ESL program were participants of this study. Three different approaches were the focus in which immersing students in English from the very beginning and teaching them reading only in that language; teaching students in Spanish first, followed by English; and teaching students to read in Spanish and English simultaneously. This occurs through a strategic approach such as structured English immersion or sheltered instruction.
Findings showed that the paired bilingual reading approach appeared to work as well as, or better than, the English-only reading approach in terms of reading growth and results. Researchers found differences in results, but they also varied based on several outcomes depending on the student's learning abilities and academic performance.
ESL teachers' training
Teachers in an ESL class are specifically trained in particular techniques and tools to help students learn English. Research says that the quality of their teaching methods is what matters the most when it comes to educating English learners. It was also mentioned how it is highly important for teachers to have the drive to help these students succeed and "feel personal responsibility." It is important to highlight the idea that the school system needs to focus on school-wide interventions in order to make an impact and be able to help all English learners. There is a high need for comprehensive professional development for teachers in the ESL program.
Effects of peer tutoring on the achievement gap
Although peer tutoring has been proven to be an effective way of learning that engages and promotes academic achievement in students, does it have an effect on the achievement gap? It is an obvious fact that there is a large academic performance disparity between White, Black, and Latino students, and it continues to be an issue that has to be targeted. In an article, it was mentioned that no one has been able to identify the true factors that cause this discrepancy. However it was mentioned that by developing effective peer tutoring programs in schools could be a factor that can potentially decrease the achievement gap in the United States.
Exams for learners
Learners of English are often eager to get accreditation and a number of exams are known internationally:
IELTS (International English Language Testing System) is the world's most popular English test for higher education and immigration. It is managed by the British Council, Cambridge Assessment English and IDP Education. It is offered in Academic, General and Life Skills versions. IELTS Academic is the normal test of English proficiency for entry into universities in the UK, Australia, Canada, and other British English countries. IELTS General is required for immigration into Australia and New Zealand. Both versions of IELTS are accepted for all classes of UK visa and immigration applications. IELTS Life Skills, was introduced in 2015 specifically to meet the requirements for some classes of UK visa application.
CaMLA, a collaboration between the University of Michigan and Cambridge English Language Assessment offer a suite of American English tests, including the MET (Michigan English Test), the MTELP Series (Michigan Test of English Language Proficiency), MELAB (Michigan English Language Assessment Battery), CaMLA EPT (English Placement Test), YLTE (Young Learners Test of English), ECCE and ECPE.
TOEFL (Test of English as a Foreign Language), an Educational Testing Service product, developed and used primarily for academic institutions in the US, and now widely accepted in tertiary institutions in Canada, New Zealand, Australia, the UK, Japan, South Korea, and Ireland. The current test is an Internet-based test and is thus known as the TOEFL iBT. Used as a proxy for English for Academic Purposes.
iTEP (International Test of English Proficiency), developed by former ELS Language Centers President Perry Akins' Boston Educational Services, and used by colleges and universities such as the California State University system. iTEP Business is used by companies, organizations, and governments, and iTEP SLATE (Secondary Level Assessment Test of English) is designed for middle and high school-age students.
PTE Academic (Pearson Test of English Academic), a Pearson product, measures reading, writing, speaking and listening as well as grammar, oral fluency, pronunciation, spelling, vocabulary and written discourse. The test is computer-based and is designed to reflect international English for academic admission into any university requiring English proficiency.
TOEIC (Test of English for International Communication), an Educational Testing Service product for Business English used by 10,000 organizations in 120 countries. Includes a listening and reading test as well as a speaking and writing test introduced in selected countries beginning in 2006.
Trinity College London ESOL offers the Integrated Skills in English (ISE) series of 5 exams which assesses reading, writing, speaking and listening and is accepted by academic institutions in the UK. They also offer Graded Examinations in Spoken English (GESE), a series of 12 exams, which assesses speaking and listening, and ESOL Skills for Life and ESOL for Work exams in the UK only.
Cambridge Assessment English offers a suite of globally available examinations including General English: Key English Test (KET), Preliminary English Test (PET), First Certificate in English (FCE), Certificate in Advanced English (CAE) and Certificate of Proficiency in English (CPE).
London Tests of English from Pearson Language Tests, a series of six exams each mapped to a level from the Common European Framework (CEFR) – see below.
Secondary Level English Proficiency test
MTELP (Michigan Test of English Language Proficiency), is a language certificate measuring a student's English ability as a second or foreign language. Its primary purpose is to assess a learner's English language ability at an academic or advanced business level.
Many countries also have their own exams. ESOL learners in England, Wales, and Northern Ireland usually take the national Skills for Life qualifications, which are offered by several exam boards. EFL learners in China may take the College English Test, the Test for English Majors (TEM), and/or the Public English Test System (PETS). People in Taiwan often take the General English Proficiency Test (GEPT). In Greece, English students may take the PALSO (PanHellenic Association of Language School Owners) exams.
The Common European Framework
Between 1998 and 2000, the Council of Europe's language policy division developed its Common European Framework of Reference for Languages. The aim of this framework was to have a common system for foreign language testing and certification, to cover all European languages and countries.
The Common European Framework (CEF) divides language learners into three levels:
A. Basic User
B. Independent User
C. Proficient User
Each of these levels is divided into two sections, resulting in a total of six levels for testing (A1, A2, B1, etc.).
This table compares ELT exams according to the CEF levels:
Qualifications for teachers
Qualifications vary from one region or jurisdiction to the next. There are also different qualifications for those who manage or direct TESOL programsBailey, K. M., & Llamas, C. N. (2012). Language program administrators' knowledge and skills. In M. Christison & F. L. Stoller (Eds.), Handbook for language program administrators (2nd. ed., pp. 19-34). Burlingame, CA: Alta Book Center Publishers.
Non-native speakers
Most people who teach English are in fact not native speakers. They are state school teachers in countries around the world, and as such, they hold the relevant teaching qualification of their country, usually with a specialization in teaching English. For example, teachers in Hong Kong hold the Language Proficiency Assessment for Teachers. Those who work in private language schools may, from commercial pressures, have the same qualifications as native speakers (see below). Widespread problems exist of minimal qualifications and poor quality providers of training, and as the industry becomes more professional, it is trying to self-regulate to eliminate these.
Australian qualifications
The Australian Skills Quality Authority accredits vocational TESOL qualifications such as the 10695NAT Certificate IV in TESOL and the 10688NAT Diploma in TESOL. As ASQA is an Australian Government accreditation authority, these qualifications rank within the Australian Qualifications Framework. And most graduates work in vocational colleges in Australia. These TESOL qualifications are also accepted internationally and recognized in countries such as Japan, South Korea, and China.
British qualifications
Common, respected qualifications for teachers within the United Kingdom's sphere of influence include certificates and diplomas issued by Trinity College London ESOL and Cambridge English Language Assessment (henceforth Trinity and Cambridge).
A certificate course is usually undertaken before starting to teach. This is sufficient for most EFL jobs and for some ESOL ones. CertTESOL (Certificate in Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages), issued by Trinity, and CELTA (Certificate in English Language Teaching to Adults), issued by Cambridge, are the most widely taken and accepted qualifications for new teacher trainees. Courses are offered in the UK and in many countries around the world. It is usually taught full-time over a one-month period or part-time over a period of up to a year.
Teachers with two or more years of teaching experience who want to stay in the profession and advance their career prospects (including school management and teacher training) can take a diploma course. Trinity offers the Trinity Licentiate Diploma in Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (DipTESOL) and Cambridge offers the Diploma in English Language Teaching to Adults (DELTA). These diplomas are considered to be equivalent and are both accredited at level 7 of the revised National Qualifications Framework. Some teachers who stay in the profession go on to do an MA in a relevant discipline such as applied linguistics or ELT. Many UK master's degrees require considerable experience in the field before a candidate is accepted onto the course.
The above qualifications are well-respected within the UK EFL sector, including private language schools and higher education language provision. However, in England and Wales, in order to meet the government's criteria for being a qualified teacher of ESOL in the Learning and Skills Sector (i.e. post-compulsory or further education), teachers need to have the Certificate in Further Education Teaching Stage 3 at level 5 (of the revised NQF) and the Certificate for ESOL Subject Specialists at level 4. Recognised qualifications which confer one or both of these include a Postgraduate Certificate in Education (PGCE) in ESOL, the CELTA module 2, and City & Guilds 9488. Teachers of any subject within the British state sector are normally expected to hold a PGCE and may choose to specialise in ELT.
Canadian qualifications
Teachers teaching adult ESL in Canada in the federally funded Language Instruction to Newcomers (LINC) program must be TESL certified. Most employers in Ontario encourage certification by TESL Ontario. Often this requires completing an eight-month graduate certificate program at an accredited university or college. See the TESL Ontario or TESL Canada websites for more information.
United States qualifications
Some U.S. instructors at community colleges, private language schools and universities qualify to teach English to adult non-native speakers by completing a Master of Arts (MA) in TESOL. Other degrees may be a Master in Adult Education and Training or Applied Linguistics. This degree also qualifies them to teach in most EFL contexts. There are also a growing number of online programs offering TESOL degrees. In fact, "the growth of Online Language Teacher Education (OLTE) programs from the mid-1990s to 2009 was from 20 to more than 120".
In many areas of the United States, a growing number of K–12 public school teachers are involved in teaching ELLs (English Language Learners, that is, children who come to school speaking a home language other than English). The qualifications for these classroom teachers vary from state to state but always include a state-issued teaching certificate for public instruction. This state licensing requires substantial practical experience as well as course work. In some states, an additional specialization in ESL/ELL is required. This may be called an "endorsement". Endorsement programs may be part of a graduate program or maybe completed independently to add the endorsement to the initial teaching certificate
An MA in TESOL may or may not meet individual state requirements for K–12 public school teachers. It is important to determine if a graduate program is designed to prepare teachers for adult education or K–12 education.
The MA in TESOL typically includes second-language acquisition theory, linguistics, pedagogy, and an internship. A program will also likely have specific classes on skills such as reading, writing, pronunciation, and grammar. Admission requirements vary and may or may not require a background in education and/or language. Many graduate students also participate in teaching practica or clinicals, which provide the opportunity to gain experience in classrooms.
In addition to traditional classroom teaching methods, speech pathologists, linguists, actors, and voice professionals are actively involved in teaching pronunciation of American English—called accent improvement, accent modification, and accent reduction—and serve as resources for other aspects of spoken English, such as word choice.
It is important to note that the issuance of a teaching certificate or license for K–12 teachers is not automatic following completion of degree requirements. All teachers must complete a battery of exams (typically the Praxis test or a specific state test subject and method exams or similar, state-sponsored exams) as well as supervised instruction as student teachers. Often, ESL certification can be obtained through extra college coursework. ESL certifications are usually only valid when paired with an already existing teaching certificate. Certification requirements for ESL teachers vary greatly from state to state; out-of-state teaching certificates are recognized if the two states have a reciprocity agreement.
The following document states the qualifications for an ESL certificate in the state of Pennsylvania.
Chile qualifications
Native speakers will often be able to find work as an English teacher in Chile without an ESL teaching certificate. However, many private institutes give preference to teachers with a TEFL, CELTA, or TESOL certificate. The Chilean Ministry of Education also sponsors the English Opens Doors program, which recruits native English speakers to come work as teaching assistants in Chilean public schools. English Opens Doors requires only a bachelor's degree in order to be considered for acceptance.
United Arab Emirates qualifications
Native speakers must possess teacher certification in their home country in order to teach English as a foreign language in most institutions and schools in United Arab Emirates (UAE). Otherwise, CELTA/TESOL/TEFL/ Certificate or the like is required along with prior teaching experience.
Professional associations and unions
TESOL International Association (TESOL) is a professional organization based in the United States. In addition, TESOL International Association has more than 100 statewide and regional affiliates in the United States and around the world, see below.
The International Association of Teachers of English as a Foreign Language (IATEFL) is a professional organization based in the United Kingdom.
Professional organizations for teachers of English exist at national levels. Many contain phrases in their title such as the Japan Association for Language Teaching (JALT), TESOL Greece in Greece, or the Society of Pakistan English Language Teachers (SPELT). Some of these organizations may be bigger in structure (supra-national, such as TESOL Arabia in the Gulf states), or smaller (limited to one city, state, or province, such as CATESOL in California). Some are affiliated with TESOL or IATEFL.
The National Association for Teaching English and other Community Languages to Adults (NATECLA) which focuses on teaching ESOL in the United Kingdom.
National Union of General Workers is a Japanese union which includes English teachers.
University and College Union is a British trade union which includes lecturers of ELT.
Acronyms and abbreviations
Note that some of the terms below may be restricted to one or more countries, or may be used with different meanings in different countries, particularly the US and UK. See further discussion is Terminology, and types above.
Types of English1-to-1 - One to one lesson
BE – Business English
EAL – English as an additional language
EAP – English for academic purposes
EFL – English as a foreign language
EIL – English as an international language (see main article at International English)
ELF – English as a lingua franca, a common language that is not the mother tongue of any of the participants in a discussion
ELL – English language learner
ELT – English language teaching
ESL – English as a second language
ESOL – English for speakers of other languages
ESP – English for specific purposes, or English for special purposes (e.g. technical English, scientific English, English for medical professionals, English for waiters)
EST – English for science and technology (e.g. technical English, scientific English)
TEFL – Teaching English as a foreign language. This link is to a page about a subset of TEFL, namely travel-teaching. More generally, see the discussion in Terminology and types.
TESL – Teaching English as a second language
TESOL – Teaching English to speakers of other languages, or Teaching English as a second or other languages. Also the short name for TESOL International Association.
TYLE – Teaching Young Learners English. Note that "Young Learners" can mean under 18, or much younger.
Other abbreviations
BULATS – Business Language Testing Services, a computer-based test of business English, produced by CambridgeEsol. The test also exists for French, German, and Spanish.
CELT – Certificate in English Language Teaching, certified by the National Qualifications Authority of Ireland (ACELS).
CELTA – Certificate in English Language Teaching to Adults
CELTYL – Certificate in English Language Teaching to Young Learners
Delta – Diploma in English Language Teaching to Adults
ECPE – Examination for the Certificate of Proficiency in English
IELTS – International English Language Testing System
LTE – London Tests of English by Pearson Language Tests
OLTE – Online Language Teacher Education
TOEFL – Test of English as a Foreign Language
TOEIC – Test of English for International Communication
UCLES''' – University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate, an exam board
ELICOS – English Language Intensive Courses for Overseas Students, commonly used in Australia
See also
Spanish as a second or foreign language
Language terminology
Foreign language
Glossary of language teaching terms and ideas
Second language
Basic English
General language teaching and learning
Applied linguistics
Contrastive rhetoric
Language education
Second-language acquisition
English language teaching and learning
Assistant Language Teacher
Academic English
Non-native pronunciations of English
Structured English Immersion, a framework for teaching English language learners in public schools
Teaching English as a foreign language (TEFL)
Translanguaging
Contemporary English
Comparison of American and British English
English language
English studies
International English
Dictionaries and resources
Advanced learner's dictionary
Foreign language writing aid
Statistics
EF English Proficiency Index
References and notes
Further reading
Grace Hui Chin Lin & Paul Shih Chieh Chien (2009). An Introduction to English Teaching, Germany.
Harmer, J. (2007). How to Teach English (new edition). Essex, UK: Pearson Longman.
Betty Schrampfer Azar & Stacy A. Hagen. Fundamentals of English Grammar, 4th edition, Allyn & Bacon.
Understanding and Using English Grammar, 5th Edition by Azar and Hagen.
Lightbown, P.M., & Spada, N. (2006); How Languages Are Learned (4th ed.); Oxford: Oxford University Press
Brown, H. D., & Abeywickrama, P. (2010); Language Assessment (2nd ed.); Pearson Longman.
Eric Henderson, The Active Reader: Strategies for Academic Reading and Writing, Third Edition.
Advanced Reading Power 4 2nd edition by Mikulecky and Jeffries, Pearson Longman, 2014.
Marina Rozenberg, Perspectives: Academic Reading Skills and Practice, OUP.
Spack, Ruth. Guidelines: A Cross-Cultural Reading/Writing Text, New York: St. Martin's Press.
Clear Speech from the Start, 2nd Edition by Judy B. Gilbert
Skillful Listening & Speaking. Student's Book 3 by Mike Boyle & Ellen Kisslinger
Leap High Intermediate Listening and Speaking by Dr. Ken Beatty.
Pathways Listening, Speaking, and Critical Thinking by MacIntyre.
Douglas, Scott R. Academic Inquiry: Writing for Post-Secondary Success. Don Mills, Ont: Oxford University Press, 2014.
Joy M. Reid. The Process of Composition, Pearson Education.
Leki, Ilona. Academic Writing: Exploring Processes and Strategies (2nd ed). New York: Cambridge University Press. 1998.
Easy Writer – A Pocket Reference, 4th edition by Andrea A. Lunsford.
Stoynoff, S. & Chapelle, C. A. (2005). ESOL tests and testing: A resource for teachers and administrators. Alexandria, VA: TESOL Publications.
External links
EAL Nexus – Free teaching resources
Limited English Proficiency - Interagency site of the Federal Government of the United States
Academic Phrasebank - University of Manchester
Notes on grammar and academic writing—special series by University of Canterbury
ESL.Wiki: English as a Second Language Wikibook
Second or foreign language
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South%20Asian%20Association%20for%20Regional%20Cooperation
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South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation
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The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) is the regional intergovernmental organization and geopolitical union of states in South Asia. Its member states are Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. SAARC comprises 3% of the world's land area, 21% of the world's population and 5.21% (US$4.47 trillion) of the global economy, as of 2021.
SAARC was founded in Dhaka on 8 December 1985. Its secretariat is based in Kathmandu, Nepal. The organization promotes economic development and regional integration. It launched the South Asian Free Trade Area in 2006. SAARC maintains permanent diplomatic relations at the United Nations as an observer and has developed links with multilateral entities, including the European Union. However, due to the geopolitical conflict between India and Pakistan and the situation in Afghanistan, the organization has been suspended for a long time, and India currently cooperates with its eastern neighbors through BIMSTEC.
Historical background
The idea of co-operation among South Asian Countries was discussed in three conferences: the Asian Relations Conference held in New Delhi in April 1947; the Baguio Conference in the Philippines in May 1950; and the Colombo Powers Conference held in Sri Lanka in April 1954.
In the ending years of the 1970s, the seven inner South Asian nations that included Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, the Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka, agreed upon the creation of a trade bloc and to provide a platform for the people of South Asia to work together in a spirit of friendship, trust, and understanding. President Ziaur Rahman later addressed official letters to the leaders of the countries of South Asia, presenting his vision for the future of the region and compelling arguments for co-operation. During his visit to India in December 1977, Rahman discussed the issue of regional cooperation with the Indian Prime Minister, Morarji Desai. In the inaugural speech to the Colombo Plan Consultative Committee which met in Kathmandu also in 1977, King Birendra of Nepal gave a call for close regional cooperation among South Asian countries in sharing river waters.
After the USSR's intervention in Afghanistan, efforts to establish the union were accelerated in 1979 amid the resulting rapid deterioration of the South Asian security situation. Responding to Rahman and Birendra's convention, officials of the foreign ministries of the seven countries met for the first time in Colombo in April 1981. The Bangladeshi proposal was promptly endorsed by Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bhutan, and Maldives, however India and Pakistan were sceptical initially. The Indian concern was the proposal's reference to the security matters in South Asia and feared that Rahman's proposal for a regional organisation might provide an opportunity for new smaller neighbours to re-internationalize all bilateral issues and to join with each other to form an opposition against India. Pakistan assumed that it might be an Indian strategy to organize the other South Asian countries against Pakistan and ensure a regional market for Indian products, thereby consolidating and further strengthening India's economic dominance in the region.
However, after a series of diplomatic consultations headed by Bangladesh between South Asian UN representatives at the UN headquarters in New York, from September 1979 to 1980, it was agreed that Bangladesh would prepare the draft of a working paper for discussion among the foreign secretaries of South Asian countries. The foreign secretaries of the inner seven countries again delegated a Committee of the Whole in Colombo in September 1981, which identified five broad areas for regional cooperation. New areas of co-operation were added in the following years.
In 1983, at the international conference held in Dhaka by its Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the foreign ministers of the inner seven countries adopted the Declaration on South Asian Association Regional Cooperation (SAARC) and formally launched the Integrated Programme of Action (IPA) initially in five agreed areas of cooperation, namely, Agriculture; Rural Development; Telecommunications; Meteorology; and Health and Population Activities.
Officially, the union was established in Dhaka with Kathmandu being the union's secretariat-general. The first SAARC summit was held in Dhaka on 7–8 December 1985 and hosted by the President of Bangladesh Hussain Ershad. The declaration was signed by, namely, King of Bhutan Jigme Singye Wangchuk; President of Pakistan Zia-ul-Haq; Prime Minister of India Rajiv Gandhi; King of Nepal Birendra Shah; President of Sri Lanka JR Jayewardene; and President of Maldives Maumoon Gayoom.
Members and observers
Economic data is sourced from the International Monetary Fund, current as of December 2019, and is given in US dollars.
Members
The member states are Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, the Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka.
SAARC was founded by seven states in 1985. In 2005, Afghanistan began negotiating their accession to SAARC and formally applied for membership in the same year. The issue of Afghanistan joining SAARC generated a great deal of debate in each member state, including concerns about the definition of South Asian identity because Afghanistan is considered a Central Asian country, while it is neither accepted as a Middle Eastern country, nor as a Central Asian country, or as part of the Indian subcontinent, other than being only in part of South Asia.
SAARC member states imposed a stipulation for Afghanistan to hold a general election; the non-partisan elections were held in late 2005. Despite initial reluctance and internal debates, Afghanistan joined SAARC as its eighth member state in April 2007.
Despite the Takeover of Afghanistan by the Taliban in 2021, Afghanistan is still a member of SAARC, despite calls for their suspension and none of the other SAARC members recognizing the Taliban government. The issue was further exasperated as it was Afghanistan's turn to select a Secretary General for SAARC in 2023. All other members decided to skip Afghanistan and award the selection to Bangladesh, with Nepali foreign secretary, Bharat Raj Paudyal, stating that "When the term of the Bangladeshi secretary general ends, if the problems in Afghanistan are resolved, the new secretary general will be from Afghanistan, not from Bhutan."
Observer countries
States with observer status include Australia, China, the European Union, Iran, Japan, Mauritius, Myanmar, South Korea, and the United States.
China's 2007 application for observer status received strong support from Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Maldives, Nepal, and Pakistan. Other South Asian members of SAARC agreed to support China's observer status, but were not as strongly in favor.
On 2 August 2006, the foreign ministers of SAARC countries agreed in principle to grant observer status to three applicants; the US and South Korea (both made requests in April 2006), as well as the European Union (requested in July 2006). On 4 March 2007, Iran requested observer status, followed shortly by Mauritius.
Potential future members
Myanmar has expressed interest in upgrading its status from an observer to a full member of SAARC. China has requested joining SAARC. Russia has applied for observer status membership of SAARC. Turkey applied for observer status membership of SAARC in 2012. South Africa has participated in meetings. Indonesia, Jordan, Canada, New Zealand, Ireland, Saudi Arabia, the United Kingdom and Yemen have expressed interest.
Secretariat
The SAARC Secretariat was established in Kathmandu on 16 January 1987 and was inaugurated by the late King Birendra Bir Bikram Shah of Nepal.
Specialized bodies
SAARC member states have created the following specialized bodies of SAARC in the member states which have special mandates and structures different from the regional centers. These bodies are managed by their respective governing boards composed of representatives from all the member states, the representative of H.E. secretary-general of SAARC and the ministry of foreign/external affairs of the host government. The heads of these bodies act as member secretary to the governing board which reports to the programming committee of SAARC.
Regional Centres
The SAARC Secretariat is supported by following Regional Centres established in the Member States to promote regional co-operation. These Centres are managed by Governing Boards comprising representatives from all the Member States, SAARC Secretary-General and the Ministry of Foreign/External Affairs of the Host Government. The Director of the Centre acts as Member Secretary to the Governing Board which reports to the Programming Committee. After 31 December 2015, there 6 regional centers were stopped by unanimous decision. These are SMRC, SFC, SDC, SCZMC, SIC, SHRDC.
Anthem
SAARC does not have an official anthem like some other regional organizations (e.g. ASEAN).
Apex and Recognized Bodies
SAARC has six Apex Bodies, they are:
SAARC Chamber of Commerce & Industry (SCCI),
South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation in Law (SAARCLAW),
South Asian Federation of Accountants (SAFA),
South Asia Foundation (SAF),
South Asia Initiative to End Violence Against Children (SAIEVAC),
Foundation of SAARC Writers and Literature (FOSWAL)
SAARC also has about 18 recognized bodies.
SAARC Disaster Management Centre
The South Asian Association of Regional Cooperation (SAARC) Disaster Management Centre (SDMC-IU) has been set up at Gujarat Institute of Disaster Management (GIDM) Campus, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India. Eight Member States, i.e., Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka are expected to be served by the SDMC (IU). It is entrusted with the responsibility of serving Member States by providing policy advice, technical support on system development, capacity building services and training for holistic management of disaster risk in the SAARC region. The centre also facilitates exchange of information and expertise for effective and efficient management of disaster risk.
Political issues
Lasting peace and prosperity in South Asia has been elusive because of the various ongoing conflicts in the region. Political dialogue is often conducted on the margins of SAARC meetings which have refrained from interfering in the internal matters of its member states. During the 12th and 13th SAARC summits, extreme emphasis was laid upon greater cooperation between SAARC members to fight terrorism.
The 19th SAARC summit scheduled to be held in Pakistan was called off as India, Bangladesh, Bhutan and Afghanistan decided to boycott it due to a terrorist attack on an army camp in Uri. It was the first time that four countries boycotted a SAARC summit, leading to its cancellation.
SAARC has generally been ineffective at achieving enhanced regionalism.
South Asian Free Trade Area
The SAFTA was envisaged primarily as the first step towards the transition to a South Asian Free Trade Area (SAFTA) leading subsequently towards a Customs Union, Common Market and the Economic Union. In 1995, Sixteenth session of the Council of Ministers (New Delhi, 18–19 December 1995) agreed on the need to strive for the realization of SAFTA and to this end, an Inter-Governmental Expert Group (IGEG) was set up in 1996 to identify the necessary steps for progressing to a free trade area. The Tenth SAARC Summit (Colombo, 29–31 July 1998) decided to set up a Committee of Experts (COE) to draft a comprehensive treaty framework for creating a free trade area within the region, taking into consideration the asymmetries in development within the region and bearing in mind the need to fix realistic and achievable targets.
The SAFTA Agreement was signed on 6 January 2004 during Twelfth SAARC Summit held in Islamabad, Pakistan. The Agreement entered into force on 1 January 2006, and the Trade Liberalization Programme commenced from 1 July 2006. Under this agreement, SAARC members will bring their duties down to 20 percent by 2009. Following the Agreement coming into force the SAFTA Ministerial Council (SMC) has been established comprising the Commerce Ministers of the Member States. In 2012 SAARC exports increased substantially to $354.6 billion from $206.7 billion in 2009. Imports too increased from $330 billion to $602 billion over the same period. But the intra-SAARC trade amounts to just a little over 1% of SAARC's GDP. In contrast to SAARC, in ASEAN (which is actually smaller than SAARC in terms of the size of the economy) the intra-bloc trade stands at 10% of its GDP.
The SAFTA was envisaged to gradually move towards the South Asian Economic Union, but the current intra-regional trade and investment relation are not encouraging and it may be difficult to achieve this target. SAARC intra-regional trade stands at just five percent on the share of intra-regional trade in overall trade in South Asia. Similarly, foreign direct investment is also dismal. The intra-regional FDI flow stands at around four percent of the total foreign investment.
The Asian Development Bank has estimated that inter-regional trade in SAARC region possessed the potential of shooting up agricultural exports by $14 billion per year from existing level of $8 billion to $22 billion. The study by Asian Development Bank states that against the potential average SAARC intra-regional trade of $22 billion per year, the actual trade in South Asia has been only around $8 billion. The uncaptured potential for intra-regional trade is therefore $14 billion per year, i.e., 68%.
SAARC Visa Exemption Scheme
The SAARC Visa Exemption Scheme was launched in 1992. The leaders at the Fourth Summit (Islamabad, 29–31 December 1988), realizing the importance of people-to-people contact among SAARC countries, decided that certain categories of dignitaries should be entitled to a Special Travel document. The document would exempt them from visas within the region. As directed by the Summit, the Council of Ministers regularly kept under review the list of entitled categories.
Currently, the list included 24 categories of entitled persons, which include dignitaries, judges of higher courts, parliamentarians, senior officials, entrepreneurs, journalists, and athletes.
The Visa Stickers are issued by the respective Member States to the entitled categories of that particular country. The validity of the Visa Sticker is generally for one year. The implementation is reviewed regularly by the Immigration Authorities of SAARC Member States.
Awards
SAARC Award
The Twelfth (12th) Summit approved the SAARC Award to support individuals and organizations within the region. The main aims of the SAARC Award are:
To encourage individuals and organizations based in South Asia to undertake programmes and activities that complement the efforts of SAARC.
To encourage individuals and organizations in South Asia contributing to bettering the conditions of women and children.
To honour outstanding contributions and achievements of individuals and organizations within the region in the fields of peace, development, poverty alleviation, environmental protection, and regional cooperation.
To honour any other contributions and achievement not covered above of individuals and organizations in the region.
The SAARC Award consists of a gold medal, a letter of citation, and cash prize of $25,000. Since the institution of the SAARC Award in 2004, it has been awarded only once and the Award was posthumously conferred upon the late President Ziaur Rahman of Bangladesh.
SAARC Literary Award
The SAARC Literary Award is an annual award conferred by the Foundation of SAARC Writers and Literature (FOSWAL) since 2001 which is an apex SAARC body. Some of the prominent recipients of this award include Shamshur Rahman, Mahasweta Devi, Jayanta Mahapatra, Abhi Subedi, Mark Tully, Sitakant Mahapatra, Uday Prakash, Suman Pokhrel, and Abhay K.
Nepali poet, lyricist, and translator Suman Pokhrel is the only poet/writer to be awarded twice.
SAARC Youth Award
The SAARC Youth Award is awarded to outstanding individuals from the SAARC region. The award is notable because of the recognition it gives to the Award winner in the SAARC region. The award is based on specific themes which apply to each year. The award recognizes and promotes the commitment and talent of the youth who give back to the world at large through various initiatives such as Inventions, Protection of the Environment and Disaster relief. The recipients who receive this award are ones who have dedicated their lives to their individual causes to improve situations in their own countries as well as paving a path for the SAARC region to follow.
The Committee for the SAARC Youth Award selects the best candidate based on his/her merits and their decision is final.
Previous Winners:
1992: World Population Issue and Welfare - Painting; - Devang Soparkar (India)
1997: Outstanding Social Service in Community Welfare – Sukur Salek (Bangladesh)
1998: New Inventions and Shanu — Najmul Hasnain Shah (Pakistan)
2001: Creative Photography: South Asian Diversity – Mushfiqul Alam (Bangladesh)
2002: Outstanding contribution to protect the Environment – Masil Khan (Pakistan)
2003: Invention in the Field of Traditional Medicine – Hassan Sher (Pakistan)
2004: Outstanding contribution to raising awareness of TB and/or HIV/AIDS – Ajij Prasad Poudyal (Nepal)
2006: Promotion of Tourism in South Asia – Syed Zafar Abbas Naqvi (Pakistan)
2008: Protecting the Environment in South Asia – Deepani Jayantha (Sri Lanka)
2009: Outstanding contribution to humanitarian works in the aftermath of Natural Disasters – Ravikant Singh (India)
2010: Outstanding contribution for the Protection of Environment and mitigation of Climate Change – Anoka Primrose Abeyrathne (Sri Lanka)
2011: Youth leadership in the fight against social ills - Mr. Mohamed Faseen Rafiu (The Maldives)
Secretaries-General of SAARC
SAARC summits
Current leaders of SAARC
Leaders are either heads of state or heads of government, depending on which is constitutionally the chief executive of the nation's government.
Current leaders
See also
ASEAN and India's Look-East connectivity projects
Asia Cooperation Dialogue
SAARC Chamber of Commerce and Industry
Bangladesh Bhutan India Nepal Initiative
BIMSTEC
Indian-Ocean Rim Association
ICAN
List of SAARC summits
Mekong–Ganga Cooperation
SAARC satellite
South Asian University
South Asia Subregional Economic Cooperation
Shanghai Cooperation Organisation
Economic Cooperation Organization
References
External links
Foreign relations of Afghanistan
Foreign relations of Bangladesh
Foreign relations of Bhutan
Foreign relations of India
Foreign relations of the Maldives
Foreign relations of Nepal
Foreign relations of Pakistan
Foreign relations of Sri Lanka
Intergovernmental organizations established by treaty
International economic organizations
International organizations based in Asia
International organisations based in Nepal
Organizations established in 1985
United Nations General Assembly observers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causes%20of%20the%20French%20Revolution
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Causes of the French Revolution
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There is significant disagreement among historians of the French Revolution as to its causes. Usually, they acknowledge the presence of several interlinked factors, but vary in the weight they attribute to each one. These factors include cultural changes, normally associated with the Enlightenment; social change and financial and economic difficulties; and the political actions of the involved parties. For centuries, the French society was divided into three estates or orders.
The first estate, the highest class, consisted of clergy.
The second estate consisted of the nobility.
The third estate consisted of the commoners. It included businessman, merchants, court officials, lawyers, peasants, landless labourers and servants.
The first two estates together were 10% of the population. The third estate was 90%. All of the many types of taxes were paid by the third estate. The society was based on the old French maxim "The nobles fight; the clergy pray and the people pay".
Beyond these relatively established facts about the social conditions surrounding the French Revolution, there is significant dissent among historians. Marxist historians, such as Lefebvre and Soboul, see the social tensions described here as the main cause of the revolution, as the Estates-General allowed them to manifest into tangible political action; the bourgeoisie and the lower classes were grouped into the third estate, allowing them to jointly oppose the establishment. Others see these social issues as important, but less so than the Enlightenment or the financial crisis; François Furet is a prominent proponent of the former, Simon Schama of the latter.
Political background
Prior to the revolution, France was a de jure absolute monarchy, a system that became known as the Ancien Régime. In practice, the power of the monarchy was typically checked by the nobility, the Roman Catholic Church, institutions such as the judicial parlements, national and local customs and, above all, the threat of insurrection. Prior to 1789, the last severe threat to the monarchy was the Fronde civil wars from 1648 to 1653, during the minority of Louis XIV. Although the earlier reign of Louis XIII had already seen a move towards centralization of the country, the adulthood of Louis XIV marked the peak of the French monarchy's power. His tactics for bringing the nobility under control included inviting them to stay at his extravagant Palace of Versailles and participate in elaborate court rituals with a detailed code of etiquette.
Some scholars have argued that Louis XIV contributed to the monarchy's downfall by failing to reform the government's institutions while the monarchy was still secure. Others, including François Bluche, argue that Louis XIV cannot be held responsible for problems that would emerge over 70 years after his death.
His successor Louis XV was less interested in governing and his reign saw a decline in the power of the monarchy. Historians generally describe his reign as a period of stagnation, foreign policy setbacks, and growing popular discontent against the monarchy. His affairs with a succession of mistresses also damaged its reputation.
During the reign of Louis XVI, the power and prestige of the monarchy had declined to the point where the king struggled to overcome aristocratic resistance to fiscal reform, with the parlements often being focal points for this resistance. The parlements were regional courts of appeal that had the de facto power to block the implementation of legislation in their respective provinces. They were each dominated by the regional nobility. The power of the parlements had been curtailed by Louis XIV, but mostly reinstated during the minority of Louis XV. In 1770, Louis XV and René de Maupeou again curtailed the power of the parlements, except for the Parlement of Paris, the one that was the most powerful. Louis XVI reinstated them early in his reign. Alfred Cobban describes the Parlement of Paris as "though no more in fact than a small, selfish, proud and venal oligarchy, [it] regarded itself, and was regarded by public opinion, as the guardian of the constitutional liberties of France."
Having already obstructed tax reform proposals during the reign of Louis XV, the parlements would play a major role in obstructing Louis XVI's attempts to resolve the debt crisis. Traditionally, a king could quell a recalcitrant parlement by conducting a lit de justice ceremony, in which he would appear there in person to demand that they register an edict. However, by 1787, Louis XVI could not get this tactic to work. The parlements enjoyed wider support from the commoners, who appreciated their role as a check on royal power. This placed Louis XVI at a disadvantage when he attempted to coerce and then suppress them in 1787-88.
Encyclopædia Britannica cites Prussia as an example of a European state where a strong monarchy succeeded in preventing revolution and preserving its power through reforms from above. Conversely, the lack of a constitutional monarchy meant that the French monarch was a target for any popular discontent against the government. Traditionally, this was tempered because there was an aversion to direct criticism and disrespect towards the king (lèse-majesté), but by the start of Louis XVI's reign, respect for the monarchy had declined. In his study of the libelle pamphlets and books, Robert Darnton noted that libelles during the reign of Louis XIV tended to direct their criticism towards individual figures like Cardinal Mazarin and even those that criticized the king's actions directly still had a respectful tone. During the reign of Louis XV, libelles became willing to bluntly criticize both the king and the entire system of the Ancien Régime.
Social background
Throughout the early modern period a class of wealthy middlemen who connected producers emerged: the bourgeoisie. These bourgeoisie played a fundamental role in the French economy, accounting for 39.1% of national income despite only accounting for 7.7% of the population. Under the Ancien Régime they were part of the Third Estate, as they were neither clergymen (the First Estate) nor nobles (the Second Estate). Given their powerful economic position, and their aspirations on a class-wide level, the bourgeois wanted to ascend through the social hierarchy, formalised in the Estate system. This is reflected by cahiers submitted by members of the Third Estate in March to April 1789: those of Carcassonne demanded that Louis "assure to the third estate the influence to which it is entitled in view of...its contribution to the public treasury". This desire for higher social position resulted in high levels of bourgeois entry into the Second Estate throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. This was enabled by several factors. The poverty of many noble families meant that they married bourgeois families; the nobles gained bourgeois wealth, while the bourgeoisie gained noble status. Moreover, corruption was rife, with many bourgeoisie simply attaching the noble particle 'de' to their name or assuming nonexistent titles. Investigations into this behaviour were stopped in 1727. Furthermore, many governmental offices and positions were sold to raise cash. The bourgeoisie bought these positions and hence were ennobled; by 1765, six thousand families had gained nobility through this method. Such entryism resulted in significant social tension, as the nobles were angered that these bourgeoisie were entering their ranks (despite often having been bourgeois themselves one or two generations previously) and the bourgeoisie were angered that the nobles were trying to prevent them ascending and being disdainful even when they did ascend. As such, there was significant social tension between the dominant classes at the time of the French Revolution.
Lucas asserts that the bourgeois and nobility were not in fact that distinct, basing his argument with the bourgeois entryism and the suggestion that it makes little sense for the bourgeois to attack a system that they are trying to become part of. Lucas places the break between bourgeois and nobles at the moment of the Estates-General, rather than earlier, asserting that it was only when the bourgeois were relegated to the Third Estate that they took issue with the nobility, seeing themselves as equated to "vulgar commoners". Along the same lines, Behrens contests the traditional view of the failure of the tax system, arguing that the nobles in reality paid more tax than their English counterparts and that only one of the privileges enumerated by the Encyclopédie Méthodique relates to taxation.
Moreover, Lucas argues that many fiefs were owned by non-noble—in 1781 22% of the lay seigneurs in Le Mans weren't noble—and that commercial families, the bourgeoisie, also invested in land. Revisionist historians such as these also contest the view that the nobility were fundamentally opposed to change, noting that 160 signatories of the Tennis Court Oath had the particle 'de'. This is also a view advocated by Chateaubriand, who notes in his memoirs that "The severest blows struck against the ancient constitution of the State were delivered by noblemen. The patricians began the Revolution, the plebeians completed it". On the other hand, the Marquis de Ferrières believed there was "an accursed cabal" within the nobility who wanted to thwart any possibility of compromise.
Cultural change
There are two main points of view with regard to cultural change as a cause of the French Revolution: the direct influence of Enlightenment ideas on French citizens, meaning that they valued the ideas of liberty and equality discussed by Rousseau and Voltaire et al, or the indirect influence of the Enlightenment insofar as it created a "philosophical society". The Enlightenment ideas were particularly popularised by the influence of the American War of Independence on the soldiers who returned, and of Benjamin Franklin himself, who was a highly dynamic and engaging figure in the French court when he visited. The French publication of Locke's Treatises in 1724 also played an important role in influencing both pre-Revolutionary and post-Revolutionary ideology. He has been considered an ideological "father" of the revolution.
When the First and Second Estates, as well as the King, failed to respond to the Third Estate's demands, they eschewed the authority of the King, resulting in the Tennis Court Oath and the subsequent development of the Revolution. Furet, the foremost proponent of the 'philosophical society' nuance to this view, says that the ideas of the Enlightenment were discussed in clubs and meetings "where rank and birth were second to ... abstract argument". This resulted in a breakdown of the stratification that still divided the bourgeois and the nobles, fundamentally changing France's social organisation. As such, when the Estates-General was called, its rigid organisation into Third Estate and Second Estate conflicted with the new, informal organisation, and caused dissent; the Third Estate had attained equal status to the nobility, in their view, and when they demanded that the Estates meet as equals, the King's refusal triggered their secession from royal authority. Furet and others argue that the direct influence of Enlightenment ideas only played a part after the Revolution had begun, insofar as it was used to justify revolutionary action and fill the lack of central, guiding ideology that disillusionment with the monarchy had created.
Financial crisis
The financial crisis of the French crown played a role in both creating the social background to the Revolution, generating widespread anger at the Court, and (arguably most importantly) forcing Louis to call the Estates-General. The Court was deeply in debt, which in conjunction with a poor financial system, created a crisis. In order to service the debt, given the Crown could find no more willing lenders, Louis attempted to call upon the nobility via an Assembly of Notables. However, the nobility refused to help - their power and influence had been steadily reduced since the reign of Louis XIV - and hence Louis was forced to rely upon the Estates-General. This meant that the discontented Third Estate (damaged by poor policy and low standards of living) were given the opportunity to air their grievances, and when they did not receive the desired response, the Revolution proper began; they denied the authority of the King and set up their own government.
Harvest failures
Agriculture accounted for around 75% of all domestic production, dominating the French economy. With outdated production methods, farming remained labour-intensive and increasingly susceptible to crop diseases. The increasing fluctuation of harvest production in the late 1760s had further plunged villages into uncertainty. The lack of diversification of jobs and distinction between agricultural and industrial workers foreshadowed the catastrophic impact that harvest failures would equally have in big cities, with even jobs like construction being largely dependent on migrant workers who brought their earnings back to small villages.
Harvest failures further touched the biggest industry in metropolitan France, textiles, with demand fluctuating according to harvest yield. The textile industry played a crucial role in transforming cities; Amiens and Abbeville known for woolens, Rouen for cotton, amongst others. However, Lyons proved to be the only town where production was concentrated, with most production carried out in farms and villages. This presented a growing issue with most industrial workers beings peasants, as well as their consumers, leaving textile susceptible to the catastrophic impacts of harvest failures. Indeed, with harvest uncertainty in 1770, the silk industry went into crisis and demand for linen became increasingly unstable.
Causes of debt
The French Crown's debt was caused by both individual decisions, such as intervention in the American War of Independence and the Seven Years' War, and underlying issues such as an inadequate taxation system. The War of Independence alone cost 1.3 billion livres, more than double the Crown's annual revenue, and in a single year—1781—227 million livres were spent on the campaign. The Seven Years' War was even more costly, at 1.8 billion livres, and the war preceding that, the War of the Austrian Succession, cost another billion livres. France faced an impossible dilemma: how to both maintain its international position and status by engaging in these conflicts, and fund them with an archaic and grossly inefficient system.
The financial system was ineffective in multiple ways. First, despite the Bourbons' attempts to limit their power, the nobility still wielded significant influence at Court; when Silhouette, a Controller-General, suggested taxing luxury items, he was removed from office due to noble opposition. Second, there was a system of tax immunities and feudal privileges that allowed many of France's wealthy citizens to avoid many taxes, notwithstanding the fact that few direct taxes were levied in the first place. The vingtième ("twentieth"), a tax of 5% successfully imposed on the nobility, was indeed paid, but this additional revenue was nowhere near enough to allow the Crown to maintain the levels of spending it needed or wanted. The capitation ("head tax") was also imposed, a tax that varied with social status and the number of people in the family, but this too was insufficient. The tax that was collected, a significant sum, was fixed at certain levels by the government through a system of tax farming; private individuals and groups were asked to collect a fixed amount of tax on behalf of the government, and could keep any excess. When the government failed to accurately forecast the levels of tax that they could collect, they did not benefit from any increase in national output. Furthermore, due to the obvious financial difficulties of the French Crown and the lack of a central bank, lenders demanded higher interest rates to compensate them for the higher risk; France faced interest rates twice as high as Britain did, which further increased the cost of servicing the debt and hence worsened the Crown's problems.
Impact of financial ministers
One of the ministers that Louis turned to in order to resolve the financial crisis was Turgot, financial minister from 1774 to 1776. Turgot abolished the regulations surrounding the food supply, which to this point had been strictly controlled by the royal police: they monitored the purity of bread flour, prevented price manipulation via hoarding, and controlled the inflows and outflows of grain to regions facing good and bad harvests. This caused rampant speculation and a breakdown of interregional import-export dynamics; famine and dissent (the Flour War) ensued. Turgot was forced to restore regulation and repress the riots. Though resolved, the failed experiment led to deep distrust of the monarchy, with rumours of their intention to starve the poor both prevalent and widely believed.
In 1783, Calonne was appointed as Financial minister; Calonne, ahead of his time, advocated increasing public spending to drive up consumption and hence increase the country's GDP and tax revenues. However, this policy also failed , and only resulted in higher debt and France facing a primary deficit for the first time. The total fiscal deficit reached 140 million in 1787.
Necker, appointed in 1777-1781 and 1788-1789, used his connections with European banks to facilitate lending in order to fund wars and service the debt, but this proved a temporary measure (as might be expected) and had little long term value.
Living standards
Furthermore, significant resentment was felt by the poorer members of the Third Estate (industrial and rural labourers), largely due to vast increases in the cost of living. From 1741 to 1785, there was a 62% increase in real cost of living. In 1788 and 1789, there were poor harvests, perhaps triggered by the 1783 Laki eruption in Iceland. This caused bread prices to rise in conjunction with falling wages. In 1789, itself there was a 25% fall in real wages and an 88% increase in the price of bread.
These immediate issues increased the resentment of the underlying problem of the inequality of land distribution, in which peasants made up approximately 80% of the French population, but only owned 35% of the land. They had to pay various dues to their noble landlords, taxes which were often disproportionately high in comparison to their income. However, whereas rural peasants could at least sustain themselves with their farms, the poor harvests had a much worse impact on Paris, which played a major role in the rise of the sans-culottes.
References
French Revolution
Ferme générale
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First%20Australian%20Imperial%20Force
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First Australian Imperial Force
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The First Australian Imperial Force (1st AIF) was the main expeditionary force of the Australian Army during the First World War. It was formed as the Australian Imperial Force (AIF) following Britain's declaration of war on Germany on 15 August 1914, with an initial strength of one infantry division and one light horse brigade. The infantry division subsequently fought at Gallipoli between April and December 1915, with a newly raised second division, as well as three light horse brigades, reinforcing the committed units.
After being evacuated to Egypt, the AIF was expanded to five infantry divisions, which were committed to the fighting in France and Belgium along the Western Front in March 1916. A sixth infantry division was partially raised in 1917 in the United Kingdom, but was broken up and used as reinforcements following heavy casualties on the Western Front. Meanwhile, two mounted divisions remained in the Middle East to fight against Turkish forces in the Sinai and Palestine.The AIF included the Australian Flying Corps (AFC), the predecessor to the Royal Australian Air Force, which consisted of four combat and four training squadrons that were deployed to the United Kingdom, the Western Front and the Middle East throughout the war.
An all volunteer force, by the end of the war the AIF had gained a reputation as being a well-trained and highly effective military force, playing a significant role in the final Allied victory. However, this reputation came at a heavy cost with a casualty rate among the highest of any belligerent for the war. The remaining troops were repatriated until the disbandment of the 1st AIF between 1919 and 1921. After the war, the achievements of the AIF and its soldiers, known colloquially as "Diggers", became central to the national mythology of the "Anzac legend". Generally known at the time as the AIF, it is today referred to as the 1st AIF to distinguish it from the Second Australian Imperial Force raised during World War II.
Formation
At the start of the war, Australia's military forces were focused upon the part-time Militia. The small number of regular personnel were mostly artillerymen or engineers, and were generally assigned to the task of coastal defence. Due to the provisions of the Defence Act 1903, which precluded sending conscripts overseas, upon the outbreak of war it was realised that a totally separate, all volunteer force would need to be raised. The Australian government pledged to supply 20,000 men organised as one infantry division and one light horse brigade plus supporting units, for service "wherever the British desired", in keeping with pre-war Imperial defence planning. The Australian Imperial Force (AIF) subsequently began forming shortly after the outbreak of war and was the brain child of Brigadier General William Throsby Bridges (later Major General) and his chief of staff, Major Brudenell White. Officially coming into being on 15 August 1914, the word 'imperial' was chosen to reflect the duty of Australians to both nation and empire. The AIF was initially intended for service in Europe. Meanwhile, a separate 2,000-man force—known as the Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force (AN&MEF)—was formed for the task of capturing German New Guinea. In addition, small military forces were maintained in Australia to defend the country from attack.
Upon formation, the AIF consisted of only one infantry division, the 1st Division, and the 1st Light Horse Brigade. The 1st Division was made up of the 1st Infantry Brigade under Colonel Henry MacLaurin, an Australian-born officer with previous part-time military service; the 2nd, under Colonel James Whiteside McCay, an Irish-born Australian politician and former Minister for Defence; and the 3rd, under Colonel Ewen Sinclair-Maclagan, a British regular officer seconded to the Australian Army before the war. The 1st Light Horse Brigade was commanded by Colonel Harry Chauvel, an Australian regular, while the divisional artillery was commanded by Colonel Talbot Hobbs. The initial response for recruits was so good that in September 1914 the decision was made to raise the 4th Infantry Brigade and 2nd and 3rd Light Horse Brigades. The 4th Infantry Brigade was commanded by Colonel John Monash, a prominent Melbourne civil engineer and businessman. The AIF continued to grow through the war, eventually numbering five infantry divisions, two mounted divisions and a mixture of other units. As the AIF operated within the British war effort, its units were generally organised along the same lines as comparable British Army formations. However, there were often small differences between the structures of British and Australian units, especially in regards to the AIF infantry divisions' support units.
Hastily deployed, the first contingent of the AIF was essentially untrained and suffered from widespread equipment shortages. In early 1915 the AIF was largely an inexperienced force, with only a small percentage of its members having previous combat experience. However, many officers and non-commissioned personnel (NCOs) had previously served in the pre-war permanent or part-time forces, and a significant proportion of the enlisted personnel had received some basic military instruction as part of Australia's compulsory training scheme. Predominantly a fighting force based on infantry battalions and light horse regiments—the high proportion of close combat troops to support personnel (e.g. medical, administrative, logistic, etc.) was exceeded only by the New Zealand Expeditionary Force (NZEF)—this fact at least partially accounted for the high percentage of casualties it later sustained. Nevertheless, the AIF eventually included a large number of logistics and administrative units which were capable of meeting most of the force's needs, and in some circumstances provided support to nearby allied units. However, the AIF mainly relied on the British Army for medium and heavy artillery support and other weapons systems necessary for combined arms warfare that were developed later in the war, including aircraft and tanks.
Organisation
Command
When originally formed in 1914 the AIF was commanded by Bridges, who also commanded the 1st Division. After Bridges' death at Gallipoli in May 1915, the Australian government appointed Major General James Gordon Legge, a Boer War veteran, to replace Bridges in command of both. However, British Lieutenant General Sir John Maxwell, the commander of British Troops in Egypt, objected to Legge bypassing him and communicating directly with Australia. The Australian government failed to support Legge, who thereafter deferred to Lieutenant General William Birdwood, the commander of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps. When Legge was sent to Egypt to command the 2nd Division, Birdwood made representations to the Australian government that Legge could not act as commander of the AIF, and that the Australian government should transfer Bridges' authority to him. This was done on a temporary basis on 18 September 1915. Promoted to major general, Chauvel took over command of the 1st Division in November when Major General Harold Walker was wounded, becoming the first Australian-born officer to command a division. When Birdwood became commander of the Dardanelles Army, command of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps and the AIF passed to another British officer, Lieutenant General Alexander Godley, the commander of the NZEF, but Birdwood resumed command of the AIF when he assumed command of II ANZAC Corps upon its formation in Egypt in early 1916. I ANZAC Corps and II ANZAC Corps swapped designations on 28 March 1916. During early 1916 the Australian and, to a lesser extent, New Zealand governments sought the establishment of an Australian and New Zealand Army led by Birdwood which would have included all of the AIF's infantry divisions and the New Zealand Division. However, General Douglas Haig, the commander of the British Empire forces in France, rejected this proposal on the grounds that the size of these forces was too small to justify grouping them in a field army.
Birdwood was officially confirmed as commander of the AIF on 14 September 1916, backdated to 18 September 1915, while also commanding I ANZAC Corps on the Western Front. He retained overall responsibility for the AIF units in the Middle East, but in practice this fell to Godley, and after II ANZAC Corps left Egypt as well, to Chauvel who also commanded the ANZAC Mounted Division. Later promoted to lieutenant general, he subsequently commanded the Desert Mounted Corps of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force; the first Australian to command a corps. Birdwood was later given command of the Australian Corps on its formation in November 1917. Another Australian, Monash, by then a lieutenant general, took over command of the corps on 31 May 1918. Despite being promoted to command the British Fifth Army, Birdwood retained command of the AIF. By this time four of the five divisional commanders were Australian officers. The exception was Major General Ewen Sinclair-Maclagan, the commander of the 4th Division, who was a British Army officer seconded to the Australian Army before the war, and who had joined the AIF in Australia in August 1914. The vast majority of brigade commands were also held by Australian officers. A number of British staff officers were attached to the headquarters of the Australian Corps, and its predecessors, due to a shortage of suitably trained Australian officers.
Structure
Infantry divisions
The organisation of the AIF closely followed the British Army divisional structure, and remained relatively unchanged throughout the war. During the war, the following infantry divisions were raised as part of the AIF:
1st Division
2nd Division
3rd Division
4th Division
5th Division
6th Division (broken up in 1917 before seeing combat)
New Zealand and Australian Division (1915)
Each division comprised three infantry brigades, and each brigade contained four battalions (later reduced to three in 1918). Australian battalions initially included eight rifle companies; however, this was reduced to four expanded companies in January 1915 to conform with the organisation of British infantry battalions. A battalion contained about 1,000 men. Although the divisional structure evolved over the course of the war, each formation also included a range of combat support and service units, including artillery, machine-gun, mortar, engineer, pioneer, signals, logistic, medical, veterinary and administrative units. By 1918 each brigade also included a light trench mortar battery, while each division included a pioneer battalion, a machine-gun battalion, two field artillery brigades, a divisional trench mortar brigade, four companies of engineers, a divisional signals company, a divisional train consisting of four service corps companies, a salvage company, three field ambulances, a sanitary section and a mobile veterinary section. These changes were reflective of wider organisational adaption, tactical innovation, and the adoption of new weapons and technology that occurred throughout the British Expeditionary Force (BEF).
At the start of the Gallipoli Campaign, the AIF had four infantry brigades with the first three making up the 1st Division. The 4th Brigade was joined with the sole New Zealand infantry brigade to form the New Zealand and Australian Division. The 2nd Division had been formed in Egypt in 1915 and was sent to Gallipoli in August to reinforce the 1st Division, doing so without its artillery and having only partially completed its training. After Gallipoli, the infantry underwent a major expansion. The 3rd Division was formed in Australia and completed its training in the UK before moving to France. The New Zealand and Australian Division was broken up with the New Zealand elements forming the New Zealand Division, while the original Australian infantry brigades (1st to 4th) were split in half to create 16 new battalions to form another four brigades. These new brigades (12th to 15th) were used to form the 4th and 5th Divisions. This ensured the battalions of the two new divisions had a core of experienced soldiers. The 6th Division commenced forming in England in February 1917, but was never deployed to France and was broken up in September of that year to provide reinforcements to the other five divisions.
The Australian infantry did not have regiments in the British sense, only battalions identified by ordinal number (1st to 60th). Each battalion originated from a geographical region, with men recruited from that area. New South Wales and Victoria, the most populous states, filled their own battalions (and even whole brigades) while the "Outer States"—Queensland, South Australia, Western Australia and Tasmania—often combined to assemble a battalion. These regional associations remained throughout the war and each battalion developed its own strong regimental identity. The pioneer battalions (1st to 5th, formed from March 1916) were also mostly recruited regionally; however, the machine-gun battalions (1st to 5th, formed from March 1918 from the brigade and divisional machine-gun companies) were made up of personnel from all states.
During the manpower crisis following the Third Battle of Ypres, in which the five divisions sustained 38,000 casualties, there were plans to follow the British reorganisation and reduce all brigades from four battalions to three. In the British regimental system this was traumatic enough; however, the regimental identity survived the disbanding of a single battalion. In the Australian system, disbanding a battalion meant the extinction of the unit. In September 1918, the decision to disband seven battalions—the 19th, 21st, 25th, 37th, 42nd, 54th and 60th—led to a series of "mutinies over disbandment" where the ranks refused to report to their new battalions. In the AIF, mutiny was one of two charges that carried the death penalty, the other being desertion to the enemy. Instead of being charged with mutiny, the instigators were charged as being absent without leave (AWOL) and the doomed battalions were eventually permitted to remain together for the forthcoming battle, following which the survivors voluntarily disbanded. These mutinies were motivated mainly by the soldiers' loyalty to their battalions.
The artillery underwent a significant expansion during the war. When the 1st Division embarked in November 1914 it did so with its 18-pounder field guns, but Australia had not been able to provide the division with the howitzer batteries or the heavy guns that would otherwise have been included on its establishment, due to a lack of equipment. These shortages were unable to be rectified prior to the landing at Gallipoli where the howitzers would have provided the plunging and high-angled fire that was required due to the rough terrain at Anzac Cove. When the 2nd Division was formed in July 1915 it did so without its complement of artillery. Meanwhile, in December 1915 when the government offered to form another division it did so on the basis that its artillery would be provided by Britain. In time though these shortfalls were overcome, with the Australian field artillery expanding from just three field brigades in 1914 to twenty at the end of 1917. The majority of the heavy artillery units supporting the Australian divisions were British, although two Australian heavy batteries were raised from the regular Australian Garrison Artillery. These were the 54th Siege Battery, which was equipped with 8-inch howitzers, and the 55th with 9.2-inch howitzers.
Mounted divisions
The following mounted divisions were raised as part of the AIF:
ANZAC Mounted Division
Australian Mounted Division
During the Gallipoli Campaign four light horse brigades had been dismounted and fought alongside the infantry divisions. However, in March 1916 the ANZAC Mounted Division was formed in Egypt (so named because it contained one mounted brigade from New Zealand – the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade). Likewise, the Australian Mounted Division—formed in February 1917—was originally named the Imperial Mounted Division because it contained the British 5th and 6th Mounted Brigades. Each division consisted of three mounted light horse brigades. A light horse brigade consisted of three regiments. Each regiment included three squadrons of four troops and a machine-gun section. The initial strength of a regiment was around 500 men, although its establishment changed throughout the war. In 1916, the machine-gun sections of each regiment were concentrated as squadrons at brigade-level. Like the infantry, the light horse regiments were raised on a territorial basis by state and were identified numerically (1st to 15th).
Corps
The following corps-level formations were raised:
Australian and New Zealand Army Corps
I ANZAC Corps
II ANZAC Corps
Australian Corps
Desert Mounted Corps (formerly the Desert Column)
The Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC) was formed from the AIF and NZEF in preparation for the Gallipoli Campaign in 1915 and was commanded by Birdwood. Initially the corps consisted of the 1st Australian Division, the New Zealand and Australian Division, and two mounted brigades—the Australian 1st Light Horse Brigade and the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade—although when first deployed to Gallipoli in April, it did so without its mounted formations, as the terrain was considered unsuitable. However, in May, both brigades were dismounted and deployed along with the 2nd and 3rd Light Horse Brigades as reinforcements. Later, as the campaign continued the corps was reinforced further by the 2nd Australian Division, which began arriving from August 1915. In February 1916, it was reorganised into I and II ANZAC Corps in Egypt following the evacuation from Gallipoli and the subsequent expansion of the AIF.
I ANZAC Corps included the Australian 1st and 2nd Divisions and the New Zealand Division. The New Zealand Division was later transferred to the II ANZAC Corps in July 1916 and was replaced by the Australian 3rd Division in I ANZAC. Initially employed in Egypt as part of the defence of the Suez Canal, it was transferred to the Western Front in March 1916. II ANZAC Corps included the Australian 4th and 5th Divisions, forming in Egypt it transferred to France in July 1916. In November 1917 the five Australian divisions of I and II ANZAC Corps merged to become the Australian Corps, while the British and New Zealand elements in each corps became the British XXII Corps. The Australian Corps was the largest corps fielded by the British Empire in France, providing just over 10 percent of the manning of the BEF. At its peak it numbered 109,881 men. Corps troops raised included the 13th Light Horse Regiment and three army artillery brigades. Each corps also included a cyclist battalion.
Meanwhile, the majority of the Australian Light Horse had remained in the Middle East and subsequently served in Egypt, Sinai, Palestine and Syria with the Desert Column of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force. In August 1917 the column was expanded to become the Desert Mounted Corps, which consisted of the ANZAC Mounted Division, Australian Mounted Division and the Imperial Camel Corps Brigade (which included a number of Australian, British and New Zealand camel companies). In contrast to the static trench warfare that developed in Europe, the troops in the Middle East mostly experienced a more fluid form of warfare involving manoeuvre and combined arms tactics.
Australian Flying Corps
The 1st AIF included the Australian Flying Corps (AFC). Soon after the outbreak of war in 1914, two aircraft were sent to assist in capturing German colonies in what is now north-east New Guinea. However, these colonies surrendered quickly, before the planes were even unpacked. The first operational flights did not occur until 27 May 1915, when the Mesopotamian Half Flight was called upon to assist the Indian Army in protecting British oil interests in what is now Iraq. The corps later saw action in Egypt, Palestine and on the Western Front throughout the remainder of World War I. By the end of the war, four squadrons—Nos. 1, 2, 3 and 4—had seen operational service, while another four training squadrons—Nos. 5, 6, 7 and 8—had also been established. A total of 460 officers and 2,234 other ranks served in the AFC. The AFC remained part of the Australian Army until 1919, when it was disbanded; later forming the basis of the Royal Australian Air Force.
Specialist units
A number of specialist units were also raised, including three Australian tunnelling companies. Arriving on the Western Front in May 1916 they undertook mining and counter-mining operations alongside British, Canadian and New Zealand companies, initially operating around Armentieres and at Fromelles. The following year they operated in the Ypres section. In November 1916, the 1st Australian Tunnelling Company took over from the Canadians around Hill 60, subsequently playing a key role in the Battle of Messines in June 1917. During the German offensive in March 1918 the three companies served as infantry, and later supported the Allied advance being used to defuse booby traps and mines. The Australian Electrical Mining and Mechanical Boring Company supplied electric power to units in the British Second Army area.
Motor transport units were also formed. Not required at Gallipoli, they were sent on to the Western Front, becoming the first units of the AIF to serve there. The motor transport rejoined I ANZAC Corps when it reached the Western Front in 1916. Australia also formed six railway operating companies, which served on the Western Front. Specialist ordnance units included ammunition and mobile workshops units formed late in the war, while service units included supply columns, ammunition sub-parks, field bakeries and butcheries, and depot units. Hospitals and other specialist medical and dental units were also formed in Australia and overseas, as were a number of convalescent depots.
One small armoured unit was raised, the 1st Armoured Car Section. Formed in Australia, it fought in the Western Desert, and then, re-equipped with T Model Fords, served in Palestine as the 1st Light Car Patrol. Camel companies were raised in Egypt to patrol the Western Desert. They formed part of the Imperial Camel Corps and fought in the Sinai and Palestine. In 1918 they were converted to light horse as the 14th and 15th Light Horse Regiments.
Administration
Although operationally placed at the disposal of the British, the AIF was administered as a separate national force, with the Australian government reserving the responsibility for the promotion, pay, clothing, equipment and feeding of its personnel. The AIF was administered separately from the home-based army in Australia, and a parallel system was set up to deal with non-operational matters including record-keeping, finance, ordnance, personnel, quartermaster and other issues. The AIF also had separate conditions of service, rules regarding promotion and seniority, and graduation list for officers. This responsibility initially fell to Bridges, in addition to his duties as its commander; however, an Administrative Headquarters was later set up in Cairo in Egypt. Following the redeployment of the Australian infantry divisions to the Western Front it was relocated to London. Additional responsibilities included liaison with the British War Office as well as the Australian Department of Defence in Melbourne, whilst also being tasked with the command of all Australian troops in Britain. A training headquarters was also established at Salisbury. The AIF Headquarters and its subordinate units were almost entirely independent from the British Army, which allowed the force to be self-sustaining in many fields. The AIF generally followed British administrative policy and procedures, including for the awarding of imperial honours and awards.
Weaponry and equipment
The weaponry and equipment of the Australian Army had mostly been standardised on that used by the British Army prior to the outbreak of World War I. During the war the equipment used changed as tactics evolved, and generally followed British developments. The standard issued rifle was the .303-inch Short Magazine Lee–Enfield Mark III (SMLE). Infantrymen used 1908-pattern webbing, while light horsemen used leather bandoliers and load carriage equipment. A large pack was issued as part of marching order. In 1915 infantrymen were issued with the SMLE and long sword bayonet, while periscope rifles were also used. From 1916 they also used manufactured hand grenades and rodded rifle grenades, both of which had been in short supply at Gallipoli (necessitating the use of improvised "jam-tin" grenades). A grenade discharge cup was issued for fitting to the muzzle of a rifle for the projection of the Mills bomb from 1917. Machine-guns initially included a small number of Maxim or Vickers medium machine-guns, but subsequently also included the Lewis light machine-gun, the latter two of which were issued in greater numbers as the war continued so as to increase the firepower available to the infantry in response to the tactical problems of trench warfare. Light horse units underwent a similar process, although were issued Hotchkiss guns to replace their Lewis guns in early 1917.
From 1916 the Stokes light trench mortar was issued to infantry to replace a range of trench catapults and smaller trench mortars, whilst it was also used in a battery at brigade-level to provide organic indirect fire support. In addition, individual soldiers often used a range of personal weapons including knives, clubs, knuckle-dusters, revolvers and pistols. Snipers on the Western Front used Pattern 1914 Enfield sniper rifles with telescopic sights. Light horsemen also carried bayonets (as they were initially considered mounted infantry), although the Australian Mounted Division adopted cavalry swords in late 1917. Artillery included 18-pounders which equipped the field batteries, 4.5-inch howitzers used by the howitzer batteries, and 8-inch and 9.2-inch howitzers which equipped the heavy (siege) batteries. The 9.45-inch heavy mortar equipped a heavy trench mortar battery, while medium trench mortar batteries were equipped with the 2-inch medium mortar, and later the 6-inch mortar. Light Horse units were supported by British and Indian artillery. The main mount used by the light horse was the Waler, while draught horses were used by the artillery and for wheeled transport. Camels were also used, both as mounts and transport, and donkeys and mules were used as pack animals.
Personnel
Recruitment
Enlisted under the Defence Act 1903, the AIF was an all volunteer force for the duration of the war. Australia was one of only two belligerents on either side not to introduce conscription during the war (along with South Africa). Although a system of compulsory training had been introduced in 1911 for home service, under Australian law it did not extend to overseas service. In Australia, two plebiscites on using conscription to expand the AIF were defeated in October 1916 and December 1917, thereby preserving the volunteer status but stretching the AIF's reserves towards the end of the war. A total of 416,809 men enlisted in the Army during the war, representing 38.7 percent of the white male population aged between 18 and 44. Of these, 331,781 men were sent overseas to serve as part of the AIF. Approximately 18 percent of those who served in the AIF had been born in the United Kingdom, marginally more than their proportion of the Australian population, although almost all enlistments occurred in Australia, with only 57 people being recruited from overseas. Indigenous Australians were officially barred from the AIF until October 1917, when the restrictions were altered to allow so-called "half-castes" to join. Estimates of the number of Indigenous Australians who served in the AIF differ considerably, but are believed to be over 500. More than 2,000 women served with the AIF, mainly in the Australian Army Nursing Service.
The recruitment process was managed by the various military districts. At the outset it had been planned to recruit half the AIF's initial commitment of 20,000 personnel from Australia's part-time forces, and volunteers were initially recruited from within designated regimental areas, thus creating a linkage between the units of the AIF and the units of the home service Militia. In the early stages of mobilisation the men of the AIF were selected under some of the toughest criterion of any army in World War I and it is believed that roughly 30 percent of men that applied were rejected on medical grounds. To enlist, men had to be aged between 18 and 35 years of age (although it is believed that men as old as 70 and as young as 14 managed to enlist), and they had to be at least , with a chest measurement of at least . Many of these strict requirements were lifted later in the war, however, as the need for replacements grew. Indeed, casualties among the initial volunteers were so high, that of the 32,000 original soldiers of the AIF only 7,000 would survive to the end of the war.
By the end of 1914 around 53,000 volunteers had been accepted, allowing a second contingent to depart in December. Meanwhile, reinforcements were sent at a rate of 3,200 men per month. The landing at Anzac Cove subsequently resulted in a significant increase in enlistments, with 36,575 men being recruited in July 1915. Although this level was never again reached, enlistments remained high in late 1915 and early 1916. From then a gradual decline occurred, and whereas news from Gallipoli had increased recruitment, the fighting at Fromelles and Pozieres did not have a similar effect, with monthly totals dropping from 10,656 in May 1916 to around 6,000 between June and August. Significant losses in mid-1916, coupled with the failure of the volunteer system to provide sufficient replacements, resulted in the first referendum on conscription, which was defeated by a narrow margin. Although there was an increase in enlistments in September (9,325) and October (11,520), in December they fell to the lowest total of the year (2,617). Enlistments in 1917 never exceeded 4,989 (in March). Heavy losses at Passchendaele resulted in a second referendum on conscription, which was defeated by an even greater margin. Recruitment continued to decline, reaching a low in December (2,247). Monthly intakes fell further in early 1918, but peaked in May (4,888) and remained relatively steady albeit reduced from previous periods, before slightly increasing in October (3,619) prior to the armistice in November.
Ultimately, the voluntary system of recruitment proved unable to sustain the force structure of the AIF, failing to provide sufficient replacements for the heavy casualties it sustained and requiring a number of units to be disbanded towards the end of the war. In mid-1918 it was decided to allow the men who had enlisted in 1914 to return to Australia for home leave, further exacerbating the manpower shortage experienced by the Australian Corps. Regardless, by the last year of the war the AIF was a long-serving force—even if it was a citizen army and not a professional one like the pre-war British Army—containing 141,557 men with more than two-years service, including, despite the heavy casualties suffered at Gallipoli in 1915 and on the Western Front in 1916 and 1917, 14,653 men who had enlisted in 1914. Battle hardened and experienced as a result, this fact partially explains the important role the AIF subsequently played in the final defeat of the German Army in 1918.
Pay
Soldiers of the AIF were among the highest paid of the war. The pay for a private was set at five shillings a day, while an additional shilling was deferred to be paid on discharge. As a result, the AIF earned the sobriquet "six bob a day tourists". Married men were required to allot two shillings a day for their dependents; however, a separation allowance was added in 1915. Reflecting the progressive nature of Australian industrial and social policy of the era, this rate of pay was intended to be equal to that of the average worker (after including rations and accommodation) and higher than that of soldiers in the Militia. In contrast, New Zealand soldiers received five shillings, while British infantrymen were initially only paid one shilling, although this was later increased to three. Junior officers in the AIF were also paid at a rate higher than those in the British Army, although senior officers were paid considerably less than their counterparts.
Training
In the early stages of the AIF's formation, prior to Gallipoli, training was rudimentary and performed mainly at unit-level. There were no formal schools and volunteers proceeded straight from recruiting stations to their assigned units, which were still in the process of being established. Upon arrival, in makeshift camps the recruits received basic training in drill and musketry from officers and non-commissioned officers, who were not trained instructors and had been appointed mainly because they had previous service in the part-time forces. Camps were established in every state including at Enoggera (Queensland), Liverpool (New South Wales), Broadmeadows (Victoria), Brighton (Tasmania), Morphettville (South Australia) and Blackboy Hill (Western Australia). In some units this training took place over a period of six to eight weeks, although others—such as the 5th Battalion—spent as little as one day on live firing before departing for overseas. Following the embarkation of the initial force to the Middle East, further training was undertaken in the desert. This was more organised than the training provided in Australia, but was still quite rushed. Individual training was consolidated but progressed quickly into collective training at battalion and brigade-level. Training exercises, marches, drill and musketry practices followed but the standard of the exercises was limited and they lacked realism, meaning that commanders did not benefit from handling their troops under battlefield conditions.
Some soldiers had received training through the compulsory training scheme that had been established in 1911, while others had served as volunteers in the part-time forces before the war or as members of the British Army, but their numbers were limited and in many cases the quality of the training they had received was also limited. The original intention had been that half the initial intake would consist of soldiers that were currently serving in the Militia, but ultimately this did not come to fruition and while about 8,000 of the original intake had some prior military experience, either through compulsory training or as volunteers, over 6,000 had none at all. In terms of officers, the situation was better. For example, within the 1st Division, of its initial 631 officers, 607 had had previous military experience. This was largely through service in the pre-war militia, though, where there had been little to no formal officer training. In addition, there was a small cadre of junior officers who had been trained for the permanent force at the Royal Military College, Duntroon, but their numbers were very small and at the outbreak of the war the first class had to be graduated early in order for them to join the AIF, being placed mainly in staff positions. Other than small numbers of Duntroon graduates, from January 1915 the only means to be commissioned into the AIF was from the ranks of enlisted personnel. As a result, by 1918 the majority of company and battalion commanders had risen from the ranks. While the AIF's initial senior officers had been members of the pre-war military, few had any substantial experience in managing brigade-sized or larger units in the field as training exercises on this scale had been rarely conducted before the outbreak of hostilities. This inexperience contributed to tactical mistakes and avoidable casualties during the Gallipoli campaign.
After the AIF was transferred to the European battlefield, the training system was greatly improved. Efforts were made at standardisation, with a formal training organisation and curriculum—consisting of 14 weeks basic training for infantrymen—being established. In Egypt, as the AIF was expanded in early 1916, each brigade established a training battalion. These formations were later sent to the United Kingdom and were absorbed into a large system of depots that was established on Salisbury Plain by each branch of the AIF including infantry, engineers, artillery, signals, medical and logistics. After completing their initial instruction at depots in Australia and the United Kingdom, soldiers were posted to in-theatre base depots where they received advanced training before being posted as reinforcements to operational units. Like the British Army, the AIF sought to rapidly pass on "lessons learned" as the war progressed, and these were widely transmitted through regularly updated training documents. The experience gained through combat also improved the skills of the surviving officers and men, and by 1918 the AIF was a very well trained and well led force. After coming to terms with the conditions on the Western Front the Australians had played a part in the development of new combined arms tactics for offensive operations that occurred within the BEF, while in defence they employed patrolling, trench raids, and Peaceful Penetration tactics to dominate no man's land.
Following the deployment of the AIF a reinforcement system was used to replace wastage. Reinforcements received training in Australia first at camps around the country before sailing as drafts—consisting of about two officers and between 100 and 150 other ranks—and joining their assigned units at the front. Initially, these drafts were assigned to specific units prior to departure and were recruited from the same area as the unit they were assigned to, but later in the war drafts were sent as "general reinforcements", which could be assigned to any unit as required. These drafts were despatched even before Gallipoli and continued until late 1917 to early 1918. Some units had as many as 26 or 27 reinforcement drafts. To provide officer reinforcements, a series of AIF officer schools, such as that at Broadmeadows, were established in Australia before officer training was eventually concentrated at a school near Duntroon. These schools produced a large number of officers, but they were eventually closed in 1917 due to concerns that their graduates were too inexperienced. After this most replacement officers were drawn from the ranks of the AIF's deployed units, and candidates attended either British officer training units, or in-theatre schools established in France. After February 1916, the issue of NCO training was also taken more seriously, and several schools were established, with training initially being two weeks in duration before being increased to two months.
Discipline
During the war the AIF gained a reputation, at least amongst British officers, for indifference to military authority and indiscipline when away from the battlefield on leave. This included a reputation for refusing to salute officers, sloppy dress, lack of respect for military rank and drunkenness on leave. Historian Peter Stanley has written that "the AIF was, paradoxically, both a cohesive and remarkably effective force, but also one whose members could not be relied upon to accept military discipline or to even remain in action".
Indiscipline, misbehaviour, and public drunkenness were reportedly widespread in Egypt in 1914–15, while a number of AIF personnel were also involved in several civil disturbances or riots in the red-light district of Cairo during this period. Australians also appear to have been over-represented among British Empire personnel convicted by court martial of various disciplinary offences on the Western Front from 1916, especially absence without leave. This may be partially explained by the refusal of the Australian government to follow the British Army practice of applying the death penalty to desertion, unlike New Zealand or Canada, as well as to the high proportion of front-line personnel in the AIF. Australian soldiers received prison sentences, including hard labour and life imprisonment, for desertion as well as for other serious offences, including manslaughter, assault and theft. More minor offences included drunkenness and defiance of authority. There were also examples of Australian soldiers being involved in looting, while the practice of "scrounging" or "souveniring" was also widespread.
The stresses from prolonged combat contributed to a high incidence of indiscipline within AIF units, and especially those in France during the heavy fighting between April and October 1918. The rates of personnel going absent without leave or deserting increased during 1918, and it became rare for soldiers to salute their officers in many units. Following the war, the indiscipline within the AIF was often portrayed as harmless larrikinism.
Australia's working class culture also influenced that of the AIF. Approximately three-quarters of AIF volunteers were members of the working class, with a high proportion also being trade unionists, and soldiers frequently applied their attitudes to industrial relations to the Army. Throughout the war there were incidents where soldiers refused to undertake tasks that they considered demeaning or protested against actual or perceived mistreatment by their officers. These actions were similar to the strikes many soldiers had taken part in during their pre-enlistment employment, with the men not seeing themselves as mutineers. The protests which occurred in 1918 over the planned disbandment of several battalions also used similar tactics to those employed in industrial disputes. Historian Nathan Wise has judged that the frequent use of industrial action in the AIF led to improved conditions for the soldiers, and contributed to it having a less strict military culture than was common in the British Army.
Uniforms and insignia
The pre-war Australian Army uniform formed the basis of that worn by the AIF, which adopted the broad-brimmed slouch hat and rising sun badge. Peak caps were initially also worn by the infantry, while light horsemen often wore a distinctive emu plume in their slouch hats. A standard khaki puggaree was worn by all arms. From 1916 steel helmets and gas masks were issued for use by infantry on the Western Front. A loose-fitting four-pocket service dress jacket was worn, along with baggy knee breeches, puttees, and tan ankle-boots. A heavy woollen greatcoat was worn during cold weather. The uniform was a drab "pea soup" or khaki colour, while all buttons and badges were oxidised to prevent shine. All personnel wore a shoulder title bearing the word "Australia". Rank insignia followed the British Army pattern and were worn on the upper arms (or shoulders for officers). Identical hat and collar badges were worn by all units, which were initially only distinguished by small metal numerals and letters on the shoulder straps (or collars for officers). However, in 1915 a system of unit colour patches was adopted, worn on the upper arm of a soldier's jacket. Wound stripes of gold braid were also authorised to be worn to denote each wound received. Other distinguishing badges included a brass letter "A" which was worn on the colour patch by men and nurses who had served at Gallipoli, blue chevrons representing each year of overseas service, and a red chevron to represent enlistment during the first year of the war. Uniforms worn by the AFC were similar to those of the rest of the AIF, although some officers wore the double-breasted "maternity jacket" which had been worn at the pre-war Central Flying School. AFC "wings" were worn on the left breast, while an AFC colour patch and standard rising sun badges were also worn.
Operations
Gallipoli
The first contingent of the AIF departed by ship in a single convoy from Fremantle, Western Australia and Albany on 1 November 1914. Although they were originally bound for England to undergo further training prior to employment on the Western Front, the Australians were subsequently sent to British-controlled Egypt to pre-empt any Turkish attack against the strategically important Suez Canal, and with a view to opening another front against the Central Powers. Aiming to knock Turkey out of the war the British then decided to stage an amphibious lodgement at Gallipoli and following a period of training and reorganisation the Australians were included amongst the British, Indian and French forces committed to the campaign. The combined Australian and New Zealand Army Corps—commanded by British general William Birdwood—subsequently landed at Anzac Cove on the Gallipoli peninsula on 25 April 1915. Although promising to transform the war if successful, the Gallipoli Campaign was ill-conceived and shortly after the landing a bloody stalemate developed. This ultimately lasted eight months before Allied commanders decided to evacuate the troops without having achieved the campaign's objectives. Australian casualties totalled 26,111, including 8,141 killed.
Egypt and Palestine
After the withdrawal from Gallipoli the Australians returned to Egypt and the AIF underwent a major expansion. In 1916, the infantry began to move to France while the mounted infantry units remained in the Middle East to fight the Turks. Australian troops of the ANZAC Mounted Division and the Australian Mounted Division saw action in all the major battles of the Sinai and Palestine Campaign, playing a pivotal role in fighting the Turkish troops that were threatening British control of Egypt. The Australians first saw combat during the Senussi Uprising in the Libyan Desert and the Nile Valley, during which the combined British forces successfully put down the primitive pro-Turkish Islamic sect with heavy casualties. The ANZAC Mounted Division subsequently saw considerable action in the Battle of Romani between 3 and 5 August 1916 against the Turks who were eventually pushed back. Following this victory the British forces went on the offensive in the Sinai, although the pace of the advance was governed by the speed by which the railway and water pipeline could be constructed from the Suez Canal. Rafa was captured on 9 January 1917, while the last of the small Turkish garrisons in the Sinai were eliminated in February.
The advance entered Palestine and an initial, unsuccessful attempt was made to capture Gaza on 26 March 1917, while a second and equally unsuccessful attempt was launched on 19 April. A third assault occurred between 31 October and 7 November and this time both the ANZAC Mounted Division and the Australian Mounted Division took part. The battle was a complete success for the British, over-running the Gaza–Beersheba line and capturing 12,000 Turkish soldiers. The critical moment was the capture of Beersheba on the first day, after the Australian 4th Light Horse Brigade charged more than . The Turkish trenches were overrun, with the Australians capturing the wells at Beersheba and securing the valuable water they contained along with over 700 prisoners for the loss of 31 killed and 36 wounded. Later, Australian troops assisted in pushing the Turkish forces out of Palestine and took part in actions at Mughar Ridge, Jerusalem and the Megiddo. The Turkish government surrendered on 30 October 1918. Units of the Light Horse were subsequently used to help put down a nationalist revolt in Egypt in 1919 and did so with efficiency and brutality, although they suffered a number of fatalities in the process. Total Australian battle casualties in the campaign were 4,851, including 1,374 dead.
Western Front
Five infantry divisions of the AIF saw action in France and Belgium, leaving Egypt in March 1916. I ANZAC Corps subsequently took up positions in a quiet sector south of Armentières on 7 April 1916 and for the next two and a half years the AIF participated in most of the major battles on the Western Front, earning a formidable reputation. Although spared from the disastrous first day of the Battle of the Somme, within weeks four Australian divisions had been committed. The 5th Division, positioned on the left flank, was the first in action during the Battle of Fromelles on 19 July 1916, suffering 5,533 casualties in a single day. The 1st Division entered the line on 23 July, assaulting Pozières, and by the time that they were relieved by the 2nd Division on 27 July, they had suffered 5,286 casualties. Mouquet Farm was attacked in August, with casualties totalling 6,300 men. By the time the AIF was withdrawn from the Somme to reorganise, they had suffered 23,000 casualties in just 45 days.
In March 1917, the 2nd and 5th Divisions pursued the Germans back to the Hindenburg Line, capturing the town of Bapaume. On 11 April, the 4th Division assaulted the Hindenburg Line in the disastrous First Battle of Bullecourt, losing over 3,000 casualties and 1,170 captured. On 15 April, the 1st and 2nd Divisions were counter-attacked near Lagnicourt and were forced to abandon the town, before recapturing it. The 2nd Division then took part in the Second Battle of Bullecourt, beginning on 3 May, and succeeded in taking sections of the Hindenburg Line and holding them until relieved by the 1st Division. Finally, on 7 May the 5th Division relieved the 1st, remaining in the line until the battle ended in mid-May. Combined, these efforts cost 7,482 Australian casualties.
On 7 June 1917, II ANZAC Corps—along with two British corps—launched an operation in Flanders to eliminate a salient south of Ypres. The attack commenced with the detonation of a million pounds (454,545 kg) of explosives that had been placed underneath the Messines ridge, destroying the German trenches. The advance was virtually unopposed, and despite strong German counterattacks the next day, it succeeded. Australian casualties during the Battle of Messines included nearly 6,800 men. I ANZAC Corps then took part in the Third Battle of Ypres in Belgium as part of the campaign to capture the Gheluvelt Plateau, between September and November 1917. Individual actions took place at Menin Road, Polygon Wood, Broodseinde, Poelcappelle and Passchendaele and over the course of eight weeks of fighting the Australians suffered 38,000 casualties.
On 21 March 1918, the German Army launched its Spring Offensive in a last-ditched effort to win the war, unleashing 63 divisions over a front. As the Allies fell back the 3rd and 4th Divisions were rushed south to Amiens on the Somme. The offensive lasted for the next five months and all five AIF divisions in France were engaged in the attempt to stem the tide. By late May the Germans had pushed to within of Paris. During this time the Australians fought at Dernancourt, Morlancourt, Villers-Bretonneux, Hangard Wood, Hazebrouck, and Hamel. At Hamel the commander of the Australian Corps, Monash, successfully used combined arms—including aircraft, artillery and armour—in an attack for the first time.
The German offensive ground to a halt in mid-July and a brief lull followed, during which the Australians undertook a series of raids, known as Peaceful Penetrations. The Allies soon launched their own offensive—the Hundred Days Offensive—ultimately ending the war. Beginning on 8 August 1918 the offensive included four Australian divisions striking at Amiens. Using the combined arms techniques developed earlier at Hamel, significant gains were made on what became known as the "Black Day" of the German Army. The offensive continued for four months, and during the Second Battle of the Somme the Australian Corps fought actions at Lihons, Etinehem, Proyart, Chuignes, and Mont St Quentin, before their final engagement of the war on 5 October 1918 at Montbrehain. While these actions were successful, the Australian divisions suffered considerable casualties and by September 1918 the average strength of their infantry battalions was between 300 and 400, which was less than 50 percent of the authorised strength. The AIF was withdrawn for rest and reorganisation following the engagement at Montbrehain; at this time the Australian Corps appeared to be close to breaking as a result of its heavy casualties since August. The Corps was still out of the line when the armistice was declared on 11 November 1918. However, some artillery units continued to support British and American units into November, and the AFC maintained flying operations until the end of the war. Total Australian casualties on the Western Front numbered 181,000, including 46,000 of whom died. Another 114,000 men were wounded, 16,000 gassed, and approximately 3,850 were taken prisoners of war.
Other theatres
Small numbers of AIF personnel also served in other theatres. Australian troops from the 1st Australian Wireless Signal Squadron provided communications for British forces during the Mesopotamian Campaign. They participated in a number of battles, including the Battle of Baghdad in March 1917 and the Battle of Ramadi in September that year. Following the Russian Revolution in 1917, the Caucasus Front collapsed, leaving Central Asia open to the Turkish Army. A special force, known as Dunsterforce after its commander, Major General Lionel Dunsterville, was formed from hand-picked British officers and NCOs to organise any remaining Russian forces or civilians who were ready to fight the Turkish forces. Some 20 Australian officers served with Dunsterforce in the Caucasus Campaign and one party under Captain Stanley Savige was instrumental in protecting thousands of Assyrian refugees. Australian nurses staffed four British hospitals in Salonika, and another 10 in India.
Disbandment
By the end of the war the AIF had gained a reputation as a well-trained and highly effective military force, enduring more than two years of costly fighting on the Western Front before playing a significant role in the final Allied victory in 1918, albeit as a smaller part of the wider British Empire war effort. Like the other Dominion divisions from Canada and New Zealand, the Australians were viewed as being among the best of the British forces in France, and were often used to spearhead operations. 64 Australians were awarded the Victoria Cross. This reputation came at a heavy cost, with the AIF sustaining approximately 210,000 casualties, of which 61,519 were killed or died of wounds. This represented a total casualty rate of 64.8 percent, which was among the highest of any belligerent for the war. About another 4,000 men were captured. The majority of casualties occurred among the infantry (which sustained a casualty rate of 79 percent); however, the artillery (58 percent) and light horse (32 percent) also incurred significant losses.
After the war, all AIF units went into camp and began the process of demobilisation. The AIF's involvement in the occupation of former German or Turkish territory was limited as Prime Minister William Hughes requested their early repatriation. The exceptions were No. 4 Squadron, AFC and the 3rd Australian Casualty Clearing Station, which participated in the occupation of the Rhineland. The 7th Light Horse Regiment was also sent to occupy the Gallipoli peninsula for six weeks, along with a New Zealand regiment. At the time of the armistice, there were 95,951 soldiers in France and a further 58,365 in England, 17,255 in the Middle East plus nurses in Salonika and India, all to be transported home. Around 120 Australians decided to delay their departure and instead joined the British Army, serving in Northern Russia during the Russian Civil War, although officially the Australian government refused to contribute forces to the campaign.
By May 1919, the last troops were out of France, and 70,000 were encamped on Salisbury Plain. The men returned home on a "first come, first go" basis, with the process overseen by Monash in Britain and Chauvel in Cairo. Many of the soldiers undertook government-funded training in civilian occupations while awaiting repatriation to Australia. Only 10,000 Australian soldiers remained in England by September. Monash, the senior Australian commander, was repatriated on 26 December 1919. The last transport organised to repatriate troops was H.T. Naldera, which departed London on 13 April 1920. The AIF officially ceased to exist on 1 April 1921, and on 1 July 1921 the military hospitals in Australia passed into civilian hands. As a volunteer force, all units were demobilised at the end of the war. Australia's part-time military force, the Citizens Force, was subsequently reorganised to replicate the AIF's divisional structure and the numerical designations of many of its units to perpetuate their identities and battle honours.
Legacy
During and after the war, the AIF was often portrayed in glowing terms. As part of the "Anzac legend", the soldiers were depicted as good humoured and egalitarian men who had little time for the formalities of military life or strict discipline, yet fought fiercely and skilfully in battle. Australian soldiers was also seen as resourceful and self-reliant. The wartime official correspondent and post-war official historian C.E.W. Bean was central to the development of this stereotype. Bean believed that the character and achievements of the AIF reflected the unique nature of rural Australians, and frequently exaggerated the democratic nature of the force and the proportion of soldiers from rural areas in his journalism and the Official History of Australia in the War of 1914–1918. The perceived qualities of the AIF were seen as being unique, as the product of the harsh Australian environment, the ethos of the bush and egalitarianism. Such notions built on the concept of men from the bush being excellent natural soldiers which was prevalent in Australian culture before the war. The achievements of the AIF, especially during the Gallipoli campaign, were also frequently portrayed by Bean and others as having marked the birth of Australia as a nation. Moreover, the AIF's performance was often seen as proof that the character of Australians had passed the test of war.
The exploits of the AIF at Gallipoli, and then on the Western Front, subsequently became central to the national mythology. In the years that followed much was made of ethos of the AIF, including its volunteer status and the quality of "mateship". Yet many of the factors which had resulted in the AIF's success as a military formation were not exclusively Australian, with most modern armies recognising the importance of small-unit identity and group cohesion in maintaining morale. Many of the qualities that arguably defined the Australian soldier were also claimed by New Zealanders and Canadians as having been exhibited by their soldiers, whilst undoubtedly soldiers of the German, British and American armies also exhibited such traits, even if they were known by different terms. Objectively, the foundations of the AIF's performance were more likely to have been military professionalism based on "discipline, training, leadership, and sound doctrine". While the volunteer status of the AIF has been seen by some to explain its military performance, it was by no means unique in this regard. The status of their enlistment made little difference against the artillery, machine-gun fire, and wire obstacles of modern industrial warfare at any rate. Equally, individual skill and morale proved to be less important than sound tactics, with effective fire and movement ultimately making the difference in 1918. The Australians were not alone among the Allied armies in embracing such tactical innovations, while many of the new technologies and integrated weapon systems they relied upon were provided by the British Army.
Commemorating and celebrating the AIF became an entrenched tradition following World War I, with Anzac Day forming the centrepiece of remembrance of the war. The soldiers who served in the AIF, known colloquially as "Diggers", in time became "...one of the paramount Australian archetypes." When the Second Australian Imperial Force was raised in 1939 following the outbreak of World War II it was seen as inheriting the name and traditions of its predecessor. Perceptions of the AIF have evolved over time. During the 1950s and 1960s social critics began to associate the "Anzac legend" with complacency and conformism, and popular discontent concerning the Vietnam War and conscription from the mid-1960s led many people to reject it. Historians also increasingly questioned Bean's views concerning the AIF, leading to more realistic and nuanced assessments of the force. However, some historians continue to stress the AIF's achievements, and state that it was representative of Australia. The "Anzac legend" grew in popularity during the 1980s and 1990s when it was adopted as part of a new Australian nationalism, with the AIF often being portrayed as a uniquely Australian force that fought in other people's wars and was sacrificed by the British military in campaigns which were of little importance to Australia. This depiction is controversial, however, and has been rejected by some historians. The Oxford Companion to Australian Military History judges that while it is unclear how popular perceptions of Australia's military history will evolve, "it is clear that the Anzac legend will remain an important national myth for some time to come".
See also
Australian Imperial Forces cricket team
List of Australian diarists of World War I
List of Australian Army artillery units in World War I
List of Australian Army engineer units in World War I
List of Australian Army medical units in World War I
First Australian Imperial Force dental units
Australian Army battle honours of World War I
Notes
References
Citations
Sources
Further reading
External links
First AIF Order of Battle 1914–1918
General Officers of the First AIF
The AIF Project – Comprehensive database listing all servicemen of the 1st AIF
Discovering Anzacs – locate an Australian serviceman, nurse or chaplain; add a note or photograph to complete their profile
Researching soldiers of World War 1
Australian Imperial Force 1
Military units and formations of the Australian Army
Military units and formations of Australia in World War I
Military units and formations established in 1914
Military units and formations disestablished in 1921
1914 establishments in Australia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mamie%20Eisenhower
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Mamie Eisenhower
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Mary Geneva "Mamie" Eisenhower (; November 14, 1896 – November 1, 1979) was the first lady of the United States from 1953 to 1961 as the wife of President Dwight D. Eisenhower. Born in Boone, Iowa, she was raised in a wealthy household in Colorado. She married Eisenhower, then a lieutenant in the United States Army, in 1916. She kept house and served as hostess for military officers as they moved between various postings in the United States, Panama, the Philippines, and France. Their relationship was complicated by his regular absences on duty and by the death of their firstborn son at the age of three. She became a prominent figure during World War II as General Eisenhower's wife.
As first lady, Eisenhower was given near total control over the expenses and scheduling of the White House. She closely managed the staff, and her frugality was apparent in White House budgeting throughout her tenure. She entertained many foreign heads of state in her role as hostess. She showed little interest in politics and was rarely involved in political discussion, though she did support soldiers' welfare and civil rights causes. She had poor balance due to Ménière's disease, giving rise to rumors of alcoholism. She was a popular first lady, and recognized as a fashion icon, known for her iconic bangs and frequent use of the color pink. The Eisenhowers were married for 52 years, until Dwight's death in 1969. She spent most of her retirement and widowhood at the family farm in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, before returning to Washington in her final years, where she died in 1979.
Early life
Mary Geneva "Mamie" Doud was born in Boone, Iowa, as the second child of meatpacking executive John Sheldon Doud and his wife Elivera Mathilda Carlson. She grew up in Cedar Rapids, Iowa; Colorado Springs, Colorado; Denver, Colorado; and the Doud winter home in San Antonio, Texas. Her mother was a daughter of Swedish immigrants, and Swedish was often spoken at home. Her father ran a meatpacking company founded by his father, Doud & Montgomery, until he retired at age 36. He also had investments in Illinois and Iowa stockyards, producing a sizeable fortune. His wealth provided the family with many comforts, including servants who tended to their needs and connections with high society.
Mamie had three sisters: her older sister, Eleanor Carlson Doud, and her two younger sisters, Eda Mae Doud and Mabel Frances "Mike" Doud. The family was beset by tragedy early in Mamie's life when Eleanor died at age 17. Their parents operated under a strict separation of spheres, whereby the father made decisions for the family and the business and the mother ran the household. Having a staff to tend to the household's needs, Mamie never learned to keep house, a skill she would have to learn from her husband. She came down with a severe case of rheumatic fever as a child, bringing about lifelong health concerns. Though her education was limited, her father taught her to manage budgeting and finance. Her family traveled extensively, and when she grew older, she was sent to Wolcott School for Girls for finishing school.
Marriage and family
Marriage
Doud had many suitors, but she began courting Dwight D. "Ike" Eisenhower in 1915, who at the time was a second lieutenant. They were introduced while the Douds were visiting a friend at Fort Sam Houston. He broke convention by inviting her to tour the facility with him while he made his rounds. She was immediately infatuated with him, but turned him down when he asked her on a date. He pursued her for the following month as she courted other suitors before they began to date exclusively, and they were engaged on the Valentine's Day, 1916. Ike initially gave her a miniature of his West Point class ring, as was customary. At her request, he later gave her a full-size ring, and he formally asked permission to marry her on Saint Patrick's Day. Mamie celebrated both Valentine's Day and Saint Patrick's Day as anniversaries of their engagement.
Mamie's father agreed to the marriage on the condition that Eisenhower did not enter the Army Air Service, as he considered it too dangerous. Apprehension of American entry into World War I accelerated their plans to wed, and they were married at the Doud family's home in Denver on July 1, 1916. They went on honeymoon and visited Ike's parents in Abilene, Kansas, before returning to Fort Sam Houston, where Ike was stationed. Mamie also met Ike's brother, Milton S. Eisenhower, who became a close friend to Mamie.
Army wife
Eisenhower lived the life of an army wife over the following years, continually moving as her husband was stationed at different posts. Over the course of Ike's 37 years in the military, they lived in 33 different homes. During some of these postings, she participated in community projects, such as the establishment of a hospital in Panama. Their military housing was often meager, and she was tasked with furnishing their temporary homes and making them livable. The Eisenhowers regularly entertained wherever they lived, and their home came to be known as "Club Eisenhower". Mamie often attended card parties and luncheons with officers' wives, befriending many of them, but had little patience for the gossip and intrigue that sometimes took place, refusing to take part in it.
Eisenhower no longer had the comforts that she had grown accustomed to in childhood. They had to survive on Ike's military pay and occasional support from Mamie's father. Ike and Mamie were often both physically and emotionally distant from each other, and Mamie experienced bouts of depression throughout her time as an army wife. She had to grow accustomed to fear and loneliness during periods of separation while her husband was traveling for the army, and Ike once told her that his duty would "always come first".
The Eisenhowers had two sons. Their first, Doud Dwight "Icky" Eisenhower, was born on September 24, 1917. Having to care for him on her own despite her weak health, Mamie worked herself to exhaustion. Icky died of scarlet fever at age three on January 2, 1921. Mamie was devastated, and had little to distract herself from the tragedy. Their second son, John Sheldon Doud Eisenhower, was born in Denver on August 3, 1922. His birth helped alleviate some of the depression brought about by her firstborn's death and her separations from Ike, and she doted on John well into adulthood. John served in the military, was the United States Ambassador to Belgium, and wrote several books.
In 1922, Ike was stationed in Panama, and Mamie struggled in the jungle environment. They went to Denver shortly before John's birth, and Mamie stayed behind after Ike returned to Panama. She rejoined him in Panama two months later, accompanied by a nurse the family had hired to help raise John. On the advice of the wife of General Fox Conner, Mamie took interest in Ike's career and presented herself as a supportive military wife, strengthening their relationship. In 1928, she encouraged her husband to take a position in Paris instead of in the War Department. She hosted increasingly important guests as her husband's military career progressed. When Ike was appointed as aide to General Douglas MacArthur in 1929, the family moved to Washington, D.C., and "Club Eisenhower" became a popular social hub for the city's elite. She initially chose to stay in Washington when her husband was stationed in the Philippines in 1935, and their relationship was strained by the time she joined him the following year. The family returned to the U.S. shortly after the onset of World War II in 1939.
General's wife
During World War II, while promotion and fame came to Ike, his wife lived in Washington, D.C. During the three years Ike was stationed in Europe, Mamie saw him only once. She made her own contributions to the war effort, volunteering anonymously for the American Women's Voluntary Services and the United Service Organizations, among other groups. Mamie constantly worried about her husband's safety while he led the war effort in Europe, and was regularly accosted by reporters, causing her to lose 20 pounds during the war. Rumors emerged that she was an alcoholic, though no evidence supported this claim. Her struggle was further complicated by Ike's close relationship with his chauffeur, Kay Summersby; she had become a close confidante of Ike's, and rumors emerged that he had taken her as a mistress. Ike's military success and his subsequent memoirs provided the couple with financial stability after the war.
After Ike became president of Columbia University in 1948, the Eisenhowers purchased a farm (now the Eisenhower National Historic Site) at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. It was the first home they had ever owned. She continued in her hosting duties, this time for faculty wives and large donors in addition to the friends her husband had made in the military. Ike was then made commander of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization forces, and their return to Paris delayed work on their dream home, which was not completed until 1955. In Europe, the two regularly received royals, and Mamie was awarded the Cross of Merit for her role in her husband's military success. When Ike agreed to run in the 1952 presidential election, Mamie campaigned for him. She appeared to enjoy campaigning, and was popular among voters. She sometimes subverted her husband's campaign managers' wishes, making speaking appearances without their knowledge and suggesting changes to his speeches.
First Lady of the United States
White House hostess
Eisenhower became first lady as the position first began to present a national public image. She maligned the attention associated with the role, insisting that her husband was the public figure of the family and generally refusing to take on duties outside the White House. She maintained distance from the press, avoiding interviews and having her secretary Mary Jane McCaffree address reporters in her stead. She also declined a request to write a column for the New York Herald Tribune, and held only one press conference during her tenure. She was friendly with reporters when they did interact, insisting that they address her as Mamie. Her ambivalence toward the press did not extend toward photographers, whom she readily accommodated. She also wrote a personal response to every letter she received and sometimes passed on concerns the letters raised.
Despite her reservations about public life, Eisenhower enjoyed her role as a hostess. During her time as first lady, she entertained many heads of state. In total, she entertained about 70 official foreign visitors. She was a capable hostess, having spent much of her adult life hosting as a military wife. She hosted social events full time and reveled in the pageantry associated with the presidency. Eisenhower was lauded for her social prowess, greeting and shaking hands with thousands of people during her tenure as first lady. When entertaining, she prioritized comfort and popular taste over prestige. She often employed male quartets and musicians such as Fred Waring to perform for guests at the White House.
Media coverage of Eisenhower was generally favorable, focusing on her personality and charm rather than politics or scandal.
Managing the White House
Eisenhower took naturally to managing the White House and its staff, drawing on her experience as an army wife. She had a strained relationship with the staff after taking charge, having imposed many rules to liken them to more traditional house staff and managing them closely. Over time she built relationships with the staff, treating them as family and even celebrating their birthdays. When their house in Gettysburg was completed in 1955, they celebrated by throwing a housewarming party for the White House staff. Eisenhower typically managed the White House from her bedroom, staying in bed due to her poor health. The Eisenhowers were accustomed to splitting their responsibilities, and Mamie was given total authority over house spending and scheduling. She had developed a strict frugality as an army wife, and micromanaged White House expenses. She was known for her frugality, and even clipped coupons for the White House staff. Her recipe for "Mamie's million dollar fudge" was reproduced by housewives all over the country after it was published.
During her tenure, she had several rooms redecorated in her favorite colors, pink and green. Eisenhower was especially active during the Christmas season, during which she had the White House heavily decorated for the occasion and bought gifts for the White House staff. In 1958, she was also reported to be the first person to initiate Halloween decorations for the White House. Her attempts to decorate the White House were complicated by lack of federal funding, and many of her changes depended on private donations. She dedicated much time to the flower arrangements of the White House, favoring gladioli. Her possessiveness over White House decor sometimes caused conflict with the staff, as it contradicted the recognized norm that the first family were residents rather than owners of the White House. She held great reverence for the building, saying that she "never drove up to the south portico without a lump coming to [her] throat".
When Ike had a heart attack in 1955, Mamie helped keep him warm and get him medical attention. Afterward, she regularly tended to him, limiting his work schedule, managing his diet, and taking his mail. She also had a room set aside upstairs in the White House where he could practice his painting in solitude. She gave him strong emotional support at a time when he lacked the energy or desire to carry out his responsibilities as president. When it was unclear whether Ike would run for reelection in 1956 due to his health, Mamie encouraged him to run. She was protective of him during his periods of illness, at one point informing Pat Nixon without his knowledge that he was not healthy enough to campaign for Richard Nixon in the 1960 presidential election. Mamie also had medical concerns of her own; among others, she was uneasy on her feet due to Ménière's disease, an inner-ear disorder that affects equilibrium, which fed rumors that she had a drinking problem.
Politics
Eisenhower had little interest in the presidency's political aspects, and was never directly involved in her husband's decisions. She entered the West Wing of the White House only four times during her tenure. This lack of political involvement contributed to her subservient image that protected her from heavy media scrutiny and bolstered her popularity. The main political cause that interested her was social issues, including women's issues and civil rights. She expressed a desire to see women elected to Congress, and sponsored several women's clubs. She also invited Black women to the White House, including Marian Anderson and the National Council of Negro Women. Other causes she supported include soldiers' benefits, civil defense, blood drives, and the United Nations. After her husband's heart attack, she chaired fundraising for the American Heart Association. The president also consulted her at times on economic issues, having depended on her for finance throughout their marriage.
Her control over the guest list and social scheduling allowed Eisenhower some degree of political influence. When organizing the 1953 annual vice president's dinner, she invited every senator except Joseph McCarthy, allowing the president to maintain distance from McCarthy without taking a stance. When the President of Haiti visited the White House, she ensured he would be received with full honors to celebrate the first Black head of state to visit the White House. Most of her influence in the Oval Office came through her social role; she made a point of knowing the president's cabinet members and support staff, and congratulated them and their wives on successes to improve morale.
Eisenhower was reportedly unhappy with the idea of John F. Kennedy coming into office following her husband's term and expressed displeasure about new First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy, calling her "the college girl". Jacqueline Kennedy had given birth to John Jr. via caesarean section two weeks before a planned tour of the White House, but Mamie did not inform her that a wheelchair was available for her to use while showing her the various sections of the White House. Seeing Eisenhower's displeasure during the tour, Kennedy kept her composure in Eisenhower's presence, collapsing in private once she returned home. When Eisenhower was later asked why she would do such a thing, she replied, "Because she never asked."
Later life
In 1961, Eisenhower retired with the former president to Gettysburg, their first permanent home. They also had a retirement home in Palm Desert, California. She made appearances on occasion for the Kennedy administration, including a fundraiser for the National Cultural Center and a state dinner with the Prime Minister of Japan. As her husband was dying, legislation passed that guaranteed lifetime Secret Service protection for presidential widows. Following Ike's death in March 1969, Mamie went to Belgium, where their son was serving as ambassador. After returning to the U.S., she continued to live full-time on the farm until she took an apartment in Washington, D.C., as her health declined in the late 1970s. She often stayed in her bedroom after her husband's death while Secret Service agents supported her.
Eisenhower remained close to the Nixon family after her tenure as first lady, and her grandson married the Nixons' daughter in 1968. She appeared in a commercial to support Richard Nixon's reelection in the 1972 presidential election, and the Nixons regularly invited Mamie to the White House throughout the Nixon presidency. She took stronger political stances later in life; she supported the Vietnam War, though she recognized the hardship faced by American soldiers, and opposed the women's liberation movement. She supported Dick Thornburgh for governor of Pennsylvania, and George H. W. Bush in the 1980 Republican Party presidential primaries. In 1973, Eisenhower finally addressed rumors of alcoholism in an interview, explaining the nature of her vertigo. Rumors of Ike's alleged affair with Kay Summersby reemerged in the 1970s, though Mamie continued to say that she did not believe them.
Death
Eisenhower had a stroke on September 25, 1979. She was rushed to Walter Reed Army Medical Center, where her husband had died a decade before. Eisenhower remained in the hospital, and on October 31, announced to her granddaughter Mary Jean that she would die the next day. She died in her sleep on the morning of November 1. A memorial service was held in the Fort Myer chapel on November 5 with attendants including the Nixons, Rosalynn Carter, Senator Jacob Javits, Federal Reserve Chair Arthur F. Burns, and Eisenhower's Secret Service agents. She was buried beside her husband in his hometown of Abilene, Kansas.
Legacy
Eisenhower's birthplace is open to the public and operated by the Mamie Doud Eisenhower Foundation. Places bearing the name Mamie Eisenhower include a park in Denver and a library in the Denver suburb of Broomfield, Colorado. She was inducted into the Colorado Women's Hall of Fame in 1985.
Impact on fashion
Eisenhower was known for her sense of fashion, and many women adopted her style. The New York Dress Institute named her one of the 12 best-dressed women in the country every year that she was first lady. Her style was known as the "Mamie Look"; it involved a full-skirted dress, pink gloves, charm bracelets, pearls, little hats, purses, and bobbed, banged hair. Her style was associated with Dior's postwar "New Look", and included both high- and low-end items. Her frugality affected her style, as she often sought out bargains and kept clothes long after buying them.
Eisenhower wore a Nettie Rosenstein gown to the 1953 inaugural balls, a pink peau de soie gown embroidered with more than 2,000 rhinestones. It is one of the most popular of the Smithsonian National Museum of American History's collection of inaugural gowns. Eisenhower paired it with matching gloves, and jewelry by Trifari. She carried a beaded purse by Judith Leiber (then an employee of Nettie Rosenstein). Her shoes by Delman had her name printed on the left instep. Eisenhower first adopted her iconic bangs while Ike was stationed in Panama; she found that the hairstyle helped her keep cool in the tropical environment, and decided to keep it after returning to the United States. She owned many cosmetics and perfumes, and often visited a beauty spa to maintain her appearance. Eisenhower's fondness for a specific shade of pink, often called "First Lady" or "Mamie" pink, kicked off a national trend for pink clothing, housewares, and bathrooms.
Historical assessments
Eisenhower is remembered neither as a traditionalist like Bess Truman nor as an activist like Eleanor Roosevelt. Her tenure occurred at a time when the role was undergoing major changes and growing in prominence. Her influence on the Eisenhower administration was reserved, respecting a strict division between her husband's public life and their home life. To the public she symbolized the glamor, style, and growth associated with the United States in the 1950s. She played the role of the "perfect wife" of her era: highly feminine, subservient to her husband, and focused on the household. The most significant effect she had on the position of first lady was the organization of a dedicated personal staff that became the Office of the First Lady of the United States.
Since 1982, Siena College Research Institute has periodically conducted a survey asking historians to assess American first ladies according to a cumulative score on their background, value to the country, intelligence, courage, accomplishments, integrity, leadership, being their own women, public image, and value to the president. Eisenhower has been ranked:
In an additional question accompanying the 2014 survey, Eisenhower placed third among 20th- and 21st-century first ladies who historians felt could have done more. In the 2014 survey, Eisenhower and her husband were also ranked 14th out of 39 first couples in terms of being a "power couple".
References
Bibliography
Further reading
Holt, Marilyn Irvin. Mamie Doud Eisenhower: The General's First Lady. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2007.
Kimball, D. L. I Remember Mamie. Fayette, IA: Trends & Events, 1981.
External links
Mamie Eisenhower Letters at Gettysburg College
Mamie Eisenhower at C-SPAN's First Ladies: Influence & Image
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bess%20Truman
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Bess Truman
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Elizabeth Virginia Truman (; February 13, 1885October 18, 1982) was the wife of President Harry S. Truman and the first lady of the United States from 1945 to 1953. She also served as the second lady of the United States from January to April 1945. She currently holds the record of longest-lived first lady and longest-lived second lady at .
She was born in Independence, Missouri, where she kept a home her entire life. She had known Harry since they were children, though she did not return his affections until adulthood. She was strongly affected by the suicide of her father when she was 18 years old, which shaped her opinions about privacy from the public eye and the responsibilities of a spouse. Bess and Harry married in 1919, and Bess would spend the following years managing the Truman household and working in her husband's offices as his political career advanced. She was apprehensive about Harry running for vice president in 1944, and she was deeply upset when he ascended to the presidency the following year.
As first lady, Bess avoided social obligations and media attention whenever possible, and she made regular excursions to her home in Independence. She chose not to continue in the regular press conferences carried out by her predecessor Eleanor Roosevelt, believing that her responsibility as a wife was to keep her opinions private. Her influence on her husband's presidency came about in their private conversations, as he would consult her about most major decisions during his presidency. She was also prominent in his reelection campaign, making regular appearances for crowds as he toured the United States. She was greatly relieved when Harry chose not to run for another term in 1952. After her tenure as first lady, Bess lived in retirement at her home in Independence until her death in 1982.
Truman was generally popular among her contemporaries, but her lifelong devotion to privacy has allowed for limited historical analysis. She refused to provide information about herself or her beliefs to journalists during her lifetime, and she destroyed many of her letters after leaving the White House. There is no consensus among historians on her performance as first lady or to what extent she influenced her husband's presidency.
Early life
Bess was born as Elizabeth Virginia Wallace on February 13, 1885, in Independence, Missouri, to Margaret Elizabeth Gates and David Willock Wallace. Margaret was the daughter of a businessman, and David was a local politician. Bess was known as Bessie during her childhood, and she had three younger brothers (Frank, George, and David). Her only sister died in infancy. As a child, Bess had a reputation as a tomboy due in part to her propensity for sports, including golf, tennis, horseback riding, shot put, basketball, baseball, and ice skating. She practiced dance and etiquette, and she attended town balls and hayrides of the town's aristocracy.
In 1903, when Bess was 18, her father committed suicide. According to the biographer David McCullough, the cause for his suicide is unknown, with speculation ranging from depression to mounting debts. Bess spent the following hours pacing silently in her backyard, first alone and then joined by her closest friend Mary Paxton. Her father's suicide was scandalous, and the family moved to Colorado Springs, Colorado, for a year to avoid the community's attention. Bess later attempted to keep this part of her life a secret. After her father's death, Bess took responsibility for raising her younger brothers, and the family moved into the home of her maternal grandparents. Bess's mother became a lifelong recluse, and the ordeal imprinted upon Bess the belief that a husband and wife should be close partners in everything they do. She refused to speak about her father for the rest of her life.
After graduating from Independence High School (now known as William Chrisman High School) she studied at Miss Barstow's Finishing School for Girls in Kansas City, Missouri. Bess played on the women's basketball team, and she studied literature and French. As a young woman, Bess enjoyed expressing herself through fashion and hats; in the words of a friend, "Bess always had more stylish hats than the rest of us did, or she wore them with more style." After returning from school, she resumed her role as the head of the family, and she became involved with the community through her bridge club and her charity work with the Needlework Guild. It was at this time that she began going by Bess rather than Bessie.
Marriage and family
Harry S. Truman met Bess soon after his family moved to Independence in 1890, and the two attended school together until graduation. Many factors kept them from forming a closer bond in school, including their differences in social class and religion, Harry's time-consuming job at a drugstore, and Harry's inability to participate in athletics with Bess due to his thick glasses.They sometimes studied Latin together, and he often volunteered to carry her books, but they did not become close friends.
Bess had many suitors in the years after high school, but none won her love. In 1910, long after their time in school, Harry volunteered to return a cake plate to the Wallaces as an excuse to speak to Bess. They reconnected and began a courtship. Harry was insecure about his lack of money, and he attempted to impress Bess by purchasing tickets to shows and building her a tennis court. Bess' mother disapproved of the relationship.
Harry proposed in 1911 in a long letter, which he later admitted was clumsily written, but Bess turned him down. He later said that he intended to propose again when he would be earning more money than a farmer. They became informally engaged in November 1913, though Harry still doubted himself regarding his finances. Over the following years, the couple regularly corresponded while Harry traveled throughout the United States for his work in mining and petroleum. Bess wished to marry before Harry departed to fight in World War I in 1917, but he refused to risk making her a young widow. She worked to support the war effort while he was gone by selling war bonds, and she served on a committee for entertaining soldiers.
Bess and Harry married on June 28, 1919, at Trinity Episcopal Church in Independence. The newlyweds honeymooned in Chicago and Detroit and then moved into Bess's childhood home so she could care for her mother. During their marriage, Bess tried in vain to teach her husband the etiquette with which she had been raised. Their only child, Margaret, was born in 1924. Bess's two previous pregnancies had ended in miscarriages. Bess became the primary authority figure in Margaret's life, while Harry would spoil her.
Bess held several jobs working with her husband, which provided more income for the Truman family. She was accounts manager at Truman-Jacobsen Haberdashery from 1919 to 1922, when the business went bankrupt. After Harry was elected county judge in the eastern district of Jackson County, she worked as his aide from 1922 to 1924 and from 1926 to 1934. Corruption and violence were prominent in Jackson County politics at the time, and working with her husband in his early political career caused her great distress, including when they feared a plot to kidnap their young daughter. In addition to helping Harry in his political work, Bess also managed the family's household and finances. As part of her social life, Bess helped found the Junior Service League of Independence and a chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution.
Move to Washington, D.C.
When Harry was elected as a senator from Missouri in 1934, Bess stayed in Missouri with her mother for the first year. After visiting Harry, she decided to stay, and the family moved to Washington, D.C. While Congress was in session during the first half of each year, they would live in rented apartments in Washington. When the session ended, they would return to Independence for the rest of the year. While her husband was in the Senate, Bess became a member of the Congressional Club, the P.E.O. Sisterhood, the H Street United Service Organization, and the Red Cross work of the group informally known as the "Senate Wives". She joined her husband's staff as a clerk, answering personal mail and editing committee reports when he became chairman of the Senate Special Committee to Investigate the National Defense Program. She developed relationships with the wives of senators and cabinet members, though she did not attend meetings of senators' wives, as she found them boring. During her husband's political career, she helped him write his speeches, though she refused to give any of her own.
In 1944, Harry was offered the Democratic nomination for Vice President of the United States. He had not sought the position, and it was a surprise to the Trumans when it was offered. When the position had previously been suggested to him, he had dismissed the idea out of concern for Bess and Margaret. When Harry accepted the role of vice president to President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Bess was not entirely pleased. She wanted to return to their life in Missouri, and she also feared that Roosevelt would die, which would make her husband the president. Bess's position on Harry's staff was controversial during the campaign, but he retained her during the campaign and during his vice presidency. After the Democratic ticket won the election and Harry was sworn in as vice president, Bess became Second Lady of the United States. She found herself saddled with the associated social responsibilities, attending many events as a representative of the Roosevelts, often multiple times in one day. Bess served as second lady for 82 days before President Roosevelt died and her husband ascended to the presidency.
First Lady of the United States
Social role
President Roosevelt died on April 12, 1945, immediately making Harry Truman the President of the United States and Bess Truman the First Lady of the United States. Bess reportedly wept when she first heard the news. After making arrangements for her mother, Bess' first act as first lady was to give her condolences to the widowed Eleanor Roosevelt shortly before attending her husband's inauguration. They moved into Blair House on April 16, allowing Eleanor time to vacate the White House, and they occupied the White House on May 7. Bess had only limited social responsibilities during her first months as first lady, as the nation was in the midst of World War II and in mourning of President Roosevelt. She stayed in the White House until the end of the month before making her first return trip to Independence.
After the end of World War II, Bess was responsible for restoring the White House social season, and she organized the White House's receptions and events. She was inspired by the history of the White House and that of the Monroe administration in particular. She chose to host a more limited social season in response to postwar food shortages, replacing large dinners with informal luncheons. She emphasized courteousness and respect for all of her guests, including political opponents and others that she disliked. Bess received about one hundred letters each day, and she spent much time replying to each one. She also maintained some social obligations in Washington society, including regular attendance of luncheons in her honor.
Bess felt great anxiety at public events and wished to avoid being the center of attention. She underwent a humiliating experience a few weeks into her tenure as first lady when she was asked to christen airplanes by striking champagne bottles against them. The first bottle had not been scored to allow for an easy break, causing Bess to ineffectually strike the bottle against the plane's hull several times amid a crowd of spectators and reporters. Harry would tease her about this event, and she would eventually join the family in laughing at the footage.
Bess found the White House's lack of privacy distasteful. As her husband put it later, she was "not especially interested" in the "formalities and pomp or the artificiality" that surrounded the presidential family. Though she steadfastly fulfilled the social obligations of her position, she did only what she thought was necessary. She resisted any changes to her lifestyle, often handling bookkeeping, dusting, and other chores on her own, though she did enjoy having domestic servants. She dressed simply, preferring conservative gowns and suits rather than more elaborate dresses. When the White House was rebuilt during Harry's second term, the family lived in Blair House and kept their social life to a minimum. The responsibility of finding new venues for larger events fell to Bess.
Press relations
The contrast with Bess's activist predecessor Eleanor Roosevelt was considerable. Unlike Roosevelt, Bess held only one press conference after many requests from the media. Inquiries to the first lady consisted of written questions in advance and the written replies were mostly monosyllabic along with many no comments. When asked why she did not want to give press conferences she replied "I am not the one who is elected. I have nothing to say to the public." Bess did not support advancing women's role in politics, and she believed that there would never be a woman president. She is quoted as saying that a woman's role in public is to "sit beside her husband, be silent, and make sure her hat is on straight". Bess's response to whether she wanted her daughter Margaret to become president was "most definitely not." Her reply to what she wanted to do after her husband left office was "return to Independence".
Bess maintained a limited association with women journalists on the advice of her husband's press secretary, but she did not provide them with information. She did allow reporters to have mimeographed copies of her schedule, becoming the first first lady to do so. Part of the reason for her reclusive behavior may have been a fear that her father's suicide would be publicized, though it would not be public knowledge until after her death. Press briefings would often be given on Bess' behalf by her social secretary Edith Benham Helm and personal secretary Reathel Odum. Her limited interaction with the media surprised many journalists that had grown accustomed to regular coverage of her predecessor. Others approved of her behavior, feeling that her predecessor had overstepped in the role of first lady.
Political influence
Privately, Bess was an unofficial advisor to her husband. She never told him what to do as president, but she often offered her opinion on matters he was unsure of. Bess would also assist Harry with his speeches, including his speech on the Truman Doctrine. In addition to speeches, Bess reviewed and commented on Harry's work at the end of every day, and played an influential role in his 1948 campaign. Harry would later say that he asked her input on major issues, including the Marshall Plan and entry into the Korean War. Many of Bess' ideas became government initiatives, including the use of theatrical companies abroad to improve foreign relations and the involvement of the National Institutes of Health in an effort to combat disease. She was also the one to suggest appointing Charlie Ross as the White House Press Secretary.
Bess was involved with a controversy while she was first lady in attending a reception for the Daughters of the American Revolution. The organization had refused to allow Hazel Scott, a black pianist, to perform at DAR Constitution Hall, and Bess' attendance was seen as an endorsement of this stance. Scott's husband, Representative Adam Clayton Powell, was banned from the White House after calling Bess the "Last Lady of the Land". Bess caused a similar controversy when she attended a play at George Washington University despite an ongoing protest of the ban on black audience members. Bess felt that a first lady's actions should not address political issues, and she considered her personal time to be entirely separate from her political role. She was upset with being compared to segregationists, furthering her resolve to avoid the public for the rest of her husband's presidency.
As First Lady, Bess served as Honorary President of the Girl Scouts, the Woman's National Democratic Club, and the Washington Animal Rescue League. She was Honorary Chairman of the American Red Cross. She worked with various organizations, but she never adopted a group or cause to focus on, as many First Ladies do. She was active in her husband's reelection campaign in 1948, traveling the country with Harry in a whistle-stop train tour in which he introduced her to crowds as his "Boss". Her presence, along with that of her daughter, contributed to Harry's image as a family man. She also sat in on and contributed to meetings among his advisors. Four years later, when Harry was uncertain about another reelection campaign, Bess' desire to return home was a major factor in his decision not to run. When Harry announced that he would not run for reelection in 1952, one of Bess' friends described her as trying not to show how gleeful she was. After her retirement, however, she would say that she enjoyed the culture and political happenings of Washington.
Personal life
Despite criticism of her regular absences from Washington, she spent a significant amount of time as first lady in Independence. Bess allowed her daughter to fulfill the social responsibilities of the first lady during her absences. Even when she was in Washington, most of her time was dedicated to her family. She continued to care for her mother until the latter's death in 1952. When Bess was in Washington, she held a weekly Spanish language class for her and her local friends. She also hosted her bridge club from home in Independence, bringing them out to the White House and leading them on a tour of Washington.
During the first months of her husband's presidency, Bess felt neglected. She made Harry aware of these feelings, but his schedule prevented them from spending as much time together as they were accustomed to. This caused a great argument between the couple in December 1945 after Harry arrived for Christmas. After returning to Washington, he wrote her a harshly worded letter only to call Margaret and have her burn it before Bess could read it. The couple reconciled after this incident, and Harry ensured that she had an increased role in his administration. White House staff and visitors often described the Trumans as a close family. Their close relationship as a family was apparent such that the staff affectionately dubbed Harry, Bess, and Margaret the "Three Musketeers".
Later life
After leaving the White House in 1953, the Trumans went back to Independence and the family home at 219 North Delaware Street, where the former president worked on building his library and writing his memoirs. Upon arriving home, they were met with a large crowd of admirers, which Bess thoroughly enjoyed. In 1955, the Trumans went on vacation at a resort owned by Edwin W. Pauley in Coconut Island, Hawaii. That summer, they went on a road trip across the continental United States, but they were impeded by the attention they received everywhere they went.
The Trumans toured Europe in 1956 and again in 1958. Bess fully recovered following a 1959 mastectomy in which doctors removed a large, but benign, tumor. The Trumans made their first return to the White House in 1961 on the invitation of the Kennedys. When President Lyndon Johnson signed Medicare into law in 1965, the Trumans were the first senior citizens to receive Medicare cards, presented to them by Johnson at the Truman Library. At the time of her husband's death in December 1972, at age 88, she was 87, making them the oldest couple to have occupied the White House up to that time.
Bess was dismayed in the 1972 presidential election, as she opposed the left-wing policies of 1972 presidential candidate George McGovern, and she felt that Thomas Eagleton had been unfairly treated when he was removed from the 1972 Democratic ticket. She agreed to be the honorary chairman of Eagleton's Senate reelection campaign in 1974, and she held a similar position for James W. Symington in 1976. She also supported Congressional candidate Ike Skelton due to the close relations of their families. While Harry's presidency had been heavily scrutinized after leaving office, Bess lived long enough to see a historical reassessment in the 1970s that portrayed him in a more positive light. Jimmy Carter sought her endorsement in the 1980 presidential election, though he did not receive it.
Bess continued to live quietly in Independence for the last decade of her life, being visited by her daughter and grandchildren. She received many visitors in Independence, sometimes upwards of a hundred in one week, and she often demonstrated a keen memory for names and details about people she had met in the past. Arthritis necessitated that she use a wheelchair in her final years, and she continued in her less active hobbies, reading mystery novels and closely following the Kansas City Royals. She would also reread an old love letter from her husband every day.
Bess died on October 18, 1982, from congestive heart failure at the age of 97, and a private funeral service was held on October 21. Afterwards, she was buried beside her husband in the courtyard of the Harry S. Truman Library in Independence, Missouri. She remains the longest-lived first lady in United States history at 97, followed by Rosalynn Carter at 96, Nancy Reagan and Lady Bird Johnson at 94, Betty Ford at 93, and Barbara Bush at 92. Truman is also the longest lived second lady in United States history.
Legacy
Truman kept a low profile during her tenure as first lady, and commentators often emphasized how little was known about her. Many contemporary reports about her contained inaccuracies and misrepresentations based on the very little that reporters could glean. Her refusal to discuss her political beliefs led the public to believe that she had no strong opinions of her own.Bess destroyed many of her own letters after leaving the White House with the intention of making historical analysis of her life more difficult. Most of her surviving correspondences are those that were preserved by her daughter. She made only one television appearance, also on the initiative of her daughter. Much of the historic record about Bess is derived from a biography written by her daughter and letters written to her by Harry. For this reason, historical analysis of Bess Truman varies considerably. Siena Research Institute polling ranked her as the 11th best out of 37 first ladies in 1993, but its subsequent edition in 2003 ranked her as 20th best out of 38.
She was often contrasted with her predecessor, Eleanor Roosevelt. While Roosevelt was active in politics and an influential public figure, Bess' influence was largely felt behind the scenes at the White House. She would chide her husband when he lost his temper, to the point where her "you didn't have to say that" became an inside joke among the White House staff. Bess was popular among the staff, with whom she enjoyed friendly relations in contrast to her shy personality in public. Her input may have influenced her husband's decision making, but the extent of her role is lost to history.
See also
Bibliography of United States presidential spouses and first ladies
References
Further reading
External links
Bess Truman at C-SPAN's First Ladies: Influence & Image
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florence%20Harding
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Florence Harding
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Florence Mabel Harding (née Kling; August 15, 1860 – November 21, 1924) was the first lady of the United States from 1921 until her husband's death in 1923 as the wife of President Warren G. Harding.
In 1880, Florence married Henry De Wolfe and they had a son, Marshall. After divorcing DeWolfe in 1886, she married Harding who was five years younger than she, in 1891. Harding was then a newspaper publisher in Marion, Ohio, and she became the acknowledged brains behind the business. Known as The Duchess, Florence Harding adapted well to the White House, where she gave notably elegant parties.
Early life
She was born Florence Mabel Kling above her father's hardware store at 126 South Main Street in Marion, Ohio, on August 15, 1860. Florence was the eldest of three children of Amos Kling, a prominent Marion accountant and businessman of German descent, and Louisa Bouton Kling, whose French Huguenot ancestors had fled religious persecution. Her younger brothers were Clifford, born in 1861, and Vetallis, born in 1864. Florence attended school at Union School beginning in 1866 and studied the classics. Her father prospered as a banker and was a stockholder in the Columbus & Toledo Railroad, President of the Agricultural Society, and member of the school board. Florence developed a passion for horses early in life and participated in several horse races. Her father trained her in several business skills such as banking, real estate, and farm management.
Aiming to become a concert pianist, Florence began studies at the Cincinnati Conservatory of Music after graduating from high school in 1878. As she recalled, she spent seven hours per day on the piano for three years, once playing until her finger bled. On return trips to Marion, Florence often clashed with her father, who would whip her with a cherry switch. At the age of 19 she eloped with Henry Atherton ("Pete") De Wolfe (4 May 1859, Marion – 8 March 1894, Marion) and they were married in Columbus, Ohio, on January 22, 1880. A record of the issuance of their marriage license was printed in The Marion Star. Florence gave birth to her only child, Marshall Eugene, on September 22, 1880. Her husband worked in a warehouse but alcoholism led him to abandon the family on December 31, 1882. Florence moved in with her friend Carrie Wallace while her mother Louisa financially supported the mother and child. Florence became a piano teacher to provide extra income and enjoyed skating at night. Her estranged husband had attempted to rob a train in 1885, and the pair were divorced in 1886.
Eventually, Amos Kling offered to adopt Marshall but would not provide for his daughter. As a result, Marshall adopted the Kling surname despite not being legally adopted. This freed Florence for other romantic flings, and she soon met Warren Gamaliel Harding, owner of the Marion Star. He was five years younger than she was, and his sister Charity was a student of Florence's. Soon the Marion Star reported on Florence's trips to Yellowstone National Park with her mother and Warren Harding. Harding and Florence became a couple by the summer of 1886. Who was pursuing whom is uncertain, depending on who later told the story of their romance.
Marriage to Harding
In 1890, Florence became engaged to Warren Harding. They married on July 8, 1891, opposed by her father, who thought Warren Harding was using her to climb the social ladder and had a wealthier suitor in mind for his daughter. He repeated a rumor that Harding had Black ancestry and threatened to shoot the young man at the courthouse. After the wedding, which Florence's mother secretly attended, the couple embarked on a honeymoon tour of Chicago, St. Paul, Yellowstone, and the Great Lakes. The new Mrs. Harding made the unconventional decision not to wear a wedding ring. Warren referred to her as "the boss", while she affectionately called him "Sonny."
Newspaper leadership
They had no children of their own, but Florence's son Marshall lived with them intermittently and received encouragement from Warren to work in journalism. When her husband entered the Battle Creek Sanitarium for depression in January 1894, Florence became the informal business manager of the Marion Star although she never had any official role, immediately demonstrating both the talent and the character to run a newspaper. She organized a circulation department, improved distribution, trained the newsboys, and purchased equipment at keen prices. Her newsboys became known as "Mrs. Harding's boys" throughout the town, and she alternatively gave out awards for achievement and doled out physical punishment. Some Marion children began to fear Florence for paddling the boys in the street. One of the newsboys, Norman Thomas, later the Socialist presidential candidate, declared that Warren was the front-man, but Florence was the real driving power of the Marion Star.
Warren returned to work on the Star in December 1894 though Florence continued to nurse him at home. After the Spanish–American War broke out in 1898, Florence was instrumental in developing the first wire report. Although she never wrote any articles, she did suggest stories based on leads she had, particularly stories to appeal to women. She hired the first woman reporter in Ohio, Jane Dixon, and supported her when there was a backlash from the people of Marion. Through Florence's leadership, the Star prospered and increased its revenue. She also knew about the machinery of the newspaper plant and how to fix it. Though Warren was not particularly supportive of women's rights at the time, belittling rallies for temperance, he greatly appreciated his wife's help at the office and respected her frank opinions. Florence wrote of her husband, "he does well when he listens to me and poorly when he does not."
Florence encouraged her husband in his first political run for the state senate in 1899. She managed the finances and fended off unsurprising objections from her father, who enlisted Mark Hanna for help, though Warren was ultimately elected. Florence observed the legislature from the balcony and frequently made trips to newspaper offices to win her husband's good coverage and observe their operations. She also began her custom of consulting with an astrologer during this first stint in Columbus. Encouraging her husband to be pragmatic and not to alienate anyone, he was reelected in 1901. In 1903, he was elected lieutenant governor. Journalist Mark Sullivan wrote of Florence, "As a wife, she had that particular kind of eagerness to make good which, in a personality that is at once superficial and unsure of itself, sometimes manifests itself in too strenuous activity, a too steady staying on the job."
1905 kidney ailment and emergency surgery
In February 1905, Florence needed emergency surgery for nephroptosis ('floating kidney') and was initially treated by a homoeopathic doctor Charles E. Sawyer. His close links with the Harding family, and Florence's total trust and dependence on him, would later prove controversial. Sawyer referred Florence to Dr. Jamez Fairchild Baldwin, who "wired" the kidney in place and did not remove it due to heart damage that she had already suffered. Confined to a hospital bed for weeks, Florence later stated this experience made her more empathetic for hospital patients.
Husband's adultery, Florence's view of women's rights
During her convalescence, Warren began an affair with a close friend of hers, Carrie Phillips, who had recently lost a child. Florence did not find out until she intercepted a letter between the two in 1911, which led her to consider divorce, though she never pursued it. Apparently, she considered herself too invested in her husband's career to leave him, though her discovery of the affair did not end it. It was one of several adulterous escapades that Warren embarked upon, of which Florence found herself increasingly resigned though she expressed her disapproval. She tried to discourage the affairs by sticking by her husband's side at all times. Florence never spoke to Carrie Phillips again, and only acknowledged her in bitter attacks.
Warren and Florence left for a trip to Europe in August 1911. During her stay in England, Florence began to sympathize with women leading protests and became an ardent suffragette. When she returned to America, she went to a rally for women's right to vote in Columbus. Despite her feelings on the matter, Florence remained silent on women's suffrage during the 1912 election. She continued to be treated by Dr. Sawyer at his new White Oaks Sanitarium for various ailments and deepened her study of astrology. Florence also gave her husband advice on his political chances, discouraging a run for governor in 1912. Instead, she had her sights set on Washington, D.C., and Warren broadened his national reputation by very publicly supporting William Howard Taft at the Republican convention. After Taft was defeated by Woodrow Wilson in the election, Warren sought solace by writing poetry to Carrie Phillips.
Inheritance, further health problems, Warren's election as Senator
On October 20, 1913, Florence's father passed away. Despite their strained relationship, his daughter received $35,000 and valuable real estate in the will. Florence had her own health problems, suffering a serious kidney attack in the winter of 1913 and went to live at the White Oaks Sanitarium. Dr. Sawyer feared that Florence would not survive the year, but his patient managed to recover. In spite of her ill health, she encouraged her husband to run for Senate in 1914 and resolved to be part of the campaign. She limited her role to advisory management and persuaded her husband to ignore pressures to have anti-Catholic remarks against the Democratic opponent, Timothy Hogan. With her assistance, Warren won the Senate election by 102,000 votes.
Death of son, depression, animal rights
Florence's son Marshall died on January 1, 1915, of tuberculosis. She made a trip to Colorado later in the year to pay his debts and ended up becoming friends with some of his associates and wife Esther. Along with her husband, she travelled to California and Hawaii before settling into life in Washington, D.C. as the wife of a senator. After returning from Marion, Florence decided to rent a house in the Kalorama neighborhood of D.C. In January 1916, Florence suffered from heart palpitations, and she called Dr. Sawyer to help with her mental health. To cope with a growing depression, she helped furnish the new house and hired staff for assistance. Florence helped her husband with his correspondence and invited press attention. Despite her stand on suffrage, she could not persuade Warren in 1916 to make up his mind, as he preferred partisan leadership.
Florence became active in animal rights and joined the Animal Rescue League, Humane Society, and ASPCA. She spoke out against animal cruelty and gave freely of its literature to friends. In a brief autobiography in 1916, she mentioned her fondness for horses and concern about their abuse. Florence did not like automobiles, but relented when making frequent trips back to Marion. In Washington D.C., Florence struck up a fast and lasting friendship with the mining heiress and socialite Evalyn Walsh McLean, frequently playing bridge and visiting movie theaters. As a result, Warren wrote to Dr. Sawyer in April 1917, "Mrs. Harding is well and looking better than she has for three or four years.
World War I
After the U.S. entered World War I, Florence occupied herself in working toward a victory. She helped Ohio women who moved to Washington, D.C. for jobs find housing, and helped Lou Hoover set up dining and recreation spaces for the female workers. Florence frequently visited nurseries and daycare centers to assist mothers who had to work during the day. Alongside other political spouses, she handed out tin cups of coffee and sandwiches to soldiers departing from Union Station. Florence also volunteered at the Walter Reed Hospital, and found a sense of satisfaction in this work missing from her heretofore existence. She worked with other Senate wives to create a Red Cross Unit and produce clothing for soldiers on the battlefield. In order to better monitor the events on the front, Florence avidly read several newspapers and learned the pronunciation of foreign towns and locations.
Warren continued his affair with Carrie Phillips, alongside other women like the young Nan Britton, despite the suspicion that Phillips was a German spy. This proved to be untrue, though she did have sympathies with the German cause. Florence found out about this fact, perhaps being told by her husband, and reacted with rage. During the summer of 1918, while greeting soldiers leaving from the Marion train station, Florence spotted Phillips complaining about the futility of sending men to fight. Florence approached her and got into a heated argument, publicly rebuking her in front of many onlookers. Despite this public display of his wife's temper, Warren soon after sent Carrie love letters proclaiming his devotion, albeit with the caveat that a divorce from Florence was not feasible.
In November 1918, Florence's kidney swelled to ten times its regular size. This was perhaps her worst attack since 1905 and left her bedridden for weeks. She was treated by Dr. Sawyer's son Carl, who had been stationed at Camp Meade (now Fort Meade). Warren stayed at her side until it was clear she was feeling better. By March 1919 Florence had recovered enough to attend events at Evalyn's house while her husband golfed. Florence was in attendance at the Senate on July 10 when President Wilson requested America join the League of Nations, an idea she opposed. During the summer, her husband began to be mentioned as a potential presidential candidate, which Florence was initially not happy with since she thought he didn't have enough of a national reputation.
Warren Harding's election as president
By 1920, Warren was a contender for the Republican presidential nomination, though not a front-runner. Florence gave him tentative support, apparently influenced by a Washington clairvoyant 'Madame Marcia' Champrey, who correctly forecast that Warren would become president, but added that he would die in office. Florence took a more active role at the Republican convention than most candidates wives and curried favor with journalists, who liked to record her often colorful remarks. She lobbied delegates to consider her husband after the convention became deadlocked, and he eventually became the nominee. Warren largely conducted a front porch campaign, and Florence had control of whom her husband met inside the house. She was very precise with her appointments for her husband and telephoned campaign managers if he was late. She set off a waffle craze after The New York Times reported her eating a waffle at breakfast, and guests asked to be served it during their visit. The election was overshadowed by attempted extortion by Carrie Phillips, threatening to reveal Warren's adultery. However, Florence's newspaper experience gave her an advantage over other candidates' wives; as Henry DeWolfe was dead, she was able to deflect press inquiries about her first marriage by implying that she had been widowed. In addition, she instructed the campaign not to respond to allegations of Warren's partial black ancestry. Florence also earned the approval of ex-President Taft.
On election night, Warren received 404 electoral votes, defeating Democratic challenger James M. Cox who received 127. In the celebration, a mob of supporters lifted Florence on their shoulders. She seemed not particularly enthusiastic about the prospect of becoming the first lady, telling a friend "I don't feel any too confident, I can tell you. I haven't any doubt about him, but I'm not so sure of myself." Following the election, departing First Lady Edith Wilson invited Florence to the White House for a tour of her future home. Florence accepted, provided her friend Evalyn, who was previously very critical of the Wilsons, was invited as well. After a disagreement over tea, Edith had her housekeeper give the tour.
First Lady
Style and political influence
On March 4, 1921, Warren G. Harding was inaugurated as president and Florence Harding became first lady, immediately taking an active role in national politics. At times, she appeared to dominate the President; Florence even had a strong influence on her husband's selection of cabinet members, in particular favoring Charles R. Forbes as director of the Veterans Bureau and Andrew Mellon as treasury secretary. She approved of the selection of Charles Evans Hughes as secretary of state though privately thought Elihu Root would be a better choice. At the inauguration, observers believed that she was prompting her husband with a speech she had written, as there were several references to women's new role in American political life. Florence ensured that everyone who worked for the campaign in Marion was invited to the inauguration, and asked that a woman who fainted in the crowds be helped. Secret service agent Harry L. Barker was assigned to protect Florence, making her the first wife of a president to have her own agent. The two developed a close, trusting partnership with each other.
After Warren addressed the Senate, Florence asked her husband, "Well, Warren Harding, I have got you the Presidency. What are you going to do with it?" He replied, "May God help me, for I need it." In Warren's first pronouncement as president, he ordered that the gates of the White House be opened to the public as per Florence's wishes. The move was praised by the press, with an announcement that tourists could come to the property in the following week. Florence told a senator that she was aiming to become the most successful first lady in history. By the time the White House opened to the public, Florence offered to act as tour guide herself. Many different groups and individuals came to meet her, ranging from Bill Tilden to Albert Einstein.
Florence read mail after breakfast and wrote invitations for social events. She was the first first lady to send original responses to the many letters received. She would often stand at the south portico to have her photograph taken with large groups. The New York Tribune praised her as being "far more generous receiving special groups at the White House than were her predecessors." She obsessed over her appearance but insisted she hated clothes. By wearing long skirts, she was somewhat out of style with the new fad being flapper dresses, but Florence remarked that she had no right to dictate how short the skirts should be. In addition, she launched new fashions like the silk black neckband, which became known as "Flossie Clings" after her maiden name. She carried small bouquets of blue-violet flowers to complement her blue eyes. Despite her emphasis on fashion, Florence was economical elsewhere in the White House budget, which was highly praised in the wake of the 1921 recession.
As a White House hostess, Florence presided over elegant parties that often had several thousand guests where her husband would refer to her as The Duchess. These parties were largely a continuation of the front porch campaign, and she also had dinner parties on the presidential yacht. Florence relished in her role as White House tour guide, learning about the history of the property from books and displaying a portrait of Sarah Yorke Jackson. Despite her growing popularity with the public, high society largely shunned Florence and favored Second Lady Grace Coolidge, with whom Florence had an uneasy relationship. The couple's dog Laddie Boy was a hit though, sparking a craze for Airedale terriers.
Florence became the first first lady since Frances Cleveland whose face was so recognizable to the public, as she frequently appeared in newsreel footage alongside Warren unveiling statues, attending baseball games, and dedicating the Lincoln Memorial. Several flowers were named in her honor, and the composer David S. Ireland wrote a song called "Flo from Ohio." Due to the popular interest in psychoanalysis, some psychological profiles were written of her in newspapers. The First Couple increased their popularity by attending movie screenings and meeting actors, who were previously seen as vulgar by high society. Al Jolson was a frequent guest, and Florence gave D.W. Griffith a tour and lunch at the White House. Florence became the first first lady to appear in movies with her signature wave to crowds. Evalyn McLean taught her how to operate a camera and she made some films of women at the Potomac Park Civic Club.
Opposition to smoking, public support for Prohibition
She became known for her opposition to smoking after a photographer captured her holding down the arm of Helen Pratt, who was smoking a cigarette. The Women's Christian Temperance Union urged her to use her influence to advance the antismoking cause, though she politely declined. On the subject of drinking, Florence was an outward proponent of maintaining Prohibition as respect for the law. In private, however, she secretly served alcohol to guests. The frequent guests and parties took its toll on Florence, who wrote, "My days are so full I don't know which way to turn," but added "it's a great life if you don't weaken."
Reliance on Madame Marcia, investigation of Warren's lovers
Florence worked to protect the image of herself and Warren, concealing his drinking, womanizing, and corruption in the cabinet. She insisted on being beside him and once told him to get back to work when he was golfing. She was concerned as to her husband's personal safety, partially because of Madame Marcia's prediction of his early demise. Despite the fact there were no public revelations of her meeting with the psychic since the 1920 campaign, the consultations continued in earnest, and Marcia was even invited to the White House. Florence relied on astrology to determine Warren's personal schedule, a fact that became known to many in his inner circle. She also feared his susceptibility to blackmail since the Carrie Phillips debacle. After returning from Japan in 1921, Phillips visited Warren at the White House, much to the chagrin of Florence. Several other women also received money from the President, and Florence employed Gaston Means to spy on Nan Britton to steal her love letters.
A trip to Alaska which Florence eagerly anticipated was planned for the summer of 1921 but had to be postponed in lieu of the work obligations. Instead, the Hardings took a cruise through New England and periodical motor trips. Florence developed a thrill for fast driving, nearly having an accident at fifty miles an hour when her car veered toward a telephone pole. The Budget Bureau director criticized her for this, which she simply shrugged off. She was an avid theatergoer, particularly comedies and musicals. Warren, on the other hand, preferred to watch strippers.
Views
Florence made her views known on everything from the League of Nations to animal rights, racism, and women's rights. She also moved with the times: flying in planes, showing after-dinner movies. She was the first first lady to vote, operate a movie camera, own a radio, or invite movie stars to the White House. She had a strong concern for immigrant children trapped by bureaucracy, though criticized "hyphenated Americans." She was willing to risk criticism when she championed social issues, and she never lent her name to a cause unless it moved her. Some of her suggestions were rather radical, including the attempt to cure drug addicts through a vegetarian diet. Florence supported the victims of the Armenian genocide and personally funded a child survivor with monthly checks. She was willing to forgo a meal and donate to the Chinese Famine fund, but was critical of American support to aid relief of the 1921 Soviet famine, arguing that Russia should have given up communism before accepting American food and medicine. Likewise, she did not support relief for Irish families as it could be seen as anti-British. Florence opposed vivisection in a public letter and supported the Humane Education Society, though she continued to eat meat. Florence's own special agenda was the welfare of war veterans, whose cause she championed wholeheartedly. She referred to them as "our boys". Since World War I had left many men disfigured and ill, Florence went out of her way to care for the patients at Walter Reed Hospital, seeking to improve ward life. Her efforts led to women's group funding projects at veterans wards which the federal government failed to do.
Women
She lifted the informal ban on "unacceptable women" (usually meaning divorced women) instituted under Theodore Roosevelt. She sparked a small furor by inviting the National Council of Catholic Women to the White House, as liberals disdained their anti-birth control efforts. Florence would not criticize Margaret Sanger's birth control push as she herself had used it earlier in life. Florence hosted a tennis match between Marion Jessup and Molla Mallory. Additionally, she sought to associate with popular female icons of the 1920s. When Madame Curie visited the White House, Florence praised her as an example of a professional achiever and excellent scientist who was also a supportive wife. Florence accepted an inscribed book from the Curies, breaking her informal rule against autographs.
Florence raised public awareness of women who managed household finance. She stated that married women should know something about their husband's work. She agreed to sign on to a pledge to reduce the consumption of sugar when its price became exorbitant. However, she also held some traditional values, such as it being more practical for women to raise families rather than working a regular job. Florence became the president of the Southern Industrial Association, an informal role in an organization that provided education for mountain women. She personally helped a man get a job at a factory after his wife wrote asking for help.
Media
She sought to make herself available to the press, a stark contrast with her predecessor Edith Wilson who denied press access. Florence had more press interviews than all the First Ladies before her combined. She enjoyed talking to journalists she liked, such as Kate Forbes and Jane Dixon. Her press conferences, which started a month after the inauguration, became a regular event, held over four o'clock tea. Although she frequently discussed politics, she did not like being quoted verbatim in the reports. She referred to female reporters as "us girls", owing to her history in running the Marion Star. Although Florence did not believe herself to be a gifted public speaker, she regularly gave impromptu speeches or "little patriotic addresses" to organizations such as the Red Cross and League of Women Voters.
In public, Florence bragged about the President and his accomplishments. But in private, she let her political difference be known. She would frequently express how the Executive should best perform his job and tried to prevent or minimize any mistakes. Florence kept up on the latest political news and knew the details of government better than almost any woman of her era. She sometimes argued with him over the content of his speeches, occasionally shaking a finger at him if she was upset. Once she became upset at a speech that proposed a single presidential term of six years and refused to leave until the clause was omitted. If the discussion ever became too heated, Warren would leave the room to express his irritation, but he never scolded her.
Public officials
Florence had a hand in selecting minor public officials, particularly postmasters. In terms of patronage, she would place party loyalty above personal connections though she did pick several Democrats for the postmaster. Former coworkers at the Marion Star only received her consideration if they had a documented partisan streak. Her authority was respected by politicians from all levels of governance. When she wanted information on someone, Florence used unconventional methods particularly on Herbert Hoover, whom she disliked. She informed Senator Hiram Johnson that his Democratic challenger was a stooge for Hoover, which caused Johnson to send election information to her via Evalyn McLean. In response to the 1921 recession, the government reviewed government agencies in hopes of consolidation, and Florence herself checked budgets and requested a memo from the Marines about the cost of uniforms.
Attorney general Harry M. Daugherty was the Cabinet member with which Florence was the most political. Florence scheduled private citizens to meet with him, and in return, he always complied with her requests. One time she asked Daugherty to look into the case of the Bosko brothers in West Virginia who were convicted of burglary. On closer inspection, the case relied on flimsy evidence including forced confessions, and all three were issued presidential pardons. Florence requested that Daugherty commute a death sentence in Alabama, but he replied that the Justice Department had no jurisdiction in the case. Other Cabinet members obeyed her, with Albert Fall assuring her that the Interior Department would pay immediate attention to any request that she forwarded. Her authority received some ribbing from Life magazine, which depicted "The Chief Executive and Mr. Harding" in a 1922 cartoon.
Race
Both Warren and Florence Harding were relatively progressive on the subject of race, although the President largely toned down his rhetoric when giving speeches in the South. An important exception to this was a speech in Alabama in which he favored equality between the races, while Florence loudly applauded a black band in a parade. Florence fought racism in under-the-radar ways. She pressured her husband to rescind an appointment of Helen Dortch Longstreet to a political position since she favored rule by white men only. In terms of international affairs, Florence was not as active, although she did participate in the International Conference on the Limitation of Armaments from November 1921 to February 1922. She considered her role important in bringing together the various nations in a common understanding. She took part in the burial of "Buddy" in the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, reflecting her longstanding interest in veterans' affairs.
Bomb threat, media attention, husband's continued infidelity
Florence insisted her family spend Christmas 1921 with the McLeans after hearing about a bomb threat against Warren. Bombs intended for the President were found the next day, making Florence appear wise in retrospect. By the end of Harding's first year in office, newspapers wrote assessments of his performance, largely praising Florence's role in the administration. However, negativity against her appeared after a House Appropriations Committee hearing found that the $50,000 budget for the White House had been almost completely spent, largely due to her entertaining so many people and reopening the grounds to tourists. The head groundskeeper estimated that it would cost $3000 to repair the greenhouses due to how many flowers Florence displayed in the White House. Throughout the winter, Florence was eager to join Evalyn in Florida, but when they arrived Warren continued his womanizing publicly, to the chagrin of his wife.
After returning from Florida, the Hardings met the oil tycoon Edward L. Doheny. associated with Interior Secretary Albert Fall. Warren's approval of oil leases to Doheny would result in the Teapot Dome Scandal, and while Harding did not profit from it, Fall did, handsomely. In May 1922, Florence met and became close to a naval doctor, Joel Thompson Boone, who relished his presidential posting. Boone also became acquainted with Dr. Sawyer, who was becoming increasingly unpopular in the veteran's bureau. In July, the Hardings returned to Marion to take part in its centennial celebration. Florence greeted Nan Britton during the festivities, unaware she was carrying on an affair with her husband.
Renewed kidney problems
In August, the President addressed Congress regarding the increasingly economically damaging coal and rail strikes. Florence followed the events of the strikes closely, while Warren drank excessively to deal with the anxiety it brought about in him. Florence instructed her Secret Service agent Harry Barker to keep tabs on her husband, especially if she happened to be away from him. Her discovery of the affair with Nan Britton took its toll on her health. In early September she came down with a serious kidney ailment, and the public was alerted as to the severity of it on September 8 in a medical bulletin. The eminent physician Charles Horace Mayo was called in to treat her, which sparked jealousy from Dr. Sawyer. By the time he arrived, she was suffering from sepsis and was falling in and out of consciousness.
News of Florence's illness sparked an outpouring of support throughout the country. It sparked many editorials in newspapers and a rumor that she had passed, which was dispelled. The gates of the White House were opened to accommodate the thousands of well-wishers who came to pray for Florence. Dr. Mayo insisted that emergency surgery was the only option to save Florence, but Dr. Sawyer disagreed. He eventually gave the option to Florence, who was now lucid and did not favor surgery. By September 11 her condition had worsened that, as she later related, she had a near death experience seeing two figures at the end of her bed. Florence insisted she would not die because her husband needed her. As she fought back from what she called the "Valley of Death", Florence spontaneously relieved an obstruction and required bed care from the nurses. Her condition gradually improved to the point that Dr. Mayo did not feel his service was necessary.
Improved health, support for veterans
A sign of Florence's improving condition was the re-opening of the White House to tourists on October 1. She was informed of Republican losses the day after the midterm elections and was incredulous that several Senators had lost. In her improving condition, Florence continued to campaign for war veterans, starting a "Forget-Me-Not" drive-by purchasing the first flower from her room. She continued to keep tabs on who was entering and exiting the White House, which prompted Warren to use the Friendship estate for his rendezvous with Nan Britton. By Thanksgiving, Florence was well enough to preside over her first dinner since the illness. On December 7 she insisted she meet with Georges Clemenceau, who was having lunch with Warren.
Florence had a session with psychologist Émile Coué to deal with the frustration during her convalescence after being impressed with his writings. Her illness and recovery took its toll on her husband, who did show genuine care for her but also wanted more freedom for himself. Florence declared, "this illness has been a blessing," since it drew the two closer together. Warren read to her in bed about Yellowstone Park, a place to which she longed to return. Florence also placed her complete trust in Dr. Sawyer, whom Warren believed had brought her back to life. In January 1923, Warren took ill and was bedridden for weeks. Florence was responsible for making sure he did not undertake much work during his illness, once sending away an aide who handed the President some papers to review, and brought Warren to bed.
Anger with corrupt officials
After a group of Congressman undertook an investigation of the Veteran's Bureau and Charles Forbes was shown to display criminal behavior rather than simply being a shoddy administrator, Florence was furious. She felt personally betrayed by Forbes and wanted him dismissed at once. Warren, on the other hand, refused to believe Forbes was corrupt, looking for further information. When this information turned out to incriminate him, the President refused to accept it and sent Harry Daugherty away when he rattled off some allegations. Florence eventually persuaded her husband to fire him, after throttling Forbes by the neck. Forbes officially resigned on February 1 from the Veteran's Bureau. His treachery caused Florence to call in Madame Marcia to see who else of her husband's associates might be treacherous. During this period, she increasingly retreated from the public eye, with her only public act being participating in a national fuel curfew in response to shortages.
Resignation of Albert Fall, travels
In early March, shortly before a planned trip to Florida, Florence was informed that Albert Fall was leaving the Interior Department as a Standard Oil agent, and she hastily organized a dinner in his honor. Before accepting the resignation, Warren urged Fall to talk to his wife, but she could not convince him to stay. By March 5, the Hardings and Evalyn took off for Florida. During a stop in Cocoa Beach, Florence met up with her brother Cliff and his family. She enjoyed her stay in Miami, with the city using the Presidential visit as a selling point for developers. Warren continued his run of poor health, especially heart issues, though Florence remained unaware of this. During an interview with a reporter, she mentioned she wished to travel to Alaska to see what could be done to bring its tremendous natural resources to the public. After ten days in Miami, they went first to St. Augustine and then Jacksonville.
Death of Jess Smith
In interviews with reporters, Florence indicated that she wanted to get back to doing things due to her return to health. An example of this was lobbying against the purchase of a property to be used as the vice president's official residence. By the spring of 1923, Florence had learned of Fall's seemingly legal leasing of Teapot Dome to Harry F. Sinclair, whom Florence had recently met. She also became aware of Harding associate Jess Smith's illegal efforts, which was only confirmed during a session with Madame Marcia. After being largely snubbed by Warren and Florence Harding, Smith died of an apparent self-inflicted gunshot wound on May 30.
Despite having recently turned to Harry Daugherty for advice on the management of some of her assets, Florence began to distance herself from him due to the suspicion that he played a part in Smith's death. She also distanced herself from Evalyn somewhat, not visiting her house though she did send flowers and notes. In the midst of Smith's death and its subsequent fallout, the Hardings were planning an exhausting cross-country trip. Warren was to give seventy speeches in major cities throughout the country. The trip was to include Florence's long-anticipated excursion to Alaska. A diversion from the planning was a set of speeches Florence gave to Big Brothers and Sisters and the National Conference of Social Work. During a convention of Shriners in June, Florence played a prominent role, conducting the band in a parade and selling pictures of Laddie Boy for animal rights organizations. Warren gave a speech denouncing hate groups though it was falsely reported by some outlets he had joined the Ku Klux Klan.
Prediction of Warren Harding's death
Warren decided to draw up a new will after the festivities ended. This prompted Florence to have another reading with Madame Marcia, who predicted the President would not live to 1925. Dr. Sawyer assured her that Warren was in excellent physical condition, though an examination by a different doctor revealed heart trouble. Several Senators urged him not to go on the trip. As a precautionary measure, several medical personnel were to follow his every move, per Florence's wishes. After almost a year of being out of the limelight, Florence longed for the adoring crowds she was expecting to meet. Although it was ultimately Warren's decision with regards to the Alaska trip, Florence was determined to go despite the consequences.
Death of Warren Harding
By 1923, both Florence and her husband were suffering from dangerous illnesses, but still undertook a coast-to-coast rail tour, which they called the Voyage of Understanding. Florence proved highly popular at their many scheduled stops, but Warren was visibly ailing. After falling seriously ill while visiting British Columbia, Harding died at the Palace Hotel in San Francisco on August 2, 1923.
On this tour, Warren had been under the care of Charles Sawyer, who is believed to have misdiagnosed the President's condition, and administered stimulants that brought on his fatal heart attack. As Florence did not request an autopsy and also destroyed many of his papers, a controversial theory was put forward in a semi-fictional book The Strange Death of President Harding, claiming that Florence had poisoned her husband. However, this claim was soon debunked.
Widowhood and death
Florence had intended to make a new life in Washington and was planning a tour of Europe. But when her kidney ailment returned, she followed Sawyer's advice and took a cottage in the grounds of his sanitarium in Marion. Her last public appearance was at the local Remembrance Day parade where she stood to salute the veterans. Harding died of renal failure on November 21, 1924, aged 64.
Her grandchildren, George Warren and Eugenia DeWolfe, were the principal heirs to her estate.
Until the completion of the Harding Tomb, Florence's body lay with that of her husband in the common receiving vault at Marion's city cemetery.
References
External links
Florence Harding - National First Ladies' Library
Florence Harding at C-SPAN's First Ladies: Influence & Image
Presentation by Carl Sferrazza Anthony on Florence Harding: The First Lady, the Jazz Age, and the Death of America's Most Scandalous President, June 23, 1998
1860 births
1924 deaths
19th-century American businesswomen
20th-century American women
19th-century American businesspeople
American people of German descent
Anti-vivisectionists
Deaths from kidney failure
First ladies of the United States
Ohio Republicans
People from Marion, Ohio
Harding family
Warren G. Harding
People from Kalorama (Washington, D.C.)
American anti-communists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campus%20Martius
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Campus Martius
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The Campus Martius (Latin for the "Field of Mars", Italian Campo Marzio) was a publicly owned area of ancient Rome about in extent. In the Middle Ages, it was the most populous area of Rome. The IV rione of Rome, Campo Marzio, which covers a smaller section of the original area, bears the same name.
Antiquity
According to Rome's foundation myth, prior to the founding of the city, Rhea Silvia had her twin sons, Romulus and Remus, taken by the King of Alba Longa. The boys were later discarded in the swelling Tiber River, which would later run along the Campus' western boundary. Washing ashore further downriver, the brothers would return decades later to found a new city. Romulus, who became Rome's sole king (after killing his brother Remus), ruled for many years until sometime in the seventh century B.C. As he came to the end of his life, a storm cloud descended upon the center of the open field outside the city's pomerium in order to lift the elderly king to the afterlife.
This land, "between the city and the Tiber", became the property of Rome's last Etruscan king, Tarquinius Superbus. After his defeat and exile, the plain was dedicated to the god Mars. Roman men assembled every spring before heading off to fight the hostile tribes that surrounded Rome, and citizens gathered for important religious festivals. With the exception of a small altar to Mars near the center of the field, no visible changes were made to the field until the fifth century B.C.
In 435 B.C., the Villa Publica was established in a prepared 300-meter clearing. The area was a gathering space for citizens to congregate every five years to be counted in a census, but had no permanent structures; no additions would be made for another two centuries.
With the advent of the Punic Wars in the mid-third century B.C., Roman military expansion moved out of the Italian peninsula, resulting in the reduction of seasonal musters on the field. The number of foreign wars, however, greatly increased the amount of wealth flowing into Rome. Generals who had sworn to various deities to build temples in their honor if victorious used the vast amounts of wealth to fund these construction projects. Besides temples and wooden markets, entertainment venues were built as well, though they were to be temporary.
Starting in the time of Sulla, building lots were sold or granted to influential Romans, and insulae (apartment blocks) and villas encroached on the common land. It later became the place for comitia centuriata, civic meetings with weapons, and for the city's militia. In 55 BC, Pompey constructed a permanent theater, the Theatrum Pompeium, the first stone theater in Rome. When the Curia Hostilia burnt down in 52 BC, the theater was sometimes used as a meeting place for the Senate. The area was also used as the assembling ground for elections. Julius Caesar planned for the Saepta (enclosures used for elections) to be placed there; they were later completed by his heir Augustus (Octavian). In 33 BC, Octavian dedicated the Porticus Octaviae, built from spoils of the Dalmatian War.
During the Augustan period of the early Roman Empire, the area became officially part of the city: Rome was split into 14 regions, and the Campus Martius was divided into the VII Via Lata on the east and the IX Circus Flaminius nearer to the river. The Campus Martius also held the Ara Pacis (Altar of Peace), built by the Senate to mark the establishment of peace by Augustus. It was intended to symbolize the successful completion of Augustus' efforts to stabilize the Empire. Marcus Agrippa had the original swampy ground made into a pool and baths in a setting of parkland and temples, the Laconicum Sudatorium or Baths of Agrippa. Also, he built the Porticus Argonautarum and the Pantheon, which was later rebuilt by Hadrian as it still stands today. In 19 BC, he also completed the Aqua Virgo, to supply water to these new baths and fountains.
In the non-populated northern area was the huge Mausoleum of Augustus. Other buildings that were made were the Theatre of Marcellus, the Temple for Isis (from around the time of Caligula), the baths and bridge by Nero, and Pompey's Theatre, where Julius Caesar was murdered by Marcus Brutus and his allies. After the great fire of 64 A.D. Domitian rebuilt the burnt monuments plus a stadium (eventually to become today's Piazza Navona) and an Odeion (a small performance hall). In 119 A.D, reinforcing the themes of imperial divinity and apotheosis established by Augustus, Hadrian and the succeeding Antonines added a temple to Hadrian's mother-in-law, the Divine Matidia, and a temple to the Divine Hadrian himself built by Antoninus Pius.
As was the case with the first two Flavian and Antonine emperors, the Severans did not commit many resources to construction projects in an already crowded Campus Martius. Their interests lay elsewhere in repairs and commissioning new structures in other regions of the capital. The Campus did not see another major architectural change until the reign of Aurelian.
The citizens of Rome took great pride in knowing that Rome required no fortifications because of the stability brought by the Pax Romana under the protection of the Roman Army. In 270 A.D., however, barbarian tribes flooded across the Germanic frontier and reached northern Italy as the Roman army struggled to stop them. To alleviate the city's vulnerability, the emperor ordered the construction of a 19-kilometer-long, 6- to 8-meter-high brick wall, fortified with defensive turrets, named the Aurelian Walls. Aurelian did not live to see his work completed under his successor Probus, in 276 A.D. With the completion of the walls, the Campus Martius was finally incorporated into the rest of the city.
By the mid-fourth century, when emperor Constantius II visited Rome, now the former capital, many of the pagan temples were closed. Buildings dedicated to Christianity began to occupy their spaces. Some were reduced to supporting material, some were razed, and some were given new roles, such as the Pantheon. In 663 A.D. its bronze roof tiles were removed and replaced with lead, an act that Gregorius said was the result of "excessive avarice and the 'excessive greed for gold.'" In the fifth century, Rome was burned and sacked twice: by the Visigoths in 410 A.D. and by the Vandals in 455 A.D. Three earthquakes racked the city between 408 and 508 A.D, and two floods washed over low-lying spaces in 398 and 411 A.D. Many marble facings and columns were tossed into kilns to be burned into lime powder for reuse.
Writing in the twelfth or thirteenth century, Magister Gregorius, marveled at those edifices in the Field of Mars whose antiquity was clear but whose names were not as certain. Looking down from the heights of one of Rome's hills, he recorded that the great structures had been replaced by a "forest of [medieval] towers". In 1581, French essayist Michel de Montaigne traveled to Rome and noted that "upon the very wrecks of the ancient buildings, as they fall to ruin, the builders set out casually the foundations of new houses, as if these fragments were great masses of rock, firm and trustworthy. It is evident that many of the old streets lie more than thirty feet below the level of those now in existence."
Geography
The Campus Martius was located not in the city proper, but north of the Capitoline Hill. Until the imperial era, most of the region lay outside of the pomerium. The field covered an area of about 250 hectares, or , extending a little more than two kilometres north and south from the Capitoline to the porta Flaminia, and a little less than two kilometers east and west in its widest part, between the Quirinal and the river. It was low, from 10 to 15 metres above the level of the sea in antiquity, now 13 to 20, and from 3 to 8 above that of the Tiber, and of course subject to frequent inundations. Ancient writers say that there were several recognizable natural points, such as an oak grove north of the Tiber Island and the Palus Caprae, in the center of the space.
Significance
In Latin, Campus Martius means "Field of Mars", a god highly considered in the Roman pantheon. Paul W. Jacobs III attributes the significance of Mars to his patronage of both military and agriculture. In the calendar year, March was the month named after Mars: this month first marked the beginning of when the consuls started to work until 153 BC.
The Campus Martius may have been named after the Ara Martis ("Mars' altar"), which was talked about starting in the eighth century BC. It is not known exactly when the Ara Martis was built or when it was destroyed.
The social climate and events surrounding Campus Martius were significant to Roman culture. Livy describes a horse race called the second Equirria, which started on March 14. The winning horse was killed and sacrificed to Mars.
The second event used to support his claim was the Anna Perenna. This event was when the plebs would go out to Campus Martius to eat and drink. The reason why Anna Perenna was important was because she was an ugly hag and she represented the end of a year, and Mars represented the nice beginning of the year.
The last event Jacobs II talks about is the Tubilustrium festival, which purified military instruments to summon the cruciate assemblies. This celebration used to validate the emperors' imperium, but later on the festival validated the consuls imperium.
Architecture
The style and structure of Campus Martius architecture went through several stages of development between the 6th century BC through Late Antiquity. It is virtually impossible to pinpoint exactly when and why these stages occurred, but some historians have sectionalized different periods where Roman architecture faced relatively significant transformation.
Regal Rome and early Republic
Between the mid-6th century BC and the end of the early Republic (324 BC) four “temples” were built. These were Temple of Diana [6th century], Temple of Castor and Pollux [495 BC], Temple of Apollo Sosianus [431 BC] and Temple of Juno Regina [392 BC]. Of these four structures, many view the Temple of Diana (Rome) as semi-legendary since it lacks enough sustainable evidence to prove its existence. The reason these two periods are combined as one is because there is minimal certainty on the structure and style of these temples. The reason for this, out of probability, is because the material used at the time was neither concrete, stone or marble, materials that are sustainable longer term and not only that but over two centuries there is certainly the risk of the destruction of these temples.
Hellenistic Age
After the death of Alexander the Great in 324 BC or the beginning of the "wave of Hellenism" there was a drastic increase in terms building construction within the city of Rome. In the case of Campus Martius, specifically during the "wave of Hellenism", there were seven temples built. These new temples constructed were as follows; Temple of Bellona [296 BC], Temple of Fortuna [293 BC], Temple of Juturna [241 BC], Temple of Hercules [221 BC], Temple of Vulcan [214 BC) and Temple of Fortuna Equestris [173 BC]. The one temple excluded on that prior list is a temple built between 190 BC and 179 BC. It is uncertain if this temple was as Cicero writes, the “Temple of Nymphs”, or as other sources believe the “Temple of the Lares Permarini.
This “period of Hellenism” was the first major step in which the Roman temples, as well as the temples found in Campus Martius were generally made of stone architecture. This new style was in a way, a step up from the simpler early forms, which often appear coarse and bulky in comparison to the aesthetic perfection and refinement of the later structures. This period a transformation occurred from simple experimentation to the strict mathematical complexity of ground plans and superstructures. The Hellenistic Period was not only an expansion in terms of temples numerically within the Campus Martius, but also a stylistic transformation.
Late Republic and early Empire
Similar to the Hellenistic Period, the Late Republic and Early Empire was also a period of several construction projects within the Campus Martius. This period, chronologically, began at the end of the third and final Punic War and lasted until the end of the Julio-Claudian Dynasty in 65 AD. During this period there were six temples built in Campus Martius. They were the Temple of Jupiter Stator [146 BC], the Temple of Feronia [Pre-100 BC], the Temple of Neptunus [97 BC], the Temple of Isis and Serapis [43 BC] and the Temple of Mars Ultor [2 BC]. The one temple excluded from this list is the Temple of Minerva Chalcidica. The reason for this exclusion is because it is unknown whether this temple was built by Pompey in 60 BC or built by Augustus in 29 BC. Certain sources support the belief that Dion Cassius attributes this temple to Augustus: "Temple of Minerva, which was called Chalcidicum”
Unlike the structural and stylistic transformation from Regal Period to the Hellenistic Period the temples in the Campus Martius were rather consistent. The main reason that these two periods are separated is because the motivation or reasoning for building these temples changed. In the past these temples were more commonly than not, an attribute to certain individuals for their past success by fellow patrons, but following the end of the Hellenistic period these temples became more of political instruments than ever before. Instead of being merely genuine and slightly political “donations” that exemplified the successful of individuals, these temples in Campus Martius now were expected to trigger propaganda values whenever large architectural projects took place.
Roman Empire
Alongside Rome, temples built within the Campus Martius faced a “fundamental change in stylistic direction” during the latter half of the first century on. This was a period when the sculptures and linear forms of the classical past was first firmly challenged by the canopied volume of the future. This was a historical period for Roman architecture in that, the catalyst for architects to embrace concrete as a design material or as Nero describes it break free from “the shackles of the classical past”. For possibly the first time Campus Martius and all of Rome faced a period where they moved away from the classical ways of architecture.
Monuments and historical architectural discrepancies
"Horologium Augusti"
Before the 1980s, the reconstruction of the obelisk and its usage were erroneous. Prior to that era, Buchner's paper and reconstruction of the obelisk was blindly believed and deemed as accurate. His reconstruction was arguing that the obelisk with the gnomon on top of it was used as a sundial, using the sun's shadow's reflection to keep track of the hours of the day. Furthermore, Buchner argued that the sundial was integrated into the design of the Ara Pacis in a way that the shadow cast directly onto the altar on Augustus’s birthday. The sundial was also integrated in the design of the Mausoleum of Augustus in such a way which illustrated that the entire complex was a cosmic representation of the Principate and the destiny of Augustus, along with his peaceful reign and death.
In the mid-1980s Schutz and Bandini challenged the erroneous reconstruction. Bandini found several mistakes made by Buchner on interpreting the ancient texts written by Pliny. Pliny referred to a solar meridian, not a sundial. A solar meridian indicates the length of days and nights, therefore reflecting the timing of the solstices. It was used as an instrument to check the congruence of the civil calendar with the solar year. Further archeological findings where a travertine pavement embedded with a line running north to south with Greek lettering in bronze with zodiac signs confirmed Pliny's writing. Also, the fact that the site was measured to be about a meter too high to be considered of Augustan date, therefore indicated that the instrument built under Augustus lost its accuracy and was renovated by Domitian.
Schutz then highlighted some technical failure further refuting the previous reconstruction such as: The erroneous marking of the site where the obelisk lay, the mislabeling of the angles for the relationship between the three monuments and the fact that the gnomon's shadow would cast several football fields away from the obelisk due to the sun's angle.
It is worth noting, however, that even after those findings, the relevance and the cosmic meaning of the obelisk and the two other monuments constructed under Augustus's reign remain right. The importance of Augustus's reign is supported by the evidence that Domitian decided to renovate the instrument and keep it dedicated to Augustus.
The Ara Pacis
The Ara Pacis is an altar that was built during the reign of Augustus; begun in 13 BCE, the monument was dedicated in 9 BCE, on Livia's birthday. Altars were used for sacrifices to Pagan Gods in Ancient Rome. The Ara Pacis represented Augustus' goal to represent the era of peace that came with the end of the Republic and the beginning of the Empire. The south panel depicts a religious process with Augustus, Agrippa, Livia, Tiberius and others of the Augustan family. The message conveyed was that the Augustan family was to stand the test of time and stay. The north panel depicted the senate in a procession. The message was that the senate was with Augustus instead of against him. The east panel depicts Tellus, the Roman Goddess of the earth and Pax. The message was that Roman people were no longer starving, which was consistent with Augustus’ promise of “peace and fertility”, where he gave land to farmers to plant in the fall and harvest in the spring. The west panel depicts the sacrifice of either Aeneas, the founder of Rome or Numa Pompilius the second king of Rome, it is also where the entrance is located.
Architectural significance
The steps leading up to the table on top of the altar represent the ascendence from a public space to a sacred one. Also, the fact that the Ara Pacis did not have a roof or doors and that Gods were depicted looking down from the friezes indicated that the person undertaking vows was looked down upon. When the Senate decreed the building of the Ara Pacis for Augustus, they did not specify any restrictions to the architects. The architects in Ancient Rome used to draw plans with dimensions in proportions and ratios; for instance, the enclosure's size and the number of steps were all specific ratios related to the size of the base. The Ara Pacis’ eclectic art leads us to believe that components might have come from other altars in other provinces most likely salvaged on the troops’ way back to Rome.
Historical discrepancies
Before Andersen's studies, it was assumed that the monument's structure was more or less unchanged between its erection and dedication. Andersen relied on evidence from Ovid's Fasti and the “Calendar of the Feasts” which depicts Augustus as Pontifex Maximus, a status that he achieved in 12 BCE; his return from the provinces as victor was celebrated with a massive feast during which, as depicted by Ovid, a white bull was slaughtered. But such a feast could not have taken place in the “complete” Ara Pacis; the elevated area was much too small for such a large gathering. Andersen makes a point that the feast actually took place on the foundation of the Ara Pacis, which was then called Ara Fortunae Reducis; at that time, this was simply a plinth on a step base.
After Lepidus’ death and Augustus' election as Pontifex Maximus, the building of the complete Ara Pacis began; steps were carved into the plinth, a table was put on top, and friezes were carved onto panels affixed to the walls. Evidence of this historical discrepancy was made evident by Gatti's reconstruction plans, which contrasted with Moretti's in the lack of moldings for the steps.
Augustus' rise to power through building on Campus Martius
A large portion of events occurring on Campus Martius were associated with either Roman military or Roman electoral or political activities. On it, troops trained for war, and successful generals displayed their riches taken from conquered lands, erecting temples and public buildings to impress the Roman populace in order to curry favor in the elections. In the 30s and 20s B.C.E Rome was experiencing unparalleled growth in public building projects sponsored by many different leading men in the Roman State. In Rome, the sponsorship of these public buildings provided special prestige to each of the individual builders and their families. Augustus, however, expanded past receiving simple prestige, in favor of a much more powerful role. Augustus was amongst numerous builders during the time, but by focusing on the construction of buildings to hold political functions, Augustus was able to occupy a central place in Rome's political atmosphere. The first building on Campus Martius to be associated with Augustus was the Saepta Julia, which was designed to manage the crowds at elections and prevent fraud. Voters would gather in the pen space north of the Saepta and enter the structure on its northern end, where they would then cast their ballots. Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa completed the Saepta Julia and dedicated it in honor of Augustus. The Pantheon, which was also built by Agrippa and associated with Augustus, was completed within a year of the Saepta Julia and was used for pre-election functions. Agrippa tried to name the Pantheon after Augustus but was denied, instead he erected a statue of Augustus, Julius Caesar and himself in the porch of the Pantheon, forever associating the Pantheon with Augustus, Julius Caesar and Agrippa. So when the crowds gathered to listen to speeches concerning important political events, they did so in buildings dedicated to Augustus, automatically drawing the connection between Augustus and important Roman politics. All of the sites built specifically to host political activities, meetings of the Senate and both legislative and electoral assemblies, were sponsored by or closely associated with Augustus. The ancient Roman historian Strabo describes the presence Augustus left throughout Campus Martius:
As this series of architectural changes occurred following Augustus’ defeat of Mark Antony, Augustus’ association with the new political buildings furthered his rise to political power and status in Rome. Years of civil war from The Great Roman Civil War (49–45 BC) to the Final War of the Roman Republic (32–30 BC) had left Rome in a state of near lawlessness, but the Republic was not prepared to accept the control of Augustus just yet. At the same time Augustus could not give up his authority without risking further civil wars among other Roman generals, and even if he desired no political position, it was his duty to look after the well-being of Rome and Roman provinces. Augustus’ aims from this point forward was to return Rome to a state a stability and civility by lifting the political pressure imposed on the courts of law and ensuring free elections in name at least. Not only did Augustus return the Senate and popular assemblies to their former role, his new buildings on Campus Martius provided the Senate and assemblies with new political homes, all of which were closely associated with Augustus. By willingly restoring the Roman Senate and popular assemblies to their former role and building several monumental politically focused buildings throughout Campus Martius, Augustus permanently connected himself with Rome's political atmosphere.
Religious buildings
In the Campus Martius, many public monuments had a religious significance, as they were temples to various gods that were absorbed into the Roman culture. One of the biggest monuments is the temple of Mars Ultor (the avenger) dedicated to Mars, the god of War. It is in the Forum Augustum and is Augustus's most ambitious architectural building. The construction started in 30BC and took three decades. The exterior of the temple was constructed using the Italian white Luna marble from Carrara and the columns reflect the Corinthians style. The architecture is strongly influenced by the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus in terms of its dimensions (36 meters wide and its length is 50 meters. It was also a political entity aimed at magnifying Augustus role in avenging Caesar’s assassination.
Some of the most significant temples of the campus are the rectangular temples of Largo di Torre Argentina, located in the southern part of the Campus Martius. It is a religious complex composed of four temples: Temple Juturna, Temple Fortuna Huiusce Diei, Temple Feronia, and Temple Lares Permarini. Those temples demonstrate that religious activity is being spread out across Rome and is not focused on the former religious places of the Capitoline Hill or the Forum Romanum. Art historian Stamper argues that the Largo Argentina has marked the beginning of multiple triumphal processions of successful generals. During the 1st century BC, there was a change from the Ionic style to the Corinthian Order. Acanthus leaves were sculpted on the top of these columns.
Two other important temples are the Temple of Apollo Sosianus and the temple of Bellona. One is associated with the cult of Apollo, and the other one is dedicated to the goddess of war, respectively. Both temples are located in the Circus Flaminius and were built during the 2nd century BC. Bellona's Temple was rebuilt in marble and travertine with six Corinthian columns along the front and nine along the sides
Religious events
The Campus Martius was an area of religious practice. During the Ides of October fall, more specifically the 15th, it was seat of a festival dedicated to Mars takes, the October Horse. This tradition is said to have started during the 6th century B.C. The festival's rituals were supposed to protect the coming year's crop and the soldiers that had returned to Rome after a campaign. This festival was composed of many stages, including horse chariot races and the sacrifice of a horse followed by the decoration of the severed head with leaves.
Another important religious event was the Secular Games (Latin: ludi saeculares). Established during the Roman Republic, the games were resurrected by emperor Claudius when a man named Valesius prayed for a cure for his children's illness and was instructed to sacrifice to the underworld deities. Claudius did this as a way to not only appease the gods after several lightning bolts struck the city of Rome, but to emphasize the birth of a Golden Age. These games were a sort of a rite of passage that were held over several days and nights to mark the end of a new saeculum and the beginning of the next one. A saeculum was supposedly the longest possible length of a human life, either to 100 or 110 years old. The procession started at the Temple of Apollo, near the Circus Flaminius, proceeded into the Forum, passed along to the Vicus Tuscus, Velabrum, through the Forum Boarium, and finally ended at the Temple of Juno Regina. Augustus, when he revived the games, changed the destination of the procession from the Temple of Juno Regina to the Temple of Ceres, which is on the Aventine. The Temple of Apollo that was most likely used was that of Apollo Sosianus, establishing a religious connection between the Aventine and the southwestern Campus.
One of the last events was the Anna Perenna, also celebrated in the Campus Martius during the Ides of March. The people would go out to the Field of Mars for a day of feasting and drinking. According to historian Johannes Lylud, during the festival they also make public and private sacrifice for securing a healthy year.
The Middle Ages
After the barbarian invasions cut the aqueducts, the rapidly dwindling population abandoned the surrounding hills and concentrated in the Campus Martius, depending on the Tiber for water, but subject to its flooding. Since it was next to the river and next to the Vatican, the area became the most populous part of Rome in the Middle Ages. The river supported a thriving economy and a supply of water, and the continuous stream of pilgrims to the city brought wealth to the area.
The main road connecting Rome to the rest of Europe was the Via Cassia, entering Rome through the Porta del Popolo in the northern part of the Campus Martius. Via Cassia became the most important road in medieval times, because it connected Rome with Viterbo, Siena, and Florence.
The other main road to Rome, the Via Aurelia, became unsafe in medieval times with the spread of malaria, because it passed through the unhealthy marshes near several coastal lakes in the Maremma lowlands (as Orbetello lagoon, Capalbio lake, and other Tombolos), and because its route by the sea made it more susceptible to attack from raiders. The coastal towns around Via Aurelia were areas subjected to kidnapping of women and plunder by Muslim Saracen pirates.
Because of the increasing importance of the area, several popes decided to improve its conditions. In the period 1513–1521, Pope Leo X built a route connecting Porta del Popolo to the Vatican. This road was first called the Via Leonina after the pope, later the more famous Via di Ripetta after the name of the river port. To improve the hygiene of the area, several ancient Roman aqueducts were restored to operating condition.
As the population of Rome greatly increased in the Middle Ages, the Campus Martius became a crowded multi-cultural place where many foreigners settled. In 1555, Pope Paul IV designated part of the southern part of the Campus Martius as the ghetto to contain the city's Jewish population.
Modern Rome
After the Renaissance, as was the case for the rest of Rome, the Campus Martius did not change much; there were no other great building projects and the population decreased. This was reversed after Rome became capital of the newly established Kingdom of Italy in 1870.
Later, the area became even more crowded, and protecting embankments were built to stop the flooding of the Tiber. This made the area much safer from threat of water, but the tall embankments effectively destroyed the traditional embarkation point called the Ripetta ("little bank"), the narrow streets leading down to the river, and the vernacular buildings along the river edge.
See also
Champ de Mars (disambiguation)
Field of Mars (disambiguation)
Campus Esquilinus
References
External links
Detailed topographical history of the Campus Martius
Models and maps of the Campus Martius in ancient Rome
Topography of the ancient city of Rome
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edith%20Wilson
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Edith Wilson
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Edith Wilson ( Bolling, formerly Galt; October 15, 1872 – December 28, 1961) was the first lady of the United States from 1915 to 1921 and the second wife of President Woodrow Wilson. She married the widower Wilson in December 1915, during his first term as president. Edith Wilson played an influential role in President Wilson's administration following the severe stroke he suffered in October 1919. For the remainder of her husband's presidency, she managed the office of the president, a role she later described as a "stewardship", and determined which communications and matters of state were important enough to bring to the attention of the bedridden president.
Early life
Edith Bolling was born October 15, 1872, in Wytheville, Virginia, to circuit court judge William Holcombe Bolling and his wife Sarah "Sallie" Spears (née White). Her birthplace, the Bolling Home, is now a museum located in Wytheville's Historic District.
Bolling was a descendant of the first settlers to arrive at the Virginia Colony. Through her father, she was also a descendant of Mataoka, better known as Pocahontas, the daughter of Wahunsenacawh, the paramount weroance of the Powhatan Confederacy. On April 5, 1614, Mataoka (then renamed as "Rebecca" following her conversion to Christianity the previous year) married John Rolfe, the first English settler in Virginia to cultivate tobacco as an export commodity. Their granddaughter, Jane Rolfe, married Robert Bolling, a wealthy slave-owning planter and merchant. John Bolling, the son of Jane Rolfe and Robert Bolling, had six surviving children with his wife, Mary Kennon; each of those children married and had surviving children. Additionally, she was related, either by blood or through marriage, to Thomas Jefferson, Martha Washington, Letitia Tyler and the Harrison family.
Edith was the seventh of eleven children, two of whom died in infancy. The Bollings were some of the oldest members of Virginia's slave-owning, planter elite prior to the American Civil War. After the war ended and slavery abolished, Edith's father turned to the practice of law to support his family. Unable to pay taxes on his extensive properties, and forced to give up the family's plantation seat, William Holcombe Bolling moved to Wytheville, where most of his children were born.
The Bolling household was a large one, and Edith grew up within the confines of a sprawling, extended family. In addition to eight surviving siblings, Edith's grandmothers, aunts and cousins also lived in the Bolling household. Many of the women in Edith's family lost husbands during the war. The Bollings had been staunch supporters of the Confederate States of America, were proud of their Southern planter heritage, and in early childhood, taught Edith in the postCivil War South's narrative of the Lost Cause. As was often the case among the planter elite, the Bollings justified slave ownership, saying that the persons that they owned had been content with their lives as chattel and had little desire for freedom.
Education
Edith had little formal education. While her sisters were enrolled in local schools, Edith was taught how to read and write at home. Her paternal grandmother, Anne Wiggington Bolling, played a large role in her education. Crippled by a spinal cord injury, Grandmother Bolling was confined to bed. Edith had the responsibility to wash her clothing, turn her in bed at night, and look after her 26 canaries.
In turn, Grandmother Bolling oversaw Edith's education, teaching her how to read, write, basic math skills, speak a hybrid language of French and English, make dresses, and instilled in her a tendency to make quick judgments and hold strong opinions, personality traits Edith would exhibit her entire life. William Bolling read classic English literature aloud to his family at night, hired a tutor to teach Edith, and sometimes took her on his travels. The Bolling family attended church regularly, and Edith became a lifelong, practicing Episcopalian.
When Edith was 15, her father enrolled her at Martha Washington College (a precursor of Emory and Henry College), a finishing school for girls in Abingdon, Virginia. William Holcombe Bolling chose it for its excellent music program. Edith proved to be an undisciplined, ill-prepared student. She was miserable there, complaining of the school's austerity: the food was poorly prepared, the rooms too cold, and the daily curriculum excessively rigorous, intimidating, and too strictly regimented. Edith left after only one semester. Two years later, Edith's father enrolled her in Powell's School for Girls in Richmond, Virginia. Years later, Edith noted that her time at Powell's was the happiest time of her life. Unfortunately for Edith, the school closed at the end of the year after the headmaster suffered an accident that cost him his leg. Concerned about the cost of Edith's education, William Bolling refused to pay for any additional schooling, choosing instead to focus on educating her three brothers.
First marriage
While visiting her married sister in Washington, D.C., Edith met Norman Galt (1864–1908), a prominent jeweler of Galt & Bro. The couple married on April 30, 1896, and lived in the capital for the next 12 years. In 1903, she bore a son who lived only for a few days. The difficult birth left her unable to have more children. In January 1908, Norman Galt died unexpectedly at the age of 43. Edith hired a manager to oversee his business, paid off his debts, and with the income left to her by her late husband, toured Europe.
First Lady of the United States
Marriage to Woodrow Wilson
In March 1915, the widow Galt was introduced to recently widowed U.S. President Woodrow Wilson at the White House by Helen Woodrow Bones (1874–1951). Bones was the president's first cousin and served as the official White House hostess after the death of Wilson's wife, Ellen Wilson. Wilson took an instant liking to Galt and proposed soon after meeting her. However, rumors that Wilson had cheated on his wife with Galt threatened the burgeoning relationship.
Lurid gossip that Wilson and Galt had murdered the First Lady further troubled the couple. Distressed at the effect such wild speculation could have on the authenticity of the presidency and respectability of his personal reputation, Wilson suggested that Edith Bolling Galt back out of their engagement. Instead, she insisted on postponing the wedding until the end of the official year of mourning for Ellen Axson Wilson. Wilson married Galt on December 18, 1915, at her home in Washington, D.C. Attended by 40 guests, the groom's pastor, Reverend Dr. James H. Taylor of Central Presbyterian Church, and the bride's, Reverend Dr. Herbert Scott Smith of St. Margaret's Episcopal Church, Washington, D.C., performed the wedding jointly.
Early role as First Lady
As First Lady during World War I, Edith Bolling Wilson observed gasless Sundays, meatless Mondays, and wheatless Wednesdays to set an example for the federal rationing effort. Similarly, she set sheep to graze on the White House lawn rather than use manpower to mow it, and had their wool auctioned off for the benefit of the American Red Cross. Additionally, Edith Wilson became the first First Lady to travel to Europe during her term. She visited Europe with her husband on two separate occasions, in 1918 and 1919, to visit troops and to sign the Treaty of Versailles. During this time, her presence amongst the female royalty of Europe helped to cement America's status as a world power and propelled the position of First Lady to an equivalent standing in international politics.
Though the new First Lady had sound qualifications for the role of hostess, the social aspect of the administration was overshadowed by war in Europe and abandoned after the United States formally entered the conflict in 1917. Edith Wilson submerged her own life in her husband's, trying to keep him fit under tremendous strain, and accompanied him to Europe when the Allies conferred on terms of peace.
Increased role after husband's stroke
Following his attendance at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, Woodrow Wilson returned to the United States to campaign for Senate approval of the peace treaty and the League of Nations Covenant. However, the president suffered a stroke that October which left him bedridden and partially paralyzed. The United States never did ratify the Treaty of Versailles nor join the League of Nations, which had initially been Wilson's concept. At the time, non-interventionist sentiment was strong.
Edith Wilson and others in the President's inner circle (including his physician and a few close friends) hid the true extent of the president's illness and disability from the American public. Edith also took over a number of routine duties and details of the executive branch of the government from the onset of Wilson's illness until he left office almost a year and a half later. From October 1919 to the end of Wilson's term on March 4, 1921, Edith, acting in the role of First Lady and shadow steward, decided who and which communications and matters of state were important enough to bring to the bedridden president. Edith Wilson later wrote: "I studied every paper sent from the different Secretaries or Senators and tried to digest and present in tabloid form the things that, despite my vigilance, had to go to the President. I, myself, never made a single decision regarding the disposition of public affairs. The only decision that was mine was what was important and what was not, and the very important decision of when to present matters to my husband." Edith became the sole communication link between the President and his Cabinet. She required they send her all pressing matters, memos, correspondence, questions, and requests.
Edith took her role very seriously, even successfully pushing for the removal of Secretary of State Robert Lansing after he conducted a series of Cabinet meetings without the President (or Edith herself) present. She also refused to allow the British ambassador, Edward Grey, an opportunity to present his credentials to the president unless Grey dismissed an aide who was known to have made demeaning comments about her. She assisted President Wilson in filling out paperwork, and would often add new notes or suggestions. She was made privy to classified information, and was entrusted with the responsibility of encoding and decoding encrypted messages.
Controversy
In My Memoir, published in 1939, Edith Wilson justified her self-proclaimed role of presidential "steward", arguing that her actions on behalf of Woodrow Wilson's presidency were sanctioned by Wilson's doctors; that they told her to do so for her husband's mental health. Edith Wilson maintained that she was simply a vessel of information for President Wilson; however, others in the White House did not trust her. Some believed that the marriage between Edith and Woodrow was hasty and controversial. Others did not approve of the marriage because they believed that Woodrow and Edith had begun communicating with each other while Woodrow was still married to Ellen Wilson.
In 1921, Joe Tumulty (Wilson's chief of staff) wrote: "No public man ever had a more devoted helpmate, and no wife a husband more dependent upon her sympathetic understanding of his problems ... Mrs. Wilson's strong physical constitution, combined with strength of character and purpose, has sustained her under a strain which must have wrecked most women". In subsequent decades, however, scholars were far more critical in their assessment of Edith Wilson's tenure as First Lady. Phyllis Lee Levin concluded that the effectiveness of Woodrow Wilson's policies was unnecessarily hampered by his wife, "a woman of narrow views and formidable determination". Judith Weaver opined that Edith Wilson underestimated her own role in Wilson's presidency. While she may not have made critical decisions, she did influence both domestic and international policy given her role as presidential gatekeeper. Dr. Howard Markel, a medical historian, has taken issue with Edith Wilson's claim of a benign "stewardship". Markel has opined that Edith Wilson "was, essentially, the nation's chief executive until her husband's second term concluded in March of 1921". While a widow of moderate education for her time, she nevertheless attempted to protect her husband and his legacy, if not the presidency, even if it meant exceeding her role as First Lady. This period of her life was dramatized in the 2021 historical fiction podcast Edith! starring Rosamund Pike.
Later years
Upon leaving the White House in March 1921, Edith and Woodrow Wilson moved into a home on S Street NW in Washington, D.C. There she cared for the former president until his death on February 3, 1924. In subsequent years, she headed the Woman's National Democratic Club's board of governors when the club opened formally in 1924 and published her memoir in 1939.
On December 8, 1941, the day after Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor, President Franklin D. Roosevelt asked Congress to declare war, taking pains to draw a link with Wilson's April 1917 declaration of war. Edith Wilson was present during Roosevelt's address to Congress. On April 14, 1945, she attended Roosevelt's funeral at the White House. She later attended the January 20, 1961, inauguration of President John F. Kennedy.
Edith Wilson died of congestive heart failure on December 28, 1961, at age 89. She was to have been the guest of honor that day at the dedication ceremony for the Woodrow Wilson Bridge across the Potomac River between Maryland and Virginia, on what would have been her husband's 105th birthday. She was buried next to her husband at the Washington National Cathedral.
Legacy
Wilson left her home to the National Trust for Historic Preservation, with a condition that it be made into a museum honoring her husband. The Woodrow Wilson House opened as a museum in 1964. To the Library of Congress, Mrs. Wilson donated first President Wilson's presidential papers in 1939, then his personal library in 1946.
The Edith Bolling Wilson Birthplace Foundation & Museum in Wytheville, Virginia was established in 2008. The foundation has stabilized the first lady's birthplace and childhood home; it had been identified in May 2013 by Preservation Virginia as an Endangered Historic Site. The foundation's programs and exhibits aspire to build public awareness "honoring Mrs. Wilson's name, the contributions she made to this country, the institution of the presidency, and for the example she sets for women." The Foundation shares First Lady Mrs. Wilson's journey "From Wytheville to The White House".
In 2015, a former historic bank building in Wytheville, located on Main Street, was dedicated to the First Lady and bears her name. Adapted as the Bolling Wilson Hotel, it serves Wytheville residents and travelers alike.
References
Bibliography
Caroli, Betty Boyd. First Ladies: From Martha Washington to Michelle Obama. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2010.
Foster, Gaines. Ghosts of the Confederacy: Defeat, the Lost Cause, and the Emergence of the New South, 1865 to 1913. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1988.
Gould, Lewis L. American First Ladies: Their Lives and Their Legacy. Florence, Ky.: Taylor and Francis, 2001.
Hagood, Wesley O. Presidential Sex: From the Founding Fathers to Bill Clinton. Secaucus, N.J.: Carol Pub., 1998.
Hatch, Alden. Edith Bolling Wilson. New York: Dodd, Mead, 1961.
Hazelgrove, William Elliott. Madam President : The Secret Presidency of Edith Wilson. Washington, D.C.: Regency Publishing, 2016.
Klapthor, Margaret Brown and Black, Allida M. The First Ladies. Washington, D.C.: White House Historical Association, 2001.
Kupperman, Karen Ordahl. Indians & English: Facing Off in Early America. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2000.
Kupperman, Karen Ordahl. Settling with the Indians: the Meeting of English and Indian Cultures in America, 1580–1640. New York, NY: Rowman and Littlefield, 1980.
Kupperman, Karen Ordahl. The Atlantic in World History. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2012.
Kupperman, Karen Ordahl. The Jamestown Project. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007.
Markel, Howard. "When a secret president ran the country," PBS News Hour (October 2, 2015)
Miller, Kristie. Ellen and Edith: Woodrow Wilson's First Ladies. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 2010.
Lamb, Brian. Who's Buried in Grant's Tomb?: A Tour of Presidential Gravesites. New York: Public Affairs, 2010.
Levin, Phyllis Lee. Edith and Woodrow: The Wilson White House. New York: Scribner, 2001.
Maynard, W. Barksdale. Woodrow Wilson: Princeton to the Presidency. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2008.
Mayo, Edith. The Smithsonian Book of the First Ladies: Their Lives, Times, and Issues. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1994.
McCallops, James S. Edith Bolling Galt Wilson: The Unintended President. New York: Nova History Publications, 2003.
Nordhult, J.W. Schulte. Woodrow Wilson: A Life for World Peace. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1991.
Phifer, Gregg. Speech Monographs, Vol. 38 Issue 4 (Nov 1971).
Roberts, Rebecca Boggs. Untold Power: The Fascinating Rise and Complex Legacy of First Lady Edith Wilson (2023), scholarly biography excerpt
Robertson, Wyndham. Pocahontas: Alias Matoaka, and Her Descendants through Her Marriage at Jamestown, Virginia, in April 1614, with John Rolph, Gentleman. Richmond, VA: J W Randolph & English, 1887.
Schneider, Dorothy and Schneider, Carl J. First Ladies: A Biographical Dictionary. New York: Facts On File, 2010.
Townshend, Camilla. Pocahontas and the Powhatan Dilemma. New York, NY: Hill and Wang, 2004.
Waldrup, Carole Chandler. Wives of the American Presidents. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 2006.
Weaver, Judith L. "Edith Bolling, Wilson as First Lady: A Study in the Power of Personality, 1919–1920," Presidential Studies Quarterly 15, No. 1 (Winter, 1985), pp. 51–76
Wertheimer, Molly Meijer. Inventing a Voice: The Rhetoric of American First Ladies of the Twentieth Century. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 2004.
Primary sources
Tribble, Edwin. ed. A President in Love : The Courtship Letters of Woodrow Wilson and Edith Bolling Galt. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin, 1981.
Tumulty, Joseph Patrick. Woodrow Wilson as I Know Him. New York, NY:, Doubleday, Page & Co., 1921.
Wilson, Edith Bolling Galt. My Memoir. New York: The Bobbs-Merrill Company, 1939.
Young, Dwight and Johnson, Margaret. Dear First Lady: Letters to the White House: From the Collections of the Library of Congress & National Archives. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic, 2008.
External links
Edith Bolling Wilson Birthplace
Edith Wilson at C-SPAN's First Ladies: Influence & Image
1872 births
1961 deaths
19th-century American women
20th-century American women
American people of English descent
American people of Powhatan descent
Bolling family of Virginia
Burials at Washington National Cathedral
First ladies of the United States
People from Wytheville, Virginia
Woodrow Wilson family
Washington, D.C., Democrats
Virginia Democrats
Writers from Virginia
Rolfe family of Virginia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden%20Gate%20Park
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Golden Gate Park
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Golden Gate Park is an urban park between the Richmond and Sunset districts of San Francisco, United States. It is the largest park in the city, containing , and the third-most visited urban park in the United States, with an estimated 24 million visitors annually.
The creation of a large park in San Francisco was first proposed in the 1860s. In 1865, landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted proposed a park designed with species native to San Francisco. The plan was rejected for a Central Park-style park designed by engineer William Hammond Hall. The park was built atop sand and shore dunes in an unincorporated area known as the Outside Lands. Construction centered on planting trees and non-native grasses to stabilize the dunes that covered three-quarters of the park. The park opened in 1870.
Main attractions include cultural institutions such as the De Young Museum, California Academy of Sciences, and the Japanese Tea Garden; attractions such as the Conservatory of Flowers, the San Francisco Botanical Garden, the Beach Chalet, and the Golden Gate Park windmills; and the National AIDS Memorial Grove. Recreational activities include bicycling, pedal boating, and concerts and events such as Outside Lands music festival and Hardly Strictly Bluegrass. Golden Gate Park is accessible by car and by public transportation.
Golden Gate Park earned the designation of National Historic Landmark and of California Historic Resource in 2004. The park is administered by the San Francisco Recreation & Parks Department, which began in 1871 to oversee the park's development. Golden Gate Park is over three miles () long east to west, and about half a mile () north to south.
History
Development
In the 1860s, San Franciscans felt the need for a spacious public park similar to Central Park, which was then taking shape in New York City. Golden Gate Park was carved out of unpromising sand and shore dunes that were known as the Outside Lands, in an unincorporated area west of San Francisco's then-current borders. In 1865, Frederick Law Olmsted proposed a plan for a park using native species suited for San Francisco's dry climate; however, the proposal was rejected in favor of a Central Park-style park needing extensive irrigation. Conceived ostensibly for recreation, the underlying purpose of the park was housing development and the westward expansion of the city. Field engineer William Hammond Hall prepared a survey and topographic map of the park site in 1870 and became its commissioner in 1871. He was later named California's first state engineer and developed an integrated flood control system for the Sacramento Valley. The park drew its name from the nearby Golden Gate Strait.
The plan and planting were developed by Hall and his assistant, John McLaren, who had apprenticed in Scotland, home of many of the 19th-century's best professional gardeners. John McLaren, when asked by the Park Commission if he could make Golden Gate Park "one of the beauty spots of the world," replied saying, "With your aid gentleman, and God be willing, that I shall do." He also promised that he'd "go out into the country and walk along a stream until he found a farm, and that he'd come back to the garden and recreate what nature had done." The initial plan called for grade separations of transverse roadways through the park, as Frederick Law Olmsted had provided for Central Park, but budget constraints and the positioning of the Arboretum and the Concourse ended the plan. In 1876, the plan was almost replaced by one for a racetrack, favored by "the Big Four" millionaires: Leland Stanford, Mark Hopkins, Collis P. Huntington, and Charles Crocker. Stanford, who was president of the Southern Pacific Railroad, was also one of the owners of the Ocean Railroad Company, which ran from Haight Street across the park to its south border, then out to the beach and north to a point near Cliff House. It was Gus Mooney who claimed land adjacent to the park on Ocean Beach. Many of Mooney's friends also staked claims and built shanties on the beach to sell refreshments to the patrons of the park. Hall resigned, and the remaining park commissioners followed. In 1882 Governor George C. Perkins appointed Frank M. Pixley, founder and editor of The Argonaut, to the board of commissioners of San Francisco's Golden Gate Park. Pixley was adamant that the Mooney's shanties be eliminated, and he found support with the San Francisco Police for park security. Pixley favored Stanford's company by granting a fifty-year lease on the route that closed the park on three sides to competition. The original plan, however, was back on track by 1886, when streetcars delivered over 47,000 people to Golden Gate Park on one weekend afternoon (out of a population of 250,000 in the city).
The first stage of the park's development centered on planting trees in order to stabilize the dunes that covered three-quarters of the park's area. In order to transform the sand dunes into Greenland, John McLaren grew bent grass seeds obtained from France for two years. Once the seeds were grown, he planted them over the sand to hold the ground together. After this success, McLaren was able introduce new species of plants to the land, and is credited to have added over 700 new types of trees to California within the span of one year. By 1875, about 60,000 trees, mostly Eucalyptus globulus, Monterey pine, and Monterey cypress, had been planted. By 1879, that figure more than doubled to 155,000 trees over . Within his lifetime, McLaren is credited to have planted over two million trees within northern California as a whole. Another accomplishment of John McLaren is his creation of an open walking space along the Pacific shoreline on the western boundary of the park. Despite obstacles such as heavy tides and winds that carried sand inland towards the park, McLaren was able to build an esplanade by stacking thousands of tree boughs over the course of 20 years.
When he refused to retire at the customary age of 60 the San Francisco city government was bombarded with letters: when he reached 70, a charter amendment was passed to exempt him from forced retirement. On his 92nd birthday, two thousand San Franciscans attended a testimonial dinner that honored him as San Francisco's number one citizen. He lived in McLaren Lodge in Golden Gate Park until he died in 1943, aged 96. McLaren Avenue, in Sea Cliff, near Lincoln Park is named after him.
In 1903, a pair of Dutch-style windmills were built at the extreme western end of the park. These pumped water throughout the park. The north windmill was restored to its original appearance in 1981 and is adjacent to Queen Wilhelmina tulip garden, a gift of Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands. These are planted with tulip bulbs for winter display and other flowers in appropriate seasons. The Murphy Windmill in the southwest corner of the park was restored in September 2011.
1906 earthquake relief
After the earthquake shook San Francisco in 1906, Golden Gate Park became a site of refuge for many who found themselves without shelter. The undeveloped Outside Lands became a prime location to house these masses of people, and "earthquake shacks" popped up all throughout the area. Of the 26 official homeless encampments in the Golden Gate Park region, 21 were under the control of the United States Army.
The United States Army was able to house 20,000 people in military style encampments, and 16,000 of the 20,000 refugees were living at the Presidio. Within the Presidio were four major encampments including a camp exclusively for Chinese immigrants. Despite being simple lodgings the army organized 3,000 tents into a geometric grid complete with streets and addresses. "The Army constructed a virtual town with large residential barracks [with temporary] tented housing, latrines and bathhouses, laundries, and other services."
Not only was the standard of military organization high, but the social organization was also up to an acceptable standard despite the aftermath of the earthquake and fires. Reports indicate that small communities formed within the tent neighborhoods. The children of the refugees established play areas, and the adults congregated in the mess halls to socialize.
Finally, in June 1906, the Presidio tent camps were shut down. To replace these tents the city of San Francisco built more permanent living quarters. As mentioned earlier these earthquake shacks were built to house those still homeless after the earthquake and subsequent fires. Army Union carpenters built these shacks, and residents paid off the cost of construction at a rate of two dollars a month for twenty-five months.
Early-20th century
During the Great Depression, the San Francisco Parks and Recreation Department ran out of public funds. Thus, the duties of the department were transferred to the Works Progress Administration (WPA), a government program designed to provide employment and community improvements during the economic woes of the 1930s. Within the park, the WPA was responsible for the creation of several features such as the Arboretum, the archery field, and the model yacht club. In addition, the WPA reconstructed 13 miles of roads throughout the park and the built the San Francisco Police Department's horse stables. Another WPA contribution, Anglers Lodge and the adjoining fly casting pools, is still in use today. It is home to the Golden Gate Angling & Casting Club (formerly known as the San Francisco Fly Casting Club). The horseshoe pits were also entirely created by WPA employees. The pits also came with two sculptures, one of a gentleman tossing a horse shoe and one of a white horse (which has since crumbled), both created by artist Jesse S. "Vet" Anderson.
Most of the water used for landscape watering and for various water features is now provided by groundwater from the city's Westside Basin Aquifer. In the 1950s, the use of this effluent during cold weather caused some consternation, with the introduction of artificial detergents but before the advent of modern biodegradable products. These "hard" detergents would cause long-lasting billowing piles of foam to form on the creeks connecting the artificial lakes and could even be blown onto the roads, forming a traffic hazard.
Summer of Love
Golden Gate Park is recognized as the birthplace of the Summer of Love. On January 14, 1967, the Human Be-In was held in the Polo Fields. Organized by artist Michael Bowen, the event was attended by almost 30,000 people. Famous artists such as Gary Snyder and Allen Ginsberg were in attendance, as calls for alternative lifestyles and expanded consciousness reflected the countercultural attitudes of the period. At the event, psychologist Timothy Leary's coined the phrase "Turn on, tune in, drop out." Several months later, Scott McKenzie's "San Francisco (Be Sure to Wear Flowers in Your Hair)" became an anthem for the Summer of Love. The eastern end of the Park was the epicenter of the Summer of Love, with an estimated 100,000 youth visiting the Haight-Ashbury district, where they embraced communal living and counter-establishment values. Hippie Hill was a central meeting place, and renowned artists like Janis Joplin, the Grateful Dead, Jefferson Airplane, and George Harrison performed free concerts there during the Summer of Love.
Recent history
In 1983, Queen Elizabeth II visited Golden Gate Park during a tour of the West Coast. Her stop included a dinner at the De Young Museum, attended by then-President Ronald Reagan, Willie Mays, George Lucas, Joe DiMaggio, and Steve Jobs. About three blocks away from the museum, 5,000 people protested the Queen's visit due to Britain’s role in The Troubles in Northern Ireland. In 2023, the FBI revealed an assassination plot against the Queen during her visit.
Today, Golden Gate Park is one of San Francisco's core attractions, drawing more than 24 million visitors each year. It hosts several annual music and arts festivals, including Outside Lands and Hardly Strictly Bluegrass. Notable Outside Lands headliners have included Radiohead, Paul McCartney, Kendrick Lamar, Elton John, The Weeknd, Billie Eilish, Tyler, the Creator, and SZA.
Following the COVID-19 pandemic, the Park became an epicenter of debate on which public city spaces should be made permanent car-free zones. In 2022, San Francisco residents voted to keep JFK Drive permanently car-free year-round.
Music Concourse area
The Music Concourse is a sunken, oval-shaped open-air plaza originally excavated for the California Midwinter International Exposition of 1894. Its focal point is the Spreckels Temple of Music, also called the "Bandshell," where numerous music performances have been staged. During the fall, spring, and summer seasons, various food trucks are often parked behind the Bandshell, providing local food options to visitors of the Music Concourse. Parkwide bicycle and surrey rentals are also available behind the bandshell and at Haight and Stanyan on the east edge of Golden Gate Park. The area also includes a number of statues of various historic figures, four fountains, and a regular grid array of heavily pollarded trees. Since 2003, the Music Concourse has undergone a series of improvements to include an underground 800-car parking garage and pedestrianization of the plaza itself. It is surrounded by various cultural attractions, including:
De Young Museum
Named after M. H. de Young, the San Francisco newspaper magnate, the De Young Museum is a fine arts museum that was opened in January 1921. Its original building, the Fine Arts Building, was part of the 1894 Midwinter Exposition, of which Mr. de Young was the director. The Fine Arts Building featured several artists, twenty-eight of whom were female. One of these revolutionaries was Helen Hyde, who is featured in the De Young Museum today. Once the fair ended, the Egyptian-styled building remained open "brimful and running over with art." Most of these pieces were paintings and sculptures purchased by De Young himself, and others were donations of household antiques from the older community, which were "more sentimental than artistic." By 1916, the Fine Arts Building's collection had grown to 1,000,000 items, and a more suitable museum was necessary.
Construction to build a new museum began in 1917. With funds donated by De Young, and Louis Mullgardt as head architect, the De Young Museum was completed in 1921 in a "sixteenth century Spanish Renaissance design, with pale salmon colored façades that were burdened with rococo ornamentation." At its center was a 134-foot tower from which its wings extended. At the entrance was the Pool of Enchantment, which consisted of the sculptured Indian boys created by M. Earl Cummings. The museum contained four wings: the East Wing (featuring ever-changing paintings, sculptures and photography by artists such as Vincent Van Gogh); the Central Wing (famous American and European work); the Northeast wing (Asian collections); and the West Wing (artistic history of San Francisco).
The original De Young Memorial Museum stood for most of the twentieth century, until 2001 when it was completely rebuilt, reopening in 2005. The head-architects, Jacques Herzog and Pierre de Meuron, when asked about their design, said they wanted to create a place "where the art would be less hierarchically presented – more like contemporary art than like bijoux." The building is mostly constructed of copper, and its unique design was created with the idea that the "building would be enhanced not only by sunlight but also by San Francisco's constant fog." Since the opening of the De Young in 1921, its galleries have mostly changed, but some of the art originally featured during the fair and in the early twentieth century still exists in the museum today. The galleries of Asian art have since been relocated, but the De Young still features American art, Modern art, African art, textiles and sculptures, and special alternating exhibitions.
Academy of Sciences
The California Academy of Sciences was founded in 1853, just three years after California was made a state, making it the oldest scientific institution in the western United States. Evolutionist Charles Darwin corresponded on the initial organization of the early institution. The original museum consisted of eleven buildings built between 1916 and 1976 located on the former site of the 1894 Midwinter Fair's Mechanical Arts Building in Golden Gate Park. The structure was largely destroyed in the 1989 earthquake and just three of the original buildings were conserved for the new construction: the African Hall, the North American Hall, and the Steinhart Aquarium. The new building opened in 2008 at the same location in the park. The present building encompasses 37,000 square meters and includes exhibits of natural history, aquatic life, astronomy, gems and minerals, and earthquakes.
The academy also contains a 2.5-acre living roof with almost 1.7 million native California plants and domes that cover the planetarium and rainforest exhibitions. The soil of the roof is six inches deep, which reduces storm water runoff by more than 90% and naturally cools the interior of the museum, thereby reducing the need for air-conditioning. The glass panels of the living roof also contain cells that collect more than 5% of the electricity needed to power the museum. Due to its eco-friendly materials and natural sources of energy, the California Academy of Sciences has been named the country's only LEED-platinum certified museum, granted by the U.S. Green Building Council.
Japanese Tea Garden
The Japanese Tea Garden is the oldest public Japanese garden in the United States and occupies five of the 1,017 acres (412 ha) of the Golden Gate Park. It currently stands adjacent to the de Young Museum and is rumored to be the introduction site of the fortune cookie to America.
George Turner Marsh, an Australian immigrant, originally created the garden as a "Japanese Village" exhibit for the 1894 Midwinter Exposition. Following the fair, a handshake agreement with John McLaren would allow Japanese horticulturalist Makoto Hagiwara to take over the garden. Hagiwara would oversee modifications in the garden's transition from a temporary exhibit to a permanent installment within the park. Hagiwara and his family would continue to occupy the garden, maintaining the landscape and design of the garden until 1942.
Hagiwara himself died in 1925, leaving the garden in the hands of his daughter, Takano Hagiwara, and her children. They lived there until 1942, when they were evicted from the gardens and forced into internment camps by way of Executive Order 9066. During World War II, anti-Japanese sentiment led to the renaming of the garden as the "Oriental Tea Garden." After the war, a letter-writing campaign enabled the garden to be formally reinstated as the Japanese Tea Garden in 1952. In January 1953, "a classical Zen garden was added to the Tea Garden" as well as the Lantern of Peace. The Lantern of Peace, weighing 9,000 pounds, was a gift from the Japanese Government as a way to mend the relationship between the U.S. and Japan that was damaged from World War II. In addition, a plaque, designed by Ruth Asawa, now stands at the entrance of the gardens as a tribute meant to honor Hagiwara and his family for their care-taking of the gardens. The garden also still has features such as the Drum Bridge and the Tea House from the Midwinter Exposition.
As is typical among Japanese style tea gardens, the Golden Gate Park's tea garden has its own stepping stone pathways, stone lanterns, and variety of plants. In the mix there are dwarf trees, bamboo, and azaleas adorning the gardens.
The Japanese Tea Garden serves as a spot of tranquility in the middle of the various activities that take place at the Golden Gate Park and provides visitors "a place in which it is possible to be at one with nature, its rhythms, and changing beauties." The Japanese Tea Garden brings in more than $1 million to the Golden Gate Park and the city annually. There is a constant debate whether or not changes should be made to the garden. Adding souvenir shops and a diversity of food options at the garden historically brings in more money to the organization monitoring the Golden Gate Park, the Recreation and Park Commission. Selling products that share knowledge about Japanese gardens and culture also helps maintain the Japanese Tea Garden's authenticity.
Structures and buildings
Conservatory of Flowers
History
The Conservatory of Flowers opened in 1879 and stands today as the oldest building in Golden Gate Park. The Conservatory of Flowers is one of the largest conservatories in the US, as well as one of few large Victorian greenhouses in the United States. Built of traditional wood and glass panes, the Conservatory stands at 12,000 square feet and houses 1,700 species of tropical, rare and aquatic plants. Though it wasn't originally constructed, William Hammond Hall included the idea of a conservatory in his original concept for the design of the park. The idea was later realized with the help of twenty-seven of the wealthiest business owners in San Francisco.
In 1883, a boiler exploded and the main dome caught fire. A restoration was undertaken by Southern Pacific magnate Charles Crocker. It survived the earthquake of 1906, only to suffer another fire in 1918. In 1933 it was declared unsound and closed to the public, only to be reopened in 1946. In 1995, after a severe storm with winds damaged the structure, shattering 40% of the glass, the conservatory had to be closed again. It was cautiously dissected for repairs and finally reopened in September 2003.
Rooms within the Conservatory
The Potted Plants Gallery follows Victorian architecture and the 19th century idea of displaying tropical plants in non-tropical parts of the world.
The Lowlands Gallery contains plants from the tropics of South America (near the equator).
The Highlands Gallery contains native plants from South to Central America.
The Aquatic Plants room is similar in conditions as those near the Amazon River.
Beach Chalet
The two-story Beach Chalet faces the Great Highway and Ocean Beach at the far western end of the park. It contains two restaurants and murals from the 1930s.
Windmills
Before the construction of its windmills, Golden Gate Park paid the Spring Valley Water Works up to 40 cents per 1000 gallons of water. To avoid this expense the North (Dutch) Windmill was commissioned in 1902 when Superintendent John McLaren deemed the park's pumping plant insufficient to supply the additional water essential to the life of the park. A survey and inspection of the vast area west of Strawberry Hill revealed a large flow of water toward the ocean. The North windmill was constructed to reclaim the drainage towards the Pacific Ocean and direct fresh well water back into the park. Alpheus Bull Jr., a prominent San Franciscan, designed the North Windmill. The Fulton Engineering Company received the bid for the ironwork, and Pope and Talbot Lumber Company donated sails ("spars") of Oregon pine. The North Windmill was installed, standing 75 feet tall with 102-footlong sails. The windmill pumps water an elevation of 200 feet with a capacity of 30,000 gallons of water per pump per hour, supplying and replenishing Lloyd Lake, Metson Lake, Spreckels Lake, and Lincoln Park. The water is pumped from the valley into a reservoir on Strawberry Hill. From there the water runs downhill into Falls and Stow Lake. The North Windmill was successful, causing another system of wells and a second windmill at the southwestern corner of the park to be recommended. Samuel G Murphy provided $20,000 from his own means to erect the windmill. The South Windmill (Murphy Windmill) stands as the largest in the world, having the longest sails in the world since its construction, with the ability to lift 40,000 gallons of water per hour.
Sculpture
A statue of longtime park superintendent John McLaren stands in the Rhododendron Dell. McLaren had this statue hidden and it was only placed in the dell after his death. Other statues of historical figures are also located throughout the park, including Francis Scott Key, Robert Emmet, Robert Burns, the double monument to Johann Goethe and Friedrich Schiller, General Pershing, Beethoven, Giuseppe Verdi, President Garfield, and Thomas Starr King. A bronze statue of Don Quixote and his companion, Sancho Panza kneeling to honor their creator, Cervantes, combines historical and fictitious characters. At the Horseshoe Court in the northeast corner of the park near Fulton and Stanyan, there is a concrete bas-relief of The Horseshoe Pitcher by Jesse "Vet" Anderson, a member of the Horseshoe Club. Across from the Conservatory of Flowers is Douglas Tilden's The Baseball Player.
During the George Floyd protests, on June 19, 2020, demonstrators toppled or otherwise vandalized the statues of Catholic missionary Junípero Serra, Francis Scott Key (author of the lyrics to The Star-Spangled Banner), Ulysses S. Grant, Cervantes, Don Quixote and Sancho Panza. The archbishop of San Francisco, Salvatore Cordileone, described the toppling of the saint's statue as "an act of sacrilege [and] an act of the evil one", and on June 27 performed an exorcism at the site using the Prayer to Saint Michael.
In the northwest corner of the park, near the Beach Chalet, is a monument to explorer Roald Amundsen and the Gjøa, the first vessel to transit the Northwest Passage. Following the expedition, Gjøa was donated to the city in 1906 and put on display for decades near Ocean Beach. After falling into disrepair, Gjøa was returned to Norway in 1972.
Prayer Book Cross
The Prayer Book Cross, also known as Drake's Cross, is a sandstone Celtic-style cross measuring 60 feet tall. Erected by Episcopalians in 1894, it commemorates Sir Francis Drake's first landing on the West Coast in 1579, the first use of the Book of Common Prayer in California and (from the inscription) the "First Christian service in the English tongue on our coast." It is located near Rainbow Falls on Crossover Drive between the John F. Kennedy Promenade and Park Presidio Drive. The cross was meant to be visible to ships at sea but has since been overgrown by trees. A gift of George W. Childs, it was designed by the architectural firm Coxhead & Coxhead of San Francisco.
Carousel
An ornate carousel displaying a bestiary is housed in a circular building near the children's playground. The carousel was built in 1914 by the Herschell-Spillman Company. The building was occupied by three previous carousels before the current attraction was purchased by Herbert Fleishhacker from the Golden Gate International Exposition in 1941. The 1914 carousel has undergone several major renovations, the first, a transition from steam to electric power with the assistance of the PG&E Company. In 1977 the carousel closed for safety concerns and The San Francisco Arts Commission hired local artist Ruby Newman to oversee the artistic restoration. Her crew of craftspeople restored the badly deteriorated carousel and she hand painted all animals, chariots, and decorative housing (she holds the copyright). The carousel was re-opened in 1984. Presently, the carousel includes sixty two animals, a German Band Organ, and painted landscapes of the bay area by Ruby Newman. Two of the animals, a goat and an outside stander horse, are by the Dentzel Wooden Carousel Company.
Encompassing the carousel is the Koret Playground, originally the Children's Quarters, which was envisioned to be a primary feature in the Golden Gate Park's beginnings. Funded by Senator William Sharon, the facility was finished in 1888, and designated a recreational space for children and their mothers. At the time, it was the first public children's playground in the United States; offering swings, indoor enclosures, open sitting areas and the original carousel to community youth. In 2007, the Koret Foundation funded renovations.
Transportation
Public transport
The San Francisco Muni Metro runs along the southern edge of the park. Access to the park on the westbound N Judah line begins at the Carl and Stanyan station, located one block from Kezar Stadium. The line continues along the entirety of the park, and includes access to the California Academy of Sciences and De Young Museum at the 9th Avenue and Irving station; Stow Lake at the Judah and 19th Avenue station; Polo Fields at the Judah and Sunset station; and the Beach Chalet Soccer Fields at the line's western terminus at the Judah and La Playa station.
Various bus routes pass through Golden Gate Park or stop along its boundaries. The 18 bus stops along the Great Highway on the western end of the park. The 5 Fulton runs along the northern boundary of the park along Fulton Street. The 33 Ashbury/18th Street stops along the eastern edge of the park in Haight-Ashbury. The 7 Haight/Noriega also stops in the Haight, running about halfway along the southern end of the park. The 43 Masonic stops near the Pandhandle on the far eastern end of the park. The 44 and 28 both run through the park.
Natural features
San Francisco Botanical Garden at Strybing Arboretum
The San Francisco Botanical Garden was laid out in the 1890s, but funding was insufficient until Helene Strybing willed funds in 1926. Planting began in 1937 with WPA funds supplemented by local donations. This arboretum contains more than 7,500 plant species. The arboretum also houses the Helen Crocker Russell Library, northern California's largest horticultural library.
Due to the unique climate of San Francisco and Golden Gate Park, the plants in the San Francisco Botanical Garden range from a variety of different national origins, some of them no longer existing in their natural habitats. Areas of origin include but are not limited to Africa, Australia, New Zealand, and Central and South America. These regions of origin go from desert to tropical. In addition, some native California species are housed in the garden as well, such as Redwood trees. Overall, the tradition of these diverse gardens that eventually served to inspire the San Francisco Botanical Garden comes originally from China, Europe, and Mexico.
Lakes
Stow Lake surrounds the prominent Strawberry Hill, now an island with an electrically pumped waterfall. The lake was named for W.W. Stow who gave $60,000 for its construction. Strawberry Hills' waterfall was named Huntington Falls after its benefactor Collis P. Huntington. Stow was the first artificial lake constructed in the park and Huntington was the park's first artificial waterfall. The falls are fed by a reservoir located atop Strawberry Hill. Water is pumped into the reservoir from Elk Glen Lake, the South Windmill, wells, and the city's water supply to keep the system of lakes flowing eastward from Stow.
Rowboats and pedalboats can be rented at the boathouse. Much of the western portion of San Francisco can be seen from the top of this hill. The reservoir at its top also supplies a network of high-pressure water mains that exclusively supply specialized fire hydrants throughout the city. The lake itself also serves as a reservoir from which water is pumped to irrigate the rest of the park should other pumps stop operating.
In the past the Hill was also topped by Sweeny Observatory, but the building was ruined by the 1906 earthquake and plans to replace it were not approved by park commissioners.
Two bridges connect the inner island to the surrounding mainland: the Roman Bridge and the Stone (or Rustic) Bridge. The Stone Bridge is a prominent background feature in the 1915 American silent comedy short Wished on Mabel, starring Mabel Normand and Roscoe "Fatty" Arbuckle.
Spreckels Lake
Spreckels Lake is an artificial reservoir behind a small earthen dam that lies on the north side of the Golden Gate Park between Spreckels Lake Drive and Fulton Street to the north, and John F. Kennedy Drive to the south and named after sugar-fortune heir and then San Francisco Parks Commissioner Adolph B. Spreckels. Built between 1902 and 1904 at the request of the San Francisco Model Yacht Club specifically as a model boating facility, the lake was first filled in February 1904 and opened March 20, 1904. One can usually find both 'sail driven,' self-guided Yachts and electric or gas/nitro powered radio-controlled model boats of many types and designs plying the lake's waters most times of year.
Alvord Lake is located at the eastern end of the park near the intersection of Haight and Stanyan streets. It was named for William Alvord, Park Commissioner in the 1870s, and Mayor of San Francisco from 1871 to 1873, who financed its construction in 1882. A few yards west of the lake is the Alvord Lake Bridge, the oldest known reinforced concrete bridge built in the United States.
Elk Glen Lake is the park's deepest ornamental lake, measuring over 6 ft. deep on average. The lake acts as a reservoir for water from the Reclamation Plant before it is pumped to either Stow Lake or the reservoir atop Strawberry Hill.
Mallard Lake is landlocked and not a part of the park's irrigation system.
Metson Lake lies west of Mallard Lake and east of the Chain of Lakes. This body of water has a capacity of over 1.1 million gallons that overflow into South Lake or can be redirected elsewhere for irrigation purposes.
Chain of Lakes
Many naturalistically landscaped lakes are placed throughout the park: several are linked together into chains, with pumped water creating flowing creeks. Out of the original 14 natural marshy lakes within the sand dunes Golden Gate Park was built in, only 5 remain, three of which are the Chain of Lakes. The three lakes, North, Middle, and South Lake, are located along the Chain of Lakes Drive.
North Lake is the largest of the three, and is known for its water birds that often live on the small islands within the lake. Some of the birds spotted are egrets, belted kingfishers, ducks, and great blue herons. It is surrounded by a paved walkway that is often used by families, joggers, and dog walkers.
In 1898, McLaren started a landscaping project, inspired by Andrew Jackson Downing's teachings on building with nature. Seven islands were planted within the North Lake in 1899, using different species of shrubs and trees. A gazebo was built, and wooden footbridges were used to connect the different islands within the lake. Both the gazebo and the bridges were removed in order to conserve nesting birds on the islands.
North Lake is the final of the Chain of Lakes that flow into each other south to north, making it the final destination of the lakes' water pumped in from the Water Reclamation Plant. Should the plant's water not meet the lake's needs the water level is maintained by well water pumped from the North Windmill.
Middle Lake is particularly known for bird-watching due to the visits of migrant species of birds like tanagers, warblers and vireos. It is surrounded by a dirt trail and vegetation. The lake resembles the marshes that existed before Golden Gate Park, and is known for being a more remote and romantic setting.
South Lake is the smallest of the three lakes, and borders Martin Luther King Jr. Drive. This lake is the smallest in the Chain of Lakes. Its water is sourced from either a direct flow from Metson Lake, or by Stow Lake water released by a valve. It does not contribute to irrigation in the park but it does feed into Middle Lake. Its only noteworthy bird population is its ducks.
Bison Paddock
Bison (Bison bison) have been kept in Golden Gate Park since 1891, when a small herd was purchased by the park commission. At the time, the animal's population in North America had dwindled to an all-time low, and San Francisco made a successful effort to breed them in captivity. In 1899, the paddock in the western section of the park was created. At its peak and through a successful captive breeding program, more than 100 calves were produced at Golden Gate Park, helping preserve the iconic bison population numbers in North America, which has been critical to the culture and livelihood of Native Americans.
In 1984, Mayor Dianne Feinstein's husband, Richard C. Blum, purchased a new herd as a birthday present for his wife. The older bison in the paddock today are descendants of this herd.
In December 2011, after the number of bison in the paddock had dwindled to three, Assemblywoman Fiona Ma's office led another preservation effort. With donations from the Theodore Rosen Charitable Foundation, Richard C. Blum, and the Garen Wimer Ranch, Assemblywoman Ma's office worked with the San Francisco Zoo and SF Recreation and Parks to add seven new bison to the existing herd. The paddock is currently open to the public for viewing.
Hippie Hill
Nestled in the trees between the Conservatory of Flowers and Haight Street, Hippie Hill displays a lifestyle unique to San Francisco. East of the Golden Gate Park tennis courts, the green space known as Hippie Hill is a gentle sloping lawn just off of Kezar Drive and overlooking Robin Williams Meadow, with Eucalyptus and Oak on either side. Additionally, the hill contains several uncommon trees: coast banksia, titoki, turpentine, and cow-itch.
Hippie Hill has been a part of San Francisco's history, namely the Summer of Love, in 1967, a large counterculture movement that partially took place on the hill. With its close proximity to Haight Street, the main site of the Summer of Love, the movement often overflowed onto the hill. During this era, people gathered in the area to connect with one another through many activities, including the playing of music, consumption of LSD and marijuana, and expression of hippie ideals. With time, area residents began to complain of the flower children's open sexuality, nude dancing, panhandling, and excess litter.
Through this movement, music became to have its own history on the hill as well. Musicians and bands such as Janis Joplin, the Grateful Dead, Jefferson Airplane, and George Harrison all played free shows for the public near by. Today, improvised drum circles form on the weekends where people come together and fill the hill with a constant beat for hours on end. A space filled with their culture, the hill played a major part in the hippies' ability to openly use drugs and express themselves as the police adopted a policy of looking the other way.
Though the police have been known to crack down on certain occurrences in the park, the SFPD are lenient with activity on the hill. Starting from the Summer of Love when the police were unable to address the enormity of the situation, some activity is overlooked. As supervisor London Breed stated, "smoking anything in any city park is illegal, but San Francisco has a tradition of turning a blind eye to infractions for official or unofficial events." The police department has stated that they are not naïve enough to attempt to catch all the people smoking marijuana on the hill, but as Police Chief Greg Suhr said, "There are plenty of other things that come with it that we will not have."
Plants
A diverse collection of plants, from all over the world, can be found in Golden Gate Park. Acacias, like the Sydney golden wattle from Australia, were some of the first planted in the park by William Hammond Hall to stabilize the sand dunes. They still play that role in the western portion of the park and are common all around the park.
While ninety-six percent of the park is considered not a natural area, four out of the thirty-two San Francisco locations designated as natural areas by the San Francisco Recreation and Park Department's Natural Areas Program are found in Golden Gate Park. These are the Oak Woodlands, the Lily Pond, Strawberry Hill, and Whiskey Hill.
The California live oak is the only tree native to the park. Some of the oldest plants in the park are the coast live oaks in the Oak Woodlands in the northeastern portion of the park which are hundreds of years old. Oaks also grow on Strawberry Hill and in the AIDS Memorial Grove. Acorns from the oak trees were an important food source to Native American groups in San Francisco.
Other than the oak trees, the plants that are currently in the park are non-native, some of which are considered invasive species. Many have disrupted the ecosystem and harm birds, mammals, reptiles, and insects in the park. Volunteers with the Strawberry Hill Butterfly Habitat Restoration Project are removing and replacing invasive plant species to help restore the butterfly population on Strawberry Hill. Under the Significant Natural Resource Areas Management Plan, the city will remove many invasive species and replace them with native plants.
Blue gum eucalyptus, Monterey pine, and Monterey cypress were the most commonly planted trees in the park during the late 1800s. Blue gum continued to grow and spread and is now one of the most important trees found in the park. They can be found near McLaren Lodge, on Hippie Hill, and in a eucalyptus forest near Middle Lake. Monterey pines are also prevalent today and can found in the Strybing Arboretum, the Japanese Tea Garden, and in the western portions of the park around the Buffalo Paddock.
Redwoods were planted in the park during the 1880s and can be found all around the park, most notably in Heroes Grove, Redwood Memorial Grove, AIDS Memorial Grove, Stanyan Meadows, on top of Hippie Hill, and in the Panhandle.
Tree ferns were planted early on by McLaren and continue to thrive in the park. Many can be found in the Tree Fern Dell, near the Conservatory of Flowers, which is made up of mostly Tasmanian tree fern.
Wild animals
In 2013, San Francisco photographer David Cruz shot pictures of coyote pups in Golden Gate Park. It is estimated that over 100 coyotes live in San Francisco, and there have been more sightings in Golden Gate Park than any other spot in the city. Coyotes have proven adaptive in the city, as they live primarily in open prairies and deserts. Mountain lions occasionally roam the park. The first colony of great blue herons to nest in San Francisco was discovered at Stow Lake in Golden Gate Park in 1993 by Nancy DeStefani and has been continuously returning to the park during the breeding season since then. The heronry features in Heron Island (1998), a short documentary directed by filmmaker Judy Irving.
Dedicated areas and memorials
National AIDS Memorial Grove
In the decades following the first reports of AIDS in the United States in 1981, Americans were overwhelmed with the devastation of the AIDS epidemic. In 1988 a few San Francisco residents belonging to communities hit hard by the AIDS epidemic envisioned a place of remembrance for those who had died to AIDS. They imagined a serene AIDS memorial where people could go to heal. Renovation for the National Aids Memorial Grove began in September 1991 and continues today as communities are constantly working to improve it. Located at 856 Stanyan Street, in the eastern portion of Golden Gate Park, the Grove stretches across seven acres of land. In 1996, due to Nancy Pelosi's efforts, the "National AIDS Memorial Grove Act" was passed by Congress and the President of the United States, Bill Clinton, which officially made those seven acres of Golden Gate Park the first AIDS memorial in the United States. Then in 1999, it earned the Rudy Bruner Silver Medal Award for excellence in the urban environment.
Due to its serene environment of redwoods, maples, ferns, benches, logs, and boulders, this memorial remains a place where people go to grieve, hope, heal, and remember. Located at the Dogwood Crescent the Circle of Friends is the heart of the grove. The Circle of Friends has over 1,500 names inscribed on its flagstone ground which represent lives lost to AIDS. If one wishes to inscribe a name into the Circle of Friends they must donate $1,000 to the memorial and the name will be inscribed before the Worlds AIDS day commemoration on December 1. Funded privately and tended by over 500 of volunteers, The National AIDS Memorial Grove remains an important sanctuary for remembrance.
On November 30 an annual Light in the Grove fundraising gala is held in the Grove. This event, held on the eve of Worlds Aids Day, sells out each year and was voted "Best Bay Area LGBT Fundraiser" by Bay Area Reporter readers in 2015.
Shakespeare Garden
The Shakespeare Garden is a relatively small "17th century classical garden" located directly southwest of the California Academy of Sciences. It is a tribute to William Shakespeare and his works, decorated with flowers and plants that are mentioned in his plays. The entrance is an ornate metal gate that says "Shakespeare Garden" intertwined with vines. Directly past the entrance is a walkway overarched with trees and lined with small flowers and a sundial in the center. The main area has a large moss tree and benches. At the end of the garden there is a wooden padlocked shelf containing a bust of William Shakespeare himself. The cast was made and given to the garden by George Bullock in 1918 and has remained behind locked doors since around 1950 to prevent people from cutting off pieces of the statue to melt down. Around the bust, there are four plaques, originally six, with quotes from Shakespeare. The missing two were stolen and most likely sold and melted down so the thieves could make a profit from the bronze the plaques were made from.
Alice Eastwood, the director of botany from the California Academy of Sciences at the time, came up with the idea for the garden in 1928, and it was carried out by Katherine Agnes Chandler. It however is not unique, as there are several Shakespeare gardens around the world, including "Cleveland, Manhattan, Vienna, and Johannesburg." The garden is a popular spot for weddings. There are over 200 plants from Shakespeare's works.
Rose Garden
The Rose Garden is found between the John F. Kennedy Promenade and Park Presidio Boulevard.
Dahlia Garden
The Dahlia Garden is found just to the East of the Conservatory of Flowers, and is maintained by volunteers from the Dahlia Society of California, founded in 1917.
Sports and recreation
Golden Gate park contains many areas for sports and recreation including tennis courts, soccer fields, baseball fields, lawn bowling fields, an angling and casting club, a disc golf course, horseshoe pits, an archery range, the polo field, and Kezar Stadium. Golden Gate park formed the first Lawn Bowling Club in the United States in 1901, with an Edwardian style clubhouse constructed in 1915.
Kezar Stadium
Kezar Stadium was built between 1922 and 1925 in the southeast corner of the park. It hosted various athletic competitions throughout its existence. It served as the home stadium of the San Francisco 49ers of the AAFC and NFL from 1946 to 1970, and for one season in 1960, it hosted the Oakland Raiders of the AFL
The 59,000-seat stadium was demolished in 1989 and replaced with a modern 9,044-seat stadium, which includes a replica of the original concrete arch at the entryway.
The stadium has been used in recent years for soccer, lacrosse, and track and field. The stadium also holds the annual city high school football championship, the Turkey Bowl. The Turkey Bowl dates back to 1924 and is played each Thanksgiving. The game was held at Lowell High School in 2014 because Kezar was closed due to renovation of the running track. Galileo High School has the most overall wins in the game (16) after breaking Lincoln High School's record four-game winning streak in 2009.
The stadium also hosts the football game in the three-part Bruce-Mahoney Trophy competition between Sacred Heart Cathedral Preparatory and Saint Ignatius College Preparatory, two Catholic high schools in San Francisco, in addition to serving as the home field for Sacred Heart Cathedral's football program.
The Polo Field
The sport of polo came to California in 1876, when the California Polo Club was established with help of Bay Area native, Captain Nell Mowry. By the late 1800s, polo in San Francisco was dominated by the Golden Gate Driving Club and the San Francisco Driving Club. In 1906, the Golden Gate Park Stadium was built by private subscription from the driving clubs which contained both a polo field and a cycling velodrome. Later on, the stadium was renamed simply the Polo Field. In the mid-1930s, the City and County of San Francisco used PWA and WPA funds to renovate the polo field. In 1939, additional WPA funds were used to build polo sheds, replacing already-standing horse stables. Polo continued being played through the 1940s but by the 1950s polo stopped being played on the Polo Field because the sport had largely migrated to other bay area cities where land more suitable for polo was available. In 1985 and 1986, polo was brought back to the Polo Field in Golden Gate Park for the second and third annual San Francisco Grand Prix and Equestrian Festival. Today, polo is not regularly played on the Polo Field, but from 2006 to 2010 Polo in the Park was hosted annually.
The Polo Fields has a history of cycling lasting from 1906 to the 21st century. The Polo Fields were originally created for track cycling in 1906, as track cycling was a popular sport in the early 1900s. Despite a down-surge of popularity in the mid-1900s, track cycling has seen a huge rebirth ever since the introduction of more track cycling programs in the Olympics in 2003. San Francisco has seen a surge in cycling popularity, and groups such as "Friends of the Polo Field Cycling Track" have recently formed.
The field has an extensive history with music and events. Because of the location and size of the Polo Fields, various events are commonly held on the field. Historically, many major music festivals took place in the park, including the Human Be-In, which featured bands like the Grateful Dead and Jefferson Airplane. More contemporary music festivals such as the Outside Lands and Hardly Strictly Bluegrass also take place on or nearby the Polo Fields. One of the largest public gatherings in San Francisco took place in the Polo Fields—a public Rosary in 1961 with 550,000 people. Public political events were also held at the field, such as the anti-Vietnam War rally in 1969 and the Tibetan Freedom Concert in 1996.
Now in the 21st century, the Polo Field is split into two divisions: the inner soccer field, and the flat-style cycling velodrome found around the field itself. Today many sports are played in the polo fields, including soccer, cross country running, and various types of cycling. The cycling track is still alive, with a large number of time-trial races held every cycling season. A cyclist in 2013 set a record in the park by riding a total of 188.5 miles on the Polo Field velodrome, circling it 279 times in just over twelve hours. In 2023 a new cycling track distance record was set at 201.0 miles over 296 laps in 11 hours 6 minutes.
Archery Range
Archery was first organized in Golden Gate Park in 1881. However, there was not a devoted range specifically for archery until around 1933. In 1936, during Franklin D. Roosevelt's presidency, many parts of Golden Gate Park, including the archery range, were improved as part of the Works Progress Administration (WPA). With WPA support, the archery range was increased in size and the adjacent hill was carved to serve as a backdrop for stray arrows. Bales of hay are used as targets and are provided by the Golden Gate Joad Archery Club as well as donations from other donors. The Golden Gate Park Archery Range is located right inside the park off of 47th Street and Fulton Street. It is open whenever the park itself is open and is free to use by anyone. There is no staff and equipment is not offered to be rented at the range, however there are archery stores nearby for rentals and there are multiple groups that offer training and lessons.
Golden Gate Park Nursery
Established in 1870, the Golden Gate Park Nursery has remained one of the few places in the park restricted to the public. This nursery began with donated plants from around the world and expanded over the years with the care of past Golden Gate Park gardeners. The nursery has moved around the park thrice; first to where McLaren Lodge stands today, then to where Kezar Stadium is currently located and finally to its current location of Martin Luther King Jr. Drive. This Nursery houses over 800 species of plants, some of which are exclusive to the nursery, and are sold to the public on the third Saturday of the month. Every week over 3,000 plants are dispersed within the city and park.
Homeless population
In 2017, there were approximately 7,500 homeless people living in San Francisco. Around 40 to 200 of these people were estimated to reside in the park as of 2013. Around half of the homeless population in Golden Gate Park are short-term residents that leave after a certain amount of time, and the other half are more long-term residents. Short-term residents tend to be younger, while permanent residents tend to be older, military veterans. Most of the homeless population is male. It is estimated that around 60% of the population may have a mental disability. However, it is hard to gather data about the population due to its variability.
The city government of San Francisco has attempted to establish various outreach programs in order to help the homeless population. The city's government stated in 2013 that "current outreach efforts to inform park dwellers about support services are limited, and efforts that do take place are not documented in a way that makes it possible to analyze their efficiency or success".
The City of San Francisco has grappled with what to do about camps of homeless people living in Golden Gate Park, which have been criticized as unsanitary, and "demoralizing" for park users and workers. The camps have been described by journalists as full of garbage, broken glass, hypodermic needles, and human excrement, and the people in them are described as suffering from serious addictions and often behaving aggressively with police and park gardeners. There have been occasional incidents of violence against homeless people in the park, including the 2010 park beating to death of a homeless man and an attack on park visitors by dogs owned by a park resident, also in 2010. In the 1990s, then-Mayor Willie Brown sought unsuccessfully to borrow the Oakland Police Department's helicopters in order to find homeless people's camps.
Starting in 1988 under then-mayor Art Agnos, and continuing under the direction of subsequent mayors including Frank Jordan, Willie Brown, and Gavin Newsom, San Francisco police have conducted intermittent sweeps of the park aimed at eliminating the camps. Tactics have included information campaigns designed to inform homeless residents about city services available to help them; waking sleeping homeless people and making them leave the park; issuing citations for infractions and misdemeanors such as camping, trespassing, or public intoxication, which carry penalties of $75 to $100; and the seizure and removal from the park of homeless people's possessions. During the night, police urge visitors to Golden Gate Park to be careful around homeless people.
The crackdowns have been criticized by anti-poverty activists and civil liberties groups, who say the measures attack only the symptoms of homelessness, while ignoring its root causes, and criminalize the poor for their poverty while ignoring their property rights and constitutional rights. In 2006, the American Civil Liberties Union brought a lawsuit against the city government on behalf of 10 homeless people, alleging property violations by the city during sweeps in Golden Gate Park the year before.
In popular culture
Books
A book, titled Five Thousand Concerts in the Park, lists and describes the long history with music of Hellman Hollow, originally called Speedway Meadow and renamed in 2011 in honor of Warren Hellman.
Events
The tradition of large, free public gatherings in the park continues to the present, especially at Hellman Hollow. Since the park's conception, over 5,000 concerts have been held in the park.
In 2001, Hellman founded the Hardly Strictly Bluegrass Festival (formerly the "Strictly Bluegrass Festival"), a free music festival held in October.
Hellman Hollow also plays host to a number of large-scale events, such as the 911 Power to the Peaceful Festival held by musician and filmmaker Michael Franti with Guerrilla Management.
Since 2008, the Outside Lands Music and Arts Festival has been hosted every August in the park's Polo Fields.
Films
Charlie Chaplin filmed scenes in the park for at least two 1915 movies, including A Jitney Elopement and In the Park,
Another silent comedy short was filmed in the park, Wished on Mabel (1915), starring Mabel Normand and Roscoe "Fatty" Arbuckle; various early features of the park can be seen in this 12-minute film, including several views of Stone Bridge
A scene in Orson Welles' The Lady from Shanghai (1947) was shot in the Steinhart Aquarium in the old California Academy of Sciences building
In the Bugs Bunny cartoon Bushy Hare (1950), Bugs pops up in Golden Gate Park at Portals of the Past, Lloyd Lake, the remains of the A.E. Towne mansion after the 1906 earthquake
Scaramouche (1952) includes scenes of duels looking west into the fog at Speedway Meadows, and interiors in De Young Museum's old period rooms
In The Lineup (1958), scenes were shot inside the Steinhart Aquarium
At Golden Gate Park is a live recording of the concert given on May 7, 1969, by the Jefferson Airplane in Golden Gate Park
Dirty Harry (1971) scenes were filmed in Kezar Stadium
The Conservatory of Flowers was filmed in Harold and Maude (1971)
The opening scene of the 1978 version of Invasion of the Bodysnatchers was filmed on the outskirts of Golden Gate Park
In the film Time After Time (1979), Malcolm McDowell can be seen exiting the park near 6th Avenue in the Richmond District
The Spock casket scene near the end of Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan (1982) was filmed in an overgrown corner of the park, using smoke machines to add a primal atmosphere
In Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home (1986), a Klingon Bird-of-Prey is said to land in the park, but the scene was actually filmed at Will Rogers State Historic Park near Los Angeles due to heavy rainfall
One of a number of scenes of characters playing football in The Room (2003) is shot in Golden Gate Park's Hellman Hollow.
A scene from The Pursuit of Happyness (2006) was shot in the Children's Playground
Contagion (2011) includes a scene filmed at the Music Concourse
The film The Diary Of A Teenage Girl (2015) filmed its opening scene in Golden Gate Park
Television
In the Eli Stone TV episode, "Waiting for that Day" (2008), some citizens of San Francisco seek refuge in the park during a 6.8 earthquake; they later witness the destruction of the Golden Gate Bridge from the park, though in reality, the bridge isn't visible from the park
See also
List of parks in San Francisco
Kezar Pavilion
1894 California Midwinter Exposition
References
External links
Golden Gate Park official website
San Francisco Parks Alliance
San Francisco Recreation & Parks Department
Map of Golden Gate Park (1) 1876
Map of Golden Gate Park (2) 1876
Map of Golden Gate Park, 1896
Map of Golden Gate Park, 1940
Municipal parks in California
Parks in San Francisco
Landmarks in San Francisco
Culture of San Francisco
Urban public parks
Urban forests in the United States
Music venues in the San Francisco Bay Area
National Register of Historic Places in San Francisco
Parks on the National Register of Historic Places in California
Parks in the San Francisco Bay Area
World's fair sites in California
Works Progress Administration in California
Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in California
Rose gardens in the United States
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monemvasia
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Monemvasia
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Monemvasia (, or ) is a town and municipality in Laconia, Greece. The town is located on a tied island off the east coast of the Peloponnese, surrounded by the Myrtoan Sea. The island is connected to the mainland by a tombolo in length. Its area consists mostly of a large plateau some above sea level, up to wide and long. Founded in the sixth century, and thus one of the oldest continually-inhabited fortified towns in Europe, the town is the site of a once-powerful medieval fortress, and was at one point one of the most important commercial centres in the Eastern Mediterranean. The town's walls and many Byzantine churches remain as testaments to the town's history. Today, the seat of the municipality of Monemvasia is the town of Molaoi.
Etymology
The town's name derives from two Greek words, (, 'single') and emvasis (, 'approach'), together meaning "city of the single approach, or entrance". Its Italian form, Malvasia, gave its name to the eponymous wine. Monemvasia has been nicknamed "the Gibraltar of the East" ().
History
Early history
While uninhabited in antiquity, the island upon which the town of Monemvasia is situated may have been the site of a Minoan trading post. Pausanias, the renowned Greek traveler and geographer, referred to the site as Akra Minoa, which translates to "Minoan Promontory". The ancient settlement of Epidaurus Limira was located a little north of Monemvasia in ancient times. The region surrounding the two settlements has been inhabited since prehistoric times. During Roman times it flourished as the most important city on the eastern coast of the Malea peninsula. Pausanias visited Epidaurus Limira and said that opposite the city there was a promontory which he referred to as the "extremity of Minos", which has been identified as Monemvasia. Strabo—a century earlier—mentions it as "Minoan fortress". The toponym "Minoa" indicates the existence of a port in antiquity, traces of which have been discovered underwater. However, it is not known if there was a significant settlement on the island. It is possible that a settlement was established there in the 4th century, around the time when the capital of the Roman empire moved from Rome to Constantinople, which resulted in changes in maritime trade routes. Epidaurus Limera itself was abandoned in the 4th century.
Establishment
Monemvasia was founded in the 6th century, from the relocation of the inhabitants of Ancient Sparta, which was then known as Lacedaemon. Sparta, unlike other cities that were abandoned, continued to be inhabited until the 6th century AD, despite earthquakes, Goth raids in 395 under Alaric I and Vandals in 468 under Gaiseric, and the plague epidemic of 541-543. According to the later Chronicle of Monemvasia, the city was abandoned after a Slav raid in 587-588, during the reign of Maurice. The Chronicle reports that its inhabitants left Sparta in panic and fortified themselves under the leadership of their bishop in Monemvasia while others settled in the passes of the region, while mentioning that many other cities of the Peloponnese were also abandoned in this way. However, archaeological findings do not generally concur with this view, and place the foundation of Monemvasia a few decades earlier, during the reign of Justinian. The first level of the basilica church of Christ Elekmenos in the center of the lower town dates from that time.
During Justinian's reign, due to various disasters, either natural factors or raids, the cities experienced significant decline. Justinian proceeded with residential remodeling, moving entire cities' populations to new locations and often changing the city's name. Such changes are mentioned by Procopius in On Buildings, though specific references to the Peloponnese are rare.
The 15th century text Report to the Patriarch, written by Isidoros, the metropolitan of Monemvasia, mentions that the movement of the population took place under Justinian. Another city that moved in the same period was Aipeia in Messenia, which moved to the current site of Koroni. Similarly, the location of Sparta was deemed insufficiently fortified and prone to long-term blockades due to its long distance from the port, while with the move of the capital to Constantinople, ships from Gytheion now had to sail around Cape Maleas.
Due to the aforementioned reasons, the city authorities proceeded not only to move the population of Sparta, establishing Monemvasia, but also to reorganize the settlements of southeastern Laconia. The reorganization included settlement in the mountain passes of Parnon and the migration from Gytheion. The Chronicle of Monemvasia states that part of the population relocated as far away as Sicily. Because the rebuilding, moving, and settling of the population at the new location must have been completed several years later, it is likely that the two cities coexisted for some time. Along with the inhabitants, the seat of the diocese of Lacedaemonia was also moved, although it kept its old name.
Byzantine period
Unlike other settlements in the Peloponnese region that saw their decline from the 7th century onwards—a period known as the Dark Ages—Monemvasia developed into a commercial and cultural centre due to its location on important sea routes, such as the one that connected it to Sicily. A bronze coin minted in Sicily of Philippikos Bardanes was found in the lower town. The oldest known mention of Monemvasia dates from the third decade of the 8th century, and is made by the pilgrim Vilibaldos, who traveled from the Sicilian Holy Land with a stopover in Monemvasia. Monemvasia is also mentioned by Theophanes the Confessor, who describes the arrival of the plague in Byzantium in 746-747.
Monemvasia's key position on the sea route to the eastern Mediterranean made it the target of pirate raids in the following centuries, along with raids by Western rulers. Arab raids began in the 9th century and after their settlement in Crete, after which the raids multiplied. One such raid is mentioned in the so-called Psychophile Narratives of bishop Pavlos Monemvasias, which were written in the 10th century and survive only in an Arabic translation. In one of them, it is mentioned that the Arabs attacked the fortress of Vukolo, which has been identified as Monemvasia. Earlier in the same text it is mentioned that the relics of the saints of Barcelona—of Bishop Valerius, Eulalia and Vincentius among others—had washed up in the city. The inhabitants collected the sarcophagi that contained them and built a church on the steep hill. Later, after the landing, it is reported that during the reign of Emperors Leo VI and Alexander, the chapel was located and the remains were transferred to the chapel of Agia Irini, next to the church of Agia Anastasia (which today is dedicated to Christ Elkomenos). At the beginning of the 10th century, the ecclesiastical seat of Monemvasia was transferred from the jurisdiction of the church of Rome to the patriarchate of Constantinople, where it was demoted to the diocese of Corinth. Despite this, Monemvasia continued to develop, while at the same time maintaining privileges, among which was self-government.
During the 11th and 12th centuries, Monemvasia experienced significant economic growth. During that period, the settlement spread around the island (not only on its main side), and important monuments were rebuilt, such as the church of Hagia Sophia (originally dedicated to Panagia Hodegetria) in the upper town and the church of Elkomenos Christos, which was reconstructed during that period, possibly due to the placement of the image of Christ Elkomenos in the temple. At the time of the Komnenians, Monemvasia had evolved into a guardian of the western entrance to the Aegean. In 1147 ships of the Sicilian king Roger II tried to capture it without success and were forced to withdraw with heavy losses. The archon of Monemvasia during the attack Theodoros Mavrosomis then settled in the imperial court and after the Battle of Myriokephalos, he was put in charge of the left wing of the army and was then given the position of mediator.
The Latin Empire, a 13th-century crusader state, unsuccessfully besieged Monemvasia in 1222. Then, in 1252, after a three-year siege, the Frankish prince of Achaia, William of Villehardouin, occupied Monemvasia. The inhabitants of Monemvasia who did not wish to remain under Latin occupation left for Bithynia, which acquired many of the same commercial privileges as Monemvasia. Monemvasia itself retained the privileges it had, with the only obligation being maintenance of the ships, and became the seat of a Latin bishop. Its loss was a serious blow to the emperor of Nicaea, Michael VIII Palaiologos, as it overturned his plans for the recovery of the lands that had fallen to the Franks.
When William was captured by the Byzantines at the Battle of Pelagonia in 1259 and refused to cede his possessions in the Peloponnese in exchange for his release, Michael held him prisoner until 1262, when he agreed to surrender to the Byzantines the castles of Monemvasia, Mystras, Grand Magne, and Geraki. Monemvasia was designated the seat of a Byzantine general and the seat of an Orthodox metropolitan, while at the same time important privileges were granted to the inhabitants, which were renewed and expanded by Andronikos II Palaiologos (1282-1328), such as exemption from inheritance tax and exemption from commerce (duties). Andronikos III Paleologos then exempted Monemvasia from 28 taxes. The prosperity of the city was rapid: in addition to the increase in population, whose main achievement was trade and shipping, conditions were created for spiritual and ecclesiastical development, to the extent that the period up to 1460 is considered to have been the city's "golden age". This prosperity attracted Roger of Lauria, who sacked the lower town in 1292. In 1302, the town welcomed the Catalan Company on its way eastward. In 1324, out of a total of 3,108 pyres that the metropolitans contributed to the Constantinople Patriarchate, 800 came from the Monemvasia metropolis, more than any other. In 1347 or 1348, John VI Kantakouzenos promoted the metropolis of Monemvasia to the hierarchy of the Patriarchate of Jerusalem. The peaceful life of Monemvasia during the 14th and the first half of the 15th century was disturbed by pirate raids and internal conflicts, though they did not, however, affect its historical course under the Despotate of the Morea.
In 1354, control over the Despotate of Morea was usurped by Manuel Kantakouzinos, who remained in power until 1380. The administration of Monemvasia was given to Ioannis Kantakouzinos, who rebelled after learning that after Manuel's death, Theodore Palaiologos would be appointed. Theodore tried to approach Monemvasia but was driven away and fled to Venetian-occupied Koroni to ask for help in exchange for the territory of Monemvasia, but the Monemvasians repudiated the rebels. In 1394, Theodore was captured by Ottoman Sultan Bayezid I and, in order to free himself, asked for the surrender of Monemvasia. Theodore managed to escape and with the help of Venice recaptured Monemvasia from the Ottomans in July 1394. The result of all these events was that the city's population decreased and commercial traffic was effectively brought to a halt.
After the fall of Constantinople in 1453, unrest prevailed in the Despotate, which at the time had two despots, Thomas Palaiologos and Demetrios Palaiologos, who disagreed about the future of the despotate. Dimitrios surrendered Monemvasia in May 1460 to Mehmed II, but he withdrew without besieging it. Then, following the advice of Thomas, the inhabitants offered the city to Pope Pius II on September 12, 1460, who accepted.
First Venetian rule and first Ottoman rule
In 1460 Sultan Mehmed II arrived in Corinth, proceeded to Laconia, capturing the fortresses of Achaia and Ilia, and in July 1461, Salmenikos, the last castle of the Greek despot, was surrendered. Thus, apart from the Venetian possessions of the Peloponnese and Monemvasia, which had been granted with the consent of the Despot of Morea Thomas Palaiologos to Pope Pius II, the Ottoman conquest of this critical region for Byzantium was complete. By the end of 1463, Monemvasia had fallen to the Venetians. After the end of the First Ottoman-Venetian War (1463–1479), part of the lands in the territory of Monemvasia came under the possession of the Ottomans, affecting the island's agricultural production and trade. Venice's possessions around Monemvasia became more limited after the Second Ottoman-Venetian War (1499–1503).
Hayreddin Barbarossa began in 1537 attempts to capture Nafplio and Monemvasia, the two remaining Venetian possessions in the Peloponnese. In the peace treaty, Sultan Suleiman II requested as compensation for the damages suffered by the fleet the concession of islands he has conquered along with Nafplio and Monemvasia, and despite the Venetians' reactions, the treaty was signed on October 2, 1540, and the two cities surrendered to the Turks. Most of its inhabitants then abandoned it and took refuge in the nearest Venetian-occupied islands, mainly in Corfu and Crete.
During the Ottoman times, the upper town was abandoned. Monemvasia itself became known as Menexe (), Menefse (), or Benefse () in Greek and in Turkish (all meaning 'violet'). It was administratively included in the Eyalet of the Morea. In the census of 1573-1574, it was mentioned that the town had a garrison of 104 men and paid 28,665 akçes in taxes, 6,000 of which came from the commercial traffic in its port. Due to information that there was a small garrison in Monemvasia, Jean Parisot de La Valette, the Grand Master of the Order of Malta decided to capture it in order to obtain a base in the Aegean. At the end of September 1564, he sent galleys but as the old unguarded path leading to the upper town could not be located, they withdrew. This path was sealed by the Ottomans sometime later with a wall. In 1583 there were 320 non-Muslim families and 191 residents without a family.
During the Cretan War (1645–1669), attempts were made by Venice to capture Monemvasia, which served as a base for the Ottoman army. The first attempt was made in August 1653, in which the Venetians managed to capture a fort outside the lower town, but abandoned the attempt as attacks on the lower town failed. The second attempt was made in July 1655, with the Venetians proceeding to blockade Monemvasia, but as the Ottomans sent reinforcements, they eventually withdrew. Subsequently, the Ottomans strengthened the defense of the island, and granted its inhabitants the possibility to build a church with a dome, as a reward for not ceding the city to the Venetians.
Venetian recapture and second Ottoman rule
In 1684, the Sixth Ottoman–Venetian War began, during which Francesco Morosini occupied the entire Peloponnese, with the exception of Monemvasia, which resisted. Morosini besieged it again in 1687, bombarding it, but the Turkish defenders refused to surrender and he withdrew. Many Turks who fled from the rest of Moria took refuge in the city. In 1688 he proposed to build a fortress opposite Monemvasia. Finally in July 1689 the construction of two forts began and the siege began again, but it was again unsuccessful and at the end of September it was withdrawn. At the end of the following spring the siege was resumed, led by Girolamo Corner and despite setbacks, the city surrendered and Corner entered on 12 August 1690.
The recovery of the Peloponnese from the Venetians also resulted in the resettlement of residents in Monemvasia, which was designated as the capital of the department of Laconia. The city had suffered significant damage and began a program of reconstruction. Its population in 1700 had reached 1,622 inhabitants, almost double the count of ten years prior.
In 1715, the Ottoman Empire army attacked the Peloponnese, in the context of the Seventh Ottoman–Venetian War (1714–1718). The Ottoman fleet arrived at Monemvasia on 3 August 1715, demanding the city's surrender. The city's council of war asked for a 20-day extension to learn the intentions of the Venetian fleet, which was granted. The fleet did not approach Monemvasia and the city finally surrendered on September 7, 1715. Some of the inhabitants were sold as slaves as part of the surrender treaty. Others fled to other Venetian-occupied areas. After the Ottoman recovery, Monemvasia remained under the jurisdiction of Kapudan Pasha. The area experienced a relative commercial and economic boom and a Greek school was established. Some Venetians returned to the city, as did former Turkish residents.
During the Orlov revolt (1770), the Metropolitan of Monemvasia, Anthimos the Lesvios, armed a body of Monemvasians and blocked the Ottomans in the fortress, but when the besiegers were attacked by the Albanians, they dispersed and many were captured or killed and the city was looted. After the revolt, the area was abandoned by a large part of its population.
During the War of Independence
During the beginning on March 15, 1821, at the beginning of the Greek War of Independence, the fortress of Monemvasia was besieged by land and sea. After a four-month siege, it was surrendered to the Greeks on July 23, 1821. Disputes over the distribution of spoils and administration ensued, leading to anarchy. In March 1822, it was decided by the temporary administration of Greece to repair the fortress and send a guard, but to no avail, the result of which was that the situation in the fortress worsened. Later, the fortress and the province of Monemvasia fell victim to the civil war. The Maniots led by Konstantinos Mavromichalis began to besiege the fortress in September 1823. By March 1824, half the villages of the province had passed into the possession of the Maniots, and while they continued to besiege the fortress, the central administration decided to transfer three to four cannons from Monemvasia to Spetses. Cretans and Psarans arrived at the fortress after the destruction of Psara, but the siege of the fortress continued. In January 1827, Dimitris Plapoutas arrived at the fortress with 200 soldiers and the inhabitants and the governors of Monemvasia agreed to hand over the administration of the castle to him so that the fortress could be liberated, as was done by the decision of the National Assembly on 1 March 1827. However, Mavromichalis continued to try to conquer the fortress, as a result of which Plapoutas withdrew, not accepting this behavior, and eventually Mavromichalis was placed in charge of the castle. These constant quarrels prevented Monemvasia from being able to play an important role in the later developments regarding the establishment of the Greek state and from not being able to reach his former glory.
Post-Independence
In the statistical description of Monemvasia in 1828, it was home to 659 inhabitants, while most of the houses were destroyed. Konstantinos Kanaris was appointed as the new guardian of Monemvasia. Among the issues he faced were guarding the fortress and repairing the buildings, as they were not in sufficient shape to house necessary public services. For this reason the engineers Fotis Kesoglou and Theodoros Vallianos arrived in the town. At the same time, an effort was made to operate a school, which was housed in the church of Agios Nikolaos. Despite difficulties in financing it, it remained in operation in 1937. Ecclesiastically, Monemvasia remained the seat of the metropolis of Monemvasia, but after the death of Metropolitan Chrysantho Pagonis, the seat remained unoccupied and Gerasimos Pagonis was appointed as vicar.
Monemvasia continued to be in a dire situation for many more years, but it remained the largest village in the region and during the administrative reorganization of 1833. Monemvasia continued to be the seat of the province, which was renamed from the province of Monemvasia to the province of Epidaurus Limiras. Monemvasia remained the seat of the province until 1864, when the seat was transferred to Molaoi, but it remained the seat of a municipality, until its abolition in 1913. At the beginning of the 20th century, it was the seat of a court of justice, customs office, telegraph office, police, and school authority. According to the censuses, there was a population decline until the 1970s. The community's population trend according to the censuses is as follows: 1920: 483, 1928: 638, 1940: 638, 1951: 522, 1961: 487, 1971: 445. Generally, the inhabitants of Monemvasia either immigrated to Athens or moved to Gefyra, opposite Monemvasia. In the 1951 census, of the community's 522 residents, 261 lived in Gefyra, 178 in the old town, and 83 in Agia Kyriaki. The population of the old town continued to decline, and in 1971 only 32 residents lived in it. Monemvasia continued to rely on cisterns for its water supply until 1964 and electricity arrived in 1972. Trade was carried out by coastal shipping, where products were transported to the nearest major port, Piraeus.
Recent years
From the 1970s, Monemvasia began to flourish again, this time as a tourist destination. The people of Monemvasia sold their houses to people visiting Monemvasia, who restored them. Alexandros and Harris Kalliga played a key role in the restorations. At the same time, Gefyra also experienced strong growth (in the 2011 census it has 1,299 inhabitants).
In 1971, Monemvasia became linked with the rest of the outside world through a bridge on the western side that connects to GR-86.
In more recent history, the town has seen a resurgence in importance with increasing numbers of tourists visiting the site and the region. The medieval buildings have been restored, and many of them converted to hotels.
For the past few years, on July 23, an independence day celebration has been held in the main port. Speeches are made and the story of Tzannetakis Grigorakis, and his men, is recounted in both Greek and English. Inhabitants and visitors can gather to watch as a ship, built every year, is filled with pyrotechnics and set on fire.
The 1986 horror movie The Wind was filmed here.
Municipality
The municipality of Monemvasia was formed from the former province of Epidavros Limira during the 2011 administrative reform as a part of the Kallikratis Programme. It was formed through the merger of the following 5 former municipalities, which thereby became municipal units:
Asopos
Molaoi
Monemvasia
Voies
Zarakas
The municipality has an area of , the municipal unit an area of .
Historical population
Malvasia Wine
Monemvasia's trade in wine was so extensive throughout its history, especially under Venetian administration, that the name of the place became familiar throughout Europe in connotation with the variety of wine called Malvasia, 'Malmsey' in English. Though the wine was associated with Monemvasia through trade, it was not grown locally, rather coming for the most part from the Peloponnese region and islands in the Cyclades, especially Tinos. The variety of grape is believed by most ampelographers, however, to originate from Crete.
Outline of town
Monemvasia consists of the upper town, which is located on the plateau of the hill, and the lower town, which is built on the southern coast of the peninsula. The upper town is no longer inhabited, as it was abandoned after the second Venetian occupation. The entrance to the upper town today is through a fortified gate to which a winding path ascends from the lower town. A second entrance used to be on the north side, but was sealed during the first occupation by the Ottoman Empire. In the upper town was the acropolis of Monemvasia, a rectangular fortress with four towers, which was built in the 6th century, houses and public buildings, such as churches, cisterns and administrative buildings. The church of Hagia Sophia stands out among them. The layout of the settlement is no longer distinct.
The lower town is located under the southern wall of the upper town. It is walled on three sides: east, south, and west. Entry is through the west gate, which is connected by a road to the bridge over the causeway. The street continues inside the city and forms the main street of the lower town, which was known as the Middle Street (Μέση Οδός) in the Byzantine period. The area surrounding it was known as the "Agora" and along it are shops. This road intersects with the road that descends from the upper town and leads to the gate in the sea walls known as the "portello" (). At the point where these two roads cross is Elekmenos Christos square, where the metropolitan church, the former mosque, and the episcopal palace—official residence of the bishop—are located. In the 19th century, two more squares were created, the Megali () and Mikri Tapia (). The rest of the streets of the lower town are narrow cobblestones, sometimes covered with vaulted structures known as , over which sections of houses were built.
Fortifications
At the highest point of the rock of Monemvasia was the acropolis. This fortress consisted of an enclosure with four towers at each corner. Entrance was made through a gate in the eastern wall. The walls were made of 'mudstone' with a fortified mortar. In the place of the southwestern tower, a rectangular powder magazine was built during the second Venetian period. Remains of buildings are preserved inside the fort. One of the buildings near the center had a cistern. There are indications that on the eastern side of the fort there was a large hall, on the southern wall of which the monogram of Theodore Palaiologos was found. The fortress seems to have been abandoned during the first Venetian rule.
The rest of the upper town is protected by a fortified enclosure on the north and south sides of the hill, while the other sides were not fortified as they were steep and thus naturally fortified. A road with parapets in places, which had battlements and lookouts, was built around the cliff to avoid the risk of falling. The fortification of the upper town is known as () and was built during the Byzantine period, although now the greater part of the walls date from the Venetian and Ottoman times. The walls are more reinforced in the section where the south gate is located, in the section above the west gate of the lower town and at the eastern end. To the gate of the upper town leads from the lower town a winding cobblestone with two intermediate gates. The gate in Byzantine times was vaulted and had a square tower above it. During Ottoman times, vaulted rooms were built near the gate, one of which was a mosque. To the west there is a small bastion. The western wall of the upper town oversaw the main gate of the lower town. It had two towers. This wall was strengthened by the Ottomans so that it could face the artillery with a double bastion to the east. On the eastern edge of the north wall there was also a fort, which was rebuilt in 1540 by Kasım Pasha, but was destroyed when his gunpowder magazine exploded after being bombarded by the Venetians. The castle also had a gate on the north wall, but this was sealed during the 1st Ottoman Empire with a wall which the Venetians called ('Red Wall'). The Venetians strengthened it and placed cannons in it.
The lower town is walled to the west, south and east. To the west is the main gate of the town, which leads to the bridge and the harbor. During Byzantine times it must have been incorporated into a tower and protected by additional towers, one of which survives to this day, incorporated in later alterations. A straight wall () connected tower to tower at the base of the cliff, and another reached to the sea, where there was a corner tower. The south-west corner of the wall was strengthened in the 17th century with a cannon tower, while the gate was rebuilt and a bastion built over it. Another bastion was built near the rock. After the recapture by Venice, a strong tower was built in the southwest corner. The sea wall consists of straight sections which connected five towers beyond the two corner towers. In the middle of the wall was a gate. In the 17th century it was strengthened, as a sloping wall and a small bastion were built. The eastern wall resembles the western, with straight sections between towers. It has a gate in the middle that leads out of the town. To strengthen the western wall, the Ottomans also built a fortress outside the walls with many cannons.
Churches
The Church of Hagia Sophia () in the upper town, near the edge of the cliff. The church dates from Byzantine times, and was built according to the prevailing Byzantine architecture of the 12th century. It is an built according to the cross-in-square structure. It has been identified with the temple of Odigetria mentioned in various sources. The main temple measures 14 by 14 meters and the dome is 7 meters in diameter and has 16 windows. The narthex measures two stories. The temple had rich sculptural decoration. Parts of frescoes have been preserved, such as two archangels in the narthex, a scene from the life of Saint Nicholas in the northern chancel, and a depiction of Christ as the "Ancient of Days" ("") in the sanctuary. After the completion of the temple, a double portico was added to the south façade externally, while during the Venetian times a two-story external gallery was added to the west façade. During the first Ottoman rule, the temple was turned into a mosque and the frescoes were whitewashed. Restoration works of the temple took place in 1958, with the restoration of Byzantine elements, but some of the architectural members had been modified to such an extent that they could not be used and thus were transferred to the archaeological collection.
The Church of Christos Elkomenos () in the central square of the lower town is the metropolitan church of Monemvasia. Today the church has the form of a three-aisled basilica with a dome. The middle nave is raised and separated from the other two by pillars. The belfry is separate from the temple, northwest of it. The church was originally built in the 6th century AD and has since undergone a series of modifications. The central arch is semi-circular and has an internal synthronon, which suggests that the temple dates from the early Christian era. A second phase of construction took place during the 11th-12th centuries, as can be seen from the sculptures above the temple door. In 1538, according to an inscription, construction work was carried out, while an inscription above the west door states that work was completed in 1697, which probably related to the construction of the dome and the narthex. The temple does not appear to have been wall-painted. Inside it were kept icons, such as the icon of Elkomenos that was brought to Constantinople by Isaac II Angelos in the 12th century; the icon of the Crucifixion of Christ, from the 14th century, which is exhibited in the Byzantine Museum; and several post-Byzantine icons.
Panagia Myrtidiotissa () or Panagia Kritikia () was built north of the temple of Elkomenos during the second Venetian period, in a district where Cretans settled. It is a one-room basilica with a dome. It has a large central arch. The façade and the dome are built of ashlar and the rest of the temple of mudstone. The façade features decorative elements with Italianate influences, such as the round skylight and cornices and decorated pediments with geometric and floral motifs.
Panagia Chrysafitissa () is located near the sea wall and Chrysafitissa square. It has a large dome and a narrow narthex on the western façade. The temple was built during the first Ottoman occupation and has Islamic influences. The temple is plastered inside.
The Church of Agios Nikolaos () is located northeast of Panagia Chrysafitissa. It is a three-aisled basilica with a dome, with aisles separated by pillars. On the western façade there is an inscription which states that the temple was built by Andrea Licinio in 1703. Both the decoration and the construction have Western European influences.
The Church of Agios Spyridon () is two-aisled and dates from the second Venetian period. It is located below the upper city gate.
The Church of Agios Antonios (), northeast of the church of Elkomenos, dates from Byzantine times, but its current form dates from the second Venetian period. It is a single-bay vaulted temple with two blind apses preserved on the north wall. The church's worn frescoes, such as a hierarch and two saints holding a cross in the northwest apse, date from the late 13th or 14th century.
The Church of Agia Paraskevi () is a small chapel on the northwest side of the church of Elkomenos. It is single room and vaulted.
The Church of the Holy Apostles (), a small cave church with traces of frescoes from the second Venetian period.
The double-aisled Church of Saints Demetrius and Anthony (), of the second Venetian period.
Hagia Anna the Catholic () a small one-room church on the main street of the lower town. It has a peculiar space on its northern side. Based on its characteristics, it was built in the second Venetian period.
Hagia Anna of Malta () is a three-aisled basilica of the 2nd Venetian period, whose eastern side has deteriorated.
Also preserved in Monemvasia are the ruined churches of Hagia Anna, Hagioi Tessarakontos, Hagios Ioannis, and Panagia (with traces of frescoes), Evangelistrias, Katichoumenon and a small single-aisled Middle Byzantine church with a sculpted marble iconostasis that was discovered near the sea walls in 1974.
Other religious buildings
The Mosque of Monemvasia was erected in the square of Elkomenos during the first Ottoman occupation. After the recovery of Monemvasia by the Venetians in 1690, the building changed its use and was probably used by the Capuchins as a monastery. In 1715, when the Ottomans recaptured Monemvasia, the building became a mosque again. After the Revolution of 1821, the building was turned into a prison and later, in the middle of the 20th century, it functioned as a café. Since 1999, it has housed the archaeological collection of Monemvasia. The building is structurally simple, consisting of two halls, a square hall with a lowered dome and a rectangular space. The former mihrab and minaret no longer exist. The entrance is from the eastern façade, where there are two doors but only the northern one is used. Sealed openings can also be seen, such as a Venetian portico on the north façade. The walls are made of rough stone construction and hewn ashlar stones are used in the openings and some architectural details.
South of the church of Elkomenos, the old episcopal palace (bishop's residence) is preserved. Above its entrance, a lion relief survives, which is the symbol of Venice.
Archaeological collection
The archaeological collection of Monemvasia was inaugurated in July 1999 and is housed in the former Ottoman mosque, located in Elkomenos square. The collection includes finds from the excavations and restorations that took place in Monemvasia. The exhibits are exhibited in the vaulted hall on the ground floor of the building, measuring , which is separated from the entrance by a wall. The original floor has been covered with ceramic tiles to protect it. Most of the exhibits are architectural sculptures from the early Christian, Byzantine and post-Byzantine periods and ceramic objects of daily use, while there are also a small number of coins, lamps and glass objects. Among the sculptures stand out those from the church of Hagia Sophia and the restored marble iconostasis of a small church from the Middle Byzantine period that was excavated on a private plot near the sea walls. Other exhibits include Venetian-era coats of arms and cisterns.
Houses
The lower city of Monemvasia is, like other Byzantine castle-cities, densely built. Most houses have a narrow façade and are arranged perpendicular to the slopes of the land. These houses generally have three levels. The lower level has an independent entrance and was intended for the stable of animals and had a cistern in a separate area, where the rainwater was collected. Cisterns and reservoirs were necessary as there are no natural water sources in Monemvasia. Above are utility rooms, such as the galley and, occasionally, the bath and fireplace. There was also in this area the mouth of the cistern, through which the water was collected. Access to the upper level was by a small wooden ladder fixed to a stone base. The family stayed in this space and it had many windows. Although the houses may vary typologically, the three-level layout is common to all.
Houses may have large chimneys and curved cornices formed by roof gutters that lead water to the cistern. Other decorative elements are pilasters and incised crowns. The walls of the houses are made of mudstone and mortar and the outside is plastered to withstand the weather conditions. Other architectural elements such as doorways, chimneys and corner stones are made of ashlar. For the floors, they can be made of kourasani (κουρασάνι), a "high quality lime mortar which also includes brick dust and natural pozzolana", slates, marble, and tiles, while the floors are made of wood. Wood is also used in interior walls, roofs and frames, but its use is generally limited due to its limited availability.
Due to the lack of space within the castle, there were no cultivated lands and gardens. The French naturalist and military officer Jean Baptiste Bory de Saint-Vincent visited Monemvasia in 1829 and noted that houses may have small walled gardens with only one almond tree inside.
Other buildings
Due to the absence of natural water sources, Monemvasia has public cisterns. Three large public reservoirs are located in the western part of the upper town, where it was more sparsely populated and more protected than the lower town in case of siege. These cisterns are semi-underground, built long and narrow and are coated internally with kourasani so that they are watertight up to the point where the dome begins. In the lower city there are two underground cisterns whose mouths are now in squares, but it is not clear whether they were public cisterns or private cisterns.
In the upper town, near the reservoirs, an Ottoman fountain is preserved. The fountain is four-sided and covered with a dome. It is likely that its water came from the reservoirs. Additionally, in the upper city, near the church of Hagia Sophia, there is a ruined 17th century bathhouse, of which the small dome and cisterns have been preserved. In the lower town, south of the central square, a bathhouse of the first Ottoman occupation is preserved, in the place of the sanctuary of the Byzantine church of Sotiros.
At the eastern end of the island is a modern lighthouse. The lighthouse was built in 1896 and began operation in 1897. Its focal height is above sea level and its beam reaches 11 nautical miles. Next to the lighthouse tower, high, is the lighthouse keeper's stone residence. A marble staircase leads to the lighthouse cage. Restoration work on the lighthouse was completed in December 2015. It has a small exhibition about the Greek network of lighthouses.
Geography
The island of Monemvasia was separated from the mainland by an earthquake in 375 AD. The majority of the island's area is a plateau about above sea level, and the town of the same name is built on the slope to the south-east of the rock, overlooking Palaia Monemvasia bay. Many of the streets are narrow and fit only for pedestrian and donkey traffic. A small hamlet of about ten houses lies to the northwest.
Climate
Monemvasia has a mediterranean climate with very mild winters and hot summers.
Notable people
Isidore of Kiev (c. 1385-1463), Eastern (Greek) Catholic cardinal
Loukas Notaras (d. 1453), the last Byzantine Megas Doux member of Notaras family
Yiannis Ritsos (1909–1990), poet
George Sphrantzes (1401 – c. 1478), Byzantine historian
Gallery
See also
List of settlements in Laconia
References
Further reading
Kalligas, Harry (2009), Monemvasia: A Byzantine City State, Routledge
Klaus, Rainer W., Steinmüller, Ulrich. Monemvasia: The Town and its History. English version by Lawrence P. Buck. 9th, revised edition. Athens 2007
External links
Monemvasia | The official Tourism Website
Monemvassia
GTP - Monemvasia
The rock of Monemvasia at YouTube
Byzantine castles in the Peloponnese
Islands of Peloponnese (region)
Landforms of Laconia
Populated places in Laconia
Populated places of the Byzantine Empire
Stato da Màr
Tourist attractions in Peloponnese (region)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helen%20Herron%20Taft
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Helen Herron Taft
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Helen Louise Taft (née Herron; June 2, 1861 – May 22, 1943), known as Nellie, was the First Lady of the United States from 1909 to 1913 as the wife of President William Howard Taft. Born to a politically well-connected Ohio family, she took an early interest in political life, deciding at the age of 17 that she wished to become first lady. Herron married Taft in 1886, and she guided him throughout his political career, encouraging him to take actions that would bring him closer to the presidency. Accompanying her husband to the Philippines in 1900, she became a prominent socialite in Manila, contributing to US-Philippines relations. After her husband was appointed Secretary of War, she played a significant role in convincing him to run for president in the 1908 presidential election and making the necessary connections to ensure his success.
As first lady, Taft was closely involved in the political aspects of the presidency, regularly sitting in on meetings and serving as her husband's closest advisor. She held a strong influence over the president's decisions, expressing her concerns when she disagreed with him and providing her input on presidential appointments. She also carried out a reorganization of the White House staff and decor. Inspired by her experience in the Philippines, she converted the White House lawn and the West Potomac Park into social hubs with regular live shows and events. Her decision to plant cherry trees in the park proved to be a success, creating a popular tourist attraction. Taft's influence as first lady was cut short by a stroke two months into her tenure, permanently limiting her mobility and leaving her absent for a year while she partially recovered.
Though President Taft was relieved that his term had ended, Helen Taft was upset by his defeat for reelection. She remained active after leaving the White House, supporting the Red Cross during World War I and participating in activities for the Colonial Dames of America. She was widowed in 1930, and she was buried beside her husband in Arlington National Cemetery after her death in 1943.
Early life
Childhood
Helen Herron was born on June 2, 1861, in Cincinnati as the fourth of eleven children, the daughter of Harriet Collins Herron and lawyer John Williamson Herron. Throughout her life, she went by "Nellie". Her father was an associate of two future presidents: he was a college classmate of Benjamin Harrison and a law partner of Rutherford B. Hayes, while her mother was the daughter and the sister of U.S. congressmen. Growing up around politics, Herron developed a love for campaigning. She was also musically inclined as a child, eventually becoming proficient in the piano.
Herron's many siblings, eight of whom survived to adulthood, made life complicated for her family, causing her to develop a personal insecurity and distance herself from her family. As a teenager, Herron would rebel against the societal expectations for upper class women; by the age of 15 she had secretly begun smoking cigarettes, drinking whiskey, and gambling. Seeking a channel for her ambition and independence, she enrolled in Cincinnati's prestigious Miss Nourse School for Girls where she was educated in many subjects, including several languages. She then attended Miami University, and she also briefly attended the University of Cincinnati.
Herron took an interest in law when she was young, often reading her father's legal books at his law office. In 1877, she accompanied her parents when they visited President Hayes and stayed for several weeks at the White House. Her younger sister Lucy Hayes Herron was baptized at that event and named for Mrs. Hayes. This visit instilled in Herron a strong desire to return to the White House as first lady, one that she would often present to her eventual husband.
Early career and courtship
Herron long wished to leave Ohio, feeling that the region offered her little opportunity. She did not consider marriage to be a viable option, believing that matrimony should not be a woman's goal. As a young adult, she worked for her father in his law office. Her debut took place at this time, which she enjoyed despite considering her social obligations to be frivolous. Herron lamented her lack of career options as a woman, eventually taking up teaching as it was the only available career for which she was qualified. She taught French at a private school in Walnut Hills, Ohio for two years beginning in 1881, but she found it unpleasant. She wished to write or perform music, though neither developed into a career for her.
Herron first met William Howard Taft at a sledding party in 1880, though the Herron family and the Taft family were familiar with one another. They would go on to perform together as part of the community theater company. In 1884, Herron founded a salon to discuss intellectual topics each Sunday afternoon with other people of her age. Among the people she invited were Taft and his brother Horace. Taft courted Herron, accompanying her to dances and sending her letters and flowers. Self-doubt caused Herron to avoid commitment to Taft, fearing that he did not truly care for her or value her opinions. Taft proposed to her multiple times, and she eventually accepted in June 1885, though she asked that he keep the engagement secret.
Marriage and family
Marriage
Herron married Taft on June 19, 1886. They went on a honeymoon in Europe, spending three months in England before visiting Germany and Italy. She managed the budget on their vacation, limiting their spending to five dollars per day. After returning, her husband borrowed money to have a home built for them in Walnut Hills, and they lived with his parents until it was complete.
As a couple, they shared not only an emotional companionship but an intellectual one, and they held high regard for each other's ideas. Her husband would welcome her opinion when she thought he was in error, describing her as his "best critic", and she would sometimes mother him. He generally took her advice, though she failed in her attempts to convince him to live a healthier lifestyle and better control his weight. Taft's husband considered Taft to be the politician of the family, and early in their marriage he expected her to develop a political career that would outpace his own. She managed the finances of the Taft household, and she encouraged her husband's political career, pushing him toward the executive branch rather than his preferred career in the judiciary.
Taft worried about their political future when her husband accepted a five-year term on the Cincinnati Superior Court in 1888, but she was optimistic after he was appointed Solicitor General of the United States in 1890, a position which she had helped him in obtaining through her acquaintance with President Harrison. She saw their move to Washington, D.C., as an opportunity to escape Cincinnati, where she had felt confined, and she hoped that her husband would build connections in Washington politics. She assisted her husband in his presentation in this role, instructing him in oration to better plead cases. She also became a popular socialite in the city and regularly attended Congressional proceedings, both of which allowed her to build political connections. Among her closest friends in Washington were the family of Attorney General William H. H. Miller and the wives of the Supreme Court justices.
They returned to Cincinnati in 1892 when Taft's husband was appointed as a judge on the federal circuit. He enjoyed this position, but Taft again feared that it would stifle his ambition and that he would progress no further. While her husband served on the bench, Taft raised their three children: Robert, born 1889; Helen, born 1891; and Charles, born 1897. She helped found a hospital at this time, and she founded the Cincinnati Orchestra Association, serving as its president. She lamented the lack of excitement in Cincinnati, with her only respite being a vacation home in Murray Bay, Quebec.
Life in the Philippines
Taft's husband was sent to help establish a government in the Philippines in 1900, as Spain had transferred the Philippines to the United States the previous year. Though neither of them knew what the job would entail, Taft encouraged him to accept the position. She relished this opportunity for travel and excitement, stopping in Hawaii and Japan while her husband went on to the Philippines. She also believed that the position would move him closer to the presidency. After Taft arrived in the Philippines, she sought to win the approval of the Filipino people and respect the culture of the Philippines by learning the language, wearing a native Filipino costume, and inviting Filipinos to social events. Taft's treatment of the Filipino people contributed to improved relations with the country, including her work to end the system of racial segregation that had previously been in place.
Taft traveled extensively throughout the Philippines, learning how to ride a horse in order to do so. She also accompanied her husband when he traveled to China, Japan, and Hong Kong on official duties. She considered her primary responsibility in the country to be the hosting of gala events, where she would mingle with the Filipino people. Her husband became Governor-General of the Philippines on July 4, 1901, and the Tafts moved into the Malacañang Palace in Manila. While in the Philippines, Taft organized a nutritional program that provided milk for Filipino children. When she wrote her autobiography years later, the majority of her writing addressed her years in the Philippines, overshadowing even her time in the White House.
The Tafts took leave from the Philippines and began a voyage to return home on December 24, 1901. The winter was difficult for Taft, as she was exhausted from the constant stress of her role in the Philippines, compounded by her husband needing two surgeries, and both of her parents suffering from strokes, her mother's proving fatal. Taft accompanied her husband on a trip to Italy in 1902, where she was treated as a guest of honor and was personally received by Pope Leo XIII. She returned to Philippines in September 1902. When President Theodore Roosevelt offered Taft's husband the position of Secretary of War in 1904, Taft convinced him to accept, and the Tafts returned to Washington, D.C.
Cabinet member's wife
Taft became a cabinet member's wife when her husband became Secretary of War. In this role, she was expected to call upon and receive other cabinet members' wives in Washington. She considered the position to be a downgrade from her time in the Philippines, where she had grown accustomed to being the wife of the region's chief executive. This also required her to be in regular contact with first lady Edith Roosevelt, with whom she developed a strong rivalry. At the same time, Taft's husband developed a close political and personal friendship with President Roosevelt: a relationship that Taft encouraged and helped facilitate. His work in the Department of War did allow for more travel, providing Taft with a chance to learn more of international politics and make connections abroad. The couple traveled together to Panama and Japan, and she also took their children on a vacation to England while her husband stayed behind.
Taft's husband's career came to a crossroads in 1906 when President Roosevelt considered nominating him for a position on the Supreme Court, while at the same time momentum grew for a William Howard Taft presidency. Taft was vehemently opposed to her husband taking such a position, fearing it would end any further political aspirations. She personally met with Roosevelt and discouraged him from nominating her husband in a half hour discussion. Taft had spoken to the president on several occasions, earning his trust to improve her husband's position in the Roosevelt administration. This would eventually contribute to Roosevelt's support of a William Howard Taft presidency, and Roosevelt would even strategize politically with Taft rather than with her husband as the 1908 presidential election approached.
By 1907, Taft's husband was considered to be a potential candidate for the presidency, and the Tafts traveled across the country in a speaking tour. Taft found the experience more intensive than she had expected, and she was deeply embarrassed by one incident in which she lost track of the week and she was seen playing cards with her husband on the Lord's Day. Afterward, they returned to the Philippines and took a trip to other countries. Upon returning to the United States, Taft declined to join her husband in campaigning. She did advise him during his campaign, however, and she closely followed news coverage of the race so that she would be aware of the criticisms against him. She also advised him as to how his decisions as Secretary of War would affect public opinion.
First Lady of the United States
Entering the White House
Taft considered it a personal victory when her husband was elected president in 1908, as she had guided him toward the office. She eagerly planned for the upcoming inauguration and her term as first lady, including how she would manage the White House. She also had her inaugural dress sent to the Philippines so that it could be embroidered there. President Roosevelt was unavailable on the day of President Taft's inauguration, so Taft determined that she would ride to the White House with her husband in Roosevelt's place, becoming the first presidential wife to do so.
Upon entering the White House, Taft had the White House redecorated, and she removed the trophy heads that Theodore Roosevelt had mounted on the walls. She made several other decorative changes, taking inspiration from Eastern cultures and using flowers from the White House greenhouse. She had twin beds put into the White House for the first time, and she made accommodations for the White House silver collection by installing a vault and a silver cleaner. She also made staff changes, replacing the ushers with footmen and the steward with a housekeeper. Taft was strict about cleanliness and presentation in the White House, and her decorative talents were celebrated by contemporary journalists.
In May 1909, shortly after her husband's term began, Taft suffered a stroke, impairing her speech and limiting movement in right arm and leg. She left Washington to recover, causing newspapers to report that she had suffered a nervous breakdown. Over the following year, Taft was forced to relearn how to speak. She took a less active role after her stroke, but she remained involved in White House affairs. Though her condition improved over time, she would never fully recover. The nature of her stroke was not disclosed to the press, following a long-standing precedent of the press not inquiring about the first lady's private life.
Hostess and socialite
Taft had grown accustomed to the royal style of treatment that she had experienced in the Philippines, and she wished to establish a similar regal environment as White House hostess. She sought to improve the social traditions associated with the White House while she was first lady; she changed the locations of events to make them more efficient, and she introduced dancing at formal receptions. She made extensive use of the White House lawn, hosting garden parties, theatrical shows, and music performances. In the time that she was recovering from her stroke in 1909, Taft took a less active role in organizing events, having her sisters and her daughter supporting her in the duties of White House hostess. She resumed her responsibilities in 1910, and she had returned to an active schedule by 1911. Taft hosted many parties and social events, but the social highlight of her tenure was the Tafts' silver wedding anniversary gala on June 19, 1911, for nearly 5,000 guests. Another 15,000 observers crowded outside of the White House.
Taft exerted some level of autonomy while she served as first lady. She declined to participate in luncheons with the wives of cabinet members, feeling that they were of little consequence and simply a means of putting her aside as a woman. Instead, she observed presidential meetings and closely managed the organization of the White House. She felt that the presidential salary of $75,000 was well above what they needed, she reduced their spending to $50,000 per year, accumulating a savings of $100,000 by the end of her husband's term. Among her cost-saving practices were the purchase of foods wholesale and the care of a cow on White House grounds to provide milk and butter. The presence of the cow was poorly received.
As first lady, Taft received guests three afternoons a week in the Red Room. She introduced musical entertainment after state dinners which became a White House tradition. The Tafts attended symphony, opera, and theater performances in Washington, D.C.; she started another summer tradition at West Potomac Park with the United States Marine Band playing for the public. One major undertaking of Taft's tenure as first lady was the transformation of the West Potomac Park into an esplanade. Inspired by Luneta Park in Manila, she had a bandstand constructed and organized weekly concerts. She also arranged for the planting of Japanese cherry trees, accepting a donation of trees from the mayor of Tokyo, who was a friend of the Tafts. The Potomac cherry trees would continue to be a popular tourist attraction, particularly during their blooming.
Prohibition was a major political issue while the Tafts lived in the White House. Taft opposed the Prohibition movement, and she served alcohol to White House guests against the wishes of the president. Unlike most other first ladies, Taft would visit the White House kitchens and oversee the preparation of food. In particular, she would observe the preparation of one of her specialty dishes, turtle soup. As first lady, Taft also saw to the replacement of horse and buggy with the first presidential automobile fleet. She was open with the press, and she broke precedent by actively participating in media interviews. She particularly engaged with women journalists to support their work and earn their support. In 1912, she donated her inauguration gown to the National Museum of American History to begin the First Ladies' Gown display, one of the Smithsonian’s most popular exhibits.
Political influence
Taft took an interest in everything relating to her husband's presidency, and she maintained her own opinions on important matters. Though she did not believe that women should be "meddling" in politics, she spoke publicly on her beliefs, even when they contradicted the positions of her husband. She managed his appearance and scheduling to ensure he maintained proper presentation, and she would provide him with political information such as names and statistics as he needed them. She would also stay near him to prevent his narcolepsy from affecting his responsibilities.
Taft also influenced appointments during her husband's presidency, providing her thoughts on the character of his nominees. She convinced her husband to recall ambassador Henry White because of a long-standing grudge that she held against him. She also rejected the appointment of Nicholas Longworth as a diplomat because he was married to Alice Roosevelt Longworth, whom she disliked. This latter action is cited as one of the reasons that Presidents Roosevelt and Taft began to oppose one another during the Taft presidency.
Though Taft did not identify as a feminist, she supported women's rights and used her position to advance the cause, convincing her husband to appoint women in government. In 1912, she attended a House Rules committee inquiry to hear testimonies of police brutality against women, bringing awareness to the issue. She also supported the rights of African Americans and other marginalized groups, believing that they were hampered by a lack of opportunity. She was active in other causes, such as safe workplace conditions, throughout her tenure as first lady. Her stroke at the beginning of her tenure prevented her from further political activity, a fact that she regretted. Her husband recognized her influence in White House politics, considering the accomplishments of his presidency to be hers as well. She also spoke openly about her own influence on the presidency, prompting criticism from her husband's political opponents.
Taft was the first first lady to visit the American judiciary. In 1911, she visited the Supreme Court of the United States to hear the arguments of Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States. She also asked to observe the inauguration of new Supreme Court justices, becoming the first woman to ever sit in the bar of the court. In June 1912, she attended both the Republican National Convention that re-nominated her husband and the Democratic National Convention that nominated his opponent Woodrow Wilson. She took a front-row seat at the latter in order to deter speakers' criticism of her husband. Though her husband disliked the presidency, Taft was saddened when her husband lost reelection to Woodrow Wilson in the 1912 presidential election, and she left the White House reluctantly.
Later life and death
After leaving the White House, the Tafts moved to New Haven, Connecticut, where Taft's husband held a chair at Yale University. Taft was unhappy with life outside of the White House, and she was often alone when her husband was traveling and her children were away at school. She was, however, happy to be out of the public eye. In 1914, Taft became the first first lady to publish a memoir with the publication of Recollections of Full Years, which had been written with her daughter Helen and journalist Eleanor Egan. She took an interest in the events of World War I, and during the war she provided support for the American Red Cross.
The Tafts continued to travel after retiring from the White House, visiting Bermuda, Panama, England, and Italy, being greeted in the latter two countries by King George V and the Pope, respectively. Continuing in her interest in politics, Taft joined the Colonial Dames of America in 1923 and became its honorary vice president in 1925.She also served as the honorary leader of the Girl Scouts of the USA.
After her husband's death in March 1930, she lived with her housekeeper in Washington, D.C., occasionally traveling to other countries. She continued to follow politics later in life, opposing the New Deal policies that were implemented in the 1930s. Taft died in Washington on May 22, 1943, and was buried next to her husband at Arlington National Cemetery.
Legacy
Taft was one of the earliest first ladies to become directly involved in the political career of her husband. Her influence in presidential politics was not given significant attention by historians after her death in 1943, and like other first ladies, her influence was not closely examined by historians until the 1980s. Before this, she was most well known for her introduction of cherry trees in the West Potomac Park. The first biography about Taft was written in 2005 by Carl Sferrazza Anthony, who argued that she was her husband's closest advisor and that she saw herself as responsible for the presidency as her husband. Her role as a mentor and guide to her husband was recognized by contemporary journalists and has since become a defining aspect of her legacy. She is recognized for her role in developing her husband's political career and bringing about the presidency of William Howard Taft.
References
Further reading
External links
ANC Explorer
Helen Herron Taft White House biography
Helen Taft at C-SPAN's First Ladies: Influence & Image
1861 births
1943 deaths
19th-century American educators
19th-century American women educators
20th-century American women
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery
First ladies of the United States
Ohio Republicans
People from Cincinnati
Taft family
University of Cincinnati alumni
American expatriates in the Philippines
Washington, D.C., Republicans
20th-century American people
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edith%20Roosevelt
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Edith Roosevelt
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Edith Kermit Roosevelt (née Carow; August 6, 1861 – September 30, 1948) was the second wife of President Theodore Roosevelt and the first lady of the United States from 1901 to 1909. She also was the second lady of the United States prior to that in 1901. Roosevelt was the first First Lady to employ a full-time, salaried social secretary. Her tenure resulted in the creation of an official staff and her formal dinners and ceremonial processions served to elevate the position of First Lady.
Early life
Edith Kermit Carow was born August 6, 1861, in Norwich, Connecticut, to Charles Carow and Gertrude Elizabeth Tyler, the first of their two daughters. Though her family was wealthy, her father was an unsuccessful businessman as well as a chronic gambler and an alcoholic, while her mother was a hypochondriac. For much of her childhood, her family was forced to move in with various relatives. She was troubled by her childhood, and she rarely spoke of her parents throughout her adult life.
The Carows were close friends with their neighbors, the Roosevelts, and Edith's early schooling took place at the Roosevelt home, as well as etiquette instruction at the Dodsworth School. Corinne Roosevelt was Edith's closest childhood friend, and Edith was often brought along with the Roosevelt children in their family activities. At age four, she stood with the Roosevelts on their balcony to watch Abraham Lincoln's funeral procession. Edith and Corinne formed their own literature club as children, the "Party of Renowned Eligibles", in which Edith served as club secretary each week over three years. Edith also bonded with Corinne's brother, Theodore Roosevelt, over their mutual love of literature.
The Carows moved uptown in 1871, where Edith attended Miss Comstock's School. Here she developed a lifelong sense of strict religious morality. She also took a more active interest in English literature, with a particular focus on the works of William Shakespeare, and she learned to speak fluent French. After graduating from Miss Comstock's School in 1879, Edith participated in New York social life, attending balls and making social calls. She was unable to travel, as she had to stay home tending for her parents, who had both grown ill. Her father died from alcohol-related illness in 1883.
Edith and Theodore grew closer as teenagers, and they developed romantic feelings for one another. They stayed in touch when Theodore went to Harvard University, but they had a falling out in August 1878. The details surrounding this stage of their relationship are not known. Various reasons have been proposed by the respective families and by historians for their split, including a rejected proposal, Theodore Roosevelt Sr.'s disapproval of Charles Carow's alcoholism, a rumor that the Roosevelts were afflicted with scrofula, or clashing personalities between two people with strong tempers. They revitalized their friendship in December 1879. Theodore was engaged with Alice Hathaway Lee at this time. This caused Edith grief, but she held a dinner in the couple's honor and then attended their wedding. She maintained a close relationship with the Roosevelts over the following years, though she was cold toward Alice.
After the deaths of Theodore's wife and his mother in February 1884, he moved west and distanced himself from his life in New York, and Edith did not see him for the following year. He avoided Edith intentionally, worrying that he would betray his Alice by having feelings for Edith. He returned to New York in September 1885, where he encountered Edith by chance at his sister's house. They were secretly engaged in November 1885, unwilling to disclose that Theodore was to rewed so soon after the death of his wife. After their engagement was set, they separated for eight months so Edith could help her mother and sister move to Europe while Theodore could settle his business affairs on the frontier.
Marriage
Theodore Roosevelt's first wife, Alice Lee Roosevelt, died on February 14, 1884, aged 22, leaving behind their baby daughter also named Alice. Theodore and Edith rekindled their relationship in 1885. They married in St George's, Hanover Square, London on December 2, 1886, when he was 28 and she was 25. His best man was Cecil Spring Rice, later the British ambassador to the United States during World War I. Rice also maintained a close friendship with the couple for the rest of his life.
Theodore and Edith's engagement was announced in the New York Times. After their honeymoon, the couple lived at Sagamore Hill on Long Island, New York. Roosevelt called his first daughter “Baby Lee” instead of “Alice” so as not to remind himself of the death of his first wife.
Together, the couple raised Alice (Theodore's daughter from his previous marriage) and their own children: Theodore (1887), Kermit (1889), Ethel (1891), Archibald (1894), and Quentin (1897).
In 1888, Theodore was appointed to the United States Civil Service Commission, where he served until 1895. While Edith supported her husband's decision to accept the position, she lamented that her third pregnancy would detain her at Sagamore Hill. Kermit Roosevelt was born on October 10, 1889, and Edith moved to Washington with their children three months later. During this period, Edith and Henry Adams became close friends.
At Edith's insistence, Theodore did not run for mayor of New York in 1894, because she preferred their life in Washington, D.C., and his job as a U.S. Civil Service Commissioner.
When Theodore became New York City police commissioner in 1895, they moved to New York City. In 1897, Theodore was chosen as Assistant Secretary of the Navy and the family moved back to Washington.
In 1898, Edith traveled by train to Tampa, Florida, to send her husband off to fight in the Spanish–American War.
Upon his return from Cuba, Edith defied a quarantine to meet him in Montauk, New York, where she assisted veterans at the hospital. In October 1898, when Roosevelt was nominated for the governorship, she helped answer his mail, but stayed off the campaign trail.
First Lady of New York
Edith Roosevelt enjoyed being First Lady of New York. During this time, she modernized the governor's mansion, joined a local woman's club, and continued to assist with her husband's correspondence. While First Lady of the state, Edith began a custom that would continue in the White House—she held a bouquet of flowers in each hand. Edith found shaking a stranger's hand overly familiar and preferred to bow her head in greeting.
Edith moved back to Washington when Roosevelt won the vice presidency in 1900.
First Lady
After President William McKinley’s assassination, Theodore Roosevelt assumed the presidency, and his wife became the nation’s First Lady.
With the country in mourning, the new First Lady could not do any entertaining. Instead, she focused on how to fit her large family into the White House. Edith eliminated the office of the housekeeper, performing the supervisory work herself.
Edith Roosevelt also made a major institutional change when she hired Isabelle "Belle" Hagner as the first social secretary to serve a First Lady. Hagner's initial assignment was to plan Alice Roosevelt's debut in 1902. Soon, Edith began to rely on Hagner and authorized her to release photos of the First Family in hopes of avoiding unauthorized candids.
Edith built on the First Lady's long history of entertaining visitors and made the titular office into that of the nation's hostess. She expanded the number of social events held at the White House, ensured the parties of Cabinet wives would not outshine hers, and worked to make Washington the nation's cultural center. The two most significant social events during Edith's tenure as first lady were the wedding of her stepdaughter and the society debut of her daughter, Ethel.
Edith also organized the wives of the cabinet officers and tried to govern the moral conduct of Washington society through their guest lists.
Edith is believed to have exerted subtle influence over her husband. They met privately every day from 8 to 9 am. The President's assistant, William Loeb, often helped sway the Chief Executive to Edith Roosevelt's way of thinking. She read several newspapers per day and forwarded clippings she considered important to her husband. In a 1933 article in the Boston Transcript, Isabelle Hagner reported that the legislation which created the National Portrait Gallery was passed because of Edith's influence. Historians believe her most important historical contribution was acting as an informal liaison between Theodore Roosevelt and British diplomat Cecil Spring Rice, a link which gave the President unofficial information about the Russo-Japanese War. As a result of negotiating the treaty which ended that conflict, President Roosevelt won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1906.
The President and his wife became the first president and First Lady to travel abroad while in office when they made a trip to Panama.
A perceptive aide described Edith Roosevelt as "always the gentle, high-bred hostess; smiling often at what went on about her, yet never critical of the ignorant and tolerant always of the little insincerities of political life."
In 1905, Edith purchased Pine Knot, a cabin in rural Virginia, as a refuge for her husband. At Pine Knot, the Secret Service guarded him without his knowledge.
White House renovation
In 1902, Edith hired McKim, Mead & White to separate the living quarters from the offices, enlarge and modernize the public rooms, re-do the landscaping, and redecorate the interior. Congress approved over half a million dollars for the renovation. The new West Wing housed offices while the East Wing housed the president's family and guests. The plumbing, lighting, and heating were upgraded. Edith placed her office next door to her husband's so they could confer frequently.
Edith took a historical view of the White House and saw that the Green Room, Blue Room, and East Room were redecorated with period antiques. McKim would have removed most of the existing furniture had Edith not intervened. Edith's intervention ensured that the Victorian furniture seen in the Lincoln Bedroom today was retained.
A larger dining room created a need for more china, so Edith ordered a Wedgwood service with the Great Seal of the United States for 120 people. Interest in her own china fostered a curiosity about the services of previous First Ladies. Edith completed the catalog of White House china that Caroline Scott Harrison commenced. She added to the collection by purchasing missing items from antique shops. When she left the White House, there were pieces from twenty-five administrations. She created a display of the china on the ground floor of the White House. The White House china collection that Edith Roosevelt first exhibited is still on view today.
Across from the White House china, Edith displayed portraits of former First Ladies. The once-scattered portraits were a hit with the public and guests to the White House could view the historical china and portraits as they waited to enter receptions.
Edith called on former White House gardener Henry Pfister to help her design a colonial garden on the west side of the White House. A similar garden was eventually placed on the east side of the White House.
The public would first see the renovations to the White House during the 1903 New Year's Day reception.
It was during Edith's tenure as First Lady that the White House became known as the White House. Previously, it had been known as the Executive Mansion.
Relationship with her children
Roosevelt was a devoted mother who spent several hours a day with her children and read to them daily. She and her husband took an active role in their children's education and often corresponded with their children's teachers.
Roosevelt longed for more children even after the birth of her fifth child, Quentin. She suffered two miscarriages as First Lady. She had a complicated relationship with her stepdaughter, Alice. In later years, Alice expressed admiration for her stepmother's sense of humor and stated that they had similar literary tastes. In her autobiography Crowded Hours, Alice wrote of Edith, "That I was the child of another marriage was a simple fact and made a situation that had to be coped with, and Mother coped with it with a fairness and charm and intelligence which she has to a greater degree than almost any one else I know."
Views on race
On October 16, 1901, President Roosevelt invited African-American educator Booker T. Washington to dine with his family at the White House. Several other presidents had invited African-Americans to meetings at the White House, but never to a meal. News of the dinner between a former slave and the president of the United States became a national sensation. The subject of inflammatory articles and cartoons, it shifted the national conversation around race at the time. Some Republicans tried to spin the dinner into a lunch. As Deborah Davis explained on NPR, "they got hungry and they ordered a tray, and by the time they were finished, there was barely a sandwich on it. And that seemed to make the meal a little more palatable in the South." The lunch story persisted for decades, until finally in the 1930s, a journalist from Baltimore's Afro-American newspaper asked Edith Roosevelt if it was lunch or dinner. Edith checked her calendar, and she said it was most definitely dinner.
Among the responses to the dinner was a cartoon created by Maryland Democrats in which Edith sat between her husband and Booker. The cartoon was widely reprinted. According to Deborah Davis, this was the first time that a First Lady was lampooned in print.
The dinner secured Washington's position as the leading black figure and spokesman in the United States. Deborah Davis believes that Edith admired Booker T. Washington. In a March 1901 letter, Theodore Roosevelt wrote to Booker, "Mrs. Roosevelt is as pleased as I am with your book."
According to biographer Lewis Gould, careful reading of Edith's private correspondence reveals racial views that go beyond what he calls the genteel bigotry" of her time. In 1902 and 1903 "Misses Turner and Miss Leech" performed at the Roosevelt White House. The women specialized in "Negro Songs" and Lewis Gould argued that by showcasing these performers, Edith entertained "guests with crude melodic stereotypes depicting an oppressed racial minority."
Later life and death
Edith's last decades included extensive travel to Europe, Asia, Africa, and South America. After leaving the White House, Theodore Roosevelt and Kermit went on a safari while Edith took Ethel, Archie, and Quentin on an extended tour of Europe.
The Smithsonian’s First Lady collection was created soon after the Roosevelts left the White House. When the museum's advocates asked her for a contribution, Edith said that she wasn't sure she could help: she often cut up dresses for the material after she wore them, and her inaugural gown was no exception. Her daughter later donated the remaining bottom half, and the Smithsonian refashioned the bodice using photographs.
Edith did not advocate for her husband's 1912 third-party presidential race but supported him fully when it was underway formally. She tended him after the assassination attempt, consoled him when he lost the election, and accompanied him to Brazil to see him off as he explored the River of Doubt. Both Roosevelts contributed to home-front activities during World War I. For example, Edith Roosevelt was the honorary president of The Needlework Guild of America, one of the oldest nonprofits in the United States which provided new clothes to the poor, from 1917 to 1921.
Edith urged Republican women to vote after the 19th Amendment was passed.
On January 6, 1919, her husband died of a pulmonary embolism in his sleep. He was 60 years old.
During the Great Depression, Edith campaigned briefly for Herbert Hoover to emphasize that the Democratic nominee, Franklin Roosevelt, was not her son. Edith had disliked Eleanor since Eleanor's childhood and animosity had existed between the two women since the 1920s when Eleanor campaigned against Theodore Roosevelt Jr. during his run for governor of New York.
Before her death, Edith destroyed almost all of her correspondence with her husband. However, Edith was a prodigious letter writer and her letters survive in archives such as the Houghton Library.
Edith died at Sagamore Hill on September 30, 1948, at the age of 87. She is buried next to her husband at Youngs Memorial Cemetery in Oyster Bay.
Notes
References
Further reading
Boera, A. Richard. "The Edith Kermit Roosevelt Diaries". Theodore Roosevelt Association Journal. 12#2 (1986): 2–11.
Forslund, Catherine. "Edith Kermit Carow Roosevelt: The Victorian Modern First Lady". In A Companion to First Ladies (2016): 298–319.
External links
Edith Roosevelt at C-SPAN's First Ladies: Influence & Image
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1861 births
1948 deaths
19th-century American Episcopalians
19th-century American women
20th-century American Episcopalians
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Burials in New York (state)
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First ladies of the United States
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Second ladies of the United States
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frances%20Cleveland
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Frances Cleveland
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Frances Clara Cleveland Preston (, christened Frank Clara; July 21, 1864 – October 29, 1947) was the First Lady of the United States from 1886 to 1889 and again from 1893 until 1897, as the wife of President Grover Cleveland. She is the sole first lady in U.S. history to have served in the role during two non-consecutive terms.
Folsom met Grover Cleveland while she was an infant, as he was a friend of her father, Oscar Folsom. When her father died in 1875, Grover became the executor of her father's estate. He took care of Oscar's outstanding financial debts and provided for the well-being of Frances and her mother Emma. She was educated at Wells College, and after graduating she married Grover while he was the incumbent president. When her husband lost reelection in 1888, they went into private life for four years and began having children. They returned to the White House when her husband was elected again in 1892, but much of her time in the second term was dedicated to her children.
The Clevelands had five children, four of whom survived to adulthood. Cleveland became involved in education advocacy, serving on the Wells College board, supporting women's education, and organizing the construction of kindergartens. She was widowed in 1908, and she married Thomas J. Preston Jr. in 1913. Cleveland-Preston continued to work in education activism after leaving the White House, becoming involved with Princeton University. During World War I, she advocated military preparedness. She died in 1947 and was buried alongside her first husband in Princeton Cemetery.
Early life
Childhood
Frances Clara Folsom was born in Buffalo, New York on July 21, 1864. She was the first child of Emma (née Harmon) and Oscar Folsom. Her only sibling, Nellie Augusta, died in infancy in 1872. Folsom's father Oscar was a lawyer, who had a law partnership with Grover Cleveland. Because of this, Folsom and Cleveland first met when she was still an infant. He was a regular presence in her childhood, and he bought her her first baby carriage. Although the Folsoms were financially secure when she was born, her father's gambling habits and his penchant for helping others with his money caused them financial trouble as she grew.
Folsom attended school at Madame Brecker's French Kindergarten and Miss Bissell's School for Young Ladies, both of which were among Buffalo's best-regarded schools and guaranteed her an education above that of most women in her time. When not in school, she regularly spent time with Cleveland, known to her as "Uncle Cleve". As a child, she went by the name Frank, and she was christened under this name as a teenager. The name sometimes caused her problems when she was assigned to boys' activities in school.
Folsom's father died in a carriage accident on July 23, 1875. Cleveland was given charge of his estate and became Folsom's unofficial guardian. Folsom and her mother moved to live with relatives, first with Folsom's aunt in Saint Paul, Minnesota and then with her grandmother in Medina, New York. They eventually returned to Buffalo and lived in different boarding houses until they found a home.
Wells College
When Folsom was 14, she joined the Presbyterian Church, to which she remained devoted throughout her life. She attended Central High School in Buffalo, where she was briefly engaged to a seminary student, but the engagement was broken when they decided to remain friends. Folsom left Central High School in October 1881, before her schooling was finished.
Although Folsom had not finished school, Cleveland used his authority as the mayor of Buffalo to obtain for her a certificate of completion and entry into Wells College in Aurora, New York as a sophomore. Here she learned etiquette and manners from Helen Fairchild Smith, and she quickly became a prominent student at the school, taking her place at the center of its social life. At Wells, she became interested in photography and political science, and she participated in the Phoenix Society, a campus debate club. Folsom received two more marriage proposals at Wells, both on the same day. She accepted one of them, but this engagement was also ended by a decision to remain friends.
Cleveland, who became governor of New York at this time, maintained correspondence with Folsom while she attended Wells. He visited her, sent her flowers, and brought her on tours of New York when her schedule permitted. Folsom was unable to attend Cleveland's presidential inauguration as it conflicted with her final exams, but she visited him at the White House during spring break some weeks later. Washington, D.C., left a positive impression on her, and she accompanied the new president on his nightly walks in the East Room while she stayed at the White House. Folsom was also permitted to ascend the Washington Monument before its opening, where she met former first lady Harriet Lane.
Engagement
Folsom graduated from Wells on June 20, 1885, and she spent the summer at her grandfather's home in Wyoming County, New York. Cleveland proposed marriage by letter in August 1885, while Folsom was visiting a friend in Scranton, Pennsylvania. After accepting, Folsom accompanied her mother and her cousin on a year-long tour of Europe. Despite Folsom's eagerness to wed, her mother and her future groom both insisted that she take the opportunity to travel and contemplate her future before marriage. Everyone involved agreed to keep the planned wedding a secret, and the president's sister Rose Cleveland served as White House hostess in the meantime. Rumors of their engagement were initially dismissed as gossip, as speculation of the president's love life was common. Popular gossip considered Frances' mother to be a more likely partner. Rumors grew after reporters caught up with the Folsoms and found them shopping for a wedding gown.
By the time of the Folsoms' return voyage, reporters were tracking their whereabouts, and they were forced to board their ship home in secret. They were greeted by the press upon returning to the United States, and rumors of Cleveland's interest were seemingly confirmed when representatives of the president took the Folsoms away. It was only the next night that the White House officially announced that the president intended to marry Frances Folsom. Cleveland visited Folsom in New York while he was in the city attending a Decoration Day parade on May 30, 1886, and the Folsom women took a train to Washington, D.C., on June 1. Media attention quickly turned Folsom into a celebrity.
First Lady of the United States
Wedding
The wedding of Grover Cleveland and Frances Folsom took place in the Blue Room of the White House on June 2, 1886. The president wished for a quiet wedding, so only 31 guests were invited, and the press was explicitly denied entry. Hundreds of well-wishers gathered outside of the White House to celebrate. Frances Cleveland was the first presidential spouse to marry in the White House, and she was the youngest presidential spouse in American history. She was 21 years old, and her groom was 49. After their wedding, the Clevelands went on honeymoon for a week in Deer Park, Maryland, where they were closely followed by reporters who intruded on their privacy. After returning to the White House, they held two wedding receptions, one of which was open to the public.
First term
Frances Cleveland was immediately popular as first lady, attracting unprecedented publicity. They drew enough attention that the Clevelands chose not to use the living quarters of the White House. Instead, they moved to their private residence, the "Red Top", to escape from the public and the media. Each evening, the couple drove to their private home to oversee improvements. Cleveland worked with socialite Flora Payne to better prepare for a role in high society. She also became close friends with poet Richard Watson Gilder and his wife Helena, and Cleveland accompanied them in meeting prominent writers of the time. She stayed involved with Wells College as well, taking a seat on its board of trustees in 1887.
Cleveland maintained an openness with the public that was not shared by her husband or by her predecessor Rose Cleveland. To accommodate all who wished to visit the White House, she hosted many social events on Saturdays to ensure that they did not conflict with the schedules of working women. Cleveland received countless letters from the American people, many of them asking her to influence the president's granting of patronage jobs. She read all of the mail that she received, but she sought assistance from the president's secretaries in replying, eventually hiring her friend Minnie Alexander as a personal secretary. Her openness extended to the White House staff as well, with whom she maintained close relationships.
Cleveland was credited with an increase in the president's sociability after their marriage. The president set aside time in his busy schedule to be with his wife, attending the theater and going on carriage rides. While Cleveland had considerable influence in their home life, she had little involvement in the political aspects of her husband's administration. Her popularity nonetheless served her husband's administration well. Many of the president's political opponents acknowledged the difficulty of attacking the administration when the first lady had such support, and critics were careful not to attack her directly lest they provoke backlash. She was once even sent as the president's representative during the Great Tariff Debate of 1888 to quietly observe from the visitors' gallery.
In 1887, the Clevelands toured the United States. Frances endured a severe insect bite and a black eye, and she spent so much time shaking hands that she needed to use an ice pack each night. Crowds of people became a constant on their trip, often preventing their carriage from moving. Their visit to Chicago was attended by about 100,000 people, with the crowd becoming so large that Cleveland had to be taken away by aides for her own safety while police and soldiers attempted to control the crowd. Cleveland avoided such publicized appearances for the rest of her time as first lady.
Toward the end of the president's first term, opponents began crafting rumors to diminish her reputation. One rumor suggested that Grover was abusive toward Frances. In response, Frances praised her husband and harshly condemned the rumor as a political smear. For the first lady to speak so openly about such a topic was unprecedented. Another rumor suggested that she was unfaithful to her husband, having an affair with newspaper editor Henry Watterson. She remained a prominent figure when her husband sought reelection in the 1888 presidential election. The 1888 Democratic National Convention was the first such convention in which a first lady was recognized during a speech.
Private life
Cleveland's tenure as first lady ended after her husband lost his reelection campaign, but she correctly predicted to the staff that they would return the following term. The Clevelands left the White House, sold the Red Top house, and moved to Madison Avenue in New York. Cleveland struggled with the transition from public to private life, having never run a private household of her own. She underwent a period of depression over the following months, and she retreated to the Gilders' cottage in Marion, New York. The Clevelands found a cottage to rent in the area, and they eventually purchased the Gray Gables summer home in Buzzards Bay, Massachusetts, where the couple developed their own private home life. Here they often hosted close friends, including the Gilders and actor Joseph Jefferson. Cleveland found comfort in this house, where she and her husband could lead a relatively normal life.
Despite no longer being the first lady, Cleveland remained in the public spotlight. In between her tenures as first lady, Cleveland took on charity work and grew more involved in New York social life through her charitable projects. Although they occasionally worked together on these projects, Frances and Grover for the most part led separate social lives after leaving the White House. Among her charitable endeavors was the promotion of kindergartens in New York, serving as the vice president of Gilder's New York Kindergarten Association. Frances received further attention when she became a mother with the birth of Ruth Cleveland in 1891. She dedicated herself to the child, taking on many of the roles that a woman of her status would have typically given to a nurse, such as bathing the child.
Grover ran for president again in the 1892 presidential election. Although he never approved of it, Frances' image was often used prominently in campaign material. Her social connections and press coverage were valuable for the Cleveland campaign in New York. Her charity work in the state and her friendship with the Gilders enabled the Clevelands to build connections with New York's Four Hundred society and helped win over disaffected Republicans. These factors contributed to Grover winning in his home state, which he had failed to do in 1888. Nonetheless, he disapproved of any involvement his wife had in the political aspects of his career. After Grover was reelected president, the Clevelands left their home on Madison Avenue, spending the period before the inauguration living on 51st Street next door to their friend Elias Cornelius Benedict and then in Lakewood, New Jersey.
Second term
The Clevelands returned to the White House on March 4, 1893. Just as her husband was the only man to ever hold the presidency for two non-consecutive terms, Frances became the only first lady to serve non-consecutively. She was more apprehensive about taking the role for a second time, now being aware of all that it entailed. Her routine largely resembled that of her first tenure, including her evening drives with the president and her Saturday receptions. She received the familiar crowds that she had encountered during her previous time as first lady as well as heads of state, including one instance in which she disregarded precedent by meeting with Infanta Eulalia of Spain at her hotel. She also continued her work in the establishment of kindergartens and became involved with the Home for Friendless Colored Girls, visiting the Metropolitan African Methodist Episcopal Church with the group in 1896.
Cleveland became increasingly protective of her husband during his second term—a reversal of their relationship in his first term. The president's work grew more difficult as the Panic of 1893 set in, and Cleveland found herself tending to her husband. The president's health was in decline during his second term, and his wife became increasingly responsible for his well-being, encouraging him to exert himself less. When it became apparent that the president had cancer, she took responsibility for keeping his condition a secret and tending to his health, despite her pregnancy with her second child, which at this time was in its seventh month. She provided excuses for his absences and wrote letters on his behalf, insisting that he was merely suffering from rheumatism.
Cleveland had two more daughters as first lady: Esther Cleveland in 1893 and Marion Cleveland in 1895. She gave birth to Esther in the White House, making her the only first lady to give birth in the presidential residence. Much of her time was dedicated to raising her three children, and she would even play on the floor with her children, to the shock of the servants who had never before seen a first lady act in such a manner. Cleveland also took an interest in German culture during her husband's second term, learning to speak the language and hiring a German nurse so her children would learn it as well. Cleveland's time was split between her responsibilities as first lady and those as a mother. Her second term was not as socially active as her first, and she hosted only one reception in the 1894 social season.
The Clevelands were upset at the extent of press and public attention focused on their children, and they controversially had the White House closed to the public while they were present. They purchased another private residence, Woodley, where they could live away from the White House. Harassment from the public continued at their new residence, and Cleveland was particularly frightened by an incident in 1894 when three men were stalking their home. Fearing for her children's safety, she had the local police station post a guard at their home, choosing not to worry her husband with the news.
Three thousand people attended the first lady's final Saturday reception to shake her hand. Cleveland wept as she left the White House, personally saying goodbye to each member of the White House staff. This organized farewell would be replicated by future first ladies, becoming a tradition. Despite her emotional departure, she later expressed relief that she was no longer first lady, remembering the rumors and falsehoods that had surrounded her.
Widowhood and remarriage
After leaving the White House for the second time, the Clevelands bought Westland, a house in Princeton, New Jersey. They had two more children over the following years: Richard F. Cleveland and Francis Cleveland. Their firstborn daughter, Ruth, died of diphtheria in 1904 at their Gray Gables vacation home. Wishing to avoid memories of their child's illness and death, they sold the home and purchased Intermont, a summer home in Tamworth, New Hampshire. The Clevelands involved themselves with Princeton University and provided financial support for many Princeton students. Grover died in 1908, and Frances was left to raise their four remaining children alone. She refused the pension to which she was legally entitled as a widowed first lady, but she did accept the franking privilege that was offered to presidential widows in 1909.
In March 1909, she held a memorial service for her husband at Carnegie Hall. After her husband's death, Cleveland became involved in a legal battle against writer Broughton Brandenburg, who had been paid by The New York Times for an article supposedly written by Grover Cleveland before his death, but which was found to be a forgery created by Brandenburg. She was unable to prevent its publication after she discovered that it was fraudulent. She testified against Brandenburg in court, and he was found guilty of grand larceny. The ordeal made national headlines. Still grieving for her husband, Cleveland spent time away on a vacation to Europe with her family from September 1909 to May 1910.
On October 29, 1912, Wells College announced that Cleveland intended to remarry. She was engaged to Thomas J. Preston Jr., professor of archaeology and acting president at Wells College, where she served as a trustee. She was invited to return to the White House for a dinner to celebrate her engagement in January 1913, much to the excitement of the staff who had known her previously. As with her previous engagement decades before, she was secretive about the process to limit media attention. Both Wells College and Princeton University congratulated them with the expectation that the couple would be active at their respective campuses. Frances Cleveland and Thomas Preston were wed on February 10, 1913. She was the first presidential widow to remarry. After their marriage, the Prestons went on honeymoon in Florida. Her second husband went on to teach at Princeton University, where she continued to be a prominent figure in campus social life.
Later life
The Prestons moved to London in April 1914. Frances Cleveland-Preston was vacationing with her children and her mother in St. Moritz, Switzerland, when World War I began in August 1914. They returned to the United States via Genoa, arriving on October 1. Cleveland-Preston and her husband worked with activists Solomon Stanwood Menken and Robert McNutt McElroy throughout the war to promote military preparedness. She was appointed head of the speakers' bureau of the National Security League (NSL), where she was responsible for organizing rallies and other events to support the war effort. She caused controversy by accusing some Americans of being unassimilated, and she resigned from her position on December 8, 1919, after backlash to what some in the NSL saw as overzealous views around patriotic education.
Cleveland-Preston became more outspoken in her political beliefs as she grew older, taking a prominent position as an opponent of women's suffrage and serving as the vice president of the New Jersey Association Opposed to Woman's Suffrage from 1913 to 1920. In the 1928 presidential election, she gave her only formal political endorsement to someone other than her first husband, endorsing Al Smith for president. She had met the Smiths and grew upset with the anti-Catholic attacks against them. She was especially sympathetic to his wife Catherine, and Cleveland-Preston made a point of sitting with her at events as a show of support.
Cleveland-Preston supported Franklin D. Roosevelt as president in 1932, and she admired his wife Eleanor Roosevelt, but she declined to vote for Roosevelt in 1940 due to her first husband's opposition to a third term. She subsequently supported Harry S. Truman. During the Truman presidency, she was invited to a luncheon at the White House where she met General Dwight D. Eisenhower. Eisenhower is quoted as not recognizing her and asking where in the city she used to live, prompting her to respond that she had lived in the White House.
Later in life, Cleveland-Preston was afflicted by cataracts, and she learned Braille to use a braille typewriter. She continued to use it after her cataracts were removed, translating books into braille for blind children. She was involved with the theater community in her old age, sometimes traveling with the theater troupe founded by her son. Cleveland-Preston attended the Princeton University bicentennial celebration in June 1946, which proved to be her final public appearance. While staying at her son Richard's home for his 50th birthday in Baltimore, she died in her sleep at the age of 83 on October 29, 1947. She was buried in Princeton Cemetery next to President Cleveland, her first husband.
Legacy
Cleveland was much-loved as first lady, drawing an unprecedented level of media and public attention. Her travels and activities were meticulously documented by reporters, to the president's ire. The furor at times even became dangerous, with large crowds pushing to see her, threatening to topple into her and one another. Her presence in the White House mitigated her husband's surly reputation and fostered an image of the president as a loving husband, and later as a loving father.
Cleveland's reputation influenced the role of first lady for generations after her tenure. The form letters used by Cleveland as first lady remained in use, eventually being redrafted by Eleanor Roosevelt. In honor of Frances Cleveland, Cleveland Hall was constructed in 1911 on the Wells College campus. Contemporaries ranked her among the greatest of first ladies. In 1982, the Siena College Research Institute polled historians on the performances of first ladies; Cleveland was placed 13th out of 42, but the 2008 edition of the poll placed her 20th of 38.
Fashion and image
Much of Cleveland's fame and media coverage focused on her appearance and her fashion, and her fashion choices were widely imitated by women throughout the United States. These included her hairstyle, a low knot over a shaved nape, which became known as the á la Cleveland. Her fashion choices and purchases influenced the behavior of consumers, and products she reportedly used enjoyed an increase in popularity. An article published by the Atlanta Constitution falsely stated that she no longer purchased bustles, causing a decline in their popularity. The Woman's Christian Temperance Union wrote to her requesting that she dress more modestly, fearing that she was setting a poor example. She declined to do so.
Cleveland's immense popularity led to the extensive use of her image in advertising, and many products falsely claimed to have her endorsement. It became such a problem that a bill was introduced to Congress that would establish personality rights for women and criminalize the unauthorized use of a person's image, but the bill did not pass. Cleveland updated her fashion choices during her husband's second term. Reflecting the trends of the Gay Nineties, she wore tight gowns, feather boas, and picture hats. News articles on her activities continued to reference her sense of fashion in her old age.
Politics
Although she was personally interested in politics, Cleveland did not publicly support political causes while serving as first lady. One exception to her avoidance of politics was her interest in the political situation of the Republic of Hawaii, where she endorsed the restoration of monarchy with Princess Ka'iulani's claim to the throne as the heir apparent. She also supported the temperance movement, personally abstaining from alcohol and donating to the Woman's Christian Temperance Union, but she was unwilling to impose these beliefs on others and continued to serve wine at White House receptions.
Instead of political activism, she worked with charity groups, including the Needlework Guild, which made clothes for the poor, and the Christmas Club and the Colored Christmas Club, which gave gifts to children during the holiday season. Cleveland's activism focused heavily on the arts, and she was a supporter of international copyright protections, attending a convention on the subject while first lady in 1888. She also provided charitable support, sponsoring many aspiring musicians.
Cleveland supported women's education and believed it to be an important step in gender equality. She did not support women's suffrage, and she avoided commenting on the controversial issue during her tenure as first lady. Like many female anti-suffragists of her generation, she felt that involvement in politics was an unfortunate duty to be avoided and that it risked women's control of the domestic sphere. Despite this, she chose to vote in elections after the ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment.
References
External links
Frances Cleveland at C-SPAN's First Ladies: Influence & Image
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1864 births
1947 deaths
19th-century American women
20th-century American women
Activists from Buffalo, New York
Burials at Princeton Cemetery
First ladies of the United States
Grover Cleveland family
Wells College alumni
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter%20Robinson%20%28Northern%20Ireland%20politician%29
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Peter Robinson (Northern Ireland politician)
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Peter David Robinson (born 29 December 1948) is a retired Northern Irish politician who served as First Minister of Northern Ireland from 2008 until 2016 and Leader of the Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) from 2008 until 2015. Until his retirement in 2016, Robinson was involved in Northern Irish politics for over 40 years, being a founding member of the DUP along with Ian Paisley.
Robinson served in the role of General Secretary of the DUP from 1975, a position which he held until 1979 and which afforded him the opportunity to exert unprecedented influence within the fledgeling party. In 1977, Robinson was elected as a councillor for the Castlereagh Borough Council in Dundonald, and in 1979, he became one of the youngest Members of Parliament (MP) when he was narrowly elected for Belfast East. He held this seat for 31 years until his defeat by Naomi Long in 2010, making him the longest-serving Belfast MP since the 1800 Act of Union.
In 1980, Robinson was elected as the deputy leader of the DUP. Following the re-establishment of devolved government in Northern Ireland as a result of the Good Friday Agreement, Robinson was elected in 1998 as the Member of the Legislative Assembly (MLA) for Belfast East. Robinson subsequently served as Minister for Regional Development and Minister of Finance and Personnel in the Northern Ireland Executive. Robinson was elected unopposed to succeed Ian Paisley as leader of the DUP on 15 April 2008, and was subsequently confirmed as First Minister of Northern Ireland on 5 June 2008.
In January 2010, following a scandal involving his wife Iris, Robinson temporarily handed over his duties as First Minister to Arlene Foster under the terms of the Northern Ireland Act 2006. Following a police investigation, which recommended that Robinson should not be prosecuted following allegations made by the BBC in relation to the scandal, he resumed his duties as First Minister. The Official Assembly Commissioner's Investigation and Report cleared Robinson of any wrongdoing.
In September 2015, Robinson again stood aside to allow Arlene Foster to become acting First Minister after his bid to adjourn the assembly was rejected. His action was a response to a murder for which a member of Sinn Féin, a party in the Northern Ireland Executive, had been questioned. He resumed his duties on 20 October 2015. On 19 November 2015, he announced that he would be stepping down as First Minister and as leader of the DUP. Robinson subsequently stepped down as First Minister on 11 January 2016 and has now fully retired from frontline politics.
Background
Peter David Robinson was born on 29 December 1948 in Belfast, Northern Ireland, the son of Sheila and David McCrea Robinson.
Robinson was educated at Annadale Grammar School and Castlereagh College, now part of the Belfast Metropolitan College. In 1966 Robinson first heard Ian Paisley speak at a rally at Ulster Hall and shortly afterwards left school to devote himself to the Protestant fundamentalist cause. Robinson considered joining the Royal Ulster Constabulary but instead he joined the Lagan Valley unit of the Ulster Protestant Volunteers (UPV), a paramilitary organisation tied to Ian Paisley's Free Presbyterian Church. Robinson also joined the Ulster Constitution Defence Committee. As a young man Robinson embraced a populist anti-Catholic fundamentalism; a former classmate alleged Robinson and a friend harassed a pair of Catholic nuns in the street in Portrush, County Antrim, yelling "Popehead, Popehead". Robinson initially gained employment as an estate agent for R.J. McConnell & Co and later with Alex, Murdoch & Deane in Belfast, and then he became the DUP's first general secretary in 1975.
Political career
Member of the DUP
Robinson had by 1970 come to Paisley's notice after writing a pamphlet called The North Answers Back which attacked the Northern Ireland civil rights movement and defended the Stormont government. Robinson became chairman of the Lagan Valley branch of the DUP's predecessor the Protestant Unionist Party upon its formation. In 1970 he was prominent in Paisley's campaign to win the North Antrim seat in the 1970 UK general election Robinson and for a time served as Paisley's private secretary. In 1971 Robinson was a founding member of the DUP and was General Secretary of the DUP between 1975 and 1979. He had previously shared the post of honorary secretary of the party on an unpaid basis with Desmond Boal. Robinson was active in the 1974 Ulster Workers' Council strike against the Sunningdale Agreement, which had been signed in December 1973. A senior loyalist politician recalled walking into the Ulster Workers' Council HQ on Hawthornden Road to find Peter Robinson and Jim Allister "giggling", phoning SDLP headquarters claiming to be Catholics in distress in a loyalist area afflicted by the strike and asking the SDLP to send a car to rescue them. He was campaign manager for East Belfast MP William Craig in the 1974 general election but the relationship was short-lived. He first stood in the election to the Northern Ireland Constitutional Convention on 1 May 1975 in Belfast, East. Although he started in fifth place, he failed to get elected and was overtaken by his running mate Eileen Paisley.
Robinson was elected as a councillor for Castlereagh Borough Council for the Castlereagh C area in the local government elections on 18 May 1977, a seat he held until his resignation from the council on 2 July 2007.
Member of Parliament and Executive Minister
Robinson was selected as DUP candidate for Belfast East during the 1979 general election, a seat which previously had a big Ulster Unionist Party (UUP) majority. He won the seat with a 19.9% swing to the DUP and a majority of 64, with Alliance Party leader Oliver Napier 928 votes behind, unseating the MP former Vanguard Progressive Unionist Party leader and UUP candidate William Craig on 3 May 1979. The main plank of Robinson's campaign was that he was the only candidate in the constituency who totally opposed power-sharing with the SDLP.
He was re-elected to the House of Commons in 1983, 1986 (along with other unionist MPs, he resigned his seat in protest at the Anglo-Irish Agreement on 17 December 1985 and was re-elected in the by-election the next year), 1987, 1992, 2001 and 2005. In the 2010 UK general election he lost Belfast East to Naomi Long of the Alliance Party.
Robinson served on the Northern Ireland Affairs Committee from 1997 to July 2005.
In the general election on 7 June 2001, Robinson's wife, Iris, joined him in Parliament as MP for Strangford.
Leadership of the Democratic Unionist Party
Robinson's electoral success was marked when he was elected Deputy Leader of the DUP in 1980. He was elected to the Northern Ireland Assembly for Belfast East on 20 October 1982 where he served as Chairman of the Environment Committee until it was dissolved in 1986.
In 1986 he was involved, alongside other DUP leaders, in the launch of Ulster Resistance at the Ulster Hall, an event chaired by the DUP. Robinson was later photographed wearing a beret at an Ulster Resistance rally. The DUP later severed links with Ulster Resistance in 1987.
Robinson resigned briefly as DUP Deputy Leader in 1987 when the Task Force Report, written jointly with UUP members Harold McCusker MP and Frank Millar and calling for a strategic unionist rethink in the wake of the Anglo-Irish Agreement was rejected by their respective leaders, Ian Paisley and James Molyneaux.
He was elected to the Northern Ireland Forum on 30 May 1996 and served in it until it completed its work in 1998. On 25 June 1998, he was elected MLA for Belfast East in the Northern Ireland Assembly election. He was subsequently re-elected to the Northern Ireland Assembly in 2003 and again in 2007.
Robinson was Minister for Regional Development, which has overall responsibility for the Department for Regional Development (DRD), between 29 November 1999 to 27 July 2000 and 24 October 2001 to 11 October 2002. He was responsible for the introduction of free fares on public transport for the elderly and helped formulate the 25-year Regional Development Strategy for Northern Ireland and devise the 10-year Regional Transport Strategy.
Robinson was Minister of Finance and Personnel from 8 May 2007 to June 2008.
On 4 March 2008, Ian Paisley announced that he would step down as Leader of the DUP and First Minister that May. On 14 April 2008, Robinson was nominated unanimously by the DUP MLAs as leader-designate with Nigel Dodds as deputy leader-designate and on 17 April 2008 they were both ratified by the DUP's 120-member executive committee. He formally became leader on 31 May 2008.
First Minister of Northern Ireland
As he was nominated by the largest party, Robinson was ratified by the Northern Ireland Assembly as First Minister with Sinn Féin's Martin McGuinness as deputy First Minister on 5 June 2008.
On 11 January 2010 Robinson announced that he was temporarily stepping down from the position of First Minister to clear his name over BBC allegations arising from the Iris Robinson scandal. Arlene Foster was designated to discharge the duties of First Minister until his return. Robinson faced claims that he knew his wife had obtained £50,000 from two developers for her teenage lover but did not tell the proper authorities, leading to him asking the House of Commons and the Northern Ireland Assembly to carry out an inquiry into his conduct. After an OFMdFM lawyer advised Robinson that he had committed no wrongdoing, he returned to active duty as First Minister despite the ongoing investigations by the Police Service of Northern Ireland and the Assembly Commissioner for Standards and Privileges. While the police investigation into the conduct of the Peter and Iris Robinson concluded in a recommendation not to prosecute in 2011, the Standards and Privileges enquiry remained incomplete three years after it was ordered by the Assembly. It was delayed as Iris Robinson was adjudged medically unfit to respond to the enquiry. The report was finally completed at the beginning of 2014, and finally made publicly available on 28 November 2014. Section 13 of the report stated that the three BBC allegations against Robinson "even if established after investigation", did not breach of the Code of Conduct.
On 5 February 2010, Robinson and McGuinness oversaw the devolution of policing and justice powers from the British Parliament to the Northern Ireland Assembly, negotiating a power-sharing deal with Sinn Féin. This process ensured that devolution in Northern Ireland was able to be fully completed.
At the 2011 Assembly election, both the DUP and Sinn Féin increased their number of seats. Robinson had led the DUP to its best ever Assembly election result. Robinson and McGuinness were sworn in for a second term as First Minister and Deputy First Minister respectively shortly afterwards.
On 6 April 2011 Robinson attended the funeral of murdered PSNI officer, Ronan Kerr, becoming the first DUP leader to attend a Catholic Mass.
In 2012, Robinson was involved in the historic visit of Queen Elizabeth II to Northern Ireland, when she shook hands with Martin McGuinness. Robinson supported the event, saying, "We recognise that this will be a difficult ask for Her Majesty The Queen and a significant step for republicans. The process has required us all to reach out and take decisions outside our comfort zone. It is the right decision and a step forward for Northern Ireland."
On 19 November 2015, Robinson announced he would be stepping down as Northern Ireland First Minister and leader of the DUP. Although he had recently suffered a heart attack, he stated his health was not the main reason behind his decision to stand down. He did not contest the 2016 Northern Ireland Assembly election.
Political and personal controversies
Ulster Defence Association links
The Ulster Defence Association (UDA), a Loyalist paramilitary group, were a decisive factor in Robinson being elected to the Belfast East constituency during the 1979 general election. Robinson had an association with the UDA that predated the 1979 election by several years. The UDA canvassed for Robinson's election campaign, displayed his posters at their headquarters and did "sterling service" at polling booths. In 1984 Robinson and UUP politician John Carson negotiated on behalf of loyalist paramilitary prisoners held at Magilligan Prison on hunger strike in protest at not being segregated from republican prisoners. The pair and Ian Paisley both spoke at a large rally on the Shankill Road in support of the loyalists on hunger strike; Paisley addressing the British government, said "We as the Protestant people of Ulster... say you have a right to give our prisoners safety". Robinson, in support, read out a letter from loyalist paramilitary prisoners: "...often it is the sacrifice of a few that improves the life and standards for many, we are, if necessary, ready to make that sacrifice." Later interviewed about his role in the loyalist hunger strike, asked if he regarded the UDA as terrorists, he insisted that they were "counter-terrorists" and refused to condemn the UDA and Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF) by name.
Following the signing of the 1985 Anglo-Irish Agreement Robinson tried to enlist the paramilitary group to join demonstrations including taking over towns at night. UDA sources claimed UDA members met Robinson at DUP headquarters, who would instruct his police bodyguard to sit outside the room and wait. Robinson also made contact with the UVF to coordinate strike action against the Anglo-Irish Agreement; following criticism Robinson insisted he was only fulfilling his responsibilities as Belfast co-ordinator for the protests. In this period Robinson attended rallies in Keady and Portadown where masked men paraded in military formation. In a profile by World in Action in 1986 Robinson acknowledged that he was relying on the UDA for "muscle" in the unionist confrontation with the British government over the Agreement, but justified the strategy on the basis that Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher had ignored the elected representatives of unionism and "other means" were necessary.
Robinson and UUP MP Harold McCusker were pallbearers at the funeral of UDA commander John McMichael, who was assassinated at his home by the IRA in December 1987. He also was a pallbearer with DUP politician Sammy Wilson at the funeral of UDA leader Ray Smallwoods, who served half of a 15-year sentence for the attempted murder of Bernadette McAliskey in 1981.
Invasion of Clontibret
On 7 August 1986, in protest at the Anglo-Irish Agreement, Robinson led a group of loyalists into the village of Clontibret in County Monaghan in the Republic of Ireland to demonstrate the lack of security along the Irish border. The loyalists attacked the unmanned Garda station in the village and daubed loyalist slogans on the walls. They then held a parade along the main street and attacked two Gardaí. More Gardaí arrived shortly after and fired shots in the air, scattering the loyalist crowd. Robinson was arrested and held at Monaghan Garda station. He pleaded guilty to unlawful assembly and was fined IR£17,500 in a Drogheda court. There was also violence both before and after a court appearance in Dundalk, when both Robinson and Ian Paisley were attacked. Republicans also threw stones and petrol bombs at flag-waving Robinson supporters. At his trial one of the judges described him as "a senior extremist politician".
Ulster Resistance
In November 1986, Paisley and Robinson spoke at the Ulster Hall demonstration which launched Ulster Resistance (UR), the organisation was intended to act as a protector for beleaguered unionists who were under attack from the IRA. The organisation subsequently imported arms from South Africa, resulting in Paisley and Robinson dissociating themselves from the organisation. He was photographed wearing the group's beret at an Ulster Resistance demonstration.
Views on homosexuality
In the late 1970s, Robinson became widely known as the organiser of the DUP's Save Ulster from Sodomy campaign to prevent the decriminalisation of homosexuality in Northern Ireland.
On 30 October 2008, in his first extensive interview as First Minister (for Hearts and Minds on BBC Northern Ireland), Peter Robinson stated that homosexuality was against Christian theology.
Robinson's wife, Iris, had quoted the Bible which said that homosexuality was an abomination and that with help, gay people could be "turned around". A police investigation was initiated amid claims "her comments breached hate crime laws. No charges were brought." Peter Robinson supported his wife's statements, saying: "It wasn't Iris Robinson who determined that homosexuality was an abomination, it was The Almighty. This is the Scriptures. It is a strange world indeed where somebody on the one hand talks about equality, but won't allow Christians to have the equality, the right to speak, the right to express their views."
Planning application
On 28 May 2009 the Planning Service of Northern Ireland granted a developer planning permission for six houses to be built on land, part of which, was Robinson's rear garden on the Gransha Road in the Dundonald area of East Belfast.
On 30 March 2010, the BBC reported that Robinson had purchased a piece of land from a developer for £5, enabling him to sell part of his back garden for nearly £460,000. Robinson later claimed that the inaccurate report was evidence that the BBC were leading a smear campaign against him.
BBC Spotlight investigation
On 8 January 2010 the BBC Northern Ireland programme Spotlight reported on how his wife, Iris, had obtained £50,000 for Kirk McCambley, 19 at the time, while in a sexual relationship with him. On the day before the Spotlight programme, Peter Robinson had made an emotional statement to the Press Association, BBC, UTV and RTÉ in regard to the relationship and stated that there had been no financial wrongdoing. The programme maintained that when Robinson found out about the financial aspects of his wife's relationship he insisted that the money she had lobbied two property developers for and which she subsequently lent and gave to her lover be returned in full. It claimed that he did not tell the proper authorities what he knew about the transactions between the four, despite being obliged by the Northern Ireland Executive ministerial code of conduct to act in the public interest at all times. Later that day Robinson's solicitors said he was thoroughly satisfied that he had at all times acted properly and fulfilled all requirements, and would robustly challenge any allegation to the contrary. On the following day, Robinson maintained that he had "learned from Spotlight for the first time some alleged aspects of my wife's affair and her financial arrangements" and that he would be "resolutely defending attacks on my character and contesting any allegations of wrongdoing". A series of investigations cleared Robinson.
FAIR censorship allegations
According to a report on the website of the Families Acting for Innocent Relatives (FAIR) non-governmental organisation, in 2007 Peter Robinson wrote to its director Willie Frazer, telling him he "might find it much easier to get co-operation with political representatives if you were genuinely involved in Victim Support rather than opposition politics". Robinson's principal private secretary was found to have been involved, in February 2010, in trying to have criticism of the DUP's working relationship with Sinn Féin censored from FAIR's website. UUP leader Reg Empey asked whether this amounted to party political use of the office. Seven months later FAIR's funding by the Special EU Programmes Body (SEUPB) was stopped following allegations of financial irregularities in the group. Frazer stepped down as director after reading the report.
Pastor McConnell support and Islam
In May 2014, Robinson was widely criticized after he told The Irish News that he supported Whitewell Metropolitan Tabernacle Pastor James McConnell's right as a pastor to make remarks about Islam. In a sermon the pastor had stated "Islam is heathen, Islam is satanic, Islam is a doctrine spawned in hell."
Robinson said that like the pastor he would not "trust them" for spiritual guidance, speaking of Muslims who follow a strict interpretation of Sharia law.
Pastor McConnell was found not guilty of two charges related to his sermon in 2016 - improper use of a public electronic communications network and causing a grossly offensive message to be sent by means of a public electronic communications network.
On 30 May, leaders of Northern Ireland's Muslim community met with Robinson at Stormont Castle and accepted his clarification of the situation. He also accepted an invitation to the Belfast Islamic Centre.
After meeting members of the Islamic community he said he would be visiting the Centre again, a place where he felt welcome and respected.
Personal life
Robinson married Iris Collins on 26 July 1970; they have three children, Jonathan, Gareth and Rebekah.
His wife has joined him as a councillor, an MLA and an MP. Their son, Gareth Robinson was also member of Castlereagh (borough). They were the first husband and wife ever to represent Northern Ireland constituencies in Parliament. His daughter, Rebekah, served as his private secretary for his Advice Centre in the East Belfast constituency. Hazel Kerr serves as the office's main secretary.
He is a supporter of Rangers and Tottenham Hotspur and has expressed admiration for former Spurs player Gareth Bale. Robinson is also a fan of his local Belfast football team Glentoran.
Robinson is an evangelical Pentecostal Christian. Despite originally attending Ian Paisley's Free Presbyterian Church of Ulster, he left in the late 1970s and joined Elim Pentecostal Church and then the Assemblies of God. Robinson was the driving force behind the DUPs secular appeal and leaving the FPCU was perhaps a part of this strategy.
He owns property in Belfast. In 2014 he and his wife sold their luxury villa in Florida and London apartment.
He is author of a number of books and pamphlets on local politics and history including: The Union Under Fire (1995); Sinn Féin – A Case for Proscription (1993); Hands off the UDR (1990); Their Cry was no Surrender (1986); Ulster in Peril (1984); Carson – Man of Action (1984); It's Londonderry (1984); A War to be Won (1983); Self-Inflicted (1981); Ulster the Facts (1981); Savagery and Suffering (1975); Capital Punishment for Capital Crime (1974); Give Me Liberty (no date); Ulster—the Prey (no date).
On 25 May 2015, he suffered a suspected heart attack and was admitted to hospital.
Satire
Robinson's character on the BBC's Folks on the Hill television programme is portrayed as aggressive and constantly trying to get away from the Ian Paisley-Martin McGuinness so-called "Chuckle Brothers" image when he works with Martin McGuinness.
See also
Office of the First Minister and deputy First Minister
List of Northern Ireland members of the Privy Council
References
External links
DUP
Peter Robinson
Guardian Political Profile
Guardian – Special Report
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21st-century writers from Northern Ireland
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Democratic Unionist Party councillors
Elim Pentecostals from Northern Ireland
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First Ministers of Northern Ireland
Living people
Male non-fiction writers from Northern Ireland
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Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigel%20Farage
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Nigel Farage
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Nigel Paul Farage (; born 3 April 1964) is a British broadcaster and former politician who was Leader of the UK Independence Party (UKIP) from 2006 to 2009 and 2010 to 2016 and Leader of the Brexit Party (renamed Reform UK in 2021) from 2019 to 2021. He served as Member of the European Parliament (MEP) for South East England from 1999 until the United Kingdom's exit from the European Union in 2020. He was the host of The Nigel Farage Show, a radio phone-in on the Global-owned talk radio station LBC, from 2017 to 2020. Farage is currently the Honorary President of Reform UK and a presenter for GB News.
Known as a prominent Eurosceptic since the early 1990s, Farage campaigned for the United Kingdom's withdrawal from the European Union. Farage was a founding member of UKIP, having left the Conservative Party in 1992 after the signing of the Maastricht Treaty, which furthered European integration and founded the European Union. After campaigning unsuccessfully in European and Westminster parliamentary elections from 1994, he was elected MEP for South East England in the 1999 European Parliament election. He was re-elected in the 2004, 2009, 2014 and 2019 European Parliament elections. In the European Parliament, he was the President of Europe of Freedom and Direct Democracy (EFDD) where he was noted for his speeches, and as a vocal critic of the euro currency.
He became the leader of UKIP in September 2006, and led the party through the 2009 European elections, when it won the second-highest share of the UK popular vote, with over 2 million votes. He stepped down in November 2009 to focus on contesting Buckingham, the constituency of the Speaker, John Bercow, at the 2010 general election, and came third. Farage successfully stood in the November 2010 UKIP leadership contest, becoming leader once again after Lord Malcolm Pearson voluntarily stepped down. He was ranked second in The Daily Telegraph Top 100 most influential right-wingers poll in 2013, behind Prime Minister David Cameron. Farage was named "Briton of the Year" by The Times in 2014. In the 2014 European elections, UKIP won 24 seats, the first time a party other than Labour or Conservative had won the largest number of seats in a national election since the December 1910 general election, pressuring Cameron to call a referendum on EU membership.
In the 2015 general election, UKIP secured over 3.8 million votes and 12.6% of the total vote, replacing the Liberal Democrats as the third most popular party, but secured only one seat. Farage announced his resignation when he did not win the South Thanet seat, but his resignation was rejected and he remained as leader. Farage was a prominent figure in the successful campaign for Brexit in the 2016 EU membership referendum. After the vote to leave the EU, Farage resigned as leader of UKIP, triggering a leadership election, but remained as an MEP. In December 2018, Farage stood down from UKIP. He returned to frontline politics by launching the Brexit Party in 2019. Drawing support from those frustrated with the delayed implementation of Brexit by Theresa May's government, the Brexit Party won the most votes in the May 2019 European elections, becoming the largest single party in the European Parliament. In March 2021, Farage resigned as leader of the Brexit Party and said he would retire from politics. In May 2023, Farage said that Brexit had failed due to the policies of successive Conservative governments.
Early life, family and education
Farage was born in Farnborough, Kent, England, the son of Barbara (née Stevens) and Guy Justus Oscar Farage. His father was a stockbroker who worked in the City of London. A 2012 BBC Radio 4 profile described Guy Farage as an alcoholic who left the family home when Nigel was five years old. His father gave up alcohol two years later, in 1971, and entered the antiques trade, having lost his Stock Exchange position; the next year, endorsed by friends, he returned to the trading floor at the new Stock Exchange Tower on Threadneedle Street.
Farage's grandfather, Harry Farage, was a private who fought and was wounded in the First World War. It has been suggested that the Farage name comes from a distant Huguenot ancestor. Both parents of one of Farage's great-grandfathers were German who emigrated to London from the Frankfurt area shortly after 1861. His German ancestor Nicholas Schrod was mentioned in the papers in 1870 in connection with a dispute with two men over the Franco-Prussian War.
Farage's first school was Greenhayes School for Boys (Grammar School) in West Wickham and he subsequently spent a short period at a similar school in nearby Eden Park. From 1975 to 1982, Farage was educated at Dulwich College, a fee-paying private school in south London. In his autobiography he pays tribute to the careers advice he received there from England Test cricketer John Dewes, "who must have spotted that I was quite ballsy, probably good on a platform, unafraid of the limelight, a bit noisy and good at selling things". Farage was active in the Conservative Party from his school days, having seen a visit to his school by Keith Joseph. Farage spoke of his admiration for Enoch Powell, once calling him his political hero.
In 1981, an English teacher who had not met the 17-year-old Farage, Chloe Deakin, wrote to the headmaster of Dulwich College, David Emms, asking him to reconsider his decision to appoint Farage as a prefect, citing concerns expressed by others over Farage's alleged 'fascist' views. Emms rejected those concerns, as did the College's deputy headmaster, Terry Walsh, who said later that Farage "was well-known for provoking people, especially left-wing English teachers who had no sense of humour." Farage later stated: "Any accusation [that] I was ever involved in far right politics is utterly untrue."
Early career
After leaving school in 1982, Farage obtained employment in the City of London, trading commodities at the London Metal Exchange. Initially, he joined the American commodity operation of brokerage firm Drexel Burnham Lambert, transferring to Crédit Lyonnais Rouse in 1986. He joined Refco in 1994, and Natixis Metals in 2003.
Farage joined the Conservative Party in 1978, but voted for the Green Party in 1989 because of what he saw as their then "sensible" and Eurosceptic policies. He left the Conservatives in 1992 in protest at Prime Minister John Major's government's signing of the Treaty on European Union at Maastricht. In 1993, Farage was a founding member of UKIP. In 1994 Farage asked Enoch Powell to back UKIP but was turned down.
European Parliament
Farage was elected to the European Parliament in 1999 and re-elected in 2004, 2009 and 2014. The BBC spent four months filming a documentary about his European election campaign in 1999 but did not air it. Farage, then head of the UKIP's South East office, asked for a video and had friends make copies which were sold for £5 through the UKIP's magazine. Surrey Trading Standards investigated, and no offence was found. Farage was the leader of the 24-member UKIP contingent in the European Parliament, and co-leader of the multinational Eurosceptic group, Europe of Freedom and Direct Democracy. Farage was ranked the fifth-most influential MEP by Politico in 2016, who described him as "one of the two most effective speakers in the chamber". Reportedly, he would always be assigned office number 007 in the European Parliament.
On 18 November 2004 Farage announced in the European Parliament that Jacques Barrot, then French Commissioner-designate, had been barred from elected office in France for two years, after being convicted in 2000 of embezzling £2 million from government funds and diverting it into the coffers of his party. He said that French President Jacques Chirac had granted Barrot amnesty; initial BBC reports said that, under French law, it was perhaps illegal to mention that conviction. The prohibition in question applies only to French officials in the course of their duties. The President of the Parliament, Josep Borrell, enjoined him to retract his comments under threat of "legal consequences". The following day, it was confirmed that Barrot had received an eight-month suspended jail sentence in the case, and that this had been quickly expunged by the amnesty decided by Chirac and his parliamentary majority.
In early 2005 Farage requested that the European Commission disclose where the individual Commissioners had spent their holidays. The Commission did not provide the information requested, on the basis that the Commissioners had a right of privacy. The German newspaper Die Welt reported that the President of the European Commission, José Manuel Barroso, had spent a week on the yacht of the Greek shipping billionaire Spiros Latsis. It emerged soon afterwards that this had occurred a month before the Commission under Barroso's predecessor Romano Prodi approved 10.3 million euros of Greek state aid for Latsis's shipping company. It also became known that Peter Mandelson, then the British EU Commissioner, had accepted a trip to Jamaica from an unrevealed source at a debate on 26 May 2005. The motion was heavily defeated. A Conservative MEP, Roger Helmer, was expelled from his group, the European People's Party – European Democrats (EPP-ED), in the middle of the debate by that group's leader Hans-Gert Pöttering as a result of his support for Farage's motion.
Farage persuaded around 75 MEPs from across the political divide to back a motion of no confidence in Barroso, which would be sufficient to compel Barroso to appear before the European Parliament to be questioned on the issue. The motion was successfully tabled on 12 May 2005, and Barroso appeared before Parliament.
In 2013 Farage criticised Barroso's former membership in the Maoist Portuguese Workers' Communist Party, saying: "You are a man that likes fixed ideology, you probably picked it up when you were a communist or Maoist, or whatever you were, and for the last ten years you've pursued euro-federalism combined with an increasing green obsession."
After the speech of Herman Van Rompuy on 24 February 2010 to the European Parliament, Farage – to protests from other MEPs – addressed the former Prime Minister of Belgium and first long-term President of the European Council, saying that he had the "charisma of a damp rag" and the appearance of "a low grade bank clerk". Farage questioned the legitimacy of Van Rompuy's appointment, asking, "Who are you? I'd never heard of you, nobody in Europe had ever heard of you." He also asserted that Van Rompuy's "intention [is] to be the quiet assassin of European democracy and of the European nation states". Van Rompuy commented afterwards, "There was one contribution that I can only hold in contempt, but I'm not going to comment further." After refusing to apologise for behaviour that was, in the words of the President of the European Parliament, Jerzy Buzek, "inappropriate, unparliamentary and insulting to the dignity of the House", Farage was reprimanded and had his right to ten days' allowance (expenses) "docked".
Buzek said after his meeting with Farage:
I defend absolutely Mr Farage's right to disagree about the policy or institutions of the Union, but not to personally insult our guests in the European Parliament or the country from which they may come... I myself fought for free speech as the absolute cornerstone of a democratic society. But with freedom comes responsibility – in this case, to respect the dignity of others and of our institutions. I am disappointed by Mr Farage's behaviour, which sits ill with the great parliamentary tradition of his own country. I cannot accept this sort of behaviour in the European Parliament. I invited him to apologise, but he declined to do so. I have therefore – as an expression of the seriousness of the matter – rescinded his right to ten days' daily allowance as a Member.
Questioned by Camilla Long of The Times, Farage described his speech: "it wasn't abusive, it was right."
Charles, Prince of Wales was invited to speak to the European Parliament on 14 February 2008; in his speech he called for EU leadership in the battle against climate change. During the standing ovation that followed, Farage was the only MEP to remain seated, and he went on to describe the Prince's advisers as "naïve and foolish at best."
In May 2009 The Observer reported a Foreign Press Association speech given by Farage in which he had said that over his ten years as a Member of the European Parliament he had received a total of £2 million of taxpayers' money in staff, travel, and other expenses. In response, Farage said that in future all UKIP MEPs would provide monthly expense details.
In a second visit to Edinburgh in May 2014 Farage correctly predicted that UKIP would win a Scottish seat in the European Parliament elections. Two hundred protesters heckled and booed him. Thirty police in two vans were needed to preserve order.
In the European Parliament elections in 2014, Farage led UKIP to win the highest share of the vote. It was the first time a political party other than the Labour Party and Conservative Party had won the popular vote in a national election since the 1906 general election. It was also the first time a party other than the Labour and Conservatives won the largest number of seats in a national election since the December 1910 general election.
In June 2014 Farage declared £205,603 for gifts over ten years, including free use of a barn for his constituency office, which had been declared in the EU register in Brussels each year. The Electoral Commission said that the gifts should have been also declared in the UK within 30 days of receipt and fined Farage £200.
In early November 2014, just days after becoming head of the European Commission, the former Prime Minister of Luxembourg Jean-Claude Juncker was hit by media disclosures—derived from a document leak known as Luxembourg Leaks—that Luxembourg under his premiership had turned into a major European centre of corporate tax avoidance. A subsequent motion of censure in the European Parliament was brought against Juncker over his role in the tax avoidance schemes. The motion was defeated by a large majority. Farage was one of the main drivers behind the censure motion.
UK Independence Party
1993–2010
Farage was a founder member of UKIP in 1993. On 12 September 2006 he was elected leader of UKIP with 45 per cent of the vote, 20 percentage points ahead of his nearest rival. He pledged to bring discipline to the party and to maximise UKIP's representation in local, parliamentary and other elections. In a PM programme interview on BBC Radio 4 that day he pledged to end the public perception of UKIP as a single-issue party and to work with allied politicians in the Better Off Out campaign, committing himself not to stand against the MPs who have signed up to that campaign.
In his maiden speech to the UKIP conference, on 8 October 2006, Farage told delegates that the party was "at the centre-ground of British public opinion" and the "real voice of opposition". He said: "We've got three social democratic parties in Britain – Labour, Lib Dem and Conservative are virtually indistinguishable from each other on nearly all the main issues" and "you can't put a cigarette paper between them and that is why there are nine million people who don't vote now in general elections that did back in 1992."
At 10pm on 19 October 2006, Farage took part in a three-hour live interview and phone-in with James Whale on the national radio station talkSPORT. Four days later, Whale announced on his show his intention to stand as UKIP's candidate in the 2008 London Mayoral Election. Farage said that Whale "not only has guts, but an understanding of what real people think". Whale later decided not to stand and UKIP was represented by Gerard Batten.
2010 general election
On 4 September 2009 Farage resigned as UKIP's leader to focus on his campaign to become Member of Parliament for Buckingham at Westminster in the 2010 general election. He later told The Times journalist Camilla Long that UKIP internal fights took up far too much time.
Farage stood against sitting Buckingham MP, John Bercow, the newly elected Speaker of the House of Commons, despite the convention that the Speaker, as a political neutral, is not normally challenged in his or her bid for re-election by any of the major parties.
Farage came third with 8,401 votes. Bercow was re-elected and in second place with 10,331 votes was John Stevens, a former Conservative MEP who campaigned as an independent accompanied by "Flipper the Dolphin" (a reference to MPs – including Bercow – flipping second homes).
On 6 May 2010, the morning of the election, Farage was travelling in a two-seater PZL-104 Wilga aircraft with a pro-UKIP banner attached, when the plane crashed. Farage suffered injuries that were described as non-life-threatening. Although his injuries were originally described as minor, his sternum and ribs were broken and his lung punctured. The Air Accidents Investigation Branch (AAIB) report said that the aeroplane was towing a banner, which caught in the tailplane, forcing the nose down.
On 1 December 2010 Justin Adams, the pilot of the aircraft involved in the accident, was charged with threatening to kill Farage in a separate incident. He was also charged with threatening to kill an AAIB official involved in the investigation into the accident. In April 2011, the pilot was found guilty of making death threats. The judge said that the defendant was "clearly extremely disturbed" at the time the offences happened, adding: "He is a man who does need help. If I can find a way of giving him help I will." Adams was given a two-year supervised community order, and in December 2013 was found dead at home in circumstances that police said were "not being treated as suspicious".
2010–2015
Farage stood again for the UKIP leadership in 2010 after his successor Lord Pearson had stood down, and on 5 November 2010 it was announced he had won the leadership contest.
UKIP forgot to put its party name on its candidate's ballot paper for the 2012 London mayoral election, Laurence Webb appearing as "a fresh choice for London". Farage described the mistake as an internal error. Interviewed the following Sunday by Andrew Neil and asked about "the game plan", Farage welcomed the "average 13% vote" across the country and stated that the party was preparing for county council elections in 2013, the European Parliament election in 2014 and a general election in 2015.
Asked what would happen to UKIP if the Conservatives made a manifesto commitment to a referendum on EU membership, Farage said they had already failed to honour a "cast iron" commitment to a referendum on the Lisbon Treaty. Farage said that UKIP aspired to come top of the European elections, but Neil suggested UKIP were still seen as "unprofessional, amateur and even unacceptable". In the same interview, Farage described Baroness Warsi as "the lowest grade Chairman the Tory Party has ever had". He was voted politician of the year by the online service MSN.
In May 2013 Farage led UKIP to its best performance in a UK election. The party received 23 per cent of the vote in the local elections, winning 147 council seats, and placing it only 2 points behind the governing Conservative Party and 9 points ahead of the Liberal Democrats. Farage was mobbed by well-wishers as he made his way to his favourite pub, the Marquis of Granby, for a celebratory drink. He called the victory "a real sea change in British politics". Subsequently, polling agency Survation found that 22 per cent of voters intended to support UKIP in the 2015 General Election.
In May 2013 Farage was interrupted by protesters during a press conference in the Canon's Gait pub on Edinburgh's Royal Mile. The demonstration was organised by groups including the Radical Independence Campaign and saw protesters vocally accuse Farage of being "racist", "fascist", and a "homophobe", and tell him to "go back to London". Farage made attempts to leave by taxi but was prevented from doing so, and was eventually taken away in an armoured police van while protesters continued to shout. He was trying to raise the profile of UKIP in Scotland ahead of the Aberdeen Donside by-election; the party at that point had no representation in the country, and took 0.91 per cent of the vote in the previous election though it won its first Scottish MEP the following year. During an interview with BBC's Good Morning Scotland radio show, Farage cut short the exchange, stating that the questions regarding the incident in Edinburgh were insulting and unpleasant.
Farage said in 2013 that he had hired a tax advisor to set up the Farage Family Educational Trust 1654, a trust that Farage said was used "for inheritance purposes", on the Isle of Man. Farage later described this "as standard practice" but stated he "decided I didn't want it. I never ever used it. The Isle of Man is not a tax haven." Farage has since said that this was a mistake: that he was "not rich enough" to need it, that what was seen to be fair 10, 20 or 30 years ago wasn't anymore, and that it cost him money. He has criticised the political discourse surrounding tax avoidance as a "race to the bottom". The BBC reported: "The Isle of Man was one of the UK's crown dependencies which signed an agreement on corporate disclosure at a recent meeting with David Cameron amid claims that individuals and firms are using offshore locations to reduce their tax liabilities", adding that the Isle of Man rejects any allegations that they are used for the purpose of tax avoidance.
Farage had previously denounced tax avoidance in a speech to the European Parliament in which he criticised European bureaucrats who earned £100,000 a year and paid 12 per cent tax under EU rules, Farage said in 2014 that "most legal forms of tax avoidance are ok, but clearly some are not" after he was questioned on why £45,000 of his income was paid into his private company rather than a personal bank account, and that criticism of his actions was "ridiculous". In the wake of the Panama Papers leak, Farage said that the possibility of him releasing his tax return was a "big no" as "I think in this country what people earn is regarded as a private matter", and criticised David Cameron as hypocritical, especially with regard to his past comments about Jimmy Carr's tax avoidance.
Farage has continued to have fees paid to him via a limited company, Thorn in the Side Ltd.
On 12 September 2014, he appeared at a pro-union rally with Scottish UKIP MEP David Coburn ahead of Scotland's independence referendum.
2015 general election
In October 2013 Farage announced on the BBC's The Andrew Marr Show that he would stand for election as an MP at the 2015 United Kingdom general election, most likely contesting either Folkestone and Hythe or South Thanet; meanwhile he stated that his duty and preference was to focus on his current role as an MEP.
In August 2014 Farage was selected as the UKIP candidate for South Thanet following local hustings.
In October 2014 Farage was invited to take part in prospective Leaders' debates on BBC, ITV, Channel 4 and Sky ahead of the 2015 general election. UKIP indicated that it would consider taking legal action were the party excluded, in contravention of established broadcast media rules, from televised Leaders' debates in advance of the election. The 7-way Leaders' TV debate was broadcast by ITV on 2 April 2015 from MediaCityUK, Salford Quays. Of three polls taken immediately afterwards, the ComRes poll had Farage as joint winner, alongside Labour's Ed Miliband and Conservative David Cameron.
In March 2015 Farage declared in his book The Purple Revolution that he would step down as UKIP leader should he not be elected as an MP; he stated his belief that it would not be "credible" for him to lead UKIP without sitting in parliament at Westminster.
On 22 March 2015 Farage was targeted by anti-UKIP activists who chased him and his family from a pub lunch in Downe, Greater London. His daughters ran away to hide and were later found to be safe. Farage, when asked what he thought about the incident, called the protesters "scum".
Farage was unsuccessful in his bid to become MP for South Thanet although he came second (beating Labour by over 4,000 votes), reduced the Conservative majority to less than 3,000, and gained over 32% of the vote.
Farage subsequently announced his resignation as the leader of UKIP, citing that he is a "man of his word" since he promised to resign if he did not win his seat, although he kept open the possibility of re-entering the ensuing leadership contest. On 11 May 2015 it was announced that Farage would continue to serve as the party's leader, with the BBC reporting: "Party chairman Steve Crowther said the national executive committee believed the election campaign had been a 'great success' and members had 'unanimously' rejected Mr Farage's letter of resignation". Interviewed about his continued leadership by the BBC the following day, Farage said: "I resigned. I said I'd resign. I turned up to the NEC meeting with letter in hand fully intending to carry that through. They unanimously said they didn't want me to do that, they presented me with petitions, signatures, statements from candidates saying it would be a bad thing for UKIP. So I left the meeting, went and sat in darkened room to think about what to do, and decided for the interest of the party I would accept their kind offer for me to stay and tear up the letter." He added that he would consider standing for parliament again should a by-election be called in a Labour-held seat.
A row subsequently developed within the party, in which MEP and campaign chief Patrick O'Flynn described Farage's public image as "snarling, thin-skinned, aggressive" and said he risked turning the party into a "personality cult". O'Flynn accused Farage of paying too much attention to advisors that "would like to take UKIP in the direction of some hard-right, ultra-aggressive American Tea Party-type movement", singling out the NHS and gun control liberalisation as particular issues. Raheem Kassam, Farage's chief of staff and editor of Breitbart London was later sacked as a result, whilst O'Flynn stated that he continued to support Farage as party leader. Farage also faced a number of calls from senior figures within the party to stand down.
Following the election, a UKIP spokesman acknowledged that after a series of threatening attacks on Farage it had sent an informant into the Thanet branch of the protest organisation Stand Up to UKIP, stating "in order to provide reasonable security it was of course necessary to have information from the inside", an approach he said was used by "a great many security operations tasked with protecting the safety and wellbeing of a targeted individual". According to The Guardian, the informant is alleged to have actively encouraged members to commit criminal damage. Farage had said he was the victim of "trade union-funded activists" who were inciting vandalism.
Brexit
2016 referendum
Farage was a key figurehead in the Brexit campaign of 2016, which, with 52 per cent of the vote, won. Jean-Claude Juncker promptly told all UKIP members to leave the Parliament. During the campaign, Farage had made the suggestion of a future second referendum should the Brexit campaign be unsuccessful, but the result be closer than 52–48. Farage accused US President Barack Obama of a "monstrous interference" in the Brexit referendum debate, saying "You wouldn't expect the British Prime Minister to intervene in your presidential election; you wouldn't expect the Prime Minister to endorse one candidate or another."
Farage initially supported Vote Leave (led by Dominic Cummings and Matthew Elliott, supported by Boris Johnson and Michael Gove) and Leave.EU (led by Arron Banks) in their campaigns to leave the EU, saying that they reached "different audiences"; however, he later grew irritated at Vote Leave's marginalisation of the UKIP-backed Grassroots Out movement, and their lack of explicit focus on immigration as an issue. He blamed this on the senior "apparatchiks" within the party (i.e. Cummings and Elliott) who purposefully marginalised Farage during the campaign, believing his attitudes on immigration deterred swing voters. The Daily Telegraph quoted Farage as saying that: "[Cummings] has never liked me. He can't stand the ERG. I can't see him coming to any accommodation with anyone. He has huge personal enmity with the true believers in Brexit".
Farage has argued strongly in favour of a British Independence Day being observed within the United Kingdom, on 23 June each year. On 24 June 2016, in a televised speech on the morning of the Brexit result, he stated, "let 23 June go down in our history as our Independence Day", and later said that it "must now be made a national holiday."
2016–2019
On 28 June 2016 Farage made a speech in the European Parliament in which he stated that a hypothetical failure for the EU to forge a trade deal with an exiting UK would "be far worse for you than it would be for us", to heckling and laughing by Parliament members. He insulted his fellow MEPs, stating that "virtually none" of them had ever done "a proper job" in their lives. Media around the world covered Farage's speech, including his comment: "... when I came here 17 years ago, and I said that I wanted to lead a campaign to get Britain to leave the European Union, you all laughed at me. Well I have to say, you're not laughing now are you?" and his prediction that Britain will not be the only country to leave the EU. In response, Guy Verhofstadt compared Farage's referendum posters with Nazi propaganda and credited the Brexit campaign with causing a multi-billion loss in the stock exchange. Explicitly addressing Farage, Verhofstadt added, "... Ok. Let's be positive. Finally, we're going to get rid of the biggest waste in the budget of the (European) Union, that we have paid for 17 years, your salary."
Farage resigned as leader of the United Kingdom Independence Party on 4 July 2016, saying that: "It's right that I should now stand aside as leader. What I said during the referendum campaign is I want my country back. What I'm saying today is I want my life back. And it begins right now" and "I have never been, and I have never wanted to be, a career politician." He added that this resignation was final: "I won't be changing my mind again, I can promise you", apparently referring to his two previous resignations (in 2009 and 2015). Jean-Claude Juncker, President of the European Commission, described Farage as a "retro-nationalist", Caroline Lucas, Green Party MP for Brighton Pavilion, said that his legacy is "toxic and unforgivable" and that "He has used his position to whip up hatred against migrants and divert attention from the real challenges this country is facing." Paul Nuttall, a UKIP MEP, tweeted that Farage's "drive and belief shook establishment politics to its core and gave us a voice" and Suzanne Evans, former Deputy Chairman of UKIP, said that Farage's resignation surprised her, but "there is room still in Britain for UKIP". Writing in The Spectator, after his resignation, the journalist Rod Liddle described Farage as: "The most important British politician of the last decade and the most successful. His resignation leaves a hole in our political system. With enormous intelligence and chutzpah and a refreshingly unorthodox approach, he built UKIP up from nothing to become established as our third largest party and succeeded in his overriding ambition – to see the UK vote to leave the European Union."
Following a legal challenge by Gina Miller to the use of the Royal Prerogative to invoke article 50, Farage appeared on The Andrew Marr Show with Miller. She stated that "politicians had lied all the way through" and that the Referendum act clearly said that the result was advisory. Farage accepted that it was advisory but said afterwards "I just want to ask her – what part of the word 'leave' don't you understand?". Farage talked of a peaceful protest and warned of unprecedented political anger if Parliament blocked Brexit. Miller said that parliamentary democracy required parliament to debate issues and that Farage had spent the whole Brexit campaign arguing for parliamentary sovereignty. Calling his warnings "the politics of the gutter", Tim Farron said the British judges had merely interpreted British law and that fortunately Farage was the only person talking about taking to the streets. Miller has previously called Farage irresponsible and has blamed him and the tabloid media for death threats against her. She stated in November 2016 that she would not take legal action against those who had threatened her.
On 7 November 2016 Farage announced he would lead a 100,000 strong march to the Supreme Court, timed for when it started hearing the Government appeal. On 27 November 2016, it was reported the march was being cancelled out of concerns it could be hijacked by the far-right groups English Defence League and the British National Party. The next day, Paul Nuttall became the new UKIP party leader after Farage decided to step aside to strengthen his relationship with US President-elect Donald Trump.
In 2017 Farage called for the departure of UKIP's only MP, Douglas Carswell. He said in The Daily Telegraph: "I think there is little future for UKIP with him staying inside this party. The time for him to go is now." There was reportedly controversy within the party over whether Carswell had tried to prevent Farage receiving a knighthood. It was reported the MP had suggested Farage should instead be given an OBE "for services to headline writers".
On 20 April 2017 Farage announced that he would not contest the 2017 general election. He said that he believed he could further advance his version of Brexit as a leader of a group in the European Parliament.
In May 2018 Farage addressed a fundraising event for the Democratic Unionist Party, with his main financial backer, Arron Banks, who accompanied Farage during the event, stating that he would support a bid by Farage to seek office as a DUP candidate after the end of his tenure as Member of the European Parliament in 2019. In 2018 he joined Leave Means Leave as vice-chairman.
Brexit Party
On 4 December 2018 Farage announced "with a heavy heart" on his live LBC radio show that effective immediately he had resigned his membership of UKIP, after 25 years as a member of the party. In explanation, Farage mentioned UKIP leader Gerard Batten's appointment the previous month of far-right activist Tommy Robinson as an adviser and the National Executive of UKIP's voting in a no-confidence vote to keep Batten as leader of the party. Farage argued that Batten was "obsessed with the issue of Islam, not just Islamic extremism, but Islam, and UKIP wasn't founded to be a party fighting a religious crusade." He also said that association with Robinson damaged the image of Brexit.
On 8 February 2019 Reuters noted that the Brexit Party had been approved by the Electoral Commission and quoted Farage from an article he wrote in The Telegraph, stating that he would stand as a candidate for the party in any potential future European Parliament election contested in the United Kingdom. On 8 February 2019, the Financial Times quoted Farage as saying the new party was a "live vehicle" that could be "mobilised" if Brexit is delayed. On 13 February Farage confirmed he would sit in the European Parliament as a member of the Brexit Party. On 22 March he was announced as the new leader of the party after founder and former leader Catherine Blaiklock resigned.
On 14 May Conservative MP Crispin Blunt called for the government to go into an "electoral arrangement" with the Brexit Party to ensure Brexit was to happen on time. Asked by Huw Edwards if he would consider such a partnership, Farage said he would be willing to work with anyone to secure a deal that gets Britain out of the single market, customs union and European Court of Justice, but said that trust may be an issue, stating: "both main parties have let us down very badly".
In May 2019 British broadcaster Channel 4 News reported it had seen invoices for travel and accommodation expenses between summer 2016 and summer 2017. It further reported that these benefits, worth "as much as £450,000", were funded by Arron Banks, and were not declared on Farage's register of interests, which he should have done as a serving MEP. Liberal Democrat MEP Catherine Bearder, in her role as a quaestor (an MEP responsible for financial and administrative matters), raised the issue and this resulted in an official investigation opening on 21 May 2019. When asked by the BBC about the matter Farage replied, "Whatever happened after the referendum – I was leaving politics, it happened mostly in America, it had nothing to do with politics, nothing to do with the Brexit Party, it was purely on a personal basis. I was looking for a new career and a new life – it's got nothing to do with anything, it's a purely private matter."
On 20 May 2019, a Brexit opponent threw a milkshake at Farage in Newcastle upon Tyne. The assailant, who was arrested at the scene, accused Farage of "spouting bile and racism". Farage tweeted about the incident saying: "For a civilised democracy to work you need the losers' consent, politicians not accepting the referendum result have led us to this." A month later, 32-year-old Paul Crowther pleaded guilty to common assault and criminal damage at Tyneside Magistrates' Court, where District Judge Bernard Begley ordered him to carry out 150 hours of community service and pay £350 compensation to Farage.
In June 2019, Donald Trump suggested that Farage should be involved in the UK government's Brexit negotiations, because he had "a lot to offer".
In the 2019 European Parliament election, Farage led the Brexit Party to win 29 seats and the highest share of the vote. Among the party's MEPs that were elected were former Conservatives Ann Widdecombe and Annunziata Rees-Mogg.
Following Boris Johnson's becoming prime minister, Farage unveiled the names of 635 general election candidates for the Brexit Party, including himself. He later announced that he would not be standing as a candidate.
On 8 September 2019, Farage said that the Brexit Party should be given "a free run" at targeting traditional Labour voters in the North of England, Midlands and Wales by the Conservative Party as part of an electoral pact. According to The Sunday Telegraph, he did not want the Brexit Party to face Conservative opposition in constituencies such as Wansbeck and West Bromwich East and in return the Brexit Party would not contest seats where the leave vote was at risk of splitting. Farage said that his party and the Conservatives "together would be unstoppable".
On 11 September, a senior Conservative source said that Farage was "not a fit and proper person" and "should never be allowed anywhere near government". The government confirmed that Boris Johnson would not form an electoral pact with Farage, to which he said he was "disappointed" as he was offering a "genuine hand of friendship". The Brexit Party gained 642,303 votes in the election but no seats.
In January 2020, the Greater London Authority granted Leave Means Leave permission to hold a party in Parliament Square on the night the UK left the EU. Farage told the crowd celebrating the occasion on 31 January that "what happens now marks the point of no return. We are never going back". Other speakers included the businessman Tim Martin, politician Peter Bone and broadcaster Julia Hartley-Brewer. Before the party, Farage expressed support for Big Ben to chime to mark the moment at 11 pm GMT.
In December 2020, Farage celebrated the EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement, following the agreement's announcement, stating that the "war is over."
Post-Brexit career
During the early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom, Farage wrote "protecting us all from an epidemic should be prioritised over the economy", and criticised the herd immunity policy pursued at the time by Boris Johnson's government. When Johnson's strategy changed and the UK introduced various lockdown measures to control the disease, Farage said in November 2020 he thought "the cure is worse than the disease" and announced the Brexit Party would rebrand as Reform UK and campaign against further lockdowns.
Farage described lockdown as "cruel and unnecessary" and endorsed the Great Barrington Declaration, which advocates focused protection of those most vulnerable to COVID-19 with the majority of the population allowed to resume normal life. The approach was conceived by Sunetra Gupta, a professor of theoretical epidemiology at the University of Oxford, as well as Jay Bhattacharya of Stanford University and Martin Kulldorff of Harvard University. The scientists were concerned with lockdown's effects on public health and mental health, especially for the underprivileged, which they described as "devastating". However, the approach has been criticised by Tedros Adhanom, the director-general of the World Health Organization, and Robert Lechler, the president of the British Academy of Medical Sciences.
In 2020, Farage established a financial newsletter, Fortune and Freedom, which describes itself as "unregulated product published by Southbank Investment Research Limited". On 28 March 2021 Dutch Green Business announced Farage had been appointed to the firm's advisory board. The newsletter discusses issues related to pension investments.
On 6 March 2021 Farage announced in an interview with The Telegraph that he was retiring from politics and resigning as leader of Reform UK. He became the party's honorary president.
In July 2021 Farage criticised the Royal National Lifeboat Institution, accusing them of being a "taxi service" for illegal immigrants. This provoked a major public backlash – donations to the service rose 3000% in the wake of the remarks and a fundraiser on GoFundMe raised over £120,000 to purchase a new rescue hovercraft for the charity with a suggestion the boat be christened The Flying Farage. In November 2021 Farage published an op-ed in The Daily Telegraph contemplating a return to frontline politics, due to the English Channel migrant crossings and what he perceived as the Prime Minister's indifference to the issue.
Farage has been making videos on the Cameo platform and has fallen victim to several pranks intended to make him refer to various Irish republican slogans.
Farage launched the Vote Power Not Poverty campaign to secure a referendum on Johnson's government's pledge to achieve net zero carbon emissions by 2050.
In September 2022, Farage introduced a range of three gins made in Cornwall.
In May 2023, Farage told BBC Newsnight that Brexit had failed due to the policies of successive Conservative governments, saying that their policies meant that the UK did not benefit economically from leaving the bloc.
Involvement in politics outside the UK
United States
2016 presidential election
In a May 2016 interview with Robert Peston, Farage said that, whilst he had reservations on the views and character of 2016 Republican presidential candidate Donald Trump, if he were an eligible US voter he would vote for Trump in the 2016 presidential election, to prevent Hillary Clinton becoming president. In July 2016, Farage visited the Republican convention in Cleveland with his aide and office manager George Cottrell. Both Farage and Cottrell appeared on American television and engaged in discussions with Trump's aides before Cottrell was arrested by the FBI on 21 federal counts of fraud, money laundering and extortion. Farage "was unaware of Cottrell's alleged illegal activities and his arrest by the FBI came as a shock." Cottrell's arrest left Farage unable to access his personal diary. Cottrell ultimately pleaded guilty to one count of wire fraud as part of a plea agreement with U.S. federal prosecutors and was sentenced to eight months in U.S. federal prison and was fined $30,000; the crime had been committed before Cottrell joined UKIP.
In August 2016 Farage and fellow Brexiteers Andy Wigmore and Arron Banks met Trump for the first time at a high-dollar campaign fundraiser in Jackson, Mississippi. They were invited to the event by staffers for Mississippi governor Phil Bryant while attending the GOP convention. Afterwards, Trump invited them to his campaign rally that night. Trump asked Farage to speak at the rally and introduced him to the crowd as "Mr. Brexit".
In October 2016 Farage praised Trump for "dominating" Hillary Clinton, comparing him to a silverback gorilla. Following revelations of a 2005 audio recording in which Trump made lewd remarks about women, Farage said that Trump's comments were "ugly" but described them as "alpha male boasting" also stating that Trump was "not running to be Pope" and that women also make remarks they would not want to see reported. Farage's comments prompted several senior UKIP members to express concern privately, and resulted in public criticism of Farage from two UKIP MEPs, Jane Collins and William Dartmouth. As more publicity appeared about Trump's alleged groping and as the criticisms increased, Farage said he disagreed with Trump's comments about groping women and his comments on Muslim immigration.
Farage is reported to have had close links with Trump's then chief strategist, Steve Bannon, since at least 2014, when Bannon scheduled meetings for Farage with right-wing figures in Washington. In his book, The Purple Revolution: The Year That Changed Everything, Farage described Bannon as "my sort of chap."
After Trump's victory, Farage said that he "couldn't be happier" and in the same interview referred to outgoing president Barack Obama as a "loathsome individual" and "that Obama creature", remarks which prompted criticism. Labour MP John Woodcock criticised Farage's comments, saying they had "clear racist undertones." Farage was the first British politician to speak to Trump after his election, meeting with Trump in his eponymous Manhattan tower.
In November 2016, after becoming president-elect, Trump publicly suggested, via Twitter post, that the UK government name Farage as British ambassador to the United States. Trump's expression of a preference for a foreign nation's ambassador was "a startling break with diplomatic protocol" that was unprecedented in recent US history. The British government rejected the suggestion, with a Downing Street spokesman and then-Foreign Secretary Boris Johnson stressing that there was no vacancy in the position.
In 2017, Farage was listed as a person of interest by the FBI in their investigation into possible Russian interference in the 2016 presidential election because of his connections to Trump, WikiLeaks and Julian Assange. One source said that "if you triangulate Russia, WikiLeaks, Assange and Trump associates the person who comes up with the most hits is Nigel Farage." Farage responded, "This hysterical attempt to associate me with the Putin regime is a result of the liberal elite being unable to accept Brexit and the election of President Trump... I consider it extremely doubtful that I could be a person of interest to the FBI as I have no connections to Russia." Farage met with Assange and his lawyers, advocated for Assange and the UK Independence Party under Farage's leadership had long-standing links to Assange.
Trump presidency
Since April 2018 Farage has been a strong advocate for U.S. President Donald Trump to receive the Nobel Peace Prize on the basis of his attempt to bring better diplomatic relations between North Korea and South Korea as well as better diplomatic relations between North Korea and the United States. As a member of the European Parliament, Farage expressed his desire to begin an official petition for Trump to receive the award.
Farage endorsed Roy Moore in the United States Senate special election in Alabama. After numerous allegations of sexual misconduct were made against Moore, Farage publicly expressed his scepticism over the allegations. In May 2018, he expressed regret for having backed Moore, stating, "I should have thought about the whole thing far more deeply than I did, and it was a mistake."
In July 2018 Farage headlined a fundraiser for Lou Barletta, the Republican nominee in the 2018 United States Senate election in Pennsylvania.
In October 2017 Farage made controversial remarks during a discussion on LBC radio station after a caller who referred to himself as "Ahmed" told Farage he thought the pro-Israeli lobby in the United States was equally dangerous to the Russian interference in American politics. Farage responded by saying: "the Israeli lobby, you know, that's a reasonable point, Ahmed, because there are about 6 million Jewish people living in America, so as a percentage it's quite small, but in terms of influence it's quite big...in terms of money and influence, yep, they are a very powerful lobby," and "there are other very powerful foreign lobbies in the United States of America, and the Jewish lobby, with its links with the Israeli government, is one of those strong voices." Farage's remarks were condemned by the Campaign Against Antisemitism and the Anti-Defamation League, which said that Farage's comment "plays into deep-seated anti-Semitic tropes" and was fuel for extremist conspiracy theories.
Since 2020
After gaining no seats in the 2019 UK general election under the Brexit Party banner, Farage said he would leave the country to work as a warm-up speaker for Trump's 2020 campaign rallies. In June 2020, Farage was exempted by US officials from the country's travel ban under a "national interest" clause, while Trump prepared for his first major election campaign rally since the COVID-19 pandemic. On 20 June, he posted a picture from the US and was later spotted at the Trump rally, taking part in a "Team Trump on Tour" panel discussion. Farage appeared in the audiences of rallies in states such as Michigan and Pennsylvania. In an Arizona rally on 29 October, Trump called Farage "one of the most powerful men in Europe" and invited him to speak on the stage, where he described Trump as the "most resilient and brave person" he had ever met. After the day of the election, Farage conceded that Trump lost "fair and square", but said "Donald Trump loses the odd battle, but he doesn't lose wars. He keeps fighting until he wins them".
In 2021 Farage undertook a six-week tour of the United States organised by the conservative group FreedomWorks. Entitled America's Comeback Tour, it saw him address Republican grassroots audiences across the country.
Austria
During the 2016 Austrian presidential election campaign, Farage said that Norbert Hofer, the Freedom Party candidate, would call for a "Brexit style referendum" if he won. Hofer, however, ruled out a referendum and asked Farage not to interfere in Austria's internal politics.
France
Farage initially endorsed Nicolas Dupont-Aignan of Debout la France, another party of the Alliance for Direct Democracy in Europe, and later supported Marine Le Pen of the National Front, for the second round of the 2017 French presidential election. Farage said that the basis for his endorsement of Le Pen was his belief that she would be more sympathetic to the UK following Brexit, in contrast to the pro-European Emmanuel Macron.
Germany
Farage spoke at a rally for the far-right Alternative for Germany party in advance of the 2017 German federal election, having been personally invited by the party's deputy leader Beatrix von Storch.
Ukraine
Farage said on 24 February 2022 that the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine was "A consequence of EU and NATO expansion, which came to a head in 2014. It made no sense to poke the Russian bear with a stick. These are dark days for Europe."
Political views
Economy
From taking office as a UKIP MEP in 1999, Farage has often voiced opposition to the "euro project". His argument is that "a one-size-fits-all interest rate" cannot work for countries with structurally different economies, often using the example of Greece and Germany to emphasise contrast.
Farage strongly opposes the use of bailouts and says that "buying your own debt with taxpayers' money" will not solve the problem and that, "if we do, the next debt crisis won't be a country ... it will be the European Central Bank itself".
On the issue of welfare, Farage wants migrants to live in the UK for five years before being able to claim benefits, and for them to be ineligible for tax credits. He believes that tax avoidance is caused by "punitive tax rates", and wants "fairer" taxes as a way to prevent it.
Electoral reform
During the campaigning before the UK voting system referendum of May 2011, which offered the two options of a continuation of first-past-the-post and an alternative vote system, Farage declared himself in favour of the latter, saying that a continuation of first-past-the-post would be a "nightmare" for UKIP, although he also said that AV would make little difference to UKIP's fortunes. The party's stance was decided by its central policy-making committee, although Farage expressed a preference for the AV+ system as it "would retain the constituency link and then also the second ballot ensured there were no wasted votes". After the 2015 general election, in which UKIP took a much lower proportion of seats than votes, Farage called the first-past-the-post voting system (FPTP) "totally bankrupt". He had said in 2011: "I completely lost faith in [FPTP] in 2005 when Blair was returned with a 60 seat majority on 36 per cent of the vote, or 22 per cent if you factor in low turnout."
Environment
In 2013 Farage criticised David Cameron's policy on wind turbines, describing it as covering "Britain in ugly disgusting ghastly windmills". An official energy policy document produced by UKIP while Farage was leader of the party stated that "UKIP strongly supports a clean environment and clean air, stressing that "coal-fired power stations must use clean technology to remove sulphur and nitrogen oxides, particulates and other pollutants". In a speech made to the European parliament on 11 September 2013, Farage cited a news story that the Arctic Sea ice cap had apparently grown from 2012 to 2013, saying that this was evidence of decades "of Euro-federalism combined with an increasing Green obsession", despite this being a minor milestone in a larger trend of sea ice decline. Farage has described climate change as a "scam".
Healthcare
Farage takes an anti-prohibitionist position on recreational drugs. In an April 2014 phone-in interview hosted by The Daily Telegraph he argued that the War on Drugs had been lost "many, many years ago", stating that "I hate drugs, I've never taken them myself, I hope I never do, but I just have a feeling that the criminalisation of all these drugs is actually not really helping British society." He argued in favour of a Royal Commission on drugs, which would explore all avenues as to how to legislate most effectively and deal with their related criminal and public health problems, including the possibility of their legalisation.
In 2013 Farage said that the smoking ban in enclosed public spaces was "silly and illiberal"; he recommended separate smoking areas along the lines of some German states. He said that banning things makes them more attractive to children, and stated that "Obesity is killing more people than smoking, you could ban chip shops, you could ban doughnuts. The point is we are big enough and ugly enough to make our own decisions".
In his 2015 book Farage reflected that, based on his experiences, "the NHS is so over-stretched that if you can afford private health care, you should take it, particularly for diagnostics and preventative medicine. In the NHS, the system is so battered and poorly run that unless you are really lucky, you will fall through the cracks. The NHS is, however, astonishingly good at critical care. But what testicular cancer taught me is that the NHS will probably let you down if you need screening, fast diagnosis and an operation at a time that suits you". He supports reform within the NHS, saying that its resources have become stretched due to increased immigration, and blaming Labour for high costs of new hospitals built through private finance initiatives.
Farage said in 2015 that money which the NHS could have spent on treating taxpayers with serious conditions was instead being spent on recent immigrants with HIV. A YouGov poll found 50 per cent of those taking part supported Farage, with 37 per cent saying that he was scaremongering.
Immigration
Farage has said that he supports Muslim immigrants who integrate to British society, but is against those who are "coming here to take us over", citing John Howard's Australia as a government to emulate in that regard. He told a Channel 4 documentary in 2015 that there is a "fifth column" of Islamic extremists in the United Kingdom. Farage has said that the "basic principle" of Enoch Powell's 'Rivers of blood' speech was correct: "What he was warning about was the large influx of people into an area, that change an area beyond recognition, there is tension," he said."
In a 2014 interview on the LBC radio station, Farage said that he would feel "concerned" if a group of Romanian men moved next door to him. When interviewer James O'Brien inquired what would be the difference between Romanian men moving next door and a group of German children, in reference to Farage's German wife and children, Farage replied: "You know the difference." He later expanded on this on the UKIP website, stating that "if we were able to operate a proper work permit scheme for Romanian nationals, with suitable checks, as recommended by UKIP, then nobody would need to be concerned if a group of Romanian nationals moved in next door to them."
Farage called on the British government in 2013 to accept more refugees from the Syrian Civil War. He later said that those refugees should be of the country's Christian minority, due to the existence of nearer Muslim-majority safe countries. During the ensuing migration crisis, Farage alleged that the majority of people claiming to be refugees were economic migrants, and that some were Islamic State militants.
In an interview in 2014, Farage suggested that people with HIV should be banned from moving to the UK. During the televised debates in advance of the 2015 election, he said that "You can come into Britain from anywhere in the world and get diagnosed with HIV and get the retro-viral drugs that cost up to £25,000 per year per patient... What we need to do is to put the NHS there for British people and families, who in many cases have paid into the system for decades."
In a 2015 interview Farage stated that he had a "slight preference" for immigrants from countries such as India and Australia compared to those from Eastern Europe, as they "are in some ways more likely to speak English, understand common law and have a connection with this country".
Foreign policy
Farage has been highly critical of the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, saying "Nobody should forget that the most devastating direct consequences of the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan have not been suffered by the likes of Mr Blair, but by the civilian populations of these countries and of course by our own brave service personnel". Farage stated that migrant exodus from Libya had been caused by NATO military intervention, approved by David Cameron and Nicolas Sarkozy, in the civil war in Libya. When the UK Parliament was debating direct military involvement in Syria in 2013, Farage cited the financial and human costs and poor outcomes of the UK involvements in Iraq and Afghanistan as reasons for Britain not to become involved militarily in Syria. He considers rebel forces in Syria to have Islamic extremists among its ranks.
Farage has criticised Britain's close ties with Saudi Arabia. He said: "I think we need a complete re-appraisal of who Saudi Arabia are, what our relationship with them is, and stop extremist talk turning the minds of young, male Muslims in this country." In an interview with Fox News Channel, Farage criticised the West's reluctance to hold Saudi Arabia accountable for the assassination of Jamal Khashoggi and the kingdom's decades-long propagation of radical Wahhabism, while stressing the importance of British and American economic and security ties to the Kingdom.
Farage called French President Emmanuel Macron a "globalist" who wants "many more powers to be centralized in Brussels, powers taken from the member states". Farage accused Erdoğan's Turkey of "blackmailing" the EU over the European migrant crisis and Turkey's proposed European membership. When asked in 2014 which leaders he admired, Farage said, "As an operator, but not as a human being, I would say Putin. The way he played the whole Syria thing. Brilliant. Not that I approve of him politically. How many journalists in jail now?" Later, in 2015, he said about Putin that "The European Union, and the West, view Putin as the devil. They want to view Putin as the devil. I'm not saying I want take him around for tea and meet mum on Sunday afternoon … But the point is, on this bigger overall battle [against ISIS in Syria] we need to start recognizing we're on the same side".
In 2013 he opposed sanctions on Iran, and that he would not support an Israeli strike on Iranian nuclear facilities, stating: "I do not support acts of aggression, even from countries that feel their existence is threatened". In 2018 he condemned Jeremy Corbyn's "record for standing up and defending this hardline Islamist regime" and declared that regime change was "absolutely the right thing" in Iran.
In February 2022 Farage blamed the expansion of the Western military alliance and European Union for the Russian invasion of Ukraine, claiming that the attack was a consequence of Nato and the EU trying to "poke the Russian bear with a stick".
Firearms
In 2014 Farage said that it was UKIP policy for handguns in the UK to be legalised and licensed, describing the current legislation, brought in after the Dunblane school massacre, as "ludicrous". He has also said that there was no link between responsible handgun ownership and gun crime.
LGBT rights
When asked on LBC in 2014, after same-sex marriage was legalised in England and Wales, whether he supported gay marriage, he answered that he does "not support the idea of same-sex marriages, all the while we're under the auspices of the European Court of Human Rights". He added that he would not campaign to abolish same-sex marriage. He also believes that people who oppose same-sex marriage, such as Christian and Muslim communities, should be allowed to speak out about their beliefs.
In 2019 Farage defended Ann Widdecombe, a Brexit Party candidate, for remarks that were perceived to be supportive of gay conversion therapy. Widdecombe had stated that science may one day "produce an answer" to homosexuality. Farage later defended Widdecombe for these remarks, explaining that "these things are a matter of conscience".
Conspiracy theories
In 2014, Farage appeared in an online documentary, Bilderberg: The Movie, alongside a number of conspiracy theorists. In the film he said: "I've tried very hard not to believe in conspiracy theories," but accused the European Union of moving "towards supranationalism", adding: "I've got to know over the years the Van Rompuys, the Schulzes, you know, the Barrosos, even the Junckers, the Timmermans, and it's completely clear, they actually want to destroy the nation state as a unit". According to an investigation by the anti-racism group Hope Not Hate, Farage has retweeted Jack Posobiec, a promoter of the debunked Pizzagate conspiracy theory. A Brexit Party spokesman dismissed the findings as "a series of tangential, transient retweets." Farage has appeared alongside conspiracy theorists from the LaRouche movement and InfoWars.
In 2019, Farage described financier George Soros as "the biggest danger to the entire western world" and alleged Soros seeks "to undermine democracy and to fundamentally change the makeup, demographically, of the whole European continent". As Soros is of Jewish descent, the Jewish Community Security Trust said "Nigel Farage should ensure that his language does not help antisemitic conspiracy theories to spread in British politics".
Electoral performance
Farage has contested several elections under the UKIP banner and one under the Brexit Party banner:
Broadcasting career
Fox News
On 20 January 2017, the day of Trump's presidential inauguration, US news channel Fox News announced it had hired Farage as a commentator. He has since provided political analysis for both the main Fox News channel and its sister channel Fox Business Network.
LBC
From January 2017 to June 2020 Farage hosted The Nigel Farage Show on the UK talk radio station LBC. The show was broadcast live on Monday to Thursday evenings.
Farage said on his show that Channel 4 journalist Jon Snow "should be attacked" for his "condescending bias" during coverage of a pro-Brexit protest in March 2019. Ofcom decided that Farage had not broken their broadcasting code since he clarified that he meant a verbal attack.
On 31 October 2019, the day the UK was set to leave the European Union before the approval of a delay, Farage interviewed US President Donald Trump on his LBC show. Trump criticised Prime Minister Boris Johnson's Brexit deal, saying it made it difficult for the UK to strike a trade deal with the US.
From March 2018 to July 2018, Farage hosted a podcast under the LBC banner entitled Farage Against The Machine, a play on words for the term 'rage against the machine', where he discussed the latest political developments and political news with political figures who Farage both agrees, and disagrees with. New episodes of the podcast were released every Friday, but the podcast was cancelled after the American rock music band Rage Against the Machine sent a cease and desist letter to Farage, demanding that Farage change the name of the podcast, which he was unwilling to do, prompting LBC to reluctantly trigger its cancellation.
On 11 June 2020, LBC announced that Farage would be leaving the station "with immediate effect", noting that his contract had been up for renewal.
GB News
On 20 June 2021 Farage joined the British news channel GB News to host the Sunday morning political discussion programme The Political Correction. On 17 July 2021 he announced he would begin hosting the Monday to Thursday evening show Farage on 19 July.
Personal life
Farage resides in Single Street, a hamlet in the London Borough of Bromley, "around the corner from his mother".
He has been married twice. In 1988 he married Irish nurse Gráinne Hayes, with whom he has two children: Samuel (born 1989) and Thomas (born 1991). The couple divorced in 1997. In 1999 he married Kirsten Mehr, a German national; the couple have two children. In April 2018, Farage said that the children have both British and German passports and that they speak "perfect German". Farage has spoken of how they have been teased because of their relation to him. He has made reference to his German wife in response to criticisms that he is "anti-Europe", while he himself says he is merely anti-EU. Farage has employed his wife Kirsten as his parliamentary secretary and in April 2014 he said that "nobody else could do that job". In February 2017, his wife told the Press Association that they were living "separate lives" and that Farage had "moved out of the family home a while ago".
In a BBC interview with Rachel Johnson in May 2017, he described himself as "53, separated, skint", citing 20 years of campaigning as the reason for both.
On 25 November 1985, Farage was hit by a car after a night out, and suffered injury to his head and left leg, the latter nearly requiring amputation. He was in casts for 11 months but recovered, and the nurse who treated him became his first wife. On 26 December 1986, Farage first felt symptoms of what was later discovered to be testicular cancer. He had the left testicle removed, and the cancer had not spread to any other organs.
Farage's memoir Fighting Bull (Flying Free in paperback) was published in 2010. It chronicles the founding of UKIP and his personal and political life. A second book, The Purple Revolution: The Year That Changed Everything, was released by Biteback Publishing in 2015.
Farage is a keen cricket fan and has appeared on Test Match Special. He appeared in an advertisement for the bookmaker Paddy Power ahead of golf's 2014 Ryder Cup. However, due to spinal injuries since his 2010 plane crash, he cannot play golf. Farage is also an association football fan, and supports Crystal Palace FC. He likes to relax by fishing alone at night on the Kent coast. Farage is a smoker and also fond of beer, this forming part of his public image. Farage is a member of the East India, Devonshire, Sports and Public Schools' Club, a gentlemen's club situated in St. James's Square in London.
Farage is a Christian. In 2014 he described himself as a "somewhat lapsed" member of the Church of England.
In January 2016, Farage told The Mail on Sunday that he believed his car had been tampered with in October 2015, as he had been forced to stop when his car's wheel nuts came loose. He reported that he had spoken with the French police but did not wish to pursue the matter any further. The Times, however, said Farage's story was untrue, and that Dunkirk prosecutors had no reason to suspect foul play or the police would have started an investigation. The owner of the breakdown garage concerned had said the problem was probably shoddy repair work, but he had been unable to communicate directly with Farage. Farage later said he had made a "terrible, terrible mistake" in speaking to journalists and that a Sunday newspaper had misreported his claims of tampering as an assassination attempt.
Coutts account
In June 2023, Farage reported that his UK bank accounts were closed against his will, and he faced difficulties in opening new accounts. He accused "the establishment" of engaging in political persecution to force him out of the country. On 3 July 2023, Chancellor Jeremy Hunt expressed concerns about denying financial services to those exercising "lawful free speech".
On 4 July 2023, the BBC reported that the Coutts account that Farage had was shut down because he fell below the minimum threshold required. On 21 July, that article was amended, acknowledging that the report "turned out not to be accurate". This came after Farage had published on 18 July a document obtained after issuing a subject access request to Coutts which suggests that the company closed his accounts after considering his political views not aligning with the bank's values, though he met their criteria for commercial retention.
On 20 July, The Daily Telegraph reported that Dame Alison Rose, chief executive of the NatWest Group, had dined with Simon Jack, a BBC journalist, before the article was published stating the bank's decision was "for commercial reasons". MPs Peter Bone and David Jones were reported as calling for Rose to resign. Later that day, in a letter to Farage, Dame Alison Rose apologised for "deeply inappropriate" comments made about him and stated they did not represent the bank's view. On 25 July 2023 Natwest CEO Alison Rose resigned after the BBC revealed that she had leaked information to the press about Farage's banking relationship. On 26 July, Farage called on the whole of the NatWest board to resign. The financial regulator, the FCA, said that it found no evidence of politicians being 'debanked' for their political views.
Awards
In November 2016 Farage was honoured with the Lifetime Achievement Award for his role in the 2016 Brexit referendum at the 33rd Parliamentarian of the Year awards run by political magazine The Spectator.
In December 2016 he was shortlisted for Time magazine's Person of the Year award.
In February 2020, an honorary doctorate of laws degree was presented to Farage by Jerry Falwell Jr. during Liberty University's weekly convocation for his role in Brexit and 'support of freedom' in Europe and the United States.
In June 2023, he won the award for Best Presenter at the annual TRIC Awards.
See also
Brexit: The Uncivil War, a 2019 film in which Nigel Farage is played by Paul Ryan
The Farage Garage, a nickname given to the Customs clearance facility and lorry park being developed near Sevington, Kent (near Dover).
Notes
References
Bibliography
Fighting Bull. Biteback (autobiography 2010 hardback first edition). .
Flying Free. Biteback (autobiography 2011 paperback second edition). .
The Purple Revolution: The Year That Changed Everything. Biteback (memoir 2015 paperback). .
External links
MEP website
Nigel Farage Profile at European Parliament website
UKIP MEPs Official website of the UK Independence Party in the European Parliament
Europe of Freedom and Democracy Political group in the European Parliament
Debrett's People of Today
2002 Amnesty law
Penal Code, articles L133-9, L133-10, L133-11
Nigel Farage
1964 births
Living people
20th-century Anglicans
21st-century Anglicans
Brexit
British broadcaster-politicians
British drug policy reform activists
British political party founders
Brexit Party MEPs
British monarchists
Conservatism in the United Kingdom
Critics of Islamism
Critics of multiculturalism
English Anglicans
English autobiographers
English commodities traders
English libertarians
English people of German descent
English nationalists
GB News newsreaders and journalists
Gun rights advocates
Leaders of the UK Independence Party
MEPs for England 1999–2004
MEPs for England 2004–2009
MEPs for England 2009–2014
MEPs for England 2014–2019
MEPs for England 2019–2020
People associated with Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections
People associated with WikiLeaks
People educated at Dulwich College
People from Bromley
Right-wing populists
UK Independence Party MEPs
Survivors of aviation accidents or incidents
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caroline%20Lucas
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Caroline Lucas
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Caroline Patricia Lucas (born 9 December 1960) is a British politician who has twice led the Green Party of England and Wales and has been the Member of Parliament (MP) for Brighton Pavilion since the 2010 general election. She was re-elected in the 2015, 2017 and 2019 general elections, increasing her majority each time.
Born in Malvern in Worcestershire, Lucas graduated from the University of Exeter and the University of Kansas before receiving a PhD from the University of Exeter in 1989. She joined the Green Party in 1986 and held various party roles, also serving on Oxfordshire County Council from 1993 to 1997. She was elected as a Member of the European Parliament (MEP) for South East England in 1999 and re-elected in 2004 and 2009, also serving as the party's female Principal Speaker from 2003 to 2006 and from 2007 to 2008.
Lucas was elected the first leader of the Green Party in 2008 and was selected to represent the constituency of Brighton Pavilion in the 2010 general election, becoming the party's first MP. She stood down as party leader in 2012 to devote more time to her parliamentary duties and focus on an ultimately successful campaign to be re-elected as an MP. She returned as party leader from September 2016 to September 2018, sharing the post with Jonathan Bartley. She stated in June 2023 that she would not stand at the next general election.
Lucas is known as a campaigner and writer on green economics, localisation, alternatives to globalisation, trade justice, animal welfare and food. In her time as a politician and activist, she has worked with non-governmental organizations and think tanks, including the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament and Oxfam.
Early life and education
Lucas was born in Malvern in Worcestershire, to middle-class, Conservative-voting parents Peter and Valerie (née Griffin) Lucas. She is one of three children; her father ran a small central heating company, and sold solar panelling. Her mother stayed at home to bring up their children.
Lucas was educated at Malvern Girls' College (which became Malvern St James in 2006), a boarding private school in Great Malvern. She then went to the University of Exeter, where she gained a first-class BA (Hons) in English Literature in 1983. While at university Lucas went on many trips to Greenham Common Women's Peace Camp and Molesworth peace camp when involved with the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND). Lucas was an activist in CND and was involved in the Snowball Campaign against US military bases in the UK, which involved cutting fences with the expectation of being arrested.
Lucas won a scholarship to attend the University of Kansas between 1983 and 1984, gaining a Diploma of Journalism, before studying for a PhD degree in English from the University of Exeter, awarded in 1990, with a thesis entitled Writing for Women: a study of woman as reader in Elizabethan romance. While completing her doctorate, Lucas worked as a press officer for Oxfam from 1989; she later worked for the charity in other roles, became active in the Green Party and left Oxfam in 1999.
Life and career
Early political career
After being "utterly inspired" by Jonathon Porritt's book Seeing Green, Lucas joined the Green Party in 1986. She noticed that the Green Party office was in Clapham, where she was living at the time, so thought: "Right! I'm going there now, I'm just going to dedicate the rest of my life to this party'." Soon afterwards she became the party's National Press Officer (1987–1989) and Co-Chair (1989–1990). In a 2009 Guardian interview, she told Decca Aitkenhead: "when I was putting people up to go on TV programmes I'd be saying to them, 'What are you planning to wear?', and they'd be slightly offended that I'd even think of asking the question. But I do genuinely think that has changed, a lot. It's a recognition, not that there's some kind of terrible compromise about putting on a tie, but that actually you don't want people to be focusing on what you look like but on what you're saying".
When the Green Party became three separate parties in 1990 for the constituent parts of the United Kingdom, she joined the Green Party of England and Wales. Lucas served as their General Election Speaker from 1991 (for the following year's general election) and a Regional Council Member from 1997.
Lucas's first success in an election came when she gained the Green Party's second council seat in the UK on Oxfordshire County Council, which she held between 1993 and 1997.
European Parliament
Lucas was first elected as a Member of the European Parliament for the South East England Region at the 1999 elections, the first year the election was by proportional representation. In that year the Green Party gained 7.4% of the vote (110,571 votes). In November 2001, she was convicted of a breach of the peace at the Faslane nuclear base in Scotland the previous February and fined £150 for her participation in a CND sit-down protest. Conducting her own defence at the trial, she pleaded not guilty. Lucas argued that she had a right under the Human Rights Act to peaceful protest following on from her firm anti-nuclear attitudes. Faslane is the base used for Britain's Trident nuclear programme. She was arrested for a protest at the same location in January 2007. "It still seems ironic that it is a non-violent demonstration that is judged to be a breach of the peace, rather than Britain's illegal and immoral possession of nuclear weapons", she wrote at the time.
Lucas was re-elected in 2004, gaining 173,351 votes (8% share), and again in the 2009 election when the party's vote under the list system rose to 271,506, or 11.6%. In the European Parliament, she was a member of the Committee for Trade, Industry, Energy and Research; the Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Consumer Policy; the Committee on International Trade; and the Temporary Committee on Climate Change.
Lucas was an early signatory of the International Simultaneous Policy (SIMPOL) which seeks to end the usual deadlock in tackling global issues. Lucas became a signatory in June 2004. In addition, she is or has been Vice-President of the Animal Welfare Intergroup, a member of Intergroups on Peace Issues and Consumer Affairs, a member of the Parliament's Delegation to ACP (African Caribbean, and Pacific) countries, and a member of the Delegation for Relations with the Palestinian Legislative Council. As part of her committee work, she was the Parliament's Rapporteur (draftsperson) on a Commission Communication on the impact of air transport on the environment, and the Vice-President of the parliament's committee of inquiry into foot-and-mouth disease.
In July 2008, Lucas joined the Green New Deal Group, an alliance of experts in finance, energy and the environment. The group put forward plans to invest in green energy, provide greater regulation of the finance sector, and strengthen ties between environmentalists, industry, agriculture, and trade unions. The proposals were put forth in response to fears over the recession, climate change, and increasing energy prices, and stressed the need for integrative policies towards tackling all three.
She held the party's post of Female Principal Speaker from 2003 to 2006 and from 2007 to 2008.
First period as leader (2008–2012)
Lucas was elected as the Green Party's first leader on 5 September 2008, gaining 92% of the vote (against one other candidate, Ashley Gunstock) on a turnout of 38%. Previously the party had operated under a collective leadership. The change "was about having a face the country recognises – or hopefully", she told Decca Aitkenhead in 2009, "comes to recognise. It was in recognition of the fact that people don't really relate to abstract ideas, they relate more to the people who embody them." Lucas was elected as the Green Party's first-ever MP (for Brighton Pavilion) at the general election of 2010.
In July 2010, Lucas expressed her support for seven campaigners of the Smash EDO campaign who had caused approximately £180,000 damage to an EDO MBM arms factory and were acquitted of conspiring to cause criminal damage. The jury accepted their defence of lawful excuse – action undertaken to prevent a much worse crime – because the company manufactured and sold certain components used by the Israeli military, notably in its assault on Gaza. Lucas stated that: "I am absolutely delighted the jury has recognised that the actions of the decommissioners were a legitimate response to the atrocities being committed in Gaza. I do not advocate non-violent direct action lightly ... [but] their actions were driven by the responsibility to prevent further suffering in Gaza."
In 2011, she voted against the military intervention in Libya.
On 14 May 2012, Lucas announced she would be standing down as leader as of September 2012 "in order to broaden opportunities for the range of talent in the party and to raise the profiles of others aspiring to election". She added: "I'm proud that during the four years of my term, we've moved Green politics forward to a higher level, with the party by far the most influential it has ever been."
Brighton Pavilion
Brighton Pavilion had the highest vote in the 2005 general election for a Green Party candidate when Keith Taylor, a former Green Party Principal Speaker, gained 22% of the vote. In 2007, Lucas declared her intention to stand for the Green Party's nomination for the prospective parliamentary candidate in the Brighton Pavilion constituency for the next general election. In a letter to party members, she indicated that she would only stand if she won the internal party selection election by more than 10%, to avoid internal division. She described the move as "the most difficult decision of my life", due to "personal and family commitments" but also her "loyalty and commitment to Keith Taylor, who is a person and a politician for whom I have great admiration and respect". On 18 July 2007, it was announced that Lucas had been selected by the Brighton Green Party. Lucas won with 55% of the party ballot against Keith Taylor's 45%.
In May 2010, Lucas was elected as the first Green MP to Westminster with a majority of 1,252. As well as being the first Green MP, Lucas was also the first woman to be elected as an MP for Brighton. She delivered her maiden speech on 27 May 2010.
Lucas opposed the presentation of bare-breasted models on page 3 in The Sun and in 2013 was reprimanded for transgressing the Westminster dress code by wearing a T-shirt with the logo "No More Page Three" to protest against the feature during a Commons debate.
On 19 August 2013, Lucas was arrested at a non-violent protest against Cuadrilla Resources fracking operations in Sussex. She was subsequently charged with obstructing a public highway but was found not guilty on 17 April 2014 at Brighton Magistrates' Court. After the hearing, Lucas said: "This judgement is right but this is not a victory or cause for celebration. We will continue to campaign to end fracking and only celebrate when our world is on the path to a clean energy future".
In the 2015 general election, Lucas was re-elected with a much increased majority of 7,967 and vote share. In the 2017 general election Lucas increased her majority to 14,689, elected on 52.3% of the vote. Her vote majority increased again in the 2019 election by 5% with 33,151 votes.
In accord with long-standing Green policy, Lucas voted in 2015 for holding the European Union Referendum, but campaigning to stay in the EU with major reform.
On 8 June 2023, Lucas announced she would not be standing at the next general election. On 19 July 2023, it was announced that Siân Berry will be the Green candidate for Lucas’s Brighton seat at the next election.
Co-leader with Jonathan Bartley
On 31 May 2016, it was announced that Lucas would run for the position of the Leader of the Green Party in a job share arrangement with the welfare spokesman Jonathan Bartley in the forthcoming 2016 Green Party leadership election.
On 2 September, it was announced that Lucas and Bartley had been elected with 86% of first-preference votes. Lucas said the party would strive to preserve the rights of EU nationals living in Britain, and EU rules on workers' rights and the environment, among other policies.
In May 2018, Lucas announced that at the end of her two-year term in September, she would not seek re-election as co-leader of the Green Party. In an article for The Guardian, Lucas wrote that "it's now time for me to show the power of letting go".
Other roles, writings and views
Lucas is vice-president of the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals and has been on the National Council of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament since 2004. She is also Vice Chair of the All Party Parliamentary Group on Peak Oil and Gas. A former vice-president of the Stop the War Coalition, she resigned from the post in December 2015. According to a statement from Lucas's office, her "busy parliamentary and constituency schedule means that she doesn't have time to fully engage with the role of a patron and, in light of some recent StWC positions that she didn't support, she felt standing down was the responsible thing to do".
Lucas is a Vice-Chair of the All-Party Parliamentary Group for Choice at the End of Life and a member of the All-Party Parliamentary Group for Drug Policy Reform.
Lucas has served as an advisory board member to the International Forum on Globalisation, the Centre for a Social Europe, and the Protect the Local, Globally think-tank. She has been a Trustee of the Radiation Research Trust and Patron of the Joliba Trust (Africa). She is Matron of the Women's Environmental Network. Between 1997 and 1998, she was called upon as a Policy Adviser on Trade and Investment for the UK government's Department for International Development.
Lucas is a prolific writer of reports, articles and books on the subjects of trade justice, localisation, globalisation, animal welfare, and food, in which she is critical of free trade, a single European currency, trade-led development policies, genetically modified food, and a lack of attention to environmental and social issues. Her most substantial work is Green Alternatives to Globalisation: A Manifesto (co-authored with Mike Woodin), which advocates localisation of economies based on minimal trade and greater social and environmental concern, in opposition to neo-liberal, market-led forces of globalisation.
Lucas is an advocate for reform of UK drug laws. She has called for the law to have an evidence-based approach to drugs that treats drug abuse as a health matter, rather than a criminal one.
In early 2013, Lucas co-signed a letter that was published in The Guardian newspaper and officially marked her support for the People's Assembly Against Austerity movement. She also gave a speech at the People's Assembly Conference, held at Westminster Central Hall on 22 June 2013. A book by Lucas on her time in parliament, Honourable Friends: Parliament and the Fight for Change, was published in 2015.
In August 2015, Lucas endorsed Jeremy Corbyn's campaign in the Labour Party leadership election. She wrote in The Independent: "I've never felt so optimistic about a potential leader of the Labour Party. For the first time in my memory, the party of Keir Hardie and Clement Attlee looks likely to be led again by someone who dares to stand up for the radical changes demanded by the challenges we face."
Lucas is a supporter of a permanent universal basic income. In January 2016, Lucas tabled a motion in the British Parliament, calling on the Government to commission research into the effects of a universal basic income and examine its feasibility to replace the UK's existing social security system.
On 15 April 2018, she attended the launch event of the People's Vote, a campaign group calling for a public vote on the final Brexit deal between the UK and the European Union.
In August 2019 Lucas was subject to criticism for suggesting the creation of an all-female cabinet as part of a national unity government.
In February 2020 she was investigated by the Parliamentary Commissioner for Standards, following a complaint by Michael Fabricant that she had offered a tour of the Commons in exchange for £150, as part of a fundraising drive. Lucas said she did not believe she had done anything wrong. An investigation found she had breached the House of Commons Code of Conduct in offering and giving the tour. The Standards Commissioner also found that it gave her an "unfair advantage over other election candidates". Lucas acknowledged that she had breached the rules and promised not to repeat the breach; the Green Party returned the donation to the supporter who received the tour.
In 2021, Lucas was one of three MPs who successfully took legal action against the Department of Health and Social Care over contracts awarded during the COVID-19 pandemic.
In May 2021, alongside celebrities and other public figures, Lucas was a signatory to an open letter from Stylist magazine, which called on the government to address what it described as an "epidemic of male violence" by funding an "ongoing, high-profile, expert-informed awareness campaign on men's violence against women and girls".
Lucas supports ecocide being made a crime at the International Criminal Court stating “Establishing the law of Ecocide would signal a major breakthrough in the way we deal with crimes against the natural world. Polly Higgins’ groundbreaking proposal to list Ecocide as the fifth global crime against peace would go a long way towards deterring and holding to account CEOs, companies and nations.”
Awards
In her time as a politician and activist, Lucas has won the 2006 Michael Kay Award "for her outstanding contribution to European animal welfare" from the RSPCA.
Lucas has won the award for Politician of the Year in The Observer Newspaper Ethical Awards three times. The award is voted for by Observer readers, who chose her to win in 2007, 2009 and 2010. In 2008 she was listed by The Guardian as one of "50 people who could save the planet".
In October 2008, Lucas was winner in the Trade category of The Parliament magazine MEP Awards 2008. The awards are voted for by MEPs and NGOs. In April 2010 Lucas won Best UK Politician in The Independent Green Awards and in November 2010 she was awarded "Newcomer of the Year" in The Spectator Parliamentarian of the Year awards. In July 2011 she was awarded "Best all-rounder" in the Total Politics End of Year MP awards and in September 2011 she was awarded "MP of the Year" in the Women in Public Life Awards 2011. Also in 2011 she was given the Political Studies Association award for "Influencing the Political Agenda" and voted "Progressive of the Year" in Left Foot Forward's readers' poll.
In November 2020 she was included in the BBC Radio 4 Woman's Hour Power list 2020.
Personal life
In 1991 Lucas married Richard Savage. The couple have two sons, one of whom is an academic at the University of California, Santa Barbara.
She is a vegetarian and told ITV News Political Correspondent Paul Brand that she is "moving as fast as she can towards being vegan" in September 2019.
Films
In 2016 a short documentary film about Lucas, One Green Seat, directed by Daniel Ifans and produced by We Are Tilt, was an Official Selection at the 2017 Artemis Women In Action Film Festival in Santa Monica, California.
See also
Anti-nuclear movement in the United Kingdom
References
Bibliography
Lucas, C. P., Woodin, M., Green Alternatives to Globalisation: A Manifesto, 2004
Lucas, C. P., Global Warming, Local Warning: A study of the likely impacts of climate change upon South East England, 2004
Lucas, C. P., Towards a GM free Europe: Halting the spread of GMOs in Europe, 2003
Jones, A., Lucas, C. P., Local Food: Benefits and Opportunities, 2003
Lucas, C. P., Time to Replace Globalisation, 2001
Lucas, C. P., Which way for the European Union: Radical Reform or Business as Usual?, 2001
Hines, C., Lucas, C. P., Stopping the Great Food Swap: Relocalising Europe's Food Supply, 2001
Lucas, C. P., From Seattle to Nice: Challenging the Free Trade Agenda at the Heart of Enlargement, 2000
Lucas, C. P., Woodin, M., The Euro or a Sustainable Future for Britain? A Green Critique of the Single Currency, 2000
Lucas, C. P., Watchful in Seattle: World Trade Organisation threats to Public Services, Food and the Environment, 1999
Lucas, C. P., Reforming World Trade: The Social and Environmental Priorities, 1996
Coote, B., Lucas, C. P., The Trade Trap, 1994
External links
Official website
The NS interview: Caroline Lucas, Alyssa McDonald, New Statesman, 12 May 2010
Early Day Motions signed
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1953%20Iranian%20coup%20d%27%C3%A9tat
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1953 Iranian coup d'état
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The 1953 Iranian coup d'état, known in Iran as the 28 Mordad coup d'état (), was the U.S.- and British-instigated, Iranian army-led overthrow of the democratically elected Prime Minister Mohammad Mosaddegh in favor of strengthening the monarchical rule of the shah, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, on 19 August 1953. It was aided by the United States (under the name TP-AJAX (Tudeh Party) Project or "Operation Ajax") and the United Kingdom (under the name "Operation Boot"). The clergy also played a considerable role.
Mosaddegh had sought to audit the documents of the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (AIOC), a British corporation (now part of BP), to verify that AIOC was paying the contracted royalties to Iran, and to limit the company's control over Iranian oil reserves. Upon the AIOC's refusal to cooperate with the Iranian government, the parliament (Majlis) voted to nationalize Iran's oil industry and to expel foreign corporate representatives from the country. After this vote, Britain instigated a worldwide boycott of Iranian oil to pressure Iran economically. Initially, Britain mobilized its military to seize control of the British-built Abadan oil refinery, then the world's largest, but Prime Minister Clement Attlee (in power until 1951) opted instead to tighten the economic boycott while using Iranian agents to undermine Mosaddegh's government. Judging Mosaddegh to be unamenable and fearing the growing influence of the communist Tudeh, UK prime minister Winston Churchill and the Eisenhower administration decided in early 1953 to overthrow Iran's government. The preceding Truman administration had opposed a coup, fearing the precedent that Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) involvement would set, and the U.S. government had been considering unilateral action (without UK support) to assist the Mosaddegh government as late as 1952. British intelligence officials' conclusions and the UK government's solicitations to the US were instrumental in initiating and planning the coup.
Following the coup, a government under General Fazlollah Zahedi was formed which allowed Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, the shah of Iran (Persian for 'king'), to rule more firmly as monarch. He relied heavily on United States support to hold on to power. According to the CIA's declassified documents and records, some of the most feared mobsters in Tehran were hired by the CIA to stage pro-shah riots on 19 August. Other men paid by the CIA were brought into Tehran in buses and trucks and took over the streets of the city. Between 200 and 300 people were killed because of the conflict. Mosaddegh was arrested, tried and convicted of treason by the Shah's military court. On 21 December 1953, he was sentenced to three years in jail, then placed under house arrest for the remainder of his life. Other Mosaddegh supporters were imprisoned, and several received the death penalty. After the coup, the Shah continued his rule as monarch for the next 26 years until he was overthrown in the Iranian Revolution in 1979.
In August 2013, the U.S. government formally acknowledged the U.S. role in the coup by releasing a bulk of previously classified government documents that show it was in charge of both the planning and the execution of the coup, including the bribing of Iranian politicians, security and army high-ranking officials, as well as pro-coup propaganda. The CIA is quoted acknowledging the coup was carried out "under CIA direction" and "as an act of U.S. foreign policy, conceived and approved at the highest levels of government". In 2023, the CIA admitted that the move to back up the coup was "undemocratic".
Background
Throughout the 19th century, Iran was caught between two advancing imperial powers, Russia and Britain. In 1892, the British diplomat George Curzon described Iran as "pieces on a chessboard upon which is being played out a game for the dominion of the world." During the latter half of the 19th century, the concession policies of the monarchy faced increased opposition. In 1872, a representative of British entrepreneur Paul Reuter met with the Iranian monarch Naser al-Din Shah Qajar and agreed to fund the monarch's upcoming lavish visit to Europe in return for exclusive contracts for Iranian roads, telegraphs, mills, factories, extraction of resources, and other public works, in which Reuter would receive a stipulated sum for five years and 60% of all the net revenue for 20 years. However, the so-called "Reuter concession" was never put into effect because of violent opposition at home and from Russia. In 1892 the Shah was forced to revoke a tobacco monopoly given to Major G. F. Talbot, following protests and a widespread tobacco boycott.
In 1901, Mozzafar al-Din Shah Qajar granted a 60-year petroleum search concession to William Knox D'Arcy. D'Arcy paid £20,000 (equivalent to £ million in ), according to journalist-turned-historian Stephen Kinzer, and promised equal ownership shares, with 16% of any future net profit, as calculated by the company. However, the historian L. P. Elwell-Sutton wrote, in 1955, that "Persia's share was 'hardly spectacular' and no money changed hands." On 31 July 1907, D'Arcy withdrew from his private holdings in Persia, and transferred them to the British-owned Burmah Oil Company. On 26 May 1908 the company struck oil at a depth of . The company grew slowly until World War I, when Persia's strategic importance led the British government to buy a controlling share in the company, essentially nationalizing British oil production in Iran.
The British angered the Persians by intervening in their domestic affairs, including in the Persian Constitutional Revolution. Massive popular protests had forced Mozzafar al-Din Shah to allow for the Constitution of 1906, which limited his powers. It allowed for a democratically elected parliament Majlis to make the laws, and a prime minister to sign and carry them out. The prime minister would be appointed by the shah after a vote of confidence from Parliament. Nevertheless, the new constitution gave the shah many executive powers as well. It allowed for the shah to issue royal decrees (Farman), gave him the power to appoint and dismiss prime ministers (upon votes of confidence from Parliament), appoint half of the members of the Senate (which was not convened until 1949), and introduce bills to and even dissolve Parliament. It abolished arbitrary rule, but the shah served as an executive, rather than in a ceremonial role; consequently when a shah was weak, the government was more democratic, but when the shah acted on his own, the democratic aspects of the government could be sidelined. The contradictory aspects of this constitution would cause conflicts in the future. The Constitutional Revolution was opposed by the British and Russians, who attempted to subvert it through the backing of Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar (the son of Mozzafar-e-din Shah), who tried to break up the democratic government by force. A guerrilla movement led by Sattar Khan deposed him in 1910.
In the aftermath of World War I there was widespread political dissatisfaction with the royalty terms of the British petroleum concession, under the Anglo-Persian Oil Company (APOC), whereby Persia received 16% of "net profits". In 1921, after years of severe mismanagement under the Qajar dynasty, a coup d'état (allegedly backed by the British) brought a general, Reza Khan, into the government. By 1923, he had become prime minister, and gained a reputation as an effective politician with a lack of corruption. By 1925 under his influence, Parliament voted to remove Ahmad Shah Qajar from the throne, and Reza Khan was crowned Reza Shah Pahlavi, of the Pahlavi dynasty. Reza Shah began a rapid and successful modernization program in Persia, which up until that point had been considered to be among the most impoverished countries in the world. Nevertheless, Reza Shah was also a very harsh ruler who did not tolerate dissent. By the 1930s, he had suppressed all opposition, and had sidelined the democratic aspects of the constitution. Opponents were jailed and in some cases even executed. While some agreed with his policies, arguing that it was necessary as Iran was in such turmoil, others argued that it was unjustified. One such opponent was a politician named Mohammad Mosaddegh, who was jailed in 1940. The experience gave him a lasting dislike for authoritarian rule and monarchy, and it helped make Mosaddegh a dedicated advocate of complete oil nationalization in Iran.
Reza Shah attempted to attenuate the power of the colonial forces in Iran, and was successful to a large extent. However, he also needed them to help modernize the country. He did so by balancing the influence of various colonial powers, including that of Britain and Germany. In the 1930s, Reza Shah tried to terminate the APOC concession that the Qajar dynasty had granted, but Iran was still weak and Britain would not allow it. The concession was renegotiated on terms again favorable to the British (although the D'Arcy Concession was softened). On 21 March 1935, Reza Shah changed the name of the country from Persia to Iran. The Anglo-Persian Oil Company was then renamed the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (AIOC).
In 1941, after the German invasion of the Soviet Union, British and Soviet forces invaded and occupied Iran, which was largely unopposed by the Iranian government and military. After World War II had broken out, Reza Shah had declared Iran's neutrality, and attempted to appease the British, Soviets and Germans, all of whom maintained a degree of influence in Iran. The primary reasons behind the Anglo-Soviet invasion was to remove German influence in Iran and secure control over Iran's oil fields and the Trans-Iranian Railway in order to deliver supplies to the USSR. Reza Shah was deposed and exiled by the British to South Africa, and his 22-year-old son Mohammad Reza Pahlavi was installed as the new Shah of Iran. Mohammad Reza Pahlavi was supported by the Allies because they viewed him as being less able to act against their interests in Iran. The new Shah, unlike his father, was initially a mild leader and at times indecisive. During the 1940s he did not for most part take an independent role in the government, and much of Reza Shah's authoritarian policies were rolled back. Iranian democracy effectively was restored during this period as a result.
The British occupational force withdrew from Iran after the end of the war. However, under Stalin, the Soviet Union partly remained by sponsoring two "People's Democratic Republics" within Iran's borders. The related conflict was ended when the US lobbied for the Iranian Army to reassert control over the two occupied territories. The earlier agreed-upon Soviet-Iranian oil agreement would never be honored. Nationalist leaders in Iran became influential by seeking a reduction in long-term foreign interventions in their country—especially the oil concession which was very profitable for the West and not very profitable for Iran.
U.S. objectives in the Middle East remained the same between 1947 and 1952 but its strategy changed. Washington remained "publicly in solidarity and privately at odds" with Britain, its World War II ally. Britain's empire was steadily weakening, and with an eye on international crises, the U.S. re-appraised its interests and the risks of being identified with British colonial interests. "In Saudi Arabia, to Britain's extreme disapproval, Washington endorsed the arrangement between ARAMCO and Saudi Arabia in the 50/50 accord that had reverberations throughout the region."
Iran's oil had been discovered and later controlled by the British-owned AIOC. Popular discontent with the AIOC began in the late 1940s: a large segment of Iran's public and a number of politicians saw the company as exploitative and a central tool of continued British imperialism in Iran.
Oil nationalization crisis
Assassination attempt on the Shah, and the appointment of Mosaddegh as Prime Minister
In 1949, an assassin attempted to kill the Shah. Shocked by the experience and emboldened by public sympathy for his injury, the Shah began to take an increasingly active role in politics. He quickly organized the Iran Constituent Assembly to amend the constitution to increase his powers. He established the Senate of Iran, which had been a part of the Constitution of 1906 but had never been convened. The Shah had the right to appoint half the senators, and he chose men sympathetic to his aims. Mosaddegh thought this increase in the Shah's political power was not democratic; he believed that the Shah should "reign, but not rule" in a manner similar to Europe's constitutional monarchies. Led by Mosaddegh, political parties and opponents of the Shah's policies banded together to form a coalition known as the National Front. Oil nationalization was a major policy goal for the party.
By 1951, the National Front had won majority seats for the popularly elected Majlis (Parliament of Iran). According to Iran's constitution, the majority elected party in the parliament would give a vote of confidence for its prime minister candidate, after which the Shah would appoint the candidate to power. The Prime Minister Haj Ali Razmara, who opposed the oil nationalization on technical grounds, was assassinated by the hardline Fadaiyan e-Islam (whose spiritual leader the Ayatollah Abol-Qassem Kashani, a mentor to the future Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, had been appointed Speaker of the Parliament by the National Front). After a vote of confidence from the National Front dominated Parliament, Mosaddegh was appointed prime minister of Iran by the Shah (replacing Hossein Ala, who had replaced Razmara). Under heavy pressure by the National Front, the assassin of Razmara (Khalil Tahmasebi) was released and pardoned, thus proving the movement's power in Iranian politics. For the time being, Mosaddegh and Kashani were allies of convenience, as Mosaddegh saw that Kashani could mobilize the "religious masses", while Kashani wanted Mosaddegh to drive out British and other foreign influence. Kashani's Fadaiyan mobs often violently attacked the opponents of nationalization and opponents of the National Front government, as well as "immoral objects", acting at times as unofficial "enforcers" for the movement. However, by late 1952 Mosaddegh was becoming increasingly opposed to Kashani, as the latter was contributing to mass political instability in Iran. Kashani in turn, berated Mosaddegh for not "Islamizing" Iran, as he was a firm believer in the separation of religion and state.
The Shah and his prime minister had an antagonistic relationship. Part of the problem stemmed from the fact that Mosaddegh was connected by blood to the former royal Qajar dynasty, and saw the Pahlavi king as a usurper to the throne. But the real issue stemmed from the fact that Mosaddegh represented a pro-democratic force that wanted to temper the Shah's rule in Iranian politics. He wanted the Shah to be a ceremonial monarch rather than a ruling monarch, thus giving the elected government power over the un-elected Shah. While the constitution of Iran gave the Shah the power to rule directly, Mosaddegh used the united National Front bloc and the widespread popular support for the oil nationalization vote (the latter which the Shah supported as well) in order to block the Shah's ability to act. As a result, the oil nationalization issue became increasingly intertwined with Mosaddegh's pro-democracy movement. The dejected Shah was angered by Mosaddegh's "insolence" (according to Abbas Milani, he angrily paced in the rooms of his palace at the thought that he would be reduced to a figurehead). But Mosaddegh and the oil nationalization's popularity prevented the Shah from acting against his prime minister (which was allowed under Iran's constitution, something that Mosaddegh felt a king had no right to do). In 1952 the Shah dismissed Mosaddegh, replacing him with Ahmad Qavam (a veteran prime minister). But widespread protests by Mosaddegh supporters resulted in the Shah immediately reinstating him.
Oil nationalization, the Abadan crisis, and rising tensions
In late 1951, Iran's Parliament in a near unanimous vote approved the oil nationalization agreement. The bill was widely popular among most Iranians, and generated a huge wave of nationalism, and immediately put Iran at loggerheads with Britain (the handful of MPs that disagreed with it voted for it as well in the face of overwhelming popular support, and the Fadaiyan's wrath). The nationalization made Mosaddegh instantly popular among millions of Iranians, cementing him as a national hero, and placing him and Iran at the centre of worldwide attention.
Britain now faced the newly elected nationalist government in Iran where Mosaddegh, with strong backing of the Iranian parliament and people, demanded more favorable concessionary arrangements, which Britain vigorously opposed.
The U.S. State Department not only rejected Britain's demand that it continue to be the primary beneficiary of Iranian oil reserves but "U.S. international oil interests were among the beneficiaries of the concessionary arrangements that followed nationalization."
Mohammad Mosaddegh attempted to negotiate with the AIOC, but the company rejected his proposed compromise. Mosaddegh's plan, based on the 1948 compromise between the Venezuelan Government of Rómulo Gallegos and Creole Petroleum, would divide the profits from oil 50/50 between Iran and Britain. Against the recommendation of the United States, Britain refused this proposal and began planning to undermine and overthrow the Iranian government.
In July 1951, the American diplomat Averell Harriman went to Iran to negotiate an Anglo-Iranian compromise, asking the Shah's help; his reply was that "in the face of public opinion, there was no way he could say a word against nationalisation". Harriman held a press conference in Tehran, calling for reason and enthusiasm in confronting the "nationalisation crisis". As soon as he spoke, a journalist rose and shouted: "We and the Iranian people all support Premier Mosaddegh and oil nationalisation!" Everyone present began cheering and then marched out of the room; the abandoned Harriman shook his head in dismay.
On a visit to the United States in October 1951, Mosaddegh—in spite of the popularity of nationalization in Iran—agreed in talks with George C. McGhee to a complex settlement of the crisis involving the sale of the Abadan Refinery to a non-British company and Iranian control of the extraction of crude oil. The US waited until Winston Churchill became prime minister to present the deal, believing he would be more flexible, but the deal was rejected by the British.
By September 1951, the British had virtually ceased Abadan oil field production, forbidden British export to Iran of key British commodities (including sugar and steel), and had frozen Iran's hard currency accounts in British banks. British Prime Minister Clement Attlee considered seizing the Abadan Oil Refinery by force, but instead settled on an embargo by the Royal Navy, stopping any ship transporting Iranian oil for carrying so-called "stolen property". On his re-election as prime minister, Winston Churchill took an even harder stance against Iran.
The United Kingdom took its anti-nationalization case against Iran to the International Court of Justice at The Hague; PM Mosaddegh said the world would learn of a "cruel and imperialistic country" stealing from a "needy and naked people". The court ruled that it had no jurisdiction over the case. Nevertheless, the British continued to enforce the embargo of Iranian oil. In August 1952, Iranian Prime Minister Mosaddegh invited an American oil executive to visit Iran and the Truman administration welcomed the invitation. However, the suggestion upset Churchill, who insisted that the U.S. not undermine his campaign to isolate Mosaddegh because of British support for the U.S. in the Korean War.
In mid-1952, Britain's embargo of Iranian oil was devastatingly effective. British agents in Tehran "worked to subvert" the government of Mosaddegh, who sought help from President Truman and then the World Bank but to no avail. "Iranians were becoming poorer and unhappier by the day" and Mosaddegh's political coalition was fraying. To make matters worse, the Speaker of the Parliament Ayatollah Kashani, Mosaddegh's main clerical supporter, became increasingly opposed to the Prime Minister, because Mosaddegh was squeezing him out of power. By 1953, he had completely turned on him, and supported the coup, depriving Mosaddegh of religious support, while giving it to the Shah.
In the Majlis election in the spring of 1952, Mosaddegh "had little to fear from a free vote, since despite the country's problems, he was widely admired as a hero. A free vote, however, was not what others were planning. British agents had fanned out across the country, bribing candidates, and the regional bosses who controlled them. Robert Zaehner alone spent over a £1,500,000, smuggled in biscuit tins, to bribe Iranians, and later his colleague Norman Darbyshire admitted that the actual coup cost the British government a further £700,000. They hoped to fill the Majlis with deputies who would vote to depose Mosaddegh. It would be a coup carried out by seemingly legal means."
While the National Front, which often supported Mosaddegh, won handily in the big cities, there was no one to monitor voting in the rural areas. Violence broke out in Abadan and other parts of the country where elections were hotly contested. Faced with having to leave Iran for The Hague where Britain was suing for control of Iranian oil, Mosaddegh's cabinet voted to postpone the remainder of the election until after the return of the Iranian delegation from The Hague:
To make matters worse, the Communist Tudeh Party, which supported the Soviet Union and had attempted to kill the Shah only four years earlier, began to infiltrate the military and send mobs to "support Mosaddegh" (but in reality to marginalize all non-Communist opponents). Earlier, the Tudeh had denounced Mosaddegh, but by 1953 they changed tack and decided to "support" him. The Tudeh violently attacked opponents under the guise of helping the prime minister (the cousin of the future queen of Iran, Farah Pahlavi, was stabbed at the age of 13 in his school by Tudeh activists), and unwittingly helped cause Mosaddegh's reputation to decline, despite the fact that he never officially endorsed them. However, by 1953 he and the Tudeh had formed an unofficial alliance of convenience with each other; the Tudeh were the "foot soldiers" for his government, effectively replacing the Fadaiyan in that role, all the while secretly hoping that Mosaddegh would institute communism. Pro-Shah mobs also carried out attacks on Mosaddegh opponents, and there may have been some CIA coordination.
Worried about Britain's other interests in Iran, and (thanks to the Tudeh party) believing that Iran's nationalism was really a Soviet-backed plot, Britain persuaded US Secretary of State John Foster Dulles that Iran was falling to the Soviets—effectively exploiting the American Cold War mindset. Since President Harry S. Truman was busy fighting a war in Korea, he did not agree to overthrow the government of Prime Minister Mohammad Mosaddegh. However, in 1953, when Dwight D. Eisenhower became president, the UK convinced the U.S. to undertake a joint coup d'état.
Final months of Mosaddegh's government
By 1953, economic tensions caused by the British embargo and political turmoil began to take a major toll on Mosaddegh's popularity and political power. He was increasingly blamed for the economic and political crisis. Political violence was becoming widespread in the form of street clashes between rival political groups. Mosaddegh was losing popularity and support among the working class which had been his strongest supporters. As he lost support, he became more autocratic. As early as August 1952, he began to rely on emergency powers to rule, generating controversy among his supporters. After an assassination attempt upon one of his cabinet ministers and himself, he ordered the jailing of dozens of his political opponents. This act created widespread anger among the general public, and led to accusations that Mosaddegh was becoming a dictator. The Tudeh party's unofficial alliance with Mosaddegh led to fears of communism, and increasingly it was the communists who were taking part in pro-Mosaddegh rallies and attacking opponents.
By mid-1953 a mass of resignations by Mosaddegh's parliamentary supporters reduced the National Front seats in Parliament. A referendum to dissolve parliament and give the prime minister power to make law was submitted to voters, and it passed with 99.9 percent approval, 2,043,300 votes to 1300 votes against. The referendum was widely seen by opponents as treason and an act against the Shah, who was stripped of military power and control over national resources. This act would be one of many key factors in a chain of events leading to Mosaddegh's deposition.
The Shah himself initially opposed the coup plans and supported the oil nationalization, but he joined in after being informed by the CIA that he too would be "deposed" if he didn't play along. The experience left him with a lifelong awe of American power and would contribute to his pro-US policies while generating a hatred of the British. Mosaddegh's decision to dissolve Parliament also contributed to his decision.
Execution of Operation Ajax
The official pretext for the start of the coup was Mosaddegh's decree to dissolve Parliament, giving himself and his cabinet complete power to rule, while effectively stripping the Shah of his powers. It resulted in him being accused of giving himself "total and dictatorial powers." The Shah, who had been resisting the CIA's demands for the coup, finally agreed to support it.
Having obtained the Shah's concurrence, the CIA executed the coup. Firmans (royal decrees) dismissing Mosaddegh and appointing General Fazlollah Zahedi (a loyalist who had helped Reza Shah reunify Iran decades earlier) were drawn up by the coup plotters and signed by the Shah. Having signed the decrees and delivered them to General Zahedi, he and Queen Soraya departed for a week-long vacation in northern Iran. On Saturday 15 August, Colonel Nematollah Nassiri, the commander of the Imperial Guard, delivered to Mosaddegh a firman from the Shah dismissing him. Mosaddegh, who had been warned of the plot, probably by the Communist Tudeh Party, rejected the firman and had Nassiri arrested. Mosaddegh argued at his trial after the coup that under the Iranian constitutional monarchy, the Shah had no constitutional right to issue an order for the elected Prime Minister's dismissal without Parliament's consent. However, the constitution at the time did allow for such an action, which Mosaddegh considered unfair. The action was publicized within Iran by the CIA and in the United States by The New York Times. Mosaddegh's supporters took to the streets in violent protests. Following the failed coup attempt, the Shah, accompanied by his second wife Soraya Esfandiary-Bakhtiari and Aboul Fath Atabay fled to Baghdad. Arriving unannounced, the Shah asked for permission for himself and his consort to stay in Baghdad for a few days before continuing on to Europe. After high-level Government consultations, they were escorted to the White House, the Iraqi Government's guest house, before flying to Italy in a plane flown by Mohammad Amir Khatami.
After the first coup attempt failed, General Zahedi, declaring that he was the rightful prime minister of Iran, shuttled between multiple safe houses attempting to avoid arrest. Mosaddegh ordered security forces to capture the coup plotters, and dozens were imprisoned. Believing that he had succeeded, and that he was in full control of the government, Mosaddegh erred. Assuming that the coup had failed, he asked his supporters to return to their homes and to continue with their lives as normal. The Tudeh party members also returned to their homes, no longer carrying out enforcement duties. The CIA was ordered to leave Iran, although Kermit Roosevelt Jr. was slow to receive the message—allegedly due to MI6 interference—and eagerly continued to foment anti-Mosaddegh unrest. The Eisenhower administration considered changing its policy to support Mosaddegh, with undersecretary of state Walter Bedell Smith remarking on 17 August: "Whatever his faults, Mosaddegh had no love for the Russians and timely aid might enable him to keep Communism in check."
General Zahedi, who was still on the run, met with the pro-Shah Ayatollah Mohammad Behbahani and other Shah supporters in secret. There (using CIA money deridingly known as "Behbahani dollars"), they quickly created a new plan. Already, much of the country's upper class was in shock from the Shah's flight from Iran, fears of communism, and Mosaddegh's arrests of opponents. They capitalized on this sentiment in their plans. The Ayatollah Behbahani also used his influence to rally religious demonstrators against Mosaddegh.
On 19 August, hired infiltrators posing as Tudeh party members began to organize a "communist revolution". They came and encouraged real Tudeh members to join in. Soon, the Tudeh members took to the streets attacking virtually any symbols of capitalism, and looting private businesses and destroying shops. Much of southern Tehran's business district, including the bazaars, were vandalized. With sudden mass public revulsion against this act, the next part of Zahedi's plan came into action. From the vandalized bazaars, a second group of paid infiltrators, this time posing as Shah supporters, organized angry crowds of common Iranians who were terrified about a "communist revolution" and sickened by the violence.
The CIA hired the two biggest gangsters of the South Tehran ghetto, "Icy Ramadan" and Shaban Jafari A.K.A "Brainless Shaban", to mobilize protest against Mosaddegh.
By the middle of the day, large crowds of regular citizens, armed with improvised weapons, took to the streets in mass demonstrations, and beat back the Tudeh party members. Under Zahedi's authority, the army left its barracks and drove off the communist Tudeh and then stormed all government buildings with the support of demonstrators. Mosaddegh fled after a tank fired a single shell into his house, but he later turned himself in to the army's custody. To prevent further bloodshed, he refused a last attempt to organize his supporters. By the end of the day, Zahedi and the army were in control of the government. Despite the CIA's role in creating the conditions for the coup, there is little evidence to suggest that Kermit Roosevelt Jr. or other CIA officials were directly responsible for the actions of the demonstrators or the army on 19 August. It has even been suggested that Roosevelt's activities between 15 and 19 August were primarily intended to organize "stay-behind networks as part of the planned CIA evacuation of the country", although they allowed him to later "claim responsibility for the day's outcome." In 2014, historian Ray Takeyh conclusively showed that the US-led coup attempt was unsuccessful, with the CIA writing to Eisenhower that "The move failed […] We now [...] probably have to snuggle up to Mosaddeq if we're going to save [our influence in Iran];" the demonstrations that led to Mosaddeq's resignation took place some weeks after the Roosevelt-organized ones, and were composed of average citizens, not the thugs-for-hire that the CIA and MI6 had recruited.
The Shah stayed in a hotel in Italy until he learned what had transpired, upon which he "chokingly declared": "I knew they loved me." Allen Dulles, the director of the CIA, flew back with the Shah from Rome to Tehran. Zahedi officially replaced Mosaddegh. Mosaddegh was arrested, tried, and originally sentenced to death. But on the Shah's personal orders, his sentence was commuted to three years' solitary confinement in a military prison, followed by house arrest until his death.
United States' role
As a condition for restoring the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, in 1954 the US required removal of the AIOC's monopoly; five American petroleum companies, Royal Dutch Shell, and the Compagnie Française des Pétroles, were to draw Iran's petroleum after the successful coup d'état—Operation Ajax. The Shah declared this to be a "victory" for Iranians, with the massive influx of money from this agreement resolving the economic collapse from the last three years, and allowing him to carry out his planned modernization projects.
As part of that, the CIA organized anti-Communist guerrillas to fight the Tudeh Party if they seized power in the chaos of Operation Ajax. Released National Security Archive documents showed that Undersecretary of State Walter Bedell Smith reported that the CIA had agreed with Qashqai tribal leaders, in south Iran, to establish a clandestine safe haven from which U.S.-funded guerrillas and spies could operate.
The CIA sent Major General Norman Schwarzkopf Sr. to persuade the exiled Shah to return to rule Iran. Schwarzkopf trained the security forces that would become known as SAVAK to secure the shah's hold on power.
According to a heavily redacted CIA document released to the National Security Archive in response to a Freedom of Information request, "Available documents do not indicate who authorized CIA to begin planning the operation, but it almost certainly was President Eisenhower himself. Eisenhower biographer Stephen Ambrose has written that the absence of documentation reflected the President's style."
The CIA document then quotes from the Ambrose biography of Eisenhower:
One version of the CIA history, written by Wilber, referred to the operation as TPAJAX.
A tactic Roosevelt admitted to using was bribing demonstrators into attacking symbols of the Shah, while chanting pro-Mosaddegh slogans. As king, the Shah was largely seen as a symbol of Iran at the time by many Iranians and monarchists. Roosevelt declared that the more that these agents showed their hate for the Shah and attacked his symbols, the more it caused the average Iranian citizen to dislike and distrust Mosaddegh.
The British and American spy agencies strengthened the monarchy in Iran by backing the pro-western Shah for the next 26 years. The Shah was overthrown in 1979. The overthrow of Iran's elected government in 1953 ensured Western control of Iran's petroleum resources and prevented the Soviet Union from competing for Iranian oil. Some Iranian clerics cooperated with the western spy agencies because they were dissatisfied with Mosaddegh's secular government.
While the broad outlines of the operation are known, "...the C.I.A.'s records were widely thought by historians to have the potential to add depth and clarity to a famous but little-documented intelligence operation", reporter Tim Weiner wrote in The New York Times 29 May 1997.
"The Central Intelligence Agency, which has repeatedly pledged for more than five years to make public the files from its secret mission to overthrow the government of Iran in 1953, said today that it had destroyed or lost almost all the documents decades ago."
A historian who was a member of the CIA staff in 1992 and 1993 said in an interview today that the records were obliterated by "a culture of destruction" at the agency. The historian, Nick Cullather, said he believed that records on other major cold war covert operations had been burned, including those on secret missions in Indonesia in the 1950s and a successful CIA-sponsored coup in Guyana in the early 1960s. "Iran—there's nothing", Mr. Cullather said. "Indonesia—very little. Guyana—that was burned."
Donald Wilber, one of the CIA officers who planned the 1953 coup in Iran, wrote an account titled, Clandestine Service History Overthrow of Premier Mossadeq of Iran: November 1952 – August 1953. Wilber said one goal of the coup was to strengthen the Shah.
In 2000, James Risen at The New York Times obtained the previously secret CIA version of the coup written by Wilber and summarized its contents, which includes the following:
In early August, the CIA increased the pressure. Iranian operatives pretending to be Communists threatened Muslim leaders with "savage punishment if they opposed Mossadegh", seeking to stir anti-Communist sentiment in the religious community.
In addition, the secret history says, the house of at least one prominent Muslim was bombed by CIA agents posing as Communists. It does not say whether anyone was hurt in this attack.
The agency was intensifying its propaganda campaign. A leading newspaper owner was granted a personal loan of about $45,000, "in the belief that this would make his organ amenable to our purposes."
The Shah remained intransigent. In a 1 August meeting with General Norman Schwarzkopf, he refused to sign the C.I.A.-written decrees firing Mr. Mossadegh and appointing General Zahedi. He said he doubted that the army would support him in a showdown.
The National Security Archive at George Washington University contains the full account by Wilber, along with many other coup-related documents and analysis.
In a January 1973 telephone conversation made public in 2009, US President Richard Nixon told CIA Director Richard Helms, who was awaiting Senate confirmation to become the new U.S. Ambassador to Iran, that Nixon wanted Helms to be a "regional ambassador" to Persian Gulf oil states, and noted that Helms had been a schoolmate of Shah Reza Pahlavi.
Release of U.S. government records and official acknowledgement
In August 2013, on the 60th anniversary of the coup, the US government released documents showing they were involved in staging the coup. The documents also describe the motivations behind the coup and the strategies used to stage it. The UK had sought to censor information regarding its role in the coup; a significant number of documents about the coup remained classified. The release of the declassified documents, which marked the first US official acknowledgement of its role, was seen as a goodwill gesture on the part of the Obama administration. According to Aljazeera, the deputy director of the National Security Archive, Malcolm Byrne, disclosed that the CIA documented the secret histories purposely for official use.
Public awareness of American and British participation in Mosaddeq's overthrow was long-standing. An internal narrative from the middle of the 1970s called "The Battle for Iran" makes a clear reference to the CIA's involvement. In 1981, the agency made a highly edited version of the report public in reaction to an ACLU lawsuit, but it blocked out all mentions of TPAJAX, the code name for the American-led operation. These references can be found in the most recent release in 2013, which is thought to be the CIA's first official admission that the agency assisted in the coup's planning and execution.
In June 2017, the United States State Department's Office of the Historian released its revised historical account of the event. The volume of historical records "focuses on the evolution of U.S. thinking on Iran as well as the U.S. Government covert operation that resulted in Mosadeq's overthrow on 19 August 1953". Though some of the relevant records were destroyed long ago, the release contains a collection of roughly 1,000 pages, only a small number of which remain classified. One revelation is that the CIA "attempted to call off the failing coup but was salvaged by an insubordinate spy." The reports released by the U.S. had reached 1,007 pages, consisting of diplomatic cables and letters according to VOA News.
In March 2018, the National Security Archive released a declassified British memo alleging that the United States Embassy sent "large sums of money" to "influential people"—namely senior Iranian clerics—in the days leading up to Mosaddeq's overthrow. According to the Guardian, despite the U.S. showing regrets about the coup, it has failed to officially issue an apology over its involvement.
United States financial support
The CIA paid a large sum to carry out the operation. Depending on the expenses to be counted, the final cost is estimated to vary from $100,000 to $20 million. CIA gave Zahedi's government $5 million after the coup with Zahedi himself receiving an extra million.
United States motives
Historians disagree on what motivated the United States to change its policy towards Iran and stage the coup. Middle East historian Ervand Abrahamian identified the coup d'état as "a classic case of nationalism clashing with imperialism in the Third World". He states that Secretary of State Dean Acheson admitted the Communist threat' was a smokescreen" in responding to President Eisenhower's claim that the Tudeh party was about to assume power:
Throughout the crisis, the "communist danger" was more of a rhetorical device than a real issue—i.e. it was part of the cold-war discourse ...The Tudeh was no match for the armed tribes and the 129,000-man military. What is more, the British and Americans had enough inside information to be confident that the party had no plans to initiate armed insurrection. At the beginning of the crisis, when the Truman administration was under the impression a compromise was possible, Acheson had stressed the communist danger, and warned if Mosaddegh was not helped, the Tudeh would take over. The (British) Foreign Office had retorted that the Tudeh was no real threat. But, in August 1953, when the Foreign Office echoed the Eisenhower administration's claim that the Tudeh was about to take over, Acheson now retorted that there was no such communist danger. Acheson was honest enough to admit that the issue of the Tudeh was a smokescreen.
Abrahamian states that Iran's oil was the central focus of the coup, for both the British and the Americans, though "much of the discourse at the time linked it to the Cold War". Abrahamian wrote, "If Mosaddegh had succeeded in nationalizing the British oil industry in Iran, that would have set an example and was seen at that time by the Americans as a threat to U.S. oil interests throughout the world, because other countries would do the same." Mosaddegh did not want any compromise solution that allowed a degree of foreign control. Abrahamian said that Mosaddegh "wanted real nationalization, both in theory and practice".
Tirman points out that agricultural land owners were politically dominant in Iran well into the 1960s, and the monarch Reza Shah's aggressive land expropriation policies—to the benefit of himself and his supporters—resulted in the Iranian government being Iran's largest land owner. "The landlords and oil producers had new backing, moreover, as American interests were for the first time exerted in Iran. The Cold War was starting, and Soviet challenges were seen in every leftist movement. But the reformers were at root nationalists, not communists, and the issue that galvanized them above all others was the control of oil." The belief that oil was the central motivator behind the coup has been echoed in the popular media by authors such as Robert Byrd, Alan Greenspan, and Ted Koppel.
Middle East political scientist Mark Gasiorowski states that while, on the face of it, there is considerable merit to the argument that U.S. policymakers helped U.S. oil companies gain a share in Iranian oil production after the coup, "it seems more plausible to argue that U.S. policymakers were motivated mainly by fears of a communist takeover in Iran, and that the involvement of U.S. companies was sought mainly to prevent this from occurring. The Cold War was at its height in the early 1950s, and the Soviet Union was viewed as an expansionist power seeking world domination. Eisenhower had made the Soviet threat a key issue in the 1952 elections, accusing the Democrats of being soft on communism and of having 'lost China.' Once in power, the new administration quickly sought to put its views into practice."
A 2019 study by Gasiorowski concluded "that U.S. policymakers did not have compelling evidence that the threat of a Communist takeover was increasing substantially in the months before the coup. Rather, the Eisenhower administration interpreted the available evidence in a more alarming manner than the Truman administration had."
Gasiorowski further states "the major U.S. oil companies were not interested in Iran at this time. A glut existed in the world oil market. The U.S. majors had increased their production in Saudi Arabia and Kuwait in 1951 in order to make up for the loss of Iranian production; operating in Iran would force them to cut back production in these countries which would create tensions with Saudi and Kuwaiti leaders. Furthermore, if nationalist sentiments remained high in Iran, production there would be risky. U.S. oil companies had shown no interest in Iran in 1951 and 1952. By late 1952, the Truman administration had come to believe that participation by U.S. companies in the production of Iranian oil was essential to maintain stability in Iran and keep Iran out of Soviet hands. In order to gain the participation of the major U.S. oil companies, Truman offered to scale back a large anti-trust case then being brought against them. The Eisenhower administration shared Truman's views on the participation of U.S. companies in Iran and also agreed to scale back the anti-trust case. Thus, not only did U.S. majors not want to participate in Iran at this time, it took a major effort by U.S. policymakers to persuade them to become involved."
In 2004, Gasiorowski edited a book on the coup arguing that "the climate of intense cold war rivalry between the superpowers, together with Iran's strategic vital location between the Soviet Union and the Persian Gulf oil fields, led U.S. officials to believe that they had to take whatever steps were necessary to prevent Iran from falling into Soviet hands." While "these concerns seem vastly overblown today" the pattern of "the 1945–46 Azerbaijan crisis, the consolidation of Soviet control in Eastern Europe, the communist triumph in China, and the Korean War—and with the Red Scare at its height in the United States" would not allow U.S. officials to risk allowing the Tudeh Party to gain power in Iran. Furthermore, "U.S. officials believed that resolving the oil dispute was essential for restoring stability in Iran, and after March 1953 it appeared that the dispute could be resolved only at the expense either of Britain or of Mosaddeq." He concludes "it was geostrategic considerations, rather than a desire to destroy Mosaddeq's movement, to establish a dictatorship in Iran or to gain control over Iran's oil, that persuaded U.S. officials to undertake the coup." Faced with choosing between British interests and Iran, the U.S. chose Britain, Gasiorowski said. "Britain was the closest ally of the United States, and the two countries were working as partners on a wide range of vitally important matters throughout the world at this time. Preserving this close relationship was more important to U.S. officials than saving Mosaddeq's tottering regime." A year earlier, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill used Britain's support for the U.S. in the Cold War to insist the United States not undermine his campaign to isolate Mosaddegh. "Britain was supporting the Americans in Korea, he reminded Truman, and had a right to expect 'Anglo-American unity' on Iran."
According to Kinzer, for most Americans, the crisis in Iran became just part of the conflict between Communism and "the Free world". "A great sense of fear, particularly the fear of encirclement, shaped American consciousness during this period. ... Soviet power had already subdued Latvia, Lithuania, and Estonia. Communist governments were imposed on Bulgaria and Romania in 1946, Hungary and Poland in 1947, and Czechoslovakia in 1948. Albania and Yugoslavia also turned to communism. Greek communists made a violent bid for power. Soviet soldiers blocked land routes to Berlin for sixteen months. In 1949, the Soviet Union successfully tested a nuclear weapon. That same year, pro-Western forces in China lost their Civil War to communists led by Mao Zedong. From Washington, it seemed that enemies were on the march everywhere." Consequently, "the United States, challenged by what most Americans saw as a relentless communist advance, slowly ceased to view Iran as a country with a unique history that faced a unique political challenge." Some historians, including Douglas Little, Abbas Milani and George Lenczowski have echoed the view that fears of a communist takeover or Soviet influence motivated the U.S. to intervene.
On 11 May 1951, prior to the overthrow of Mosaddegh, Adolf A. Berle warned the U.S. State Department that U.S. "control of the Middle East was at stake, which, with its Persian Gulf oil, meant 'substantial control of the world.'"
News coverage in the United States and the United Kingdom
When Mosaddegh called for the dissolution of the Majlis in August 1953, the editors of the New York Times gave the opinion that: "A plebiscite more fantastic and farcical than any ever held under Hitler or Stalin is now being staged in Iran by Premier Mosaddegh in an effort to make himself unchallenged dictator of the country."
A year after the coup, the New York Times wrote on 6 August 1954, that a new oil "agreement between Iran and a consortium of foreign oil companies" was "good news indeed":
Costly as the dispute over Iranian oil has been to all concerned, the affair may yet be proved worthwhile if lessons are learned from it: Underdeveloped countries with rich resources now have an object lesson in the heavy cost that must be paid by one of their number which goes berserk with fanatical nationalism. It is perhaps too much to hope that Iran's experience will prevent the rise of Mossadeghs in other countries, but that experience may at least strengthen the hands of more reasonable and more far-seeing leaders. In some circles in Great Britain the charge will be pushed that American "imperialism"—in the shape of the American oil firms in the consortium!—has once again elbowed Britain from a historic stronghold.
The documentary Cinematograph aired on 18 August 2011 on the anniversary of the coup. In it, BBC admitted for the first time to the role of BBC Persian radio as the propaganda arm of the British government in Iran. The Cinematograph narrator said:
The documentary quoted a 21 July 1951 classified document in which a Foreign Office official thanked the British ambassador for his proposals that were precisely followed by the BBC Persian radio to strengthen its propaganda against Mosaddegh:
The BBC was at times even used directly in the operations, sending coded messages to the coup plotters by changing the wording of its broadcasts.
An early account of the CIA's role in the coup appeared in The Saturday Evening Post in late 1954, purporting to explain how "the strategic little nation of Iran was rescued from the closing clutch of Moscow." The report was approved by the CIA, and its authors may have been assisted by Kermit Roosevelt Jr., who had written for the Post before.
Britain's role
Despite the British government's pressure, the National Security Archive released two declassified documents in August 2017 which confirm the British solicitation of the United States' assistance in ousting Mosaddegh. According to these records, the British first approached the American government about a plan for the coup in November 1952 "repeatedly" asking U.S. to join the coup, claiming that the Mosaddegh government would be ineffective in preventing a communist takeover, and that Mosaddegh was a threat to America's global fight against communism, which they believed necessitated action; the records also state that UK and U.S. spy agencies had by then had "very tentative and preliminary discussions regarding the practicability of such a move". At the time, the American government was already preparing to aid Mosaddegh in his oil dealings with the British, and believed him to be anti-communist—considerations which made the U.S. government skeptical of the plot. Since President Truman's term was drawing to a close in January 1953, and there was too much uncertainty and danger associated with the plot, the U.S. government decided not to take action against Mosaddegh at the time.
According to the 1952 documents, it was Christopher Steel, the No 2 official in the British embassy in Washington, who "pitched" the idea of the coup to US officials amid the US-Britain talks which had begun in October. The document also says that the British officials rejected Paul Nitze's suggestion that, instead of executing a coup, they mount a "campaign" against Ayatollah Abolqasem Kashani, "a leading opponent of British involvement in Iran's oil industry", and the communist Tudeh Party. They "pressed US for a decision" since they knew "the Truman administration was in its final weeks". According to Wilber, the British Secret Intelligence Service worked with CIA to form a propaganda campaign via "the press, handbills and the Tehran clergy" to "weaken the Mossadeq government in any way possible".
More broadly, the oil nationalization law led to a direct conflict of interests between Mosaddegh and the British government, and the latter internally proposed to regain its control over the oil industry in Iran by following a "three-track strategy" aimed at either "pressuring him into a favorable settlement or by removing him from the office." The three components of Britain strategy consisted of (1) refusing direct negotiation with Mosaddegh, (2) imposing economic sanctions on Iran and performing war games in the region, and (3) the removal of Mosaddegh through "covert political action".
In the lead-up to the 70th anniversary of the coup in August 2023, David Owen, who was the UK Foreign Secretary in the late 1970s, said that MI6 should follow the example of the CIA and acknowledge its role in the coup.
The role of the clergy
Mosaddegh appointed a series of secular ministers to his cabinet during his premiership, losing his support with the clergy. In 1953, Ayatollah Abol-Qasem Kashani and his followers organised a series of protests against Mosaddegh's liberal reforms – such as the extension of the vote to women. By July 1953 when Mosaddegh asked for a critical extension of his emergency powers, "... Clerical members of the Majles who supported Kashani left the National Front Coalition and set up their own Islamic Faction...". (Muslim Warriors). This faction then boycotted the 1953 referendum about the dissolution of parliament.
At 8am on 18 August Ayatollah Behbahan mobilised 3000 stick and club wielding anti-shah protestors formed a mob in Tehran. This was done in the hope that the removal of Mosaddegh would create a more religious government. Separate mobilisation was instigated by Ayatollah Kashani in the country at this time. There has been documentation that both Ayatollah Behbahani and Kashani received funds from the CIA by some sources. The former's mob would lead Mosaddegh to abandon his residence, and ultimately his capture. Iranian Historian Michael Axworthy stated that "... [The clergy's] move to oppose Mossadeq was the decisive factor in his downfall...".
Aftermath
The coup has been said to have "left a profound and long-lasting legacy."
Blowback
The coup caused long-lasting damage to the U.S. reputation, according to documents released to the National Security Archive and reflected in the book Mohammad Mosaddeq and the 1953 Coup in Iran:
The '28 Mordad' coup, as it is known by its Persian date [in the Solar Hijri calendar], was a watershed for Iran, for the Middle East and for the standing of the United States in the region. The joint US-British operation ended Iran's drive to assert sovereign control over its own resources and helped put an end to a vibrant chapter in the history of the country's nationalist and democratic movements. These consequences resonated with dramatic effect in later years. When the Shah finally fell in 1979, memories of the US intervention in 1953, which made possible the monarch's subsequent, and increasingly unpopular, 25-year reign intensified the anti-American character of the revolution in the minds of many Iranians.
The authoritarian monarch appreciated the coup, Kermit Roosevelt wrote in his account of the affair. "'I owe my throne to God, my people, my army and to you!' By 'you' he [the shah] meant me and the two countries—Great Britain and the United States—I was representing. We were all heroes."
On 16 June 2000, The New York Times published the secret CIA report, "Clandestine Service History, Overthrow of Premier Mossadeq of Iran, November 1952 – August 1953", partly explaining the coup from CIA agent Wilber's perspective. In a related story, The New York Times reporter James Risen penned a story revealing that Wilber's report, hidden for nearly five decades, had recently come to light.
In the summer of 2001, Ervand Abrahamian writes in the journal Science & Society that Wilber's version of the coup was missing key information some of which was available elsewhere:
The New York Times recently leaked a CIA report on the 1953 American-British overthrow of Mosaddeq, Iran's Prime Minister. It billed the report as a secret history of the secret coup, and treated it as an invaluable substitute for the U.S. files that remain inaccessible. But a reconstruction of the coup from other sources, especially from the archives of the British Foreign Office, indicates that this report is highly sanitized. It glosses over such sensitive issues as the crucial participation of the U.S. ambassador in the actual overthrow; the role of U.S. military advisers; the harnessing of local Nazis and Muslim terrorists; and the use of assassinations to destabilize the government. What is more, it places the coup in the context of the Cold War rather than that of the Anglo-Iranian oil crisis—a classic case of nationalism clashing with imperialism in the Third World.
In a review of Tim Weiner's Legacy of Ashes, historian Michael Beschloss wrote, "Mr. Weiner argues that a bad C.I.A. track record has encouraged many of our gravest contemporary problems... A generation of Iranians grew up knowing that the C.I.A. had installed the shah", Mr. Weiner notes. "In time, the chaos that the agency had created in the streets of Tehran would return to haunt the United States."
The administration of Dwight D. Eisenhower considered the coup a success, but, given its blowback, that opinion is no longer generally held, because of its "haunting and terrible legacy". In 2000, Madeleine Albright, U.S. Secretary of State, said that intervention by the U.S. in the internal affairs of Iran was a setback for democratic government. The coup is widely believed to have significantly contributed to the 1979 Iranian Revolution, which deposed the "pro-Western" Shah and replaced the monarchy with an "anti-Western" Islamic republic.
"For many Iranians, the coup demonstrated duplicity by the United States, which presented itself as a defender of freedom but did not hesitate to use underhanded methods to overthrow a democratically elected government to suit its own economic and strategic interests", the Agence France-Presse reported.
United States Supreme Court Justice William O. Douglas, who visited Iran both before and after the coup, wrote that "When Mosaddegh and Persia started basic reforms, we became alarmed. We united with the British to destroy him; we succeeded; and ever since, our name has not been an honored one in the Middle East."
Iran
Perceptions of the Shah
When the Shah returned to Iran after the coup, he was greeted by a cheering crowd. He wrote in his memoirs that while he had been a king for over a decade, for the first time he felt that the people had "elected" and "approved" of him, and that he had a "legitimate" popular mandate to carry out his reforms (although some in the crowd may have been bribed). The Shah was never able to remove the reputation of being a "foreign imposed" ruler among non-royalist Iranians. The Shah throughout his rule continued to assume that he was supported by virtually everybody in Iran, and sank into deep dejection when in 1978 massive mobs demanded his ouster. The incident left him in awe of American power, while it also gave him a deep hatred of the British.
Bloody suppression of the opposition
An immediate consequence of the coup d'état was the Shah's suppression of all republicanist political dissent, especially the liberal and nationalist opposition umbrella group National Front as well as the (Communist) Tudeh party, and concentration of political power in the Shah and his courtiers.
The minister of Foreign Affairs and the closest associate of Mosaddegh, Hossein Fatemi, was executed by order of the Shah's military court by firing squad on 10 November 1954. According to Kinzer, "The triumphant Shah [Pahlavi] ordered the execution of several dozen military officers and student leaders who had been closely associated with Mohammad Mosaddegh".
As part of the post-coup d'état political repression between 1953 and 1958, the Shah outlawed the National Front, and arrested most of its leaders. The Shah personally spared Mosaddegh the death penalty, and he was given 3 years in prison, followed by house arrest for life.
Many supporters of Iran continued to fight against the new regime, yet they were suppressed with some even being killed. The political party that Mosaddegh founded, the National Front of Iran, was later reorganized by Karim Sanjabi, and is currently being led by the National Poet of Iran Adib Boroumand, who was a strong Mosaddegh supporter and helped spread pro-Mosaddegh propaganda during the Abadan Crisis and its aftermath.
The Communist Tudeh bore the main brunt of the crackdown. The Shah's security forces arrested 4,121 Tudeh political activists including 386 civil servants, 201 college students, 165 teachers, 125 skilled workers, 80 textile workers, and 60 cobblers. Forty were executed (primarily for murder, such as Khosrow Roozbeh), another 14 died under torture and over 200 were sentenced to life imprisonment. The Shah's post-coup dragnet also captured 477 Tudeh members ("22 colonels, 69 majors, 100 captains, 193 lieutenants, 19 noncommissioned officers, and 63 military cadets") who were in the Iranian armed forces. After their presence was revealed, some National Front supporters complained that this Communist Tudeh military network could have saved Mosaddegh. However, few Tudeh officers commanded powerful field units, especially tank divisions that might have countered the coup. Most of the captured Tudeh officers came from the military academies, police and medical corps. At least eleven of the captured army officers were tortured to death between 1953 and 1958.
Creation of a secret police
After the 1953 coup, the Shah's government formed the SAVAK (secret police), many of whose agents were trained in the United States. The SAVAK monitored dissidents and carried out censorship. After the 1971 Siahkal Incident, it was given a "loose leash" to torture suspected dissidents with "brute force" that, over the years, "increased dramatically", and nearly 100 people were executed for political reasons during the last 20 years of the Shah's rule. After the revolution, SAVAK was officially abolished, but was in reality "drastically expanded" into a new organization that killed over 8,000–12,000 prisoners between 1981 and 1985 alone, and 20,000–30,000 in total, with one prisoner who served time under both the Shah and the Islamic Republic declaring that "four months under (Islamic Republic's) warden Asadollah Lajevardi took the toll of four years under SAVAK".
Oil policy
Another effect was sharp improvement of Iran's economy; the British-led oil embargo against Iran ended, and oil revenue increased significantly beyond the pre-nationalisation level. Despite Iran not controlling its national oil, the Shah agreed to replacing the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company with a consortium—British Petroleum and eight European and American oil companies; in result, oil revenues increased from $34 million in 1954–1955 to $181 million in 1956–1957, and continued increasing, and the United States sent development aid and advisers. The Shah's government attempted to solve the issue of oil nationalization through this method, and Iran began to develop rapidly under his rule. The Shah later in his memoirs declared that Mosaddegh was a "dictator" who was "damaging" Iran through his "stubbornness", while he (the Shah) "followed" the smarter option. By the 1970s, Iran was wealthier than all of its surrounding neighbors, and economists frequently predicted that it would become a major global economic power, and a developed country.
When the Shah attempted during the 1970s to once again control the oil prices (through OPEC), and cancel the same oil consortium agreement that caused the 1953 coup, it resulted in a massive decline in US support for the Shah, and ironically, hastened his downfall.
CIA staff historian David Robarge stated: "The CIA carried out [a] successful regime change operation. It also transformed a turbulent constitutional monarchy into an absolutist kingship and induced a succession of unintended consequences." The 1979 Iranian Revolution was a most impactful unintended consequence.
Internationally
Kinzer wrote that the 1953 coup d'état was the first time the United States used the CIA to overthrow a democratically elected, civil government. The Eisenhower administration viewed Operation Ajax as a success, with "immediate and far-reaching effect. Overnight, the CIA became a central part of the American foreign policy apparatus, and covert action came to be regarded as a cheap and effective way to shape the course of world events"—a coup engineered by the CIA called Operation PBSuccess toppling the duly elected Guatemalan government of Jacobo Arbenz Guzmán, which had nationalised farm land owned by the United Fruit Company, followed the next year.
A pro-American government in Iran extended the United States' geographic and strategic advantage in the Middle East, as Turkey, also bordering the USSR, was part of NATO.
In 2000, U.S. Secretary of State Madeleine K. Albright, acknowledged the coup's pivotal role in the troubled relationship and "came closer to apologizing than any American official ever has before":
The Eisenhower administration believed its actions were justified for strategic reasons. ... But the coup was clearly a setback for Iran's political development. And it is easy to see now why many Iranians continue to resent this intervention by America in their internal affairs.
In June 2009, the U.S. President Barack Obama in a speech in Cairo, Egypt, talked about the United States' relationship with Iran, mentioning the role of the U.S. in 1953 Iranian coup saying:
Legacy
In the Islamic Republic, remembrance of the coup is quite different from that of history books published in the West, and follows the precepts of Ayatollah Khomeini that Islamic jurists must guide the country to prevent "the influence of foreign powers". Kashani came out against Mosaddegh by mid-1953 and "told a foreign correspondent that Mosaddegh had fallen because he had forgotten that the shah enjoyed extensive popular support." A month later, Kashani "went even further and declared that Mosaddegh deserved to be executed because he had committed the ultimate offense: rebelling against the shah, 'betraying' the country, and repeatedly violating the sacred law."
Men associated with Mosaddegh and his ideals dominated Iran's first post-revolutionary government. The first prime minister after the Iranian revolution was Mehdi Bazargan, a close associate of Mosaddegh. But with the subsequent rift between the conservative Islamic establishment and the secular liberal forces, Mosaddegh's work and legacy has been largely ignored by the Islamic Republic establishment. However, Mosaddegh remains a popular historical figure among Iranian opposition factions. Mosaddegh's image is one of the symbols of Iran's opposition movement, also known as the Green Movement. Kinzer writes that Mosaddegh "for most Iranians" is "the most vivid symbol of Iran's long struggle for democracy" and that modern protesters carrying a picture of Mosaddegh is the equivalent of saying "We want democracy" and "No foreign intervention".
In the Islamic Republic of Iran, Kinzer's book All the Shah's Men: An American Coup and the Roots of Middle East Terror has been censored of descriptions of Ayatollah Abol-Ghasem Kashani's activities during the Anglo-American coup d'état. Mahmood Kashani, the son of Abol-Ghasem Kashani, "one of the top members of the current, ruling élite" whom the Iranian Council of Guardians has twice approved to run for the presidency, denies there was a coup d'état in 1953, saying Mosaddegh was obeying British plans to undermine the role of Shia clerics.
This allegation also is posited in the book Khaterat-e Arteshbod-e Baznesheshteh Hossein Fardoust (The Memoirs of Retired General Hossein Fardoust), published in the Islamic Republic and allegedly written by Hossein Fardoust, a former SAVAK officer. It says that rather than being a mortal enemy of the British, Mohammad Mosaddegh always favored them, and his nationalisation campaign of the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company was inspired by "the British themselves". Scholar Ervand Abrahamian suggests that the fact that Fardoust's death was announced before publication of the book may be significant, as the Islamic Republic authorities may have forced him into writing such statements under duress.
Viewpoints
Ruhollah Khomeini said the government did not pay enough attention to religious figures which caused the coup d'état to take place and described the separation between religion and politics as a fault in contemporary history.
Ali Khamenei believed that Mosaddegh trusted the United States and asked them to help confront Britain. As a result, the 1953 coup d'état was executed by the U.S. against Mosaddegh.
President Barack Obama of the United States said in regard to the role of the U.S. in the 1953 Iranian coup d'état that the U.S. played a major role in the overthrow of a democratically elected prime minister.
In popular culture
Directed by Hasan Fathi and written jointly with playwright and university professor Naghmeh Samini, the TV series Shahrzad is the story of a love broken apart by events in the aftermath of the 1953 coup that overthrew the democratically elected prime minister, Mohammad Mosaddegh.
Cognito Comics/Verso Books has published a nonfiction graphic novel of the history, Operation AJAX: The Story of the CIA Coup That Remade The Middle East, that covers events leading to how the CIA hired rival mobs to create chaos and overthrow the country.
See also
References
Bibliography
Dorril, Stephen, Mi6: Inside the Covert World of Her Majesty's Secret Intelligence Service (paperback is separately titled: MI6: Fifty Years of Special Operations Fourth Estate: London, a division of Harper Collins )
Elm, Mostafa. Oil, Power and Principle: Iran's Oil Nationalization and Its Aftermath. (Syracuse University Press, 1994) Documents competition between Britain and the United States for Iranian oil, both before and after the coup. Publishers Weekly summary: "an impressive work of scholarship by an Iranian economist and former diplomat [showing how] the CIA-orchestrated coup, followed by U.S. backing of the dictatorial Shah, planted"
Elwell-Sutton, L. P. 1955 Persian Oil: A Study in Power Politics, Lawrence & Wishart: London. Reprinted by Greenwood Press 1976.
Farmanfarmaiyan, Manuchihr, Roxane Farmanfarmaian Blood and Oil: A Prince's Memoir of Iran, from the Shah to the Ayatollah (Random House 2005). A cousin of Mosaddeq, Farmanfarmaiyan was the Shah's oil adviser. Sympathetic to the Shah and antagonistic to Khomeini, Farmanfarmaiyan offers many insider details of the epic battle for Iranian oil, both in Iran's historic relationship with Britain and then, after the coup, with the United States.
Gasiorowski, Mark J. U.S. Foreign Policy and the Shah: Building a Client State in Iran (Cornell University Press: 1991). Traces the exact changes in U.S. foreign policy that led to the coup in Iran soon after the inauguration of Dwight D. Eisenhower; describes "the consequences of the coup for Iran's domestic politics" including "an extensive series of arrests and installation of a rigid authoritarian regime under which all forms of opposition political activity were prohibited." Documents how U.S. oil industry benefited from the coup with, for the first time, 40 percent post-coup share in Iran's oil revenue.
Gendzier, Irene. Notes From the Minefield: United States Intervention in Lebanon and the Middle East, 1945–1958 Westview Press, 1999.
Heiss, Mary Ann, Empire and Nationhood: The United States, Great Britain, and Iranian Oil, 1950–1954, Columbia University Press,1997.
Kinzer, Stephen, Overthrow: America's Century of Regime Change from Hawaii to Iraq (Henry Holt & Co 2006). . Assesses the influence of John Foster Dulles on U.S. foreign policy. "Dulles was tragically mistaken in his view that the Kremlin lay behind the emergence of nationalism in the developing world. He could… claim consistency in his uncompromising opposition to every nationalist, leftist, or Marxist regime on earth."
Rashid, Ahmed. Taliban: Militant Islam, Oil and Fundamentalism in Central Asia (Yale University Press 2010)
Weiner, Tim. Legacy of Ashes: The History of the CIA (Doubleday 2007)
Wilber "Clandestine Service History: Overthrow of Premier Mossadeq of Iran, Nov. 1952–1953" [CIA] CS Historical Paper no. 208. March 1954.
External links
Dr. Mohammad Mosaddeq: Symbol of Iranian Nationalism and Struggle Against Imperialism, Iran Chamber Society]
1953 Iran Coup: New U.S. Documents Confirm British Approached U.S. in Late 1952 About Ousting Mosaddeq–Provided by the National Security Archive, via GWU.
The Secret CIA History of the Iran Coup, 1953. Provided by the National Security Archive, via GWU.
David S. Robarge (CIA staff historian), Review of All the Shah's Men, Center for the Study of Intelligence, Studies, 48 (2).
Radio Free Europe. From The Archives: The 1953 Iranian Coup. Photos
Military coups in Iran
Battles involving Iran
BP
Central Intelligence Agency operations
CIA activities in Iran
Cold War conflicts
Cold War history of Iran
Cold War intelligence operations
Conflicts in 1953
History of the foreign relations of the United States
Iran–United Kingdom relations
Iran–United States relations
Imperialism
Mohammad Mosaddegh
Mohammad Reza Pahlavi
Pahlavi Iran
United Kingdom intelligence operations
1950s coups d'état and coup attempts
Coup d'etat
1953 in the United Kingdom
1953 in the United States
August 1953 events in Asia
False flag operations
United States intelligence operations
United States involvement in regime change
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Louisa Adams
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Louisa Catherine Adams (née Johnson; February 12, 1775 – May 15, 1852) was the first lady of the United States from 1825 to 1829 during the presidency of John Quincy Adams. She was born in England and raised in France. Her father was an influential American merchant, and she was regularly introduced to prominent Americans. After her family returned to England, she met John Quincy Adams in 1795, and the two began a tenuous courtship. They were wed in 1797 after a year of engagement, and they began a marriage of disagreements and personality conflicts. She joined her husband on his diplomatic mission to Prussia, where she was popular with the Prussian court. When they returned to the United States, her husband became a senator and she gave birth to three sons. John was appointed minister to the Russian Empire in 1809, and they traveled to Russia without their two older sons, against Louisa's wishes. Though she was again popular with the court, she detested living in Russia, especially after the death of her infant daughter in 1812. She lived in Russia alone for a year while John negotiated the Treaty of Ghent, and when he asked her to join him in 1815, she made the dangerous 40 day journey across war-torn Europe.
The Adamses lived in England for two years before returning to the United States when John was appointed Secretary of State. Louisa became a prominent cabinet wife and regularly hosted important guests in her home. She worked to build connections for her husband's 1824 presidential run, allowing for his victory. She was unsatisfied in the White House, where she became reclusive and grew distant from her husband. She instead took to writing, producing plays, essays, poems, and an autobiography. She wished for retirement after her husband lost re-election, but he was elected to the United States House of Representatives. She took a more active interest in politics, supporting abolitionism and greater rights for women in society. She was widowed in 1848, and she suffered a stroke in 1849 that left her with limited mobility. She died on May 15, 1852 at the age of 77, and Congress adjourned for her funeral, the first time a woman was honored in this way. She was the only foreign-born first lady of the United States until 2017, when Melania Trump became first lady. Her tenure as first lady is not as well studied as other parts of her life, due to her reclusiveness and the limited records she kept at the time. She is generally rated in the upper half of first ladies by historians.
Early life
Louisa Catherine Johnson was born in London on February 12, 1775. She was the second daughter of American merchant Joshua Johnson and British woman Catherine Nuth. The Johnsons were an influential family in American politics, with Louisa's paternal uncle Thomas Johnson being one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence. Little is known of her mother's life prior to her marriage. Louisa's parents may have only married ten years after her birth, potentially making Louisa the only first lady of the United States to be born out of wedlock. She lived a comfortable life as a child in which all of her needs were seen to.
Louisa's father supported American independence, and the Johnsons left England in 1778 in response to the American Revolutionary War. They moved to Nantes, France, where they lived for the next five years. While in France, Louisa attended a Catholic boarding school. She performed well in school, becoming proficient in music and literature, and she learned to speak French fluently. Such was her immersion in French that she was later forced to relearn English. She was also versed in Greek and Latin. The Johnsons lived in luxury, even when they did not have the financial means to do so. Their home in France was a mansion that came to be known as "The Temple of Taste".
The Johnsons returned to England and settled in Tower Hill, while Louisa was placed in a London boarding school. She was teased for her French mannerisms, and the Catholicism that she had learned in France caused conflict with her religious education in England. Her self-esteem suffered, and she kept a distance from her peers. She was sent to be educated by John Hewlett, an Anglican minister and a family friend of the Johnsons. Hewlett became a strong influence on her upbringing, encouraging her intellectualism. The Johnsons suffered financially in 1788, and she was pulled out of school to be educated by a governess.
Marriage
Johnson's father was appointed the American consul to Britain in 1790, and she often assisted in entertaining prominent guests. Among these guests, the Johnson daughters looked for potential suitors, as they were pressured to marry a prominent young man. John Quincy Adams became one such guest in 1795 in his capacity as an American diplomat. He began showing up each day, and only later did the Johnsons realize that he intended to court Louisa, initially believing that his interest was in her older sister Nancy. Only after he complied with a joking request to write her a romantic poem did she consider him a potential suitor.
Johnson and Adams began a courtship, though it was intermittent, and they did not immediately take to one another. Both had previously expressed interest in other potential partners. It was their talents and prestige that eventually drew them to one another. Adams in particular was taken by Johnson's aptitude for singing and music. This pairing also caused a rivalry between Louisa and her older sister, who was jealous for the man she thought would court her.
Johnson and Adams were engaged by 1796, but Adams left England for work and provided a number of excuses as to why he felt they should not be wed, citing his work, his finances, and their personality conflicts. Another factor was the disapproval of his mother, Abigail Adams, who did not wish to see her son marry an Englishwoman. They communicated by letter over the following year, and Johnson came to dread their communications, as Adams's letters were humorless and chastising. Louisa and John eventually married on July 26, 1797, after pressuring from her father. Shortly after the marriage, the Johnsons lost the remainder of their fortune. Louisa's parents fled the country, leaving Louisa and John with little financial support and a mob of angry creditors. The couple disagreed about how much influence a wife should have in her family, and John often made major decisions without consulting her. Both had strong personalities, and their disagreements often became arguments.
Diplomat's wife
Prussia
John was appointed American minister to Prussia in 1797, and the couple moved to Berlin. Louisa experienced several miscarriages over the following years, causing poor health that further strained her relationship with her husband. She eventually gave birth to their first child, George Washington Adams, in 1801. She took a prominent role in diplomatic proceedings when she was not ill from pregnancy, and she was popular among the Prussian aristocracy, personally befriending the king and queen. John was recalled from Berlin by his father after Thomas Jefferson was elected president, and the family left Prussia for the United States.
United States
Adams reunited with her family after arriving at the United States in 1801 while her husband went to his own family home in Quincy, Massachusetts. The journey from Washington to Quincy was interrupted by an uncomfortable dinner with the Jefferson family at the White House and a visit to Martha Washington at Mount Vernon, but it was otherwise long and punishing. Reluctantly, she arrived in Quincy to meet her parents-in-law. While she quickly took to her father-in-law, her mother-in-law remained skeptical of her suitability as a wife.
Adams's father Joshua died in 1802, severely affecting her and leaving the family with no financial support. When her husband was elected to the United States Senate in 1803, she joined him in alternating between Massachusetts and Washington, D.C., much preferring the latter. Unable to afford a home of their own, the family stayed with John's relatives in Massachusetts and with Louisa's relatives in Washington. She gave birth to John Adams II in 1803. She was often left behind while her husband traveled on his own, which she deeply resented. On one such occasion, she suffered a miscarriage. Their third son, Charles Francis Adams, was born in 1807. Her husband resigned from the Senate in 1808, having come in disagreement with the Federalist Party over matters of policy. This disagreement was seen as a betrayal, and the family was thereby excluded from Boston social life.
Russia
When John accepted the position as American minister to Russia in 1809, he did not consult Louisa. He determined that she would accompany him and that their two older sons would stay behind in the United States. She came to regret these arrangements, feeling that she had failed her sons by leaving them. She blamed and resented her husband for this, causing a rift in their marriage. The 80 day journey to Russia proved unpleasant, and they were constantly wary of French ships that were at war with Russia. Her opinion did not change after arriving in Saint Petersburg, which she found disagreeable, but her husband ignored her desires to return to the United States.
Just as she did in Berlin, Louisa impressed the Russian court and received special attention from the monarch. Unable to afford the elaborate outfits expected of Russian courtiers, she came up with excuses to avoid frequent appearances, first feigning illness and then feigning mourning so that her less formal clothes could be excused. Despite her success, Louisa was unhappy during her time in Russia, as she was separated from her family, regularly ill, and forced to contend with loss. After suffering another three miscarriages, Louisa gave birth in 1811 to her first daughter, and the first American born in Russia, Louisa Catherine Adams II. A year later, the infant died of dysentery, causing Louisa further grief and increasing her resentment against her husband.
When John was called to Ghent in 1814 to negotiate a peace agreement for the War of 1812, Louisa was left in Saint Petersburg, where she would remain for the next year. John learned to afford her a greater level of trust and responsibility while living in Russia, and in December 1814, he tasked her with selling their property in Russia and traveling across Europe to meet him in Paris. She left in February 1815, and for the next 40 days she made the dangerous journey across Europe, which had been ravaged Napoleonic Wars, in the cold winter. She was frequently in danger of bandits, and later of French soldiers that were hostile to her Russian carriage. John and his parents gave Louisa a greater deal of respect after she completed the journey.
Return to London and Washington
Louisa and John returned to London in 1815, as John had been appointed minister to Great Britain. Their children were sent to London as well, and the family lived there reunited for the following two years. Louisa lived more comfortably in London than she had elsewhere; the diplomatic responsibilities were lighter, and she had regular access to an Anglican church. She took on more responsibility in managing the family and assisting her husband in his work, particularly after he suffered a painful eye infection that left him temporarily blinded and an injury to his hand that left him unable to write.
The family returned to the United States when John was appointed Secretary of State in 1817. Louisa found the social politics of Washington distasteful, and she felt that John was too good for it. Despite this, she worked to build political connections for her husband in Washington, hosting a party each Tuesday regularly visiting the wives of influential congressmen. Instead of navigating the complex social rules that had developed in Washington since they last lived there, the Adamses ignored the expectation that they defer to members of Congress in the social hierarchy by calling on them first. The resulting dispute grew to the point that it was addressed by the presidential cabinet. Louisa's relationship with John struggled as he became increasingly occupied by his work, but she finally earned her mother-in-law's respect after returning to the United States, and they shared a friendly reunion. Their close relationship was short-lived, however, as Abigail died in 1818.
As first lady Elizabeth Monroe did not engage in social activity, the responsibility fell to the Adams household to be the social hub of the capital. Louisa's most celebrated accomplishment in this role was the ball that she threw for Andrew Jackson in January 1824, which came to be recognized as one of the city's grandest social events. As John sought the presidency in the 1824 presidential election, Louisa effectively managed his campaign and worked beside him as an equal partner. When the election failed to produce a winner and the result was determined by the House of Representatives, John was chosen through what was criticized as a corrupt bargain, and Louisa shared the criticism that he faced.
First lady of the United States
Upon entering the White House, life became more difficult for the Adamses. The administration was unpopular in Congress and unable to advance many of its policies, invoking a bitterness in John that was often directed toward Louisa. The couple again grew distant as they were affected by the stress of their positions. During vacations, they traveled separately and went long periods of time without seeing one another. Even when separated, they rarely wrote to one another, and the communications they did share were emotionless. Louisa suffered from loneliness while in the White House, which she did not consider a home.
The White House itself was in poor condition when Louisa and John occupied it, as it had never been fully restored after the burning of Washington. Despite this, they were criticized for what the public saw as an opulent residence. Louisa responded to the criticism by holding a public exhibition of the home, which was then criticized as distasteful. Louisa herself became a target in political rhetoric against John, in which she was portrayed as an out of touch European that demanded to be treated as an aristocrat. In response, she published a biography of herself that emphasized her modesty and her American heritage. Though it was published anonymously, she was understood to be the author. It was unprecedented for a first lady, and she was only subjected to increased criticism for the act.
Louisa had always been vulnerable to illness, but her health worsened during her years in the White House, and she was left bedridden on multiple occasions. Even she acknowledged a psychosomatic aspect to her illness. She became less visible as first lady, and even when she did entertain, she often did not attend her own events. She had faced criticism for being more prominent than was expected of a political wife. Instead, she hid from the public, writing plays, poems, essays, and an autobiography. These writings often contemplated the role of women in society as she lamented gender inequality.
Louisa was responsible for making arrangements when Lafayette visited the White House. Louisa's greatest responsibility as first lady came upon the deaths of former presidents John Adams and Thomas Jefferson on July 4, 1826. With the president traveling and Congress in recess, it fell to her to set the social rules for mourning in Washington. She also mourned privately, as she had considered her father-in-law to be a father of her own. Against her husband's wishes, she left the White House and traveled to the Adams family home in Quincy Louisa and John reconciled toward the end of the presidential term in 1828. She again worked to campaign for her husband during the 1828 presidential election, traveling to neighboring states to garner support. She was conflicted, as she was determined to get her husband re-elected, but she also loathed White House life. Louisa and John shared a mixture of despondence and relief when he lost re-election.
Later life
After leaving the White House in 1829, Louisa and John moved to a home at Meridian Hill. Though the White House was still visible from her doorstep, she felt free from the place. Her reprieve was short-lived, as shortly after she left the White House, her son George fell from a steamboat to his death. He had suffered from extensive personal and financial problems, and it was never conclusively determined whether his death was an accident or a suicide. For the first few months after her son's death, Louisa's focus was on consoling her husband. Her grief overpowered her that August, when a trip to Quincy threatened to take her on the very boat from which George had died. She fell severely ill, and the trip was canceled.
In May 1830, Louisa and John moved to the home on the Adams estate in Quincy. Here her condition improved, as she found a home and the mental and physical toll of her depression subsided. She was upset by John's return to public life when he ran for Congress that year, at first refusing to return to Washington and only giving in after it became apparent that the home in Quincy was not habitable in the winter. She confessed her belief that having her husband in Congress would be a benefit to the country that outweighed her own suffering. After John took office, Louisa took an active role in his political career. Louisa's son John Adams II died of illness in 1834 with financial problems of his own. She blamed her husband in part for the failures and deaths of their two older sons, believing that they could have been given better lives had they not been separated from their parents in their childhood. In her grief, Louisa began writing a new autobiography, The Adventures of a Nobody. Two years later, in improved spirits, she wrote another autobiography covering her journey from Russia to France in 1815, hoping that it would inspire other women.
Though she shared society's dismissive attitudes toward African Americans, she became an abolitionist, and she supported her husband in his anti-slavery work in Congress. Her position on the matter was even stronger than her husband's, who had aligned with the abolitionists primarily because of his principled opposition to the gag rule against discussing slavery in Congress. Louisa contributed to a fund to free slaves, and she eventually purchased a slave for the purpose of freeing her. Involvement in the abolitionist movement also opened her to feminism. Though she did not accept feminism in its entirety, she began a correspondence with feminist Sarah Moore Grimké and engaged in Biblical studies to challenge the prevailing view that the Bible ordained the subservience of women.
Louisa was widowed on February 23, 1848, two days after her husband lost consciousness due to a fatal stroke in the United States Capitol. He was 80 years old. She had arrived in Washington to visit him on his deathbed, but as a woman, she was asked to leave as his health failed. She retained her schedule of living in Washington during the winters and Quincy during the summers until a stroke left her infirm in 1849. She was then left in the care of her daughter-in-law Mary. She died on May 15, 1852 at the age of 77. She was the first woman to be honored by an adjournment of Congress for her funeral. She was buried in the Congressional Cemetery, but she was moved to the United First Parish Church shortly after on the initiative of her son.
Legacy
Adams's role as a first lady has received relatively little scholarly analysis compared to the rest of her life, as she did not keep a diary during her years in the White House. She was reclusive during her tenure, and she did not have significant influence in shaping the role.
Adams was the first foreign-born U.S. first lady, as she was born in England and did not visit the United States until adulthood. She remained the only foreign born first lady until Slovenian-American Melania Trump took the role in 2017. Adams was regarded by contemporaries as the "most traveled woman of her time", and she was the only first lady of the 19th century to travel so widely.
Adams National Historical Park maintains Peacefield, the home Adams and her husband lived in some of the time later in their lives. The park has a bedspread on display at Peacefield which she made, as well as a painting of her by Edward Savage. For some time the painting was still owned by Adams's great-great-granddaughter, Mrs. Henry L. Mason, and was loaned to the museum seasonally. The Smithsonian's National Portrait Gallery holds several portraits of Louisa Catherine Adams, including a silhouette and a portrait on an ivory necklace.
Historian polling
Since 1982 Siena College Research Institute has periodically conducted surveys asking historians to assess American first ladies according to a cumulative score on the independent criteria of their background, value to the country, intelligence, courage, accomplishments, integrity, leadership, being their own women, public image, and value to the president. Consistently, Adams has been ranked in the upper-half of first ladies by historians in these surveys. In terms of cumulative assessment, Adams has been ranked:
14th-best of 42 in 1982
16th-best of 37 in 1993
12th-best of 38 in 2003
21st-best of 38 in 2008
18th-best of 38 in 2014
In the 2014 survey, Adams and her husband were also ranked the 19th-highest out of 39 first couples in terms of being a "power couple".
Family tree
Select writings
Autobiographies
The Adventures of a Nobody
Narrative of a Journey from Russia to France, 1815 – Published posthumously by her grandson in Harper's Magazine and Scribner's Magazine''''
The Record of a Life, or My Story
Plays
Suspicion, or Persecuted Innocence
References
Further reading
Cook, Jane Hampton. American Phoenix: John Quincy and Louisa Adams, the War of 1812, and the Exile that Saved American Independence (Thomas Nelson, 2013)
Hecht, Marie B. John Quincy Adams: A Personal History of an Independent Man (Macmillan, 1972)
Heffron, Margery M. Louisa Catherine: The Other Mrs. Adams (Yale University Press, 2014)
O'Brien, Michael. Mrs. Adams in Winter: A Journey in the Last Days of Napoleon (NY: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2010)
Oliver, Andrew. Portraits of John Quincy Adams and His Wife (Harvard University Press, 1970)
Shepherd, Jack. Cannibals of the Heart: A Personal Biography of Louisa Catherine and John Quincy Adams (McGraw-Hill, 1980)
External links
Louisa Adams at C-SPAN's First Ladies: Influence & Image
"Mrs. John Quincy Adams's Narrative of a Journey from St. Petersburg to Paris in February 1815," Scribner's Magazine, Vol. XXXIV, no. 4, October 1903, pp. 448-463.
1775 births
1852 deaths
18th-century Unitarians
19th-century Unitarians
Burials in Massachusetts
British emigrants to the United States
First ladies of the United States
People from Boston
People from Calvert County, Maryland
People from Whitechapel
Thomas Johnson family
English people of American descent
People from the City of London
Adams political family
Women who experienced pregnancy loss
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hector%27s%20dolphin
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Hector's dolphin
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Hector's dolphin (Cephalorhynchus hectori) is one of four dolphin species belonging to the genus Cephalorhynchus. Hector's dolphin is the only cetacean endemic to New Zealand, and comprises two subspecies: C. h. hectori, the more numerous subspecies, also referred to as South Island Hector's dolphin; and the critically endangered Māui dolphin (C. h. maui), found off the West Coast of the North Island.
Etymology
Hector's dolphin was named after Sir James Hector (1834–1907), who was the curator of the Colonial Museum in Wellington (now the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa). He examined the first specimen of the dolphin found by cephologists. The species was scientifically described by Belgian zoologist Pierre-Joseph van Beneden in 1881. Māori names for Hector's and Māui dolphin include tutumairekurai, tupoupou and popoto.
Description
Hector's dolphin is the smallest dolphin species. Mature adults have a total length of and weigh . The species is sexually dimorphic, with females being about 5–7% longer than males. The body shape is stocky, with no discernible beak. The most distinctive feature is the rounded dorsal fin, with a convex trailing edge and undercut rear margin.
The overall coloration appearance is pale grey, but closer inspection reveals a complex and elegant combination of colours. The back and sides are predominantly light grey, while the dorsal fin, flippers, and flukes are black. The eyes are surrounded by a black mask, which extends forward to the tip of the rostrum and back to the base of the flipper. A subtly shaded, crescent-shaped black band crosses the head just behind the blowhole. The throat and belly are creamy white, separated by dark-grey bands meeting between the flippers. A white stripe extends from the belly onto each flank below the dorsal fin.
At birth, Hector's dolphin calves have a total length of and weigh . Their coloration is the almost same as adults, although the grey has a darker hue. Newborn Hector's dolphins have distinct fetal fold marks on their flanks that cause a change in coloration pattern of the skin. These changes are visible for approximately six months and consist of four to six vertical light grey stripes against darker grey skin.
Life history
Data from field studies, beachcast individuals, and dolphins caught in fishing nets have provided information on their life history and reproductive parameters. Photo-ID based observations at Banks Peninsula from 1984 to 2006 show that individuals can reach at least 22 years of age. Males attain sexual maturity between 6 and 9 years old and females begin calving between 7 and 9 years old. Females will continue to calve every 2–3 years, resulting in a maximum of 4–7 calves in one female's lifetime. Calving occurs during the spring and summer. Calves are assumed to be weaned at around one year of age, and the mortality rate in the first 6 months was estimated to be around 36%.
These combined life-history characteristics mean that, like many other cetaceans, Hector's dolphins are only capable of slow population growth. Their maximum population growth rate was previously estimated to be 1.8–4.9% per year, based on old demographic information, which was then updated to 3–7% per year, based on updated demographic information and a life history invariant observed across all vertebrates
Ecology
Habitat
The species' range includes murky coastal waters out to depth, though almost all sightings are in waters shallower than . Hector's dolphins display a seasonal inshore-offshore movement; favouring shallow coastal waters during spring and summer, and moving offshore into deeper waters during autumn and winter. They have also been shown to return to the same location during consecutive summers, displaying high foraging site fidelity. The inshore-offshore movement of Hector's dolphins are thought to relate to seasonal patterns of turbidity and the inshore movements of prey species during spring and summer.
Diet
Hector's dolphins are generalist feeders, with prey selection based on size (mostly under 10 cm in length) rather than species, although spiny species also appear to be avoided. The largest prey item recovered from a Hector's dolphin stomach was an undigested red cod weighing 500 g with a standard length of 35 cm. The stomach contents of dissected dolphins include a mixture of surface-schooling fish, midwater fish, squid, and a variety of benthic species. The main prey species in terms of mass contribution is red cod, and other important prey include Peltorhamphus flatfish, ahuru, New Zealand sprat, Nototodarus arrow squid, and juvenile giant stargazer.
Predators
The remains of Hector's dolphins have been found in the stomachs of broadnose sevengill shark (considered to be their main predator), great white shark and blue shark. Unconfirmed predators of Hector's and Māui dolphins include killer whales (orca), mako sharks and bronze whaler shark.
Behaviour
Group dynamics
Hector's dolphins preferentially form groups of less than 5 individuals, with a mean of 3.8 individuals, that are highly segregated by sex. The majority of these small groups are single sex. Groups of greater than 5 individuals are formed much less frequently. These larger groups, >5, are usually mixed sex and have been shown to form only to forage or participate in sexual behavior. Nursery groups can also be observed and are usually all female groups of less than 7 mothers and young.
This species has been found to show a high level of fluidity with weak inter-individual associations, meaning they do not form strong bonds with other individuals. Three types of small preferential groups have been found: nursery groups; immature and subadult groups; and adult male/female groups. All of these small groups show a high level of sex segregation. Hector's dolphins display a sex-age population group composition, meaning they group by biological sex and age.
Sexual behaviour
Males of the species have extremely large testes in proportion to body size, with the highest relative weight in one study being 2.9% of body weight. Large testes in combination with males' smaller overall body size suggests a promiscuous mating system. This type of reproductive system would involve a male attempting to fertilize as many females as possible and little male-male aggression. The amount of sexual behavior per individual in the species is observed most when small single sex groups form large mixed sex groups. Sexual behavior in the species is usually non-aggressive.
Echolocation
Similar to the hourglass dolphin, Hector's dolphins use high-frequency echolocation clicks. However, the Hector's dolphin produces lower source-level clicks than hourglass dolphins due to their crowded environment. This means they can only spot prey at half the distance compared to an hourglass dolphin. The species has a very simple repertoire with few types of clicks, as well as little audible signals in addition to these. More complex clicks could be observed in large groups.
Distribution and population size
Hector's and Māui dolphins are endemic to the coastal regions of New Zealand. The Hector's dolphin sub-species is most abundant in discontinuous regions of high turbidity around the South Island. They are most abundant off the East Coast and West Coast, most notably around Banks Peninsula, with smaller, more isolated populations off the North Coast and South Coast (notably at Te Waewae Bay). Smaller populations are scattered around the South Island, including: Cook Strait, Kaikōura, Catlins (e.g., Porpoise Bay, Curio Bay), and Otago coasts (e.g.Karitane, Oamaru, Moeraki, Otago Harbour, and Blueskin Bay). Māui dolphin are typically found on the west coast of the North Island between Maunganui Bluff and Whanganui.
An aerial survey of South Island Hector's dolphin abundance—which was commissioned by the Ministry for Primary Industries, carried out the Cawthron Institute, and endorsed by the International Whaling Commission—estimated a total population size of 14,849 dolphins (95% confidence interval = 11,923–18,492). This was almost twice the previous, published estimate from earlier surveys (7,300; 95% CI 5,303–9,966). This difference was primarily due to a much larger estimated population along East Coast, which was distributed further offshore than previously thought.
The latest estimate of the Māui dolphin subspecies 2020–2021 is 54 individuals aged 1 year or older (1+) (95% confidence interval (CI) = 48–66).
Mixing of sub-species
Occasionally, South Island Hector's dolphins (determined from genetics) are found around the North Island, up to Bay of Plenty or Hawke's Bay. In 2012, a genetic analysis of tissue samples from dolphins in the core Maui dolphin range, including historical samples, revealed the presence of at least three South Island Hector's dolphins off the West Coast of the North Island (two of them alive), along with another five South Island Hector's dolphins sampled between Wellington and Oakura from 1967 to 2012.
Previously, the deep waters of the Cook Strait were considered to be an effective barrier to mixing between the South Island Hector's and North Island Māui sub-species for around 15,000 and 16,000 years. This is coincident with the separation of the North and South Islands of New Zealand at the end of the last ice age. To date, there is no evidence of interbreeding between South Island Hector's dolphin and Māui dolphin, but it is likely they could given their close genetic composition.
Threats
Fishing
Hector's and Māui dolphin deaths occur as a direct result of commercial and recreational fishing due to entanglement or capture in gillnets or trawls. Death is ultimately caused by suffocation, although injury and sub-lethal effects can also result from the mechanical abrasion of fins resulting from entanglement. Since the 1970s, gillnets have been made from lightweight monofilament, which is difficult for dolphins to detect. Hector's dolphins are actively attracted to trawling vessels and can frequently be seen following trawlers and diving down to the net, which could result in the unwanted bycatch.
Deaths in fishing nets were previously considered to be the most serious threat (responsible for more than 95% of the human-caused deaths in Māui dolphins), with currently lower level threats including tourism, disease, and marine mining. Research of decreases in mitochondrial DNA diversity among hector's dolphin populations has suggested that the number of gill-net entanglement deaths likely far surpasses that reported by fisheries. Population simulations estimated that the current population is 30% of the 1970 population size estimate of 50,000 dolphins, based on their estimated capture rate in commercial gillnet fisheries.
The latest government-approved estimates of annual deaths in commercial gillnets (for the period from 2014/15 to 2016/17) was 19–93 South Island Hector's dolphins and 0.0–0.3 Māui dolphins annually. The low estimate for Māui dolphin deaths in gillnets is consistent with the lack of any observed captures in commercial setnets off the West Coast of the North Island since late-2012, despite 100% observer coverage in this fishery across this time period. Annual deaths in commercial trawls were estimated to be 0.2–26.6 Hector's dolphins and 0.00–0.05 Maui dolphins (from 2014/15 to 2016/17). Based on these levels of mortality, the increased abundance of Hector's dolphins and faster population growth potential than previously thought, the commercial fishery threat (alone) would be unlikely to prevent population recovery to at least 80% of unimpacted levels, for either Hector's or Māui dolphins. However the threat from commercial fishing was estimated to be higher for some regional populations relative to others, e.g., East Coast South Island, and may have a greater effect on certain smaller populations, e.g., Hector's dolphins along the Kaikoura Coast.
Fishing restrictions
The first marine protected area (MPA) for Hector's dolphin was designated in 1988 at Banks Peninsula, where commercial gill-netting was effectively prohibited out to offshore and recreational gill-netting was subject to seasonal restrictions. A second MPA was designated on the west coast of the North Island in 2003. Populations continued to decline due to by-catch outside the MPAs.
Additional protection was introduced in 2008, banning gill-netting within 4 nautical miles of the majority of the South Island's east and south coasts, out to 2 nautical miles (3.7 km) offshore off the South Island's west coast and extending the gillnet ban on the North Island's west coast to offshore. Also, restrictions were placed on trawling in some of these areas. For further details on these regulations, see the Ministry of Fisheries website. Five marine mammal sanctuaries were designated in 2008 to manage nonfishing-related threats to Hector's and Māui dolphins. Their regulations include restrictions on mining and seismic acoustic surveys. Further restrictions were introduced into Taranaki waters in 2012 and 2013 to protect Māui dolphins.
The Scientific Committee of the International Whaling Commission has recommended extending protection for Māui dolphin further south to Whanganui and further offshore to 20 nautical miles from the coastline. The IUCN has recommended protecting Hector's and Māui dolphins from gill-net and trawl fisheries, from the shoreline to the 100 m depth contour.
Infectious diseases
The unicellular parasiteToxoplasma gondii is considered to be the main non-fishery cause of death. A 2013 study found that seven of 28 beachcast or bycaught Hector's and Māui dolphins died as a result of toxoplasmosis, which had necrotising and haemorrhagic lesions in the lung (n = 7), lymph nodes (n = 6), liver (n = 4) and adrenals (n = 3). The same study found that approximately two-thirds of dolphins had previously been infected with the toxoplasma parasite. An update to this study found that toxoplasmosis had killed nine out of 38 post-weaning age Hector's and Māui dolphins found washed up or floating at-sea, and that were not too autolised to determine a cause of death. Of these nine, six were reproductive females, tentatively indicating that this demographic may be more susceptible to infection. In New Zealand, the domestic house cat is the only known definitive host for toxoplasma, and Hector's and Maui dolphins are thought to become infected as a result of their preference for turbid coastal waters near river mouths, where toxoplasma oocyst densities are likely to be relatively high.
Brucellosis is a notable bacterial disease of Hector's and Māui dolphins that can cause late pregnancy abortion in terrestrial mammals, and has been found in a range of cetacean species elsewhere. Brucellosis has been determined from necropsies to have killed both Hector's and Māui dolphins and to have caused reproductive disease, indicating that it may affect the reproductive success of both sub-species.
Loss of genetic diversity and population decline
The high levels of sex segregation and fragmentation of different populations in Hector's dolphin have been discussed as contributing to the overall population decline, as it becomes more difficult for males to find a female and copulate. The Allee effect begins to occur when a low-density population has low reproductive rates leading to increased population decline. In addition, low gene flow between populations may result from this species' high foraging site fidelity. Hector's dolphins have not been found to participate in alongshore migrations, which may also contribute to their lack of genetic diversity.
Samples from 1870 to today have provided a historical timeline for the species' population decline. Lack of neighboring populations due to fishery-related mortality has decreased gene flow and contributed to an overall loss in mitochondrial DNA diversity. As a result, the populations have become fragmented and isolated, leading to inbreeding. The geographical range has been lessened to the point where gene flow and immigration may no longer be possible between Māui dolphin and Hector's dolphin.
Potential interbreeding between Hector's and Māui dolphins could increase the numbers of dolphins in the Māui range and reduce the risk of inbreeding depression, but such interbreeding could eventually result in a hybridisation of the Māui back into the Hector's species and lead to a reclassification of Māui as again the North Island Hector's. Hybridisation in this manner threatens the Otago black stilt and the Chatham Islands' Forbes parakeet and has eliminated the South Island brown teal as a subspecies. Researchers have also identified potential interbreeding as threatening the Māui with hybrid breakdown and outbreeding depression.
See also
Endangered species
List of cetaceans
Mammals of New Zealand
References
Further reading
National Audubon Society: Guide to Marine Mammals of the World
Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals
Whales, Dolphins and Porpoises, Mark Carwardine 1995
Facts about Hector's dolphins Department of Conservation – Several Images & listed as 'critically endangered' – Retrieved 8 May 2007.
Hector's Dolphins, New Zealand Ministry of Fisheries – Retrieved 9 February 2007.
Hector's Dolphin – Factsheet, Royal Forest and Bird Protection Society of New Zealand Inc. – Retrieved 9 February 2007.
External links
Specimen MNZ MM001915, collected Kaikoura, New Zealand, no date data
NZ Dept. of Conservation – Hector's dolphin information
NABU International www.hectorsdolphins.com
Three decades on the tail of Hector's dolphins
Cephalorhynchus
Mammals of New Zealand
Fauna of the South Island
Marine fauna of New Zealand
Mammals described in 1881
Endemic fauna of New Zealand
Endemic mammals of New Zealand
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iberians
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Iberians
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The Iberians (, from , Iberes) were an ancient people settled in the eastern and southern coasts of the Iberian peninsula, at least from the 6th century BC. They are described in Greek and Roman sources (among others, by Hecataeus of Miletus, Avienius, Herodotus and Strabo). Roman sources also use the term Hispani to refer to the Iberians.
The term Iberian, as used by the ancient authors, had two distinct meanings. One, more general, referred to all the populations of the Iberian peninsula without regard to ethnic differences (Pre-Indo-European, Celts and non-Celtic Indo-Europeans). The other, more restricted ethnic sense and the one dealt with in this article, refers to the people living in the eastern and southern coasts of the Iberian Peninsula, which by the 6th century BC had absorbed cultural influences from the Phoenicians and the Greeks. This pre-Indo-European cultural group spoke the Iberian language from the 7th to at least the 1st century BC. The rest of the peninsula, in the northern, central, and northwestern areas, was inhabited by Vascones, Celts or Celtiberians groups and the possibly Pre-Celtic or Proto-Celtic Indo-European Lusitanians, Vettones, and Turdetani.
Starting in the 5th century BC, Iberian soldiers were frequently deployed in battles in Italy, Greece and especially Sicily due to their military qualities.
History
The Iberian culture developed from the 6th century BC, and perhaps as early as the fifth to the third millennium BC in the eastern and southern coasts of the Iberian peninsula. The Iberians lived in villages and oppida (fortified settlements) and their communities were based on a tribal organization. The Iberians in the Spanish Levant were more urbanized than their neighbors in the central and northwestern regions of the Iberian peninsula. The peoples in the central and northwest regions were mostly speakers of Celtic dialects, semi-pastoral and lived in scattered villages, though they also had a few fortified towns like Numantia. They had a knowledge of writing, metalworking, including bronze, and agricultural techniques.
Settlements
In the centuries preceding Carthaginian and Roman conquest, Iberian settlements grew in social complexity, exhibiting evidence of social stratification and urbanization. This process was probably aided by trading contacts with the Phoenicians, Greeks, and Carthaginians. By the late 5th and early 4th centuries BC a series of important social changes led to the consolidation of an aristocracy and the emergence of a clientele system. "This new political system led, among other things, to cities and towns that centered around these leaders, also known as territorial nucleation. In this context, the oppidum or fortified Iberian town became the centre of reference in the landscape and the political space."
The settlement of Castellet de Banyoles in Tivissa was one of the most important ancient Iberian settlements in the north eastern part of the Iberian peninsula that was discovered in 1912. Also, the 'Treasure of Tivissa', a unique collection of silver Iberian votive offerings was found here in 1927.
Lucentum was another ancient Iberian settlement, as well as Castelldefels Castle.
Mausoleum of Pozo Moro near the town of Chinchilla de Monte-Aragón in Castile-La Mancha seems to mark the location of another big settlement.
Sagunto is the location of an ancient Iberian and later Roman city of Saguntum, where a big fortress was built in the 5th century BC.
Greek colonists made the first historical reference to the Iberians in the 6th century BC. They defined Iberians as non-Celtic peoples south of the Ebro river (Iber). The Greeks also dubbed as "Iberians" another people in the Caucasus region, currently known as Caucasian Iberians. It is thought that there is no connection between the two peoples.
The Iberians traded extensively with other Mediterranean cultures. Iberian pottery and metalwork has been found in France, Italy, and North Africa. The Iberians had extensive contact with Greek colonists in the Spanish colonies of Emporion, Rhode, and Hemeroskopeion. The Iberians may have adopted some of the Greeks' artistic techniques. Statues such as the Lady of Baza and the Lady of Elx are thought to have been made by Iberians relatively well acquainted with Greek art. Thucydides stated that one of the three original tribes of Sicily, the Sicani, were of Iberian origin, though "Iberian" at the time could have included what we think of as Gaul.
The Iberians also had contacts with the Phoenicians, who had established various colonies in southern Andalucia. Their first colony on the Iberian Peninsula was founded in 1100 BC and was originally called Gadir, later renamed by the Romans as Gades (modern Cádiz). Other Phoenician colonies in southern Iberia included Malaka (Málaga), Sexi and Abdera.
According to Arrian, the Iberians sent emissaries to Alexander the Great in 324 BC, along with other embassies of Carthaginians, Italics and Gauls, to request his friendship.
Second Punic War and Roman conquest
After the First Punic war, the massive war debt suffered by Carthage led them to attempt to expand their control over the Iberian peninsula. Hamilcar Barca began this conquest from his base at Cádiz by conquering the Tartessian Guadalquivir river region, which was rich in silver. After Hamilcar's death, his son-in-law Hasdrubal the Fair continued his incursions into Iberia, founding the colony of Qart Hadasht (modern Cartagena) and extending his influence all the way to the southern bank of the river Ebro. After Hasdrubal's assassination in 221 BC, Hannibal assumed command of the Carthaginian forces and spent two years completing the conquest of the Iberians south of the Ebro. In his first campaign, Hannibal defeated the Olcades, the Vaccaei and the Carpetani expanding his control over the river Tagus region. Hannibal then laid siege to Roman ally of Saguntum and this led to the beginning of the Second Punic War. The Iberian theater was a key battleground during this war and many Iberian and Celtiberian warriors fought for both Rome and Carthage, though most tribes sided with Carthage.
Rome sent Gnaeus and Publius Cornelius Scipio to conquer Iberia from Carthage. Gnaeus subsequently defeated the Iberian Ilergetes tribe north of the Ebro who were allied with Carthage, conquered the Iberian oppidum of Tarraco and defeated the Carthaginian fleet. After the arrival of Publius Scipio, Tarraco was fortified and, by 211 BC, the Scipio brothers had overrun the Carthaginian and allied forces south of the Ebro. However, during this campaign, Publius Scipio was killed in battle and Gnaeus died in the retreat. The tide turned with the arrival of Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus in 210 BC. Scipio attacked and conquered Carthago Nova and defeated the army of Hasdrubal Barca at the Battle of Baecula (209-208). The war dragged on with Carthage sending more reinforcements until the Battle of Ilipa (modern Alcalá del Río in Sevilla province), which was a decisive victory for Publius Scipio Africanus. The Carthaginians retreated to Gades, and Publius Scipio gained control over the entire south of the peninsula. After this victory, the Ilergetes and other Iberian tribes revolted and it was only after this revolt that the Romans conquered the rest of the Carthaginian territories in southern Spain.
After the Carthaginian defeat, the Iberian territories were divided into two major provinces, Hispania Ulterior and Hispania Citerior. In 197 BC, the Iberian tribes revolted once again in the H. Citerior province. After securing these regions, Rome invaded and conquered Lusitania and Celtiberia. The Romans fought a long and drawn out campaign for the conquest of Lusitania. Wars and campaigns in the northern regions of the Iberian peninsula would continue until 16 BC, when the final rebellions of the Cantabrian Wars were defeated.
Iberian culture
Iberian society was divided into different classes, including kings or chieftains (Latin: "regulus"), nobles, priests, artisans and slaves. Iberian aristocracy, often called a "senate" by the ancient sources, met in a council of nobles. Kings or chieftains would maintain their forces through a system of obligation or vassalage that the Romans termed "fides".
The Iberians adopted wine and olives from the Greeks. Horse breeding was particularly important to the Iberians and their nobility. Mining was also very important for their economy, especially the silver mines near Gader and Cartago Nova, the iron mines in the Ebro valley, as well as the exploitation of tin and copper deposits. They produced fine metalwork and high quality iron weapons such as the falcata.
Art and religion
The Iberians produced sculpture in stone and bronze, most of which was much influenced by the Greeks and Phoenicians, and other cultures such as Assyrian, Hittite and Egyptian influences. The styles of Iberian sculpture are divided geographically into Levantine, Central, Southern, and Western groups, of which the Levantine group displays the most Greek influence. Iberian pottery and painting was also distinct and widespread throughout the region. A distinct feature of the culture, the pottery was primarily decorated with geometric forms in red but in some areas (from Murcia to the south of Catalonia) it also included figurative images.
The Iberian polytheistic religion was influenced by the Greek and Phoenician practices, as it is evident in their sculptures. The man-bull Bicha of Balazote (possibly a fertility deity) and various depictions of sphinxes and lions bear a resemblance to eastern Mediterranean mythological creatures. The Lady of Elche and Lady of Guardamar show clear Hellenistic influence. Phoenician and Greek deities like Tanit, Baal, Melkart, Artemis, Demeter and Asclepius were known in the region and worshiped. Currently few native Iberian gods are known, though the oracular healing deity "Betatun" is known from a Latin inscription at Fuertes del Rey. There was clearly an important female deity associated with the earth and regeneration as depicted by the Lady of Baza and linked with birds, flowers and wheat. The horse was also an important religious figure and an important sanctuary dedicated to Horses has been found in Mula (Murcia). There are many depictions of a "horse taming god" or "lord of the horses" (despotes hippon). The female goddess Ataegina is also widely attested in the inscriptions.
Iberians performed their rites in the open and also maintained sanctuaries in holy places like groves, springs and caves. Archaeological evidence suggests the existence of a priestly class and Silius Italicus mentions priests in the region of Tartessos at a temple of Melqart. Evidence from pottery reveals some information about Iberian myth and ritual. Common themes are a celebratory ritual dance described by Strabo [c.f. 3.3.7.] and seen in a relief from Fuerte del Rey known as the "Bastetania dance" and the confrontation between the deceased and a wolf figure. Ritual sacrifice of animals was also common.
In Iberian eschatology, "death was seen as the starting point for a journey symbolised by a crossing of the sea, the land or even the sky. Supernatural and mythical beings, such as the Sphinx or the wolf, and sometimes Divinity itself, accompanied and guided the deceased on this journey". The Iberians incinerated their dead and placed their ashes in ceremonial urns, the remains were then placed in stone tombs.
Warfare
Iberian soldiers were widely employed by Carthage and Rome as mercenaries and auxiliary troops. A large portion of Carthaginian forces during the Punic wars was made up of Iberians and Celtiberians. Iberian warfare was endemic and based on intertribal raiding and pillaging. In set piece battle, Iberians were known to regularly charge and retreat, throwing javelins and shouting at their opponents without actually committing to full contact combat. This sort of fighting was termed concursare by the Romans. The Iberians were particularly fond of ambushes and guerrilla tactics.
Ancient sources mention two major types of Iberian infantry, scutati and caetrati. Scutati were heavily armored and carried large Italic style scutum shields. The caetrati carried the caetra, a small Iberian buckler. Iberian armaments included the famed Gladius Hispaniensis, a curved sword called the falcata, straight swords, spears, javelins and an all iron spear called the Soliferrum. Iberian horsemen were a key element of Iberian forces as well as Carthaginian armies. Spain was rich with excellent wild horses and Iberian cavalry was some of the best in the ancient Mediterranean.
Iberian tribes
Iberians dwelt along eastern and southern coastal regions of the Iberian Peninsula, that corresponds to the northwestern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (see the map), roughly in today's Catalonia, Eastern, Northeastern and Northern Aragon, Valencian Community, Murcia Region, Eastern Andalucia, and the Balearic Islands (in Spain), and also in today's Roussillon and parts of Languedoc (in France).
The peninsula has this name because ancient Greeks, Romans and other mediterranean peoples first contacted with peoples (tribes or tribal confederacies) that were Iberians in the ethnic and linguistic sense, although the majority of the Iberian Peninsula's peoples, that dwelt in the Northern, Central and Western regions (the majority of the peninsula's area), were not Iberians themselves in the ethnic and linguistic sense (they could only be considered Iberians in the geographical sense, i.e. they dwelt in the Iberian Peninsula).
The Iberian tribes or tribal confederacies were:
Andosini - in the mountains of East Pyrenees southern slopes, in the high Segre river basin, area of modern Andorra.
Ausetani - in the Osona region (old County of Osona), in the middle Ter river basin. Ausa (today's Vic) was their main centre.
Bastetani/Bastitani/Bastuli - The biggest iberian tribal confederation in area, they dwelt in a territory that included large areas of the mediterranean coast and the Sierra Nevada, in what are today parts of the modern provinces of Murcia, Albacete, Jaén, Almería, Granada and Málaga. Basti (today's Baza) was their main centre.
Mastieni - in and around Mastia territory (Cartagena).
Bergistani/Bergusii - in the high Llobregat river basin, roughly in today's Barcelona province. Berga was their main centre. North of the Lacetani.
Castellani - in the high Ter river basin, East Pyrenees southern slopes. North of the Ausetani.
Cessetani/Cossetani - in the Tarraco region (roughly in today's central and east Tarragona province), in the mediterranean coastal region. Kese (Tarraco in Roman times, that would become the Hispania Tarraconensis capital), was their main centre.
Ceretani/Cerretani - in Cerretana (today's Cerdanya/Cerdaña) and other East Pyrenees mountains southern slopes, also in the high Segre and Noguera rivers basins (tributaries of the Iberus - Ebro river), in the east part of Ribagorça. Libyca or Julia Libyca (today's Llivia) was their main centre. North of the Ilergetes and the Bergistani.
Contestani - South of the Sucro (Xúquer) river and north of the Thader (Segura) river, in an area that today is roughly part of the Alicante/Alacant, Valencia, Murcia and Albacete provinces. A tribal confederation. East of the Bastetani. Centres included Saetabi (modern Xàtiva) and la Bastida de les Alcusses.
Deitani - in and around Ilici territory (today's Elx/Elche)
Edetani - North of the Sucro (Xúquer/Júcar) river and south of the Millars river, roughly in today's Valencia province. One of the biggest iberian tribes or tribal confederations. Edeta (Roman times Lauro, today's Lliria), to the northwest of Valencia, was their main centre, Arse (Saguntum in Roman times, today's Sagunto/Sagunt) was also in their territory. North of the Contestani and the Bastetani and south of the Ilercavones.
Elisyces/Helisyces - a tribe that dwelt in the region of Narbo (Narbonne) and modern northern Roussillon. May have been either Iberian or Ligurian or a Ligurian-Iberian tribe.
Ilercavones - in the low Iberus (Ebro) river basin to the Millars river along the mediterranean coast and to the inland towards the Sierra de Gúdar, in Ilercavonia. One of the biggest iberian tribes or tribal confederations. Hibera (Roman time Dertusa or Dertosa, modern time Tortosa) was their main centre. North of the Edetani, south of the Ilergetes, east of the Sedetani and west of the Cessetani.
Ilergetes/Ilergetae - in the plains area of the middle and low Segre and Cinca rivers towards the Iberus (Ebro) river margins. One of the biggest iberian tribes or tribal confederations. Iltrida (Ilerda in Roman times, today's Lérida/Lleida) was their main centre.
Indigetes/Indigetae - in the low Ter river basin, East Pyrenees southern slopes, they occupied the far north east area of the Iberian Peninsula known as Hispania Tarraconensis, in the gulf of Empodrae (Empúries) and Rhoda (Roses), stretching up into the Pyrenees though the regions of Empordà, Selva and perhaps as far as Gironès, in what is roughly today's Girona Province. Indika/Indiga or Undika was their main centre (identified with the ruins of Ullastret). A confederation was formed by four tribes.
Lacetani - in the middle Llobregat river basin and surrounding hills. Northwest of the Laietani.
Laietani - in the low Llobregat river basin, along a part of the mediterranean coast roughly in what is today a part of the Barcelona province and Barcelona city. Laieta (Barcino in Roman times and Barcelona in modern times) was their main centre.
Oretani - In the high Baetis (Guadalquivir) river valley, eastern Marianus Mons (Sierra Morena) and southern area of today's La Mancha. They could have been an Iberian tribe, a Celtic one, or a mixed Celtic and Iberian tribe or tribal confederacy (and hence related to the Celtiberians). The Mantesani/Mentesani/Mantasani of today's La Mancha and the Germani (of Oretania) in eastern Marianus Mons (Sierra Morena) and west Jabalón river valley, sometimes are included in the Oretani but it is not certain if they were Oretani tribes.
Sedetani - south of the Iberus (Ebro) river and west of the Guadalope river, roughly in the middle basin of the Iberus (Ebro). Salduie (Roman time Salduba and Caesaraugusta and modern time Zaragoza) was in their territory. May have been more closely related to the Edetani. West of the Ilercavones.
Sordones - in the Roussillon territory (Pyrénées Orientales Department, France), Ruscino (today's Château-Roussillon near Perpignan) was their main centre.
Vescetani/Oscenses - In today's northern Aragon, east of Gállego river, in Sobrarbe, in and around Bolskan, later Osca (Huesca), and high Cinca River valley, Spain. They could also be related to the Vascones and therefore be related to the Aquitani speaking the Aquitanian language.
Unknown named tribe or tribes in the Balearic Islands (formed by the Pityusic Islands and Gymnesian islands), may have been Iberians.
Iberian language
The Iberian language, like the rest of the paleohispanic languages, became extinct by the 1st to 2nd centuries AD, after being gradually replaced by Latin. The Iberian language remains an unclassified non-Indo European language. A 1978 study claimed many similarities between Iberian and the Messapic language. Iberian languages also share some elements with the Basque language. Links have also been found with the Etruscan language and Minoan Linear A.
There are different theories about the origin of the Iberian language. According to the Catalan theory, the Iberian language originated in northern Catalonia, from where it expanded north and south.<ref>Velaza, Javier (2006) Lengua vs. cultura material: el (viejo) problema de la lengua indígena de Cataluña, Actes de la III Reunió Internacional d'Arqueologia de Calafell (Calafell, 25 to 27 November 2004), Arqueo Mediterrània 9, pp. 273-280</ref>
Iberian scripts
The Iberians use three different scripts to represent the Iberian language.
Northeastern Iberian script
Dual variant (4th century BC and 3rd century BC)
Non-dual variant (2nd century BC and 1st century BC)
Southeastern Iberian script
Greco-Iberian alphabet
Northeastern Iberian script and southeastern Iberian script share a common distinctive typological characteristic, also present in other paleohispanic scripts: they present signs with syllabic value for the occlusives and signs with monofonematic value for the rest of consonants and vowels. From a writing systems point of view, they are neither alphabets nor syllabaries, they are mixed scripts that normally are identified as semi-syllabaries. About this common origin, there is no agreement between researchers: for some this origin is only linked to the Phoenician alphabet while for others the Greek alphabet had participated too.
See also
Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula
Iberian language
Iberian scripts
Ancient Iberian coinage
References
Further reading
Beltrán, Miguel (1996): Los iberos en Aragón, Zaragoza.
Ruiz, Arturo; Molinos, Manuel (1993): Los iberos, Barcelona.
Sanmartí, Joan; Santacana, Joan (2005): Els ibers del nord, Barcelona.
Sanmartí, Joan (2005): «La conformación del mundo ibérico septentrional», Palaeohispanica'' 5, pp. 333–358.
External links
Detailed map of the Pre-Roman Peoples of Iberia (around 200 BC)
Iberian Epigraphy Page, by J.R. Ramos
Pre-Indo-Europeans
Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula
History of Catalonia
People by historical ethnicity
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Slovak%20language
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History of the Slovak language
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The Slovak language is a West Slavic language. Historically, it forms a dialect continuum with Czech. The written standard is based on the work of Ľudovít Štúr, published in the 1840s and codified in July 1843 in Hlboké.
Theories about the origin
Older hypotheses and theories
Centrist hypothesis
The centrist hypothesis was popular in the 19th century when it played a positive role in the Slovak national movement. According to this theory, Slovak is the remnant of the Proto-Slavic language spoken in the Middle Danube region before the great migration of the Slavs. This hypothesis is based on Nestor's Primary Chronicle and was supported by Matej Bel and several notable members of the movement, like Pavel Jozef Šafárik, Anton Bernolák and Ľudovít Štúr. Most modern scholars oppose the opinion about the Slavic homeland being in the Middle Danube, but the theory was revived in the 20th century by a Russian linguist Oleg Trubachyov.
Nonhomogeneous origin
The theories about the nonhomogeneous origin of Slovak assume its late integration in the 13th to 14th centuries or even after the 16th century. They claim that the Proto-Slavic basis of Slovak emerged on the border of early Western, Southern and Eastern Slavic macro dialects or that Slovak emerged from early or late mixing of neighboring languages. A prominent Slovak linguist, Samuel Czambel (1856–1909), believed that Western Slovak dialects are derived from early Western Slavic, that Central Slovak dialects are remains of the South Slavic language area (Czechized over centuries) and that Eastern Slovak dialects come from Old Polish and Old Ukrainian. Samuil Bernstein supported a similar theory. István Kniezsa suggested a mixing of languages in today's Central Slovakia after the Mongol invasion of Europe and Ottoman wars, thus forming modern Central Slovak dialects. The opinion about the late integration is not compliant with the current state of knowledge about the development of Slovak dialects from Proto-Slavic.
Homogeneous origin
This theory was proposed in the interwar period by Czech linguists František Trávníček and Václav Vážný. Its proponents believed that Slovak and Czech emerged from a common Proto-Czech-Slovak (Proto-Czech). Trávníček explained unique features of Central Slovak dialects by later differentiation, Vážný, by expansion from the south. Trávníček's attempt to explain the origin of Slovak from Proto-Czech-Slovak is now thought to be erroneous, and the creator of the theory abandoned it already after World War II.
Modern theories
Modern theories are based on a nonhomogeneous Proto-Slavic basis of Slovak. The prevailing theory is the migration-integration theory of Rudolf Krajčovič.
Migration-integration theory
Rudolf Krajčovič suggests three phases of development:
post-migration period (5th–7th centuries): the Slavs came to present-day Slovakia from various locations; Western and Eastern Slovakia was settled by people who spoke Northwestern (West Slavic) Proto-Slavic dialect, Central Slovakia by speakers of the Southeastern (non-West Slavic) dialect.
integration period (8th–9th centuries): several language features (both West and non-West Slavic) spread across the borders of the initial linguistic regions; these changes are best explained by the integration process of the Slavs before and during the existence of Great Moravia.
constitutive period (10th–11th centuries): After the extinction of Proto-Slavic, Slovak began to evolve as a separate Slavic language.
Koine theory
This theory was proposed by a Slovak linguist Martin Pukanec. According to Pukanec, the migration-integration theory does not explain the presence of old isoglosses around Nitra, one main old political center. The main idea of the theory is koineization, a formation of a super-dialect (koiné) on the border of the West Slavic and the South Slavic dialects. The koineization on the border of two dialects may have been very rapid with many dramatic changes, possibly even two or three in one generation.
The author suggests the following chronology:
an early integration period (6th century–833)
koineization (833–907): The four phases of koineization correspond with the phases of development of Great Moravia.
constitutive period (907–1110): The koiné was disintegrated, and the tribal system finally became extinct.
The arguments for this theory are mostly indirect.
Emergence and development
Heterogenous Proto-Slavic basis of Slovak
The Proto-Slavic basis of Slovak included both West Slavic and Non-West Slavic features. Some West Slavic features are common for all Slovak dialects, but there are also Non-West Slavic features that are distributed over 70–75% of the territory. The Central Slovak dialects exhibits major deviations from what is generally thought of as West Slavic.
{| class="wikitable"
!scope="col" style="width: 15%;" |Territorial distribution
!scope="col" style="width: 30%;" |Feature
!scope="col" style="width: 15%;" |Example
!scope="col" style="width: 40%;" |Comparison
|+ class="nowrap" | West Slavic features
|-
|rowspan="3"|common feature
| preserved Proto-Slavic kv-, gv- before old Slavic ě
| (flower, star)
| , vs. ,
|-
| missing epentetic l
| (earth)
| , vs. or
|-
| c, dz instead of tj, dj
| (candle, boundary)
| , vs. ,
|-
|rowspan="4"|mainly West and East,nowadays partly also the Central Slovakia
| dl, tl preserved in nouns
| (awl)
| , vs. Central Slovak dialects:
|-
| rot-, lot in place of Proto-Slavic ort-, olt-
| (grill, elbow)
|, vs. Central Slovak dialects:
|-
| š in place of Proto-Slavic ch'''
| (Czechs, bridegrooms)
| Central Slovak dialects:
|-
|colspan="2" |and others
|-
|rowspan="2"|only Záhorie (the westernmost region of Slovakia)andEastern Slovakia
| rъ, lъ in place of r̥, l̥| (blood – Proto-Slavic krъvь)
| , vs. other Slovak dialects:
|-
| suffix -ъmь in place of -omь| (with snake)
| vs. other Slovak dialects:
|-
|rowspan="3"|only Záhorie
| transformation iь > jь| (needle)
| , vs. other Slovak dialects:
|-
| long vowels in place of old acutes
| (cow)
| vs. other Slovak dialects:
|-
| short suffix -a in nominative plural of neutral grammatical gender
| (shoulders)
| vs. other Slovak dialects
|}
{| class="wikitable"
!scope="col" style="width: 15%;" |Territorial distribution
!scope="col" style="width: 30%;" |Feature
!scope="col" style="width: 15%;" |Example
!scope="col" style="width: 40%;" |Comparison
|+ Non-West Slavic features
|-
|rowspan="4"|only the historic central area of Proto-Slavic basis of Slovak
| simplified l instead of Proto-Slavic dl, tl| (awl)
| , vs. other Slovak dialects
|-
| rat-, lat in place of Proto-Slavic ort-, olt-| (elbow)
| vs. other Slovak dialects
|-
| s in place of Proto-Slavic ch'| (Czechs, bridegrooms)
| other Slovak dialects
|-
| preserved suffix -mo| ([we] bear)
| vs. other Slovak dialects
|-
|rowspan="6"|also outside of the historic central area of Proto-Slavic basis, but mainly in the neighbouring areas
|-
| transformation iь > i| (needle)
| , vs. in Záhorie
|-
| syllabic r̥, l̥ in words like kr̥v| (blood)
| like vs. Western and Eastern Slovak
|-
| short vowels in the place of old acutes
| (cow)
| in Záhorie kráva|-
| long suffix -á in nominative plural of neutral grammatical gender
| (shoulders)
| in Záhorie , in Eastern Slovakia (from the initial )
|-
| suffix -omь| ([with] snake)
| in Záhorie
|}
Main changes in the Proto-Slavic basis
In the 10th century, Proto-Slavic ceased to exist, and Slovak began to emerge as an independent language. The most important early changes were the contraction, the loss and vocalization of yers and the denasalization of ǫ and ę. These changes affected the word structure and phonemes. The loss of yers differentiated future Slovak, Czech and Polish from neighboring Slavic regions, and the denasalization differentiated Slovak and Czech from Polish. Slovak was not affected by old Polish dispalatization in the 10th century, causing differences between the two languages such as žena vs. Polish żona (a woman, a wife), kvet vs. Polish kwiat, etc. It was also not affected by the old Czech syllabic depalatization before hard syllables, with differences such as priateľ vs. Czech sg. přítel, pl. přátelé (a friend). Slovak preserved a difference between dz/z (from Proto-Slavic */dj/ */gtj/), i.e. medźa (medza, a boundary), vítäź (víťaz, an elite warrior, a winner) whereas both phonemes were transformed to ź in old Czech and dź in old Polish. Contrary to Czech, a vowel mutation from à to e did not occur in Slovak, i.e. ulica vs. Czech ulice (a street). The differences between Slovak and Czech like ťažko/těžko, cudzí/cizí became stable later. Slovak developed only single r in contrast with Czech pairs r/ř and Polish r/rz. Slovak evolved as an independent language already from the 10th century, and there is strong evidence against theories of its early or late formation from other languages.
Contraction
Contraction was a change caused by a loss of j between vowels and their merging into one long vowel, for example dobroje → dobré (good) and bojati sę → báť sa (to be afraid). The contraction originated in the territory of Great Moravia in the last years of its existence and divided the Slavic territory into contraction and non-contraction areas. In Proto-Slovak, the contraction occurred before the disappearance and vocalization of yers, but not uniformly. In later Western and Eastern Slovak dialects, the change was similar to other West Slavic languages. The Central Slovak shares some old features with the South-Slavic contraction peripheral territory. The Central Slovak preserved more non-contracted forms (i.e. moja, moje vs. má, mé, bojati sa /dialect/ vs báť sa). The different process of contraction oje → oe → ô probably resulted also to the characteristic neuter adjective ending -ô (i.e. dobrô vs. dobré).
Loss and vocalization of yers
The disappearance of weak yers and the change of strong yers is reconstructed by Havlík's law. The back yer (ъ) was vocalized as e in the Proto-Slavic basis of Western and Eastern Slovak (pętъkъ → pátek: Friday) and as o in the Central Slovak area (piatok). The weak yers did not disappear in one syllable words, but the back yer changed to a, and the front yer, to ä. This change occurred already in the 10th century like in other West Slavic languages, contrary to the neighboring East Slavic area.
Denasalization
The Proto-Slavic nasal vowels ǫ and ę were denasalized in the 10th century. The nasal vowel ǫ was replaced by u and ú, i.e. zǫbъ > zub (a tooth), lǫka > lúka (a meadow) probably through an extinct nasal vowel ų: ǫ > ų > u/ú. The denasalization of ę was similar: ę > ą̈ > ä/a̋. These forms from the 11th–12th centuries have been preserved in some Slovak dialects until the modern age (Orava, Gemer and Sotak dialects). The central Slovak dialects preserved only the short form ä. In other dialects, they changed to wide range of monophthongs and diphthongs.
Phonology
Changes in prosodic features
The Proto-Slavic quantity was associated with specific vowels (long a, u, i, y, ě, ę, ǫ vs. short o, e, ъ, ь). The original quantity has disappeared or changed, creating pairs of short and long vowels a/á, e/é, etc.
The spirantization of Slavic /g/ to /h/
Early Slovak inherited the velar g from Proto-Slavic. The velar was preserved in the early stage of development, but it changed to h approximately in the 12th century. Unlike Czech, this change was not complete, and the original g has been preserved in the -zg consonant group at the end of words and on the border of morphemes, e.g. mozgy vs. Czech mozky (brains). The partial preservation of g in the phonetic system allowed Slovak to adopt g in later loanwords, for example gombík (a button).
Morphology
Grammatical numbers
In contrast to modern Slovak, early Slovak had three grammatical numbers inherited from Proto-Slavic, singular, plural and dual. Dual was probably never fully developed and was extinct already in the 14th century. Dual forms were recorded mostly in documents from Western and partially from Central Slovakia, but their usage in the 15th–16th centuries was limited to words that naturally come in pairs (ears, eyes, etc.) and words derived from the number two. However, they were already garbled or outnumbered by plural forms.
Grammatical tenses
Simplification of grammatical tenses had been an overall trend in the development of Slovak. Old Proto-Slavic past tenses, the aorist, the imperfect and the old pluperfect disappeared, probably in the 13th–14th centuries. The perfect and the new pluperfect become stable. Different expressions for the future tense were simplified in one stable form, e.g. mám/chcu/začnu/budu robiti → budu robiti, later budem robiť (I will do).
Noun declension
Unlike neighbouring Slavic languages, Slovak retained only six out of seven Proto-Slavic grammatical cases. The vocative merged with the nominative, but it has been preserved in archaic forms of some words related to family, e.g. otec → otče, syn → synu, kmotor → kmotre (O father/son/godfather) and to address God: Boh → Bože, Ježiš → Ježišu, Kristus → Kriste (O God/Jesus/Christ). Slovak retained basic principles of declension, but the evolution of declension paradigms had been strongly affected by the principle of analogy: less frequent declension suffixes were replaced by more frequent suffixes from other cases and paradigms. The outcome of this process was simplification and higher uniformity of declension patterns. This process was more intense compared to Czech. The independent development of Slovak naturally resulted in unique declension patterns.
History of standard language
Pre-standard period
The earliest written records of Slovak are represented by personal and place names, later by sentences, short notes and verses in Latin and Czech documents. Latin documents contain also mentions about a cultivation of the vernacular language. The complete texts are available since the 15th century. In the 15th century, Latin began to lose its privileged position in favor of Czech and cultural Slovak.
Early pre-standard period
Old Church Slavonic
The Old Church Slavonic became the literary and liturgical language, and the Glagolitic alphabet the corresponding script in Great Moravia until 885. Latin continues to be used in parallel. Some of the early Old Church Slavonic texts (based on emerging southern Slavic dialects) contain western Slavic elements of the language of the Slavic inhabitants of Great Moravia and Pannonia, which were called the Sloviene (*Slověně) by Slavic texts at that time.
The use of Old Church Slavonic in Great Moravia was prohibited by Pope Stephen V in 885; consequently, Latin became the administrative and liturgical language again. Many followers and students of Constantine and Methodius fled to Bulgaria, Croatia, Bohemia, the Kievan Rus' and other countries.
Older and younger pre-standard period
Slovak in Latin Documents
From the 10th century onward, Slovak began to develop independently. Very few written records of Old Slovak remain, mainly from the 13th century onwards, consisting of groups of words or single sentences. Fuller Slovak texts appeared starting from 15th century. Old Slovak and its development can be research mainly through old Slovak toponyms, petrificated within Latin texts. Examples include crali (1113) > kráľ, king; dorz (1113) > dvorec; grinchar (1113) > hrnčiar, potter; mussenic (1113) > mučeník, martyr; scitar (1113) > štítar, shieldmaker; zaltinc (1156) > zlatník, goldmaker; duor (1156) > dvor, courtyard; and otroč (1156) > otrok, slave, servant. In 1294, the monk Ivanka from Kláštor pod Znievom wrote: "ad parvam arborem nystra slowenski breza ubi est meta". It is important mainly because it contains the oldest recorded adjective Slovak in Slovak, whose modern form is slovensky. Up until this point, all adjectives were recorded mainly in Latin, including sclavus, slavus and sclavoniae.
Czech and Slovakized Czech
Written Czech started to penetrate into present-day Slovakia through Czech clergy teaching in capitular schools in the 14th century. In the pre-standard period, Czech was used along with Latin and cultural Slovak as a cultural and liturgical language. The reasons for the use of Czech were the absence of a uniform Slovak standard due to the absence of a Slovak state, whereas Czech was a standardized language which enjoyed a certain degree of prestige, particularly in the context of the Protestant Reformation ; the rise of the Slovak population in towns; the similarity to Slovak making it easier to learn; studies of many Slovaks at the University of Prague; the influence of the campaigns of the Czech Hussites and of John Giskra (Ján Jiskra) in Slovakia; and the temporary conquest of Moravia by the Hungarian king Matthias Corvinus.
The usage of Czech in a Slovak environment resulted in Slovakized Czech, a variant of cultural Czech with Slovak elements. This variant existed from the penetration of Czech to present-day Slovakia and was used in city books and official correspondence. Early writings had a varying frequency of Slovak elements caused by a poor knowledge of standard Czech among many Slovak native speakers and the influence of vernacular language and cultural Slovak. The normalized form of Slovakized Czech existed from the 17th century. In it, Czech letters and words were systematically replaced by their Slovak equivalents (e.g. ř by r, ě by e, au by ú, ou by ú, etc.).
Biblical Czech
Czech was recognized as an official language of the Lutheran Church by the councils in 1610 and 1614 and was used as a liturgical language even until the early 20th century. The official form was biblical Czech used in the Czech Bible of Kralice. The orthography of Hussite "Brothers in the Law of Christ" was used also in Catholic publications but often adjusted to cultural Slovak.
Kollár's "Old Slovak"
Slovak humanist Ján Kollár and Andrej Ľudovít Radlinský attempted to standardize a new standard language called Old Slovak (staroslovenčina), a version of Slovakized Czech. According to the contemporary Pan-Slavic views, the Slavic nation consisted of four tribes, the Czechoslovak, the Polish, the Russian and the Illyrian (Southern Slavs). Kollár assumed a common origin of Czechs and Slovaks. The original language, he claimed, is closer to Slovak, with Czech allegedly losing its beauty due to contact with German. After the suppressing of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848, Kollár got an approval of the government in Vienna to use "Old Slovak" as an administrative and educational language. The trial to create a common standard language for Czechs and Slovaks failed. Czechs had difficulties understanding Kollár's "improvements" of Czech by Slovakisms, and the younger Slovak generation preferred standardization of Slovak.
Cultural Western, Central and Eastern Slovak
Catholics use Western Slovak (Cultured Western Slovak, Jesuit Slovak) based on the language used by educated people from the region of Trnava, where the important Jesuit University of Trnava was founded in 1635, and in the profane sphere, especially in towns, Slovak influenced by the Czech is used even in written documents, often with a chaotic orthography.
After the defeat of the Turks near Vienna in 1683, many Slovaks gradually emigrated to the Lower Lands, territories in present-day Hungary, Serbia (later to Croatia and Bulgaria), and Romania was depopulated after the Turkish occupation. They have preserved their particular Slovak dialects until today. In eastern Slovakia, a Slovakized standard Polish is used sometimes (besides Czech, Slovak and Latin) for the same purposes and reasons as Czech is used in the remaining Slovakia. Latin continues to be used, especially in state administration.
Efforts to establish Slovak as the standard language emerged as early as in the 17th century. For example, in The Czech Grammar (1603), Vavrinec Benedikt of Nedožery incites the Slovaks to deepen their knowledge of Slovak. Matej Bel in the introduction to the Gramatica Slavico-Bohemica (1745) of Pavel Doležal compares Slovak with other recognized languages. Literary activity in Slovak flourished during the second half of the seventeenth century and continued into the next century. In the mid-18th century Camaldolese monks translated the Bible in a variant of language named after them, while Romuald Hadvabný of Červený Kláštor proposed a detailed (Western Slovak) language codification in his Latin-Slovak Dictionary (1763) with an outline of the Slovak grammar. The first adventure novel in Slovak, the René mláďenca príhodi a skúsenosťi, was published in 1783 by Jozef Ignác Bajza in Western Slovak.
Standard period
Bernolák's standard
Anton Bernolák, a Catholic priest (1762–1813), published the Dissertatio philologico-critica de litteris Slavorum in 1787, in which he codified a Slovak standard based on the Western Slovak of the University of Trnava but contains also some central Slovak elements, e.g. soft consonants ď, ť, ň, ľ and many words. The orthography is strictly diacritical. The language is often called Bernolák's language. Bernolák continued his codification work in other books in the 1780s and 1790s and especially in his huge six-volume Slovak-Czech-Latin-German-Hungarian Dictionary, in print from 1825–1927. In the 1820s, the Bernolák standard was revised, and Central Slovak elements were systematically replaced by their Western Slovak equivalents.
This was the first successful establishment of a standard Slovak. Bernolák's language was used by Slovak Catholics, especially by the writers Juraj Fándly and Ján Hollý, but Protestants still wrote in Czech in its old form used in Bohemia until the 17th century.
Štúr's standard
In 1843, young Slovak Lutheran Protestants, led by Ľudovít Štúr, decided to establish and discuss the central Slovak dialect as the new Slovak standard instead of both Bernolák's language used by the Catholics and Czech used by older Slovak Lutheran Protestants. The new standard was also accepted by some users of Bernolák's language led by Ján Hollý, but was initially criticized by the older Lutheran Protestants led by Ján Kollár (died 1852). This language formed the basis of the later standard Slovak that is used today. The first Slovak grammar of the new language was published by Ľudovít Štúr in 1846 with the title Nauka reči Slovenskej (The Theory of the Slovak Language).
In 1844, the Hungarian Diet of Pozsony (today Bratislava) replaced Latin, used since the Middle Ages, with Hungarian as the official language of Hungary, which included at the time what later became Slovakia.
Hodža-Hattala reform
In 1851, the supporters of Bernolák and Štúr made a compromise and agreed on the reform of the Štúr's standard. The new standard respected etymological principles instead of Štúr's phonetic-phonological transcription and used a Slovak orthography closer to other Slavic languages, especially Czech. The new grammar was published by Martin Hattala in 1852.
Martin period, practice and Czambel's codification
The Martin period lasted from the abolishment of the Slovak national and cultural institution Matica slovenská until the foundation of Czechoslovakia in 1918. The name comes from Turčiansky Svätý Martin, the contemporary Slovak cultural center. The usage of Slovak in education and culture was significantly reduced during forced Magyarization after the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867.
The Martin practice () was a de facto standard partially formed already before the abolishment of Matica and influenced by the dialect spoken in Martin. In 1902, Samuel Czambel published new language standard. Czambel's codification favored the forms used in spoken language to archaisms from Hattala's codification and synchronized spoken and written language. Czambel's codification was partially revised and extended by Jozef Škultéty.
Czechoslovakia (1918–1939)
With the establishment of Czechoslovakia in 1918, Slovak became an official language for the first time in history along with Czech. The Czechoslovak Constitution of 1920 and the constitutional law on minorities which was adopted alongside the constitution on the same day established the Czechoslovak language as an official language Since the Czechoslovak language did not exist, the law recognized its two variants, Czech and Slovak. Czech was usually used in administration in the Czech lands; Slovak, in Slovakia. In practice, the position of languages was not equal. Along with political reasons, this situation was caused by a different historical experience and numerous Czech teachers and clerks in Slovakia, who helped to restore the educational system and administration because Slovaks educated in Slovak were missing.
In 1931, the Matica slovenská published a new standard Slovak prepared by Czech linguist Václav Vážný, the head of the Department of Linguistics of Matica. In contrast with older works including those published in Czechoslovakia, the standard had an official character and was approved and recommended by the Ministry of Education led by Slovak minister Ivan Dérer. The standard was inspired by the official ideology of Czechoslovakism and tried to align both languages by the codification of numerous Czech words and forms not existing in Slovak. It raised negative reactions, and the board of Matica promised its revision. Although a new official standard was not published before the breakup of Czechoslovakia in 1939, a new standard of Matica was used along with Vážný's standard.
Czechoslovakia (1945–1992)
The six-volume Slovník slovenského jazyka'' (Slovak Dictionary, SSJ) was written during 1959–1968. The federalization of Czechoslovakia in 1968 confirmed equal rights for Slovak and Czech in the Socialist Republic of Czechoslovakia and later the Fifth Republic of Czechoslovakia.
Slovak Republic
Czechoslovakia split into Slovakia and the Czech Republic in 1993. Slovak became the official language of Slovakia.
See also
Slovak literature
History of the Czech language
Notes
References
Citations
Bibliography
Language
Slavic language histories
Slovak language
Slovak literature
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20College%20of%20Florida
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New College of Florida
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New College of Florida is a public liberal arts college in Sarasota, Florida. It was founded in 1960 as a private institution known as New College. In 1975, it merged with University of South Florida as a separate "upper division campus" within the public university. In 2001 became an autonomous college, the eleventh independent school of the State University System of Florida as the honors college for the state system. Upon achieving independence, the school adopted its current name: New College of Florida. In 2023, the school began its transformation into a "beacon of conservative values."
As an honors college, the college is distinguished by its unusual "contract system", in which students are given written evaluations instead of grades and agree to semester-long contracts in which a certain number of classes must be passed. For example, in a "three out of five" contract, a student who failed two classes would face no penalty, although one who failed three classes would risk losing all credits for the entire semester. The system was devised to encourage academic experimentation and foster curiosity about disparate topics outside one's usual course of study.
New College students are required to complete an undergraduate thesis project and baccalaureate exam, during which the student presents and defends their project to a committee of professors.
New College has been cited as having the highest percentage of students receiving a Fulbright scholarship of any college or university in the United States. New College has the smallest student population in the State University System of Florida with 659 students (2021).
History
New College was founded in 1960 as a private college for academically talented students. Financial assistance was provided by the United Church of Christ. George F. Baughman served as the first president from 1961 to 1965.
The school offers a liberal arts education valuing freedom of inquiry and the responsibility of individual students for their own education were to be implemented through a unique academic program. Open to students of all races, genders, and religious affiliations, New College opened its doors in 1964 to a premier class of 101 students. Faculty members included the historian and philosopher Arnold J. Toynbee, who left retirement to join the charter faculty.
By 1972, more than 500 students studied at New College. As the 1970s progressed, inflation threatened to undermine the economic viability of the institution. By 1975, the college was $3.9 million in debt and on the brink of insolvency. At that time, the University of South Florida (USF) expressed interest in buying the land and facilities of the college to establish a branch campus there.
In an unusual agreement, the New College board of trustees agreed to hand over the school's campus and other assets to the state, at the time valued at $8.5 million, in exchange for the state paying off its debts and agreeing to continue to operate the school as a separate unit within the USF system. The agreement stated that New College was to receive the same funding, per-student, as other programs at USF. The former New College board of trustees became the New College Foundation, and was required to raise money privately to supplement the state funds to reach the total necessary to run New College, at the time about a third of New College's $2-million-a-year operating budget. Under that agreement, New College was renamed the "New College of the University of South Florida". USF started a Sarasota branch program that shared the bayfront campus, and the schools began an uneasy relationship that would last for the next twenty-five years, with New College and the University of South Florida through its Sarasota branch program sharing the campus.
As part of a major reorganization of Florida's public education system in 2001, New College severed its ties with USF, became the eleventh independent school in the State University System of Florida, and adopted its current name, New College of Florida. The Florida legislature officially designated New College as the honors college for the state of Florida. As part of its establishment as an independent university, the University of South Florida was directed to relocate its facilities away from the New College campus, which it did on August 28, 2006, when it opened a new campus for USF Sarasota-Manatee on the undeveloped Seagate portion of the campus. New College and USF Sarasota-Manatee continued to share campuses until the new campus was completed and thereafter, certain facilities such as the library.
The college is a member of the Council of Public Liberal Arts Colleges.
2023 appointment of conservative trustees
In early 2023, Governor Ron DeSantis overhauled the college's board of trustees, appointing six new members including Christopher Rufo, Matthew Spalding, Charles R. Kesler, Mark Bauerlein, Debra Jenks, and Eddie Speir. Of those, the first four are well-known conservative activists who appear to live outside Florida. The DeSantis chief of staff, James Uthmeier, said that "It is our hope that New College of Florida will become Florida’s classical college, more along the lines of a Hillsdale of the South." At its first meeting, on January 31, 2023, the new board fired President Patricia Okker ("without cause") and installed Richard Corcoran, a political associate of the governor, as its interim president. These actions received national attention and commentary.
Early changes included firing the university president, dissolving the university's diversity and equity office, bans on personal pronouns in email signatures by faculty, and the cancellation of events promoting diversity and inclusion. Christopher Rufo was reported as having announced: “We will be shutting down low-performing, ideologically-captured academic departments and hiring new faculty” and “The student body will be recomposed over time: some current students will self-select out, others will graduate; we’ll recruit new students who are mission-aligned.”
According to NPR, "Professors at the New College of Florida are using personal email because they’re afraid of being subpoenaed. Students are concerned, too. Some fear for their physical safety. Many worry their teachers will be fired en masse and their courses and books will be policed. It’s increasingly hard to focus on their studies."
In April 2023, the board of trustees denied tenure to five professors, sparking outcry from an attending audience and leading to the resignation of trustee and faculty chair Matthew Lepinski. When asked to provide reasons for the decision, interim president Richard Corcoran argued for the denial or delay of tenure due to administrative changes and the college's shift towards a more traditional liberal arts focus. Mark Bauerlein argued against granting tenure because the five professors were seeking tenure after meeting all requirements in five years rather than six, citing the "tenure clock" and claiming that receiving tenure after five years is unusual, stating that he would apply different criteria if the faculty stand for tenure again after another year. To the contrary, the faculty handbook states that the criteria for tenure are identical regardless of year, and around 30% of New College faculty hired in the past decade have received tenure after five years. The professors, who had already gained approval for their tenure applications from New College faculty, external reviewers, and the previous administration, were denied in identical 6-4 votes with the new conservative board members forming the majority. The denied professors include organic chemists Rebecca Black and Lin Jiang; historian and Islamic religion scholar Nassima Neggaz; oceanographer Gerardo Toro-Farmer; and Latin American/Caribbean and music historian Hugo Viera-Vargas. This move was criticized by some as part of a larger trend of conservatives targeting tenure, particularly for professors perceived to hold liberal views.
By mid-July 2023, over a third of the existing faculty had left the college, many choosing to resign or take a leave of absence as a direct result of the conservative takeover. Of those who left, some attempted to form an alternative called "Alt New College", which was threatened by a lawsuit by New College of Florida in late 2023.
All of the six trustees appointed by DeSantis were eventually confirmed by the Florida Senate except Eddie Speir, a co-founder of a local Christian academy. Speir blamed the school's new interim president for the Senate's rejection in early May, writing on Twitter, In late June, Speir announced that he would be running for U.S. Congress in Florida's 16th congressional district. Speir Tweeted,
In October 2023, when formally announced as New College's new president, Canadian-born Richard Corcoran made history as the college's first foreign-born, immigrant officeholder. Corcoran's total annual compensation of over $1 million drew scrutiny from media and experts in academic and executive compensation, significantly in excess of expected pay for the president of a public university with a small student body population.
Governance
New College is governed by a twelve-member board of trustees who serve staggered four-year terms. Of the twelve members, three must be residents of Sarasota County and two must be residents of Manatee County.
Campus
New College's bay front campus is located in west Sarasota, Florida, approximately south of Tampa. The primary campus is located on the former Edith and Charles Ringling estate. The campus also includes portions of The Uplands, a residential neighborhood that is bounded by the historic bayfront campus to the south where half of the bayfront had been a portion of the estate and half of which in The Uplands plat (being donated to New College during the original founding of the college), and the Seagate property to the north, Sarasota Bay to the west, and Tamiami Trail to the east.
The campus's most remarkable structures are its three Florida 1920s boom time, grand-scale residences: College Hall was the home of Edith and Charles Ringling; Cook Hall was the home of Hester Ringling Lancaster Sanford; and Caples Hall was the home of Ellen and Ralph Caples. The well-appointed structures date from the early to mid-1920s, are listed on the National Register of Historic Places, and are similar in style to the adjacent John and Mable Ringling Museum of Art and their residence, Cà d'Zan.
The campus is also home to several examples of high modernist architecture designed by I. M. Pei. These buildings include a complex of student residences known as "Pei," a cafeteria, and a student center. The other dormitories are Dort, Goldstein, and Palmer B. Five new dormitory buildings were opened in the 2007–2008 school year.
The Jane Bancroft Cook Library is for both New College students and the University of South Florida's Sarasota-Manatee campus. It is also a resource for Manatee Community College. The local library collection has several hundred thousand items and access to over eleven million items through the State University Libraries system.
The Pritzker Marine Biology Research Center opened in 2001. The facility supports the biology, marine biology, and environmental sciences programs, three of the most popular fields of study at New College.
In 2005, a long range campus master plan was developed through public workshops held by several design teams with participation by students, faculty, administration, residents of the community, and staff members of local governmental agencies.
In 2011, the college opened a new Academic Center and the adjacent Robert and Beverly Koski Academic Plaza. The most recent addition to the campus, in 2017, is a 22,000-square-foot addition to the Heiser Natural Sciences Center.
Academics
Undergraduate programs
Four core principles form the base of New College's academic philosophy: (1) each student is responsible in the last analysis for his or her own education, (2) the best education demands a joint search for learning by exciting teachers and able students, (3) students' progress should be based on demonstrated competence and real mastery rather than on the accumulation of credits and grades, (4) students should have, from the outset, opportunities to explore in-depth, areas of interest to them.
To the end of putting this philosophy into practice, New College uses a unique academic program that differs substantially from those of most other educational institutions in four key ways:
Narrative evaluations: at the completion of each course, students receive an evaluation written by the instructor critiquing their performance and course work, along with a satisfactory, unsatisfactory, or incomplete designation. Letter grades and grade-point-averages are not used at New College.
Contract system: At the start of each semester, students negotiate a contract with their faculty advisers, specifying their courses of study and expectations for the semester. At the completion of the term, the academic adviser determines whether the student has "passed" the contract or not. Among other requirements, completing seven contracts is a prerequisite to graduating.
Independent study projects: The month of January is reserved for independent projects at New College; no traditional courses are held. Projects run the gamut from short, in-depth, academic research projects to internships, lab work, and international exchanges. Students are required to complete three independent study projects prior to graduation.
Senior thesis: All students are required to write an original and lengthy thesis in their discipline, and to defend it before a committee of at least three faculty members. A senior thesis may take the form of an original research paper, a scientific or social-scientific experiment or research study, or an original composition. This requirement usually is completed during the final two semesters of a student's fourth year.
The college enrolls a little more than 800 undergraduate students, has an average class size of eighteen for undergraduate classes, and a student to faculty ratio of 10 to 1.
Graduate programs
New College offers a master's degree in Applied Data Science. The MS in Applied Data Science is an adaptation of the original MS in Data Science, featuring a greater focus of application to industry. The MS in Data Science was created in 2015, and began with a founding cohort of seven students. As of 2022, there were 27 students enrolled in the Applied Data Science graduate program. The MS in Applied Data Science is a two-year program, featuring a 100% employment rate upon graduation. Students of the MS in Applied Data Science program are required to complete a paid practicum during the final semester of their degree. New College undergraduates pursuing any major may apply for the 3+2 path, putting them on track to be awarded a bachelor's degree and an MS in Applied Data Science in five years. The New College MS in Applied Data Science was ranked #25 on Fortune's "Best Master’s in Data Science Programs in 2022".
Cost of attendance
For the 2021–22 school year, tuition and fees for in-state residents amounted to $6,916. Tuition and fees for both out-of-state residents and international students totaled $29,944, or $832 per credit hour. New College charges both in-state and out-of-state residents $10,892 for room and board each academic year. For international students, the cost of room and board at New College is $12,992. These costs have been stable for several years through 2022. For master's degree students, the cost of first-year tuition and fees is $11,383.92 for in-state residents, and $28,067.28 for out-of-state and international students. On average, New College students take on the least debt compared to undergraduates from any other school in the state university System. Only 33% of New College students took on any loans with an average loan of about $5500. At comparable institutions, 53% of students took on loans with an average loan of approximately $6300. New College offers scholarships to the majority of admitted students.
Cross College Alliance
The Cross College Alliance is composed of five institutions: New College of Florida, Ringling College of Art and Design, The Ringling/FSU, State College of Florida Sarasota-Manatee, and University of South Florida Sarasota-Manatee. The alliance aims to foster community among these local organizations through shared resources. Students at New College of Florida may cross-register at any of the three other colleges in the alliance.
Recognition
As of 2022, New College of Florida was ranked No. 5 among public "National Liberal Arts Colleges", as well as No. 76 among all "National Liberal Arts Colleges", by U.S. News and World Report. Eighty-six New College students have been awarded Fulbright scholarships since the founding of the college. The nonprofit organization "Colleges That Change Lives" recommends New College for its flexible academic path as well as its consistency in producing successful graduates.
Student life
New College Student Alliance
The New College Student Alliance (NCSA) is New College's student government organization. "Towne Meetings," held monthly in Palm Court, are the main forum for public debate and are open to all students, faculty, and staff.
Athletics
In 2023 in parallel with the university's academic overhaul, New College joined the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA) as a member of the Sun Conference. The school announced plans to offer 17 new sports and increase its number of student-athletes from 140 in 2023 to 350 by Fall 2027. In March 2023, Mariano Jimenez was announced as new athletic director and baseball coach.
Previously, New College of Florida offered only intercollegiate archery, esports, powerlifting, rowing, sailing, and swimming. The club sailing team is a member of the South Atlantic Intercollegiate Sailing Association (SAISA). The New Crew SRQ rowing club was launched in 2021 and trains at Nathan Benderson Park. The New College powerlifting team competes in regional and state competitions against other Florida colleges and universities.
Alumni
Alumni include Mark Weiser, the Xerox PARC computer scientist who conceived of the approach to evolving computer interfaces known as "ubiquitous computing". Weiser attended New College from 1970 through 1974. Other prominent New College graduates include William Dudley, former president of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York; Ambassador Nancy McEldowney, National Security Advisor to Vice President Harris; University of Pennsylvania law professor and vice provost Anita L. Allen, named to the Presidential Commission for the Study of Bioethical Issues; the late mathematician and Fields medalist William Thurston; Margee Ensign, current president of Dickinson College and former president of American University of Nigeria; Jennifer Granick, surveillance and cybersecurity counsel at the ACLU and former civil liberties director at the Stanford Center for Internet and Society and the Electronic Frontier Foundation; bestselling author of Getting Things Done David Allen (author); national MSNBC, NBC and Telemundo anchor José Díaz-Balart; founder of the Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies Rick Doblin; Emmy Award-winning television writer/producer Carol Flint; former U.S. representative Lincoln Díaz-Balart; David M. Smolin, professor of law and director for Cumberland School of Law's Center for Biotechnology, Law, and Ethics; "Mother of Sharks" Melissa Cristina Márquez, a marine biologist and science communicator; Jackie Wang, finalist for the 2021 National Book Award for Poetry; author Malcolm Brenner; and attorney Robert Bilott profiled in the 2019 movie Dark Waters.
Notes
References
Further reading
Paulson, Lawrence and Luke Salisbury. 2014. First-Class Times: Writing about New College's Charter Classes. Maryland: Shambling Gate Press., pp. 224.
Elmendorf, John. 1975. Transmitting information about experiments in higher education. New York: Academy for Educational Development, Inc., pp. 43.
Glasser Kay E. 1977. The New College Story as told by One Hundred And Three Alumni. Ph.D., pp. 20.
External links
"The Culture War Goes to College," Reveal June 24, 2023. https://revealnews.org/podcast/the-culture-war-goes-to-college/
1960 establishments in Florida
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Buildings and structures in Sarasota County, Florida
Universities and colleges established in 1960
Education in Sarasota County, Florida
Liberal arts colleges in Florida
Public honors colleges
Public universities and colleges in Florida
Universities and colleges accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools
Tourist attractions in Sarasota County, Florida
Education in Sarasota, Florida
Conservatism in the United States
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copenhagen%20criteria
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Copenhagen criteria
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The Copenhagen criteria are the rules that define whether a country is eligible to join the European Union. The criteria require that a state has the institutions to preserve democratic governance and human rights, has a functioning market economy, and accepts the obligations and intent of the European Union.
These membership criteria were laid down at the June 1993 European Council in Copenhagen, Denmark, from which they take their name. Excerpt from the Copenhagen Presidency conclusions:
Most of these elements have been clarified over the last decade by legislation and other decisions of the European Council, the European Commission and the European Parliament, as well as by the case law of the European Court of Justice and the European Court of Human Rights. However, there are sometimes conflicting interpretations in current member states, especially regarding what is meant by "the rule of law".
European Union membership criteria
During the negotiations with each candidate country, progress towards meeting the Copenhagen criteria is regularly monitored. On the basis of this, decisions are made as to whether and when a particular country should join, or what actions need to be taken before joining is possible.
The European Union Membership criteria are defined by the three documents:
The 1992 Treaty of Maastricht (Article 49)
The declaration of the June 1993 European Council in Copenhagen, i.e., Copenhagen criteria—describing the general policy in more details
political
economic
legislative
Framework for negotiations with a particular candidate state
specific and detailed conditions
statement stressing that the new member cannot take its place in the Union until it is considered that the EU itself has enough "absorption capacity" for this to happen.
When agreed in 1993, there was no mechanism for ensuring that any country which was already an EU member state was in compliance with these criteria. However, arrangements have now been put in place to police compliance with these criteria, following the "sanctions" imposed against the Austrian government of Wolfgang Schüssel in early 2000 by the other 14 Member States' governments. These arrangements came into effect on 1 February 2003 under the provisions of the Treaty of Nice.
Geographic criteria
Article 49 (formerly Article O) of the Treaty on European Union (TEU) or Maastricht Treaty states that any European country that respects the principles of the EU may apply to join. Countries' classification as European is "subject to political assessment" by the Commission and more importantly—the European Council.
In 1987, Morocco applied to join the European Communities (the precursor to the European Union). The application was rejected on the grounds that Morocco was not considered to be a "European country" and hence could not join.
In 2004, Cyprus joined the European Union despite being geographically located in West Asia.
Although non-European states are not considered eligible to be members, they may enjoy varying degrees of integration with the EU, set out by international agreements. The general capacity of the community and the member states to conclude association agreements with third countries is being developed. Moreover, specific frameworks for integration with third countries are emerging—including most prominently the European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP). This notably replaces the Barcelona process which previously provided the framework for the EU's relations with its Mediterranean neighbours in North Africa and Western Asia.
The ENP should not be confused with the Stabilisation and Association Process in the Western Balkans or the European Economic Area. Russia does not fall within the scope of the ENP, but is subject to a separate framework. The European Neighbourhood Policy can be interpreted as the drawing up of the Union's borders for the foreseeable future. Another way the EU is integrating with neighbouring countries is through the Union for the Mediterranean, made up of EU countries and others bordering the Mediterranean sea.
Political criteria
Democracy
Functional democratic governance requires that all citizens of the country should be able to participate, on an equal basis, in the political decision making at every single governing level, from local municipalities up to the highest, national, level. This also requires free elections with a secret ballot, the right to establish political parties without any hindrance from the state, fair and equal access to a free press, free trade union organisations, freedom of personal opinion, and executive powers restricted by laws and allowing free access to judges independent of the executive.
Rule of law
The rule of law implies that government authority may only be exercised in accordance with documented laws, which were adopted through an established procedure. The principle is intended to be a safeguard against arbitrary rulings in individual cases.
Human rights
Human rights are those rights which every person holds because of their quality as a human being; human rights are inalienable and belonging to all humans. If a right is inalienable, that means it cannot be bestowed, granted, limited, bartered away, or sold away (e.g. one cannot sell oneself into slavery). These include the right to life, the right to be prosecuted only according to the laws that are in existence at the time of the offence, the right to be free from slavery, and the right to be free from torture.
The United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights is considered the most authoritative formulation of human rights, although it lacks the more effective enforcement mechanism of the European Convention on Human Rights. The requirement to fall in line with this formulation forced several nations that recently joined the EU to implement major changes in their legislation, public services and judiciary. Many of the changes involved the treatment of ethnic and religious minorities, or removal of disparities of treatment between different political factions.
Respect for and protection of minorities
Members of such national minorities should be able to maintain their distinctive culture and practices, including their language (as far as not contrary to the human rights of other people, nor to democratic procedures and rule of law), without suffering any discrimination. A Council of Europe convention, the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities (treaty No. 157) reflected this principle. But the Convention did not include a clear definition of what constituted a national minority. As a result, some signatory states added official declarations on the matter:
Austria: "The Republic of Austria declares that, for itself, the term 'national minorities' within the meaning of the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities is understood to designate those groups which come within the scope of application of the Law on Ethnic Groups (Volksgruppengesetz, Federal Law Gazette No. 396/1976) and which live and traditionally have had their home in parts of the territory of the Republic of Austria and which are composed of Austrian citizens with non-German mother tongues and with their own ethnic cultures."
Azerbaijan: "The Republic of Azerbaijan, confirming its adherence to the universal values and respecting human rights and fundamental freedoms, declares that the ratification of the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities and implementation of its provisions do not imply any right to engage in any activity violating the territorial integrity and sovereignty, or internal and international security of the Republic of Azerbaijan."
Belgium: "The Kingdom of Belgium declares that the Framework Convention applies without prejudice to the constitutional provisions, guarantees or principles, and without prejudice to the legislative rules which currently govern the use of languages. The Kingdom of Belgium declares that the notion of national minority will be defined by the inter-ministerial conference of foreign policy."
Bulgaria: "Confirming its adherence to the values of the Council of Europe and the desire for the integration of Bulgaria into the European structures, committed to the policy of protection of human rights and tolerance to persons belonging to minorities, and their full integration into Bulgarian society, the National Assembly of the Republic of Bulgaria declares that the ratification and implementation of the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities do not imply any right to engage in any activity violating the territorial integrity and sovereignty of the unitary Bulgarian State, its internal and international security."
Denmark: "In connection with the deposit of the instrument of ratification by Denmark of the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities, it is hereby declared that the Framework Convention shall apply to the German minority in South Jutland of the Kingdom of Denmark."
Estonia: "The Republic of Estonia understands the term national minorities, which is not defined in the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities, as follows: are considered as national minority those citizens of Estonia who – reside on the territory of Estonia; – maintain longstanding, firm and lasting ties with Estonia; – are distinct from Estonians on the basis of their ethnic, cultural, religious or linguistic characteristics; – are motivated by a concern to preserve together their cultural traditions, their religion or their language, which constitute the basis of their common identity."
Germany: "The Framework Convention contains no definition of the notion of national minorities. It is therefore up to the individual Contracting Parties to determine the groups to which it shall apply after ratification. National Minorities in the Federal Republic of Germany are the Danes of German citizenship and the members of the Sorbian people with German citizenship. The Framework Convention will also be applied to members of the ethnic groups traditionally resident in Germany, the Frisians of German citizenship and the Sinti and Roma of German citizenship."
Latvia: "The Republic of Latvia – Recognizing the diversity of cultures, religions and languages in Europe, which constitutes one of the features of the common European identity and a particular value, – Taking into account the experience of the Council of Europe member States and the wish to foster the preservation and development of national minority cultures and languages, while respecting the sovereignty and national-cultural identity of every State, – Affirming the positive role of an integrated society, including the command of the State language, to the life of a democratic State, – Taking into account the specific historical experience and traditions of Latvia, declares that the notion 'national minorities' which has not been defined in the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities, shall, in the meaning of the Framework Convention, apply to citizens of Latvia who differ from Latvians in terms of their culture, religion or language, who have traditionally lived in Latvia for generations and consider themselves to belong to the State and society of Latvia, who wish to preserve and develop their culture, religion or language. Persons who are not citizens of Latvia or another State but who permanently and legally reside in the Republic of Latvia, who do not belong to a national minority within the meaning of the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities as defined in this declaration, but who identify themselves with a national minority that meets the definition contained in this declaration, shall enjoy the rights prescribed in the Framework Convention, unless specific exceptions are prescribed by law. The Republic of Latvia declares that it will apply the provisions of Article 10, paragraph 2, of the Framework Convention without prejudice to the Satversme (Constitution) of the Republic of Latvia and the legislative acts governing the use of the State language that are currently into force. The Republic of Latvia declares that it will apply the provisions of Article 11, paragraph 3, of the Framework Convention without prejudice to the Satversme (Constitution) of the Republic of Latvia and the legislative acts governing the use of the State language that are currently into force."
Liechtenstein: "The Principality of Liechtenstein declares that Articles 24 and 25, in particular, of the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities of 1 February 1995 are to be understood having regard to the fact that no national minorities in the sense of the Framework Convention exist in the territory of the Principality of Liechtenstein. The Principality of Liechtenstein considers its ratification of the Framework Convention as an act of solidarity in the view of the objectives of the Convention."
Luxembourg: "The Grand Duchy of Luxembourg understands by 'national minority' in the meaning of the Framework Convention, a group of people settled for numerous generations on its territory, having the Luxembourg nationality and having kept distinctive characteristics in an ethnic and linguistic way. On the basis of this definition, the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg is induced to establish that there is no 'national minority' on its territory."
Malta: "The Government of Malta reserves the right not to be bound by the provisions of Article 15 insofar as these entail the right to vote or to stand for election either for the House of Representatives or for Local Councils. The Government of Malta declares that Articles 24 and 25, in particular, of the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities of 1 February 1995 are to be understood having regard to the fact that no national minorities in the sense of the Framework Convention exist in the territory of the Government of Malta. The Government of Malta considers its ratification of the Framework Convention as an act of solidarity in the view of the objectives of the Convention."
Netherlands: "The Kingdom of the Netherlands will apply the Framework Convention to the Frisians. The Government of the Netherlands assumes that the protection afforded by Article 10, paragraph 3, does not differ, despite the variations in wording, from that afforded by Article 5, paragraph 2, and Article 6, paragraph 3 (a) and (e), of the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms. The Kingdom of the Netherlands accepts the Framework Convention for the Kingdom in Europe."
North Macedonia: "Referring to the Framework Convention, and taking into account the latest amendments to the Constitution of the Republic of North Macedonia, the Minister of Foreign Affairs of North Macedonia submits the revised declaration to replace the previous two declarations on the aforesaid Convention: The term 'national minorities' used in the Framework Convention and the provisions of the same Convention shall be applied to the citizens of the Republic of North Macedonia who live within its borders and who are part of the Albanian people, Turkish people, Vlach people, Serbian people, Roma people and Bosniak people."
Poland: "Taking into consideration the fact, that the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities contains no definition of the national minorities notion, the Republic of Poland declares, that it understands this term as national minorities residing within the territory of the Republic of Poland at the same time whose members are Polish citizens. The Republic of Poland shall also implement the Framework Convention under Article 18 of the Convention by conclusion of international agreements mentioned in this Article, the aim of which is to protect national minorities in Poland and minorities or groups of Poles in other States."
Russia: "The Russian Federation considers that none is entitled to include unilaterally in reservations or declarations, made while signing or ratifying the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities, a definition of the term 'national minority', which is not contained in the Framework Convention."
Slovenia: "Considering that the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities does not contain a definition of the notion of national minorities and it is therefore up to the individual Contracting Party to determine the groups which it shall consider as national minorities, the Government of the Republic of Slovenia, in accordance with the Constitution and internal legislation of the Republic of Slovenia, declares that these are the autochthonous Italian and Hungarian National Minorities. In accordance with the Constitution and internal legislation of the Republic of Slovenia, the provisions of the Framework Convention shall apply also to the members of the Roma community, who live in the Republic of Slovenia."
Sweden: "The national minorities in Sweden are Sami, Sweden Finns, Tornedalers, Roma and Jews."
Switzerland: "Switzerland declares that in Switzerland national minorities in the sense of the framework Convention are groups of individuals numerically inferior to the rest of the population of the country or of a canton, whose members are Swiss nationals, have long-standing, firm and lasting ties with Switzerland and are guided by the will to safeguard together what constitutes their common identity, in particular their culture, their traditions, their religion or their language. Switzerland declares that the provisions of the framework Convention governing the use of the language in relations between individuals and administrative authorities are applicable without prejudice to the principles observed by the Confederation and the cantons in the determination of official languages."
A consensus was reached (among other legal experts, the so-called groups of Venice) that this convention refers to any ethnic, linguistic or religious people that defines itself as a distinctive group, that forms the historic population or a significant historic and current minority in a well-defined area, and that maintains stable and friendly relations with the state in which it lives. Some experts and countries wanted to go further. Nevertheless, recent minorities, such as immigrant populations, have nowhere been listed by signatory countries as minorities concerned by this convention.
Economic criteria
The economic criteria, broadly speaking, require that candidate countries have a functioning market economy and that their producers have the capability to cope with competitive pressure and market forces within the Union. The Euro convergence criteria and
European Exchange Rate Mechanism have been used to prepare countries for joining the Eurozone, both founding and later members.
Legislative alignment
Finally, and technically outside the Copenhagen criteria, comes the further requirement that all prospective members must enact legislation to bring their laws into line with the body of European law built up over the history of the Union, known as the acquis communautaire. In preparing for each admission, the acquis is divided into separate chapters, each dealing with different policy areas. For the process of the fifth enlargement that concluded with the admission of Bulgaria and Romania in 2007, there were 31 chapters. For the talks with Croatia, Turkey and Iceland the acquis has been split further into 35 chapters.
References
Enlargement of the European Union
1993 in the European Union
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Pueblo%20%28AGER-2%29
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USS Pueblo (AGER-2)
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USS Pueblo (AGER-2) is a , placed into service during World War II, then converted to a spy ship in 1967 by the United States Navy. She gathered intelligence and oceanographic information, monitoring electronic and radio signals from North Korea. On 23 January 1968, the ship was attacked and captured by a North Korean vessel, in what became known as the "Pueblo incident", or alternatively, as the "Pueblo crisis'''".
The seizure of the U.S. Navy ship and her 83 crew members, one of whom was killed in the attack, came less than a week after President Lyndon B. Johnson's State of the Union address to the United States Congress, a week before the start of the Tet Offensive in South Vietnam during the Vietnam War and three days after 31 men of North Korea's KPA Unit 124 had crossed the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) and killed 26 South Koreans and 4 Americans in an attempt to attack the South Korean Blue House (executive mansion) in the capital Seoul. The taking of Pueblo and the abuse and torture of her crew during the next eleven months became a major Cold War incident, raising tensions between western and eastern powers.
North Korea stated that Pueblo deliberately entered their territorial waters away from Ryo Island, and that the logbook shows that they intruded several times. However, the United States maintained that the vessel was in international waters at the time of the incident and that any purported evidence supplied by North Korea to support its statements was fabricated. Pueblo remains held in North Korea, officially a commissioned vessel of the United States Navy.
Since early 2013, the ship has been moored along the Pothonggang Canal in Pyongyang and is displayed there as a museum ship at the Victorious War Museum. Pueblo is the only ship of the U.S. Navy still on the commissioned roster and held captive.
Initial operations
The ship was launched at the Kewaunee Shipbuilding and Engineering Company in Kewaunee, Wisconsin, on 16 April 1944, as the United States Army Freight and Passenger (FP) FP-344. The Army later redesignated the FP vessels as Freight and Supply changing the designation to FS-344. The ship, commissioned at New Orleans on 7 April 1945, served as a Coast Guard–manned Army vessel used for training civilians for the Army. Her first commanding officer was Lt. J. R. Choate, USCGR, succeeded by Lt. J.G. Marvin B. Barker, USCGR, on 12 September 1945. FS-344 was placed out of service in 1954.
In 1964 the Department of Defense became interested in having smaller, less expensive, more flexible and responsive signals intelligence collection vessels than the existing AGTR and T-AG vessels. The mothballed light cargo ships were the most suitable existing DOD ships, and one was converted to in 1964 and began operations in 1965. Banner's mission was to surveil high-frequency electronic emissions with line-of-sight propagation requiring operating closer to shore than previous intelligence gathering missions. Banner was unarmed, but the crew were issued five M1911 pistols and three M1 Garand rifles. Banner was confronted by Soviet Navy ships while operating off the Pacific coast of the Soviet Union. These ships would sometimes display international signal flags meaning: "Heave to or I will fire," but Banner kept steaming with scrupulous attention to International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea. Soviet recognition of possible American reciprocity against Soviet ships on similar missions discouraged attacks.FS-344 was transferred to the United States Navy on 12 April 1966 and was renamed USS Pueblo (AKL-44) after Pueblo and Pueblo County, Colorado on 18 June. Initially, she was classified as a light cargo ship for basic refitting at Puget Sound Naval Shipyard during 1966. As Pueblo was prepared under a non-secret cover as a light cargo ship, the general crew staffing and training was on this basis, with 44% having never been to sea when first assigned. Installation of signals intelligence equipment, at a cost of $1.5 million, was delayed to 1967 for budgetary reasons, resuming service as what is colloquially known as a "spy ship" and redesignated AGER-2 on 13 May 1967. The limited budget for conversion caused disapproval of several improvements requested by the prospective commanding officer, Lloyd Bucher. Requested engine overhaul was denied despite Banner's experience of drifting for two days unable to communicate following failure of both engines on patrol. A requested emergency scuttling system was denied, and Bucher was subsequently unable to obtain explosives for demolition charges. Replacement of burn barrels with a fuel-fed incinerator to allow speedy destruction of classified documents was denied. After Bucher's subsequent request to reduce the ship's library of classified publications was similarly denied, he was able to purchase a less capable incinerator using some discretionary funds intended for crew comfort. Following the USS Liberty incident on 8 June, Vice Chief of Naval Operations (VCNO) Horacio Rivero Jr. ordered that no Navy ship would operate without adequate means of defending itself. VCNO staff directed the shipyard to install a 3-inch/50-caliber gun on Pueblo's main deck with provisions for ammunition storage, but Bucher successfully argued against such installation because of reduced ship stability by addition of weight above the main deck. After testing and deficiency rework Pueblo sailed from the shipyard on 11 September 1967 to San Diego for shake-down training.
When the unarmed Pueblo reached the U.S. Navy base at Yokosuka, Japan, the commander of United States Naval Forces Japan directed the ship to take two M2 Browning .50 caliber machine guns as a substitute for the missing deck gun. In the limited time available for training, ten of the ship's crew fired five rounds each. Bucher opted to mount these guns in exposed positions on the bow and stern to keep them as far as possible from his position on the bridge. These positions eliminated possible use of the ship's superstructure to protect the gunners and conceal the guns and ammunition service lockers. The exposed guns, with no nearby ammunition supply, were disguised under canvas covers which became rigid with frozen spray.
Pueblo incident
On 5 January 1968, Pueblo left Yokosuka in transit to the U.S. naval base at Sasebo, Japan; from there she left on 11 January 1968, headed northward through the Tsushima Strait into the Sea of Japan. She left with specific orders to intercept and conduct surveillance of Soviet Navy activity in the Tsushima Strait and to gather signal and electronic intelligence from North Korea. Mission planners failed to recognize that the absence of similar North Korean missions around the United States would free North Korea from the possibility of retribution in kind which had restrained Soviet response. The declassified SIGAD for the National Security Agency (NSA) Direct Support Unit (DSU) from the Naval Security Group (NSG) on Pueblo during the patrol involved in the incident was USN-467Y. AGER (Auxiliary General Environmental Research) denoted a joint Naval and National Security Agency (NSA) program. Aboard were the ship's crew of five officers and 38 enlisted men, one officer and 37 enlisted men of the NSG, and two civilian oceanographers to provide a cover story.
On 16 January 1968, Pueblo arrived at the 42°N parallel in preparation for the patrol, which was to transit down the North Korean coast from 41°N to 39°N, and then back, without getting closer than from the North Korean coast, at night moving out to a distance of . This was challenging as only two sailors had good navigational experience, with the captain later reporting, "I did not have a highly professional group of seamen to do my navigational chores for me."
At 17:30 on 20 January 1968, a North Korean modified SO-1 class Soviet style submarine chaser passed within of Pueblo, which was about southeast of Mayang-do at a position 39°47'N and 128°28.5'E.
In the afternoon of 22 January 1968, the two North Korean fishing trawlers Rice Paddy 1 and Rice Paddy 2 passed within of Pueblo. That day, a North Korean KPA Special Operations Force unit made an assassination attempt at the Blue House executive mansion against South Korean president Park Chung Hee, but the crew of Pueblo was not informed.
According to the American account, the following day, 23 January, Pueblo was approached by a submarine chaser and her nationality was challenged; Pueblo responded by raising the U.S. flag and directing the civilian oceanographers to commence water sampling procedures with their deck winch. The North Korean vessel then ordered Pueblo to stand down or be fired upon. Pueblo attempted to maneuver away, but was considerably slower than the submarine chaser. Several warning shots were fired. Additionally, three torpedo boats appeared on the horizon and then joined in the chase and subsequent attack.
The attackers were soon joined by two Korean People's Air Force MiG-21 fighters. A fourth torpedo boat and a second submarine chaser appeared on the horizon a short time later. The ammunition on Pueblo was stored below decks, and her machine guns were wrapped in cold-weather tarpaulins. The machine guns were unmanned, and no attempt was made to man them. An NSA report quotes the sailing order:
and notes:
U.S. Navy authorities and the crew of Pueblo insist that before the capture, Pueblo was miles outside North Korean territorial waters. North Korea claims that the vessel was well within North Korean territory. The Pueblos mission statement allowed her to approach within a nautical mile (1,852 m) of that limit. However, North Korea describes a sea boundary even though international standards were at the time.
The North Korean vessels attempted to board Pueblo, but she was maneuvered to prevent this for over two hours. The submarine chaser then opened fire with a 57 mm cannon and the smaller vessels fired machine guns, injuring Signalman Leach in his left calf and upper right side. Captain Bucher, too, received slight shrapnel wounds, but they were not incapacitating. The crew of Pueblo then began destroying sensitive material. The volume of material on board was so great that it was impossible to destroy it all. An NSA report quotes Lieutenant Steve Harris, the officer in charge of Pueblos Naval Security Group Command detachment:
and concludes:
Radio contact between Pueblo and the Naval Security Group in Kamiseya, Japan had been ongoing during the incident. As a result, Seventh Fleet command was fully aware of Pueblos situation. Air cover was promised but never arrived. The Fifth Air Force had no aircraft on strip alert, and estimated a two-to-three-hour delay in launching aircraft. was located south of Pueblo, yet her four F-4B aircraft on alert were not equipped for an air-to-surface engagement. Enterprises captain estimated that 1.5 hours (90 minutes) were required to get the converted aircraft into the air.
Eventually the shelling forced Pueblo to stop, signal compliance, and follow the North Korean vessels as ordered. Pueblo stopped again immediately outside North Korean waters in an attempt to obtain more time for destroying sensitive material, but was immediately fired upon by the submarine chaser, and a sailor, fireman Duane Hodges, was killed, after which Pueblo resumed following the North Korean vessels. The ship was finally boarded at 05:55 UTC (2:55 pm local) by men from a torpedo boat and the submarine chaser. Crew members had their hands tied and were blindfolded, beaten, and prodded with bayonets. Once Pueblo was in North Korean territorial waters, she was boarded again, this time by high-ranking North Korean officials.
The first official confirmation that the ship was in North Korean hands came five days later, 28 January 1968. Two days earlier, a flight by a CIA A-12 Oxcart aircraft from the Project Black Shield squadron at Kadena, Okinawa, flown by pilot Jack Weeks, made three high-altitude, high-speed flights over North Korea. When the aircraft's films were processed in the United States, they showed Pueblo to be in the Wonsan harbor area surrounded by two North Korean vessels.
There was dissent among government officials in the United States regarding the nation's response to the situation. Congressman Mendel Rivers suggested that President Johnson issue an ultimatum for the return of Pueblo under penalty of nuclear attack, while Senator Gale McGee said that the United States should wait for more information and not make "spasmodic response[s] to aggravating incidents." According to Horace Busby, Special Assistant to President Johnson, the president's "reaction to the hostage taking was to work very hard here to keep down any demands for retaliation or any other attacks upon North Koreans", worried that rhetoric might result in the hostages being killed.
On Wednesday, 24 January 1968, the day following the incident, after extensive cabinet meetings Washington decided that its initial response should be to:
Deploy air and naval forces to the immediate area.
Make reconnaissance flights over the location of the Pueblo.
Call up military reserves and extend terms of military service.
Protest the incident within the framework of the United Nations.
Have President Johnson personally cable Soviet premier Alexei Kosygin.
The Johnson Administration also considered a blockade of North Korean ports, air strikes on military targets and an attack across the Demilitarized Zone separating the two Koreas.
Although American officials at the time assumed that the seizure of Pueblo had been directed by the Soviet Union, declassified Soviet archives later showed that the Soviet leadership was caught by surprise, and became fearful of the possibility of war on the Korean peninsula. Eastern Bloc ambassadors actively cautioned North Korea to exercise caution in the aftermath of the incident. Several documents suggest that the aggressive action may have been an attempt by North Korea to signal a tilt towards the Chinese Communist Party in the aftermath of the Sino-Soviet split in 1966.
AftermathPueblo was taken into port at Wonsan and the crew was moved twice to prisoner-of-war (POW) camps. The crew members reported upon release that they were starved and regularly tortured while in North Korean custody. This treatment turned worse when the North Koreans realized that crewmen were secretly giving them "the finger" in staged propaganda photos.
Commander Lloyd M. Bucher was psychologically tortured, including being put through a mock firing squad in an effort to make him confess. Eventually the North Koreans threatened to execute his men in front of him, and Bucher relented and agreed to "confess to his and the crew's transgression." Bucher wrote the confession since a "confession" by definition needed to be written by the confessor himself. They verified the meaning of what he wrote, but failed to catch the pun when he said "We paean the DPRK [North Korea]. We paean their great leader Kim Il Sung". (Bucher pronounced "paean" as "pee on.")
Negotiations for the release of the crew took place at Panmunjom. At the same time, U.S. officials were concerned with conciliating the South Koreans, who expressed discontent about being left out of the negotiations. Richard A. Ericson, a political counselor for the American embassy in Seoul and operating officer for the Pueblo negotiations, notes in his oral history:
The South Koreans were absolutely furious and suspicious of what we might do. They anticipated that the North Koreans would try to exploit the situation to the ROK's disadvantage in every way possible, and they were rapidly growing distrustful of us and losing faith in their great ally. Of course, we had this other problem of how to ensure that the ROK would not retaliate for the Blue House Raid and to ease their growing feelings of insecurity. They began to realize that the DMZ was porous and they wanted more equipment and aid. So, we were juggling a number of problems.
He also noted how the meetings at Panmunjom were usually unproductive because of the particular negotiating style of the North Koreans:
As one example, we would go up with a proposal of some sort on the release of the crew and they would be sitting there with a card catalog ... If the answer to the particular proposal we presented wasn't in the cards, they would say something that was totally unresponsive and then go off and come back to the next meeting with an answer that was directed to the question. But there was rarely an immediate answer. That happened all through the negotiations. Their negotiators obviously were never empowered to act or speak on the basis of personal judgment or general instructions. They always had to defer a reply and presumably they went over it up in Pyongyang and passed it around and then decided on it. Sometimes we would get totally nonsensical responses if they didn't have something in the card file that corresponded to the proposal at hand.
Ericson and George Newman, the Deputy Chief of Mission in Seoul, wrote a telegram for the State Department in February 1968, predicting how the negotiations would play out:
What we said in effect was this: If you are going to do this thing at Panmunjom, and if your sole objective is to get the crew back, you will be playing into North Korea's hands and the negotiations will follow a clear and inevitable path. You are going to be asked to sign a document that the North Koreans will have drafted. They will brook no changes. It will set forth their point of view and require you to confess to everything they accuse you of ... If you allow them to, they will take as much time as they feel they need to squeeze every damn thing they can get out of this situation in terms of their propaganda goals, and they will try to exploit this situation to drive a wedge between the U.S. and the ROK. Then when they feel they have accomplished all they can, and when we have agreed to sign their document of confession and apology, they will return the crew. They will not return the ship. This is the way it is going to be because this is the way it has always been.
Following an apology, a written admission by the U.S. that Pueblo had been spying, and an assurance that the U.S. would not spy in the future, the North Korean government decided to release the 82 remaining crew members, although the written apology was preceded by an oral statement that it was done only to secure the release. On 23 December 1968, the crew was taken by buses to the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) border with South Korea and crossing at the "Bridge of No Return", carrying with them the body of Fireman Duane D. Hodges, who was killed during the capture. Exactly 11 months after being taken prisoner, the captain led the long line of crewmen, followed at the end by the executive officer, Lieutenant Ed Murphy, the last man across the bridge.FC Schumacher and GC Wilson (1971) Bridge of No Return: The Ordeal of the USS Pueblo, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, New York.
Bucher and all of the officers and crew subsequently appeared before a Navy Court of Inquiry. A court-martial was recommended for Bucher and the officer in charge of the research department, Lieutenant Steve Harris, for surrendering without a fight and for failing to destroy classified material, but Secretary of the Navy John Chafee, rejected the recommendation, stating, "They have suffered enough." Commander Bucher was never found guilty of any indiscretions and continued his Navy career until retirement.
In 1970, Bucher published an autobiographical account of the USS Pueblo incident entitled Bucher: My Story. Bucher died in San Diego on 28 January 2004, at the age of 76. James Kell, a former sailor under his command, suggested that the injuries that Bucher suffered during his time in North Korea contributed to his death.
Along with the Battle of Khe Sanh and the Tet Offensive, the Pueblo incident was a key factor in turning U.S. public opinion against the Vietnam War and influencing Lyndon B. Johnson into withdrawing from the 1968 presidential election.
USS Pueblo is still held by North Korea. In October 1999, she was towed from Wonsan on the east coast, around the Korean Peninsula, to the port of Nampo on the west coast. This required moving the vessel through international waters, and was undertaken just before the visit of U.S. presidential envoy James Kelly to Pyongyang. After the stop at the Nampo shipyard, Pueblo was relocated to Pyongyang and moored on the Taedong River near the spot where the General Sherman incident is believed to have taken place. In late 2012, Pueblo was moved again to the Pothonggang Canal in Pyongyang, next to a new addition to the Fatherland Liberation War Museum.
Today, Pueblo remains the second-oldest commissioned ship in the U.S. Navy, behind ("Old Ironsides"). Pueblo is one of only a few American ships to have been captured since the First Barbary War.
Breach of U.S. communications security
Reverse engineering of communications devices on Pueblo allowed the North Koreans to share knowledge with the Soviet Union that led to the replication of those communications devices. This allowed the two nations access to the US Navy's communication systems until the US Navy revised those systems. The seizure of Pueblo followed soon after US Navy warrant officer John Anthony Walker introduced himself to Soviet authorities, setting up the Walker spy ring. It has been argued (by John Prados in the June 2010 issue of Naval History Magazine) that the seizure of Pueblo was executed specifically to capture the encryption devices aboard. Without them, it was difficult for the Soviets to make full use of Walker's information.Heath, Laura J. Analysis of the Systemic Security Weaknesses of the U.S. Navy Fleet Broadcasting System, 1967–1974, as Exploited by CWO John Walker (PDF) U.S. Army Command and General Staff College Master's Thesis. 2005. Mitchell Lerner and Jong-Dae Shin argue that Soviet-bloc Romanian dossiers demonstrate that the Soviets had no knowledge of the capture of the ship and were taken by surprise when it happened.
After debriefing the released crew, the U.S. prepared a "Cryptographic Damage Assessment" that was declassified in late 2006. The report concluded that, while the crew made a diligent effort to destroy sensitive material, most of them were not familiar with cryptographic equipment and publications, had not received training in their proper destruction, and that their efforts were not sufficient to prevent the North Koreans from recovering most of the sensitive material. The crew itself thought the North Koreans would be able to rebuild much of the equipment.
Cryptographic equipment on board at the time of capture included "one KL-47 for off-line encryption, two KW-7s for on-line encryption, three KWR-37s for receiving the Navy Operational Intelligence Broadcast, and four KG-14s which are used in conjunction with the KW-37 for receiving the Fleet Broadcasts." Additional tactical systems and one-time pads were captured, but they were considered of little significance since most messages sent using them would be of value for only a short time.
The ship's cryptographic personnel were subject to intense interrogation by what they felt were highly knowledgeable electronics experts. When crew members attempted to withhold details, they were later confronted with pages from captured manuals and told to correct their earlier accounts. The report concluded that the information gained from the interrogations saved the North Koreans three to six months of effort, but that they would have eventually understood everything from the captured equipment and accompanying technical manuals alone. The crew members were also asked about many U.S. cryptographic systems that were not on board the Pueblo, but only supplied superficial information.
The Pueblo carried key lists for January, February and March 1968, but immediately after the Pueblo was captured, instructions were sent to other holders of those keys not to use them, so damage was limited. However it was discovered in the debriefing that the Pueblo had onboard superseded key lists for November and December 1967 which should have been destroyed by January 15, well before the Pueblo arrived on station, according to standing orders. The report considered the capture of the superseded keys for November and December the most damaging cryptographic loss. The capture of these keys likely allowed North Korea and its allies to read more than 117,000 classified messages sent during those months. The North Koreans would also have gained a thorough knowledge of the workings of the captured systems but that would only have been of use if additional key material was compromised in the future. The existence of the Walker spy ring was, of course, not known at the time of the report.
The report noted that "the North Koreans did not display any of the captured cryptographic material to the crew, except for some equipment diagrams, or otherwise publicize the material for propaganda purposes. When contrasted with the international publicity given to the capture of other highly classified Special Intelligence documents, the fact that this material was not displayed or publicized would indicate that they thoroughly understood its significance and the importance of concealing from the United States the details of the information they had acquired."
In the communist camp
Documents released from National Archives of Romania suggest it was the Chinese rather than the Soviets who actively encouraged the reopening of hostilities in Korea during 1968, promising North Korea vast material support should hostilities in Korea resume. Together with Blue House Raid, the Pueblo incident turned out to be part of an increasing divergence between the Soviet leadership and North Korea. Fostering a resumption of hostilities in Korea, allegedly, was seen in Beijing as a way to mend relations between North Korea and China, and pull North Korea back in the Chinese sphere of influence in the context of the Sino-Soviet split. After the (then secret) diplomatic efforts of the Soviets to have the American crew released fell on deaf ears in Pyongyang, Leonid Brezhnev publicly denounced North Korea's actions at the 8th plenary session of the 23rd Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. In contrast, the Chinese (state controlled) press published declarations supportive of North Korea's actions in the Pueblo incident.
Furthermore, Soviet archives reveal that the Soviet leadership was particularly displeased that North Korean leader Kim Il-sung had contradicted the assurances he previously gave Moscow that he would avoid a military escalation in Korea. Previously secret documents suggest the Soviets were surprised by the Pueblo incident, first learning of it in the press. The same documents reveal that the North Koreans also kept the Soviets completely in the dark regarding ongoing negotiations with the Americans for the crew's release, which was another bone of contention. The Soviet reluctance at a reopening of hostilities in Korea was partly motivated by the fact that they had a 1961 treaty with North Korea that obliged them to intervene in case the latter got attacked. Brezhnev however had made it clear in 1966 that just as in the case of the similar treaty they had with China, the Soviets were prepared to ignore it rather than go to all-out war with the United States.
Given that Chinese and North Korean archives surrounding the incident remain secret, Kim Il-sung's intentions cannot be known with certainty. The Soviets revealed however that Kim Il-sung sent a letter to Alexei Kosygin on 31 January 1968 demanding further military and economic aid, which was interpreted by the Soviets as the price they would have to pay to restrain Kim Il-sung's bellicosity. Consequently, Kim Il-sung was invited to Moscow, but he refused to go in person owing to "increased defense preparations" he had to attend to, sending instead his defense minister, Kim Chang-bong, who arrived on 26 February 1968. During a long meeting with Brezhnev, the Soviet leader made it clear that they were not willing to go to war with the United States, but agreed to an increase in subsidies for North Korea, which did happen in subsequent years.
Timeline of negotiations
With Major General Pak Chung-kuk representing North Korea (DPRK) and U.S. Navy Rear Admiral John Victor Smith representing the United States until April 1968, at which point he is replaced by U.S. Army Major General Gilbert H. Woodward. Timeline and quotations are taken from Matter of Accountability by Trevor Armbrister.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Date !! Chief Negotiator !! Event / Position of respective government
|- style="background:lightgrey"
| 23 January 1968 (around noon local time)
|
| Pueblo is intercepted by North Korean forces close to the North Korean port city of Wonsan.
|- style="background:lightgrey"
| rowspan="4" | 24 January 1968 (11am local time)
| rowspan="2" | Admiral Smith
| Protests the "heinous" Blue House raid and subsequently plays a tape of a captured North Korean soldier's "confession" ...
|- style="background:#6699CC"
| I want to tell you, Pak, that the evidence against you North Korean Communists is overwhelming ... I now have one more subject to raise which is also of an extremely serious nature. It concerns the criminal boarding and seizure of ... Pueblo in international waters. It is necessary that your regime do the following: one, return the vessel and crew immediately; two, apologize to the Government of the United States for this illegal action. You are advised that the United States reserves the right to ask for compensation under international law.|- style="background:lightgrey"
| rowspan = "2" | General Pak
| style="background:#FE6F5E" | Our saying goes, 'A mad dog barks at the moon', ... At the two hundred and sixtieth meeting of this commission held four days ago, I again registered a strong protest with your side against having infiltrated into our coastal waters a number of armed spy boats ... and demanded you immediately stop such criminal acts ... this most overt act of the U.S. imperialist aggressor forces was designed to aggravate tension in Korea and precipitate another war of aggression ... |- style="background:#F88379"
| The United States must admit that Pueblo entered North Korean waters, must apologize for this intrusion, and must assure the Democratic People's Republic of Korea that such intrusions will never happen again. Admit, Apologize and Assure (the "Three As").
|- style="background:lightgrey"
| 4 March 1968
|
| Names of dead and wounded prisoners are provided by the DPRK.
|- style="background:lightgrey"
| late April 1968
|
| Admiral Smith is replaced by U.S. Army Major General Gilbert H. Woodward as chief negotiator.
|- style="background:lightgrey"
| 8 May 1968
|
| General Pak presents General Woodward with the document by which the United States would admit that Pueblo had entered the DPRK's waters, would apologize for the intrusion and assure the DPRK that such an intrusion would never happen again. It cited the Three As the only basis for a settlement and went on to denounce the United States for a whole host of other "crimes".
|- style="background:lightgrey"
| rowspan = "3" | 29 August 1968
| rowspan = "2" | General Woodward
| A proposal drafted by U.S. Under Secretary of State Nicholas Katzenbach [the "overwrite" strategy] is presented.
|- style="background:#6699CC"
| If I acknowledge receipt of the crew on a document satisfactory to you as well as to us, would you then be prepared to release all of the crew?|- style="background:lightgrey"
| General Pak
| style="background:#FE6F5E" | Well, we have already told you what you must sign ... |- style="background:lightgrey"
| 17 September 1968
| General Pak
| style="background:#FE6F5E" | If you will sign our document, something might be worked out ... |- style="background:lightgrey"
| rowspan = "2" | 30 September 1968
| General Pak
| style="background:#FE6F5E" | If you will sign the document, we will at the same time turn over the men.|- style="background:lightgrey"
| General Woodward
| style="background:#6699CC" | We do not feel it is just to sign a paper saying we have done something we haven't done. However, in the interest of reuniting the crew with their families, we might consider an 'acknowledge receipt
|- style="background:lightgrey"
| rowspan = "3" | 10 October 1968
| rowspan = "2" | General Woodward
| (demonstrating to General Pak the nature of the 'signing')
|- style="background:#6699CC"
| I will write here that I hereby acknowledge receipt of eighty-two men and one corpse ... |- style="background:lightgrey"
| General Pak
| style="background:#FE6F5E" | You are employing sophistries and petty stratagems to escape responsibility for the crimes which your side committed ... |- style="background:lightgrey"
| 23 October 1968
|
| The "overwrite" proposal is again set out by General Woodward and General Pak again denounces it as a "petty strategem".
|- style="background:lightgrey"
| rowspan = "2" | 31 October 1968
| General Woodward
| style="background:#6699CC" | If I acknowledge receipt of the crew on a document satisfactory to you as well as to us, would you then be prepared to release all of the crew?|- style="background:lightgrey"
| General Pak
| style="background:#F88379" | The United States must admit that Pueblo had entered North Korean waters, must apologize for this intrusion, and must assure the Democratic People's Republic of Korea that this will never happen again.|- style="background:lightgrey"
| rowspan = "3" | 17 December 1968
| General Woodward
| Explains a proposal by State Department Korea chief James Leonard: the "prior refutation" scheme. The United States would agree to sign the document but General Woodward would then verbally denounce it once the prisoners had been released.
|- style="background:lightgrey"
| rowspan = "2" | General Pak
| [following a 50 min recess]
|- style="background:#FE6F5E"
| I note that you will sign my document ... we have reached agreement.|- style="background:lightgrey"
| 23 December 1968
|
| General Woodward on behalf of the United States signs the Three As document and the DPRK at the same time allows Pueblo's prisoners to return to U.S. custody.
|}
Tourist attractionPueblo is a tourist attraction in Pyongyang, North Korea, since being moved to the Taedong River. Pueblo used to be anchored at the spot where it is believed the General Sherman incident took place in 1866. In late November 2012 Pueblo was moved from the Taedong river dock to a casement on the Pothong river next to the new Fatherland War of Liberation Museum. The ship was renovated and made open to tourists with an accompanying video of the North Korean perspective in late July 2013. To commemorate the anniversary of the Korean War, the ship had a new layer of paint added. Visitors are allowed to board the ship and see its secret code room and crew artifacts.
Offer to repatriate
During an August 2005 diplomatic session in North Korea, former U.S. Ambassador to South Korea Donald Gregg received verbal indications from high-ranking North Korean officials that the state would be willing to repatriate Pueblo to United States authorities, on the condition that a prominent U.S. government official, such as the Secretary of State, come to Pyongyang for high level talks. While the U.S. government has publicly stated on several occasions that the return of the still commissioned Navy vessel is a priority, there has been no indication that the matter was brought up by U.S. Secretary of State Mike Pompeo on his April 2018 visit.
Lawsuits
Former Pueblo crew members William Thomas Massie, Dunnie Richard Tuck, Donald Raymond McClarren, and Lloyd Bucher sued the North Korean government for the abuse they suffered at its hands during their captivity. North Korea did not respond to the suit. In December 2008, U.S. District Judge Henry H. Kennedy, Jr., in Washington, D.C., awarded the plaintiffs $65 million in damages, describing their ill treatment by North Korea as "extensive and shocking." The plaintiffs, as of October 2009, were attempting to collect the judgement from North Korean assets frozen by the U.S. government.
In February 2021 a US court awarded the survivors and their families $2.3 billion. It is uncertain if they will be able to collect the money from North Korea.
AwardsPueblo has earned the following awards:
As for the crew members, they did not receive full recognition for their involvement in the incident until decades later. In 1988, the military announced it would award Prisoner of War medals to those captured in the nation's conflicts. While thousands of American prisoners of war were awarded medals, the crew members of Pueblo did not receive them. Instead, they were classified as "detainees". It was not until Congress passed a law overturning this decision that the medals were awarded; the crew finally received the medals at San Diego in May 1990.
Representation in popular culture
The 1968 Star Trek episode "The Enterprise Incident" was very loosely based upon the Pueblo incident. In the episode written by D. C. Fontana, Captain Kirk takes the Federation starship USS Enterprise, apparently without authorization, into enemy Romulan space.
The Pueblo incident was dramatically depicted in the 1973 ABC Theater televised production Pueblo. Hal Holbrook starred as Captain Lloyd Bucher. The two-hour drama was nominated for three Emmy Awards, winning two.
See also
1969 EC-121 shootdown incident
Korean DMZ Conflict (1966–1969)
List of museums in North Korea
Other conflicts:
Gulf of Tonkin incident
Hainan Island incident
Mayaguez incident
USS Liberty incident
General:
Technical research ship
List of hostage crises
References
Sources
NKIDP: Crisis and Confrontation on the Korean Peninsula: 1968–1969, A Critical Oral History
USS Pueblo Today usspueblo.org
Further reading
Armbrister, Trevor. A Matter of Accountability: The True Story of the Pueblo Affair. Guilford, Conn: Lyon's Press, 2004. .
Brandt, Ed. The Last Voyage of USS Pueblo. New York: Norton, 1969. .
Bucher, Lloyd M., and Mark Rascovich. Pueblo and Bucher. London: M. Joseph, 1971. . .
Cheevers, Jack. Act of War: Lyndon Johnson, North Korea, and the Capture of the Spy Ship Pueblo. New York : NAL Caliber, 2013. .
Crawford, Don. Pueblo Intrigue; A Journey of Faith. Wheaton, Ill: Tyndale House Publishers, 1969. .
Gallery, Daniel V. The Pueblo Incident. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1970. .
Harris, Stephen R., and James C. Hefley. My Anchor Held. Old Tappan, N.J.: F.H. Revell Co, 1970. . .
Hyland, John L., and John T. Mason. Reminiscences of Admiral John L. Hyland, USN (Ret.). Annapolis, MD: U.S. Naval Institute, 1989. .
Lerner, Mitchell B. The Pueblo Incident: A Spy Ship and the Failure of American Foreign Policy. Lawrence, Kan: University Press of Kansas, 2002. . .
Liston, Robert A. The Pueblo Surrender: A Covert Action by the National Security Agency. New York: M. Evans, 1988. . .
Michishita, Narushige. North Korea's Military-Diplomatic Campaigns, 1966–2008. London: Routledge, 2010. .
Mobley, Richard A. Flash Point North Korea: The Pueblo and EC-121 Crises. Annapolis, Md: Naval Institute Press, 2003. .
Murphy, Edward R., and Curt Gentry. Second in Command: The Uncensored Account of the Capture of the Spy Ship Pueblo. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1971. .
Newton, Robert E. The Capture of the USS Pueblo and Its Effect on SIGINT Operations. [Fort George G. Meade, Md.]: Center for Cryptologic History, National Security Agency, 1992. .
External links
"The Pueblo Incident" briefing and analysis by the US Navy (1968)
YouTube video taken of and aboard the USS Pueblo in Korea
Official website by former USS Pueblo crew members
Complaint and court judgment from crew members' lawsuit against North Korea
Pueblo on Google Maps satellite image
Naval Vessel Register listing
– a 1973 TV movie about the Pueblo incident
North Korean International Documentation Project
—A North Korean video on the issue
A Navy and Marine Corps report of investigation of the "USS Pueblo'' seizure" conducted pursuant to chapter II of the Manual of the Judge Advocate General (JAGMAN) published as six PDF files: 1 2 3 4 5 6
Pueblo Court of Inquiry Scrapbook, 1969–1976, MS 237 held by Special Collection & Archives, Nimitz Library at the United States Naval Academy
"USS Pueblo Crisis," Wilson Center Digital Archive
Reactions to Pueblo Incident (1968), Texas Archive of the Moving Image
1944 ships
1960s in the United States
1968 in military history
1968 in North Korea
1968 in the United States
1970s in the United States
Banner-class environmental research ships
Cold War auxiliary ships of the United States
USS Pueblo
Conflicts in 1968
Design 381 coastal freighters
Espionage scandals and incidents
History of cryptography
International maritime incidents
Maritime incidents in 1968
Military history of North Korea
Museum ships in North Korea
National Security Agency
North Korea–United States relations
Ships built in Kewaunee, Wisconsin
Ships of the United States Army
Signals intelligence
Tourist attractions in Pyongyang
United States Navy in the 20th century
Vessels captured from the United States Navy
Captured ships
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fractional-reserve%20banking
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Fractional-reserve banking
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Fractional-reserve banking is the system of banking operating in almost all countries worldwide, under which banks that take deposits from the public are required to hold a proportion of their deposit liabilities in liquid assets as a reserve, and are at liberty to lend the remainder to borrowers. Bank reserves are held as cash in the bank or as balances in the bank's account at the central bank. The country's central bank determines the minimum amount that banks must hold in liquid assets, called the "reserve requirement" or "reserve ratio". Most commercial banks hold more than this minimum amount as excess reserves.
Bank deposits are usually of a relatively short-term duration, and may be "at call", while loans made by banks tend to be longer-term, resulting in a risk that customers may at any time collectively wish to withdraw cash out of their accounts in excess of the bank reserves. The reserves only provide liquidity to cover withdrawals within the normal pattern. Banks and the central bank expect that in normal circumstances only a proportion of deposits will be withdrawn at the same time, and that reserves will be sufficient to meet the demand for cash. However, banks may find themselves in a shortfall situation when depositors wish to withdraw more funds than the reserves held by the bank. In that event, the bank experiencing the liquidity shortfall may borrow short-term funds in the interbank lending market from banks with a surplus. In exceptional situations, such as during an unexpected bank run, the central bank may provide funds to cover the short-term shortfall as lender of last resort.
Because banks hold in reserve less than the amount of their deposit liabilities, and because the deposit liabilities are considered money in their own right (see commercial bank money), fractional-reserve banking permits the money supply to grow beyond the amount of the underlying base money originally created by the central bank. In most countries, the central bank (or other monetary policy authority) regulates bank-credit creation, imposing reserve requirements and capital adequacy ratios. This helps ensure that banks remain solvent and have enough funds to meet demand for withdrawals, and can be used to influence the process of money creation in the banking system. However, rather than directly controlling the money supply, central banks usually pursue an interest-rate target to control bank issuance of credit and the rate of inflation.
History
Fractional-reserve banking predates the existence of governmental monetary authorities and originated with bankers' realization that generally not all depositors demand payment at the same time. In the past, savers looking to keep their coins and valuables in safekeeping depositories deposited gold and silver at goldsmiths, receiving in exchange a note for their deposit (see Bank of Amsterdam). These notes gained acceptance as a medium of exchange for commercial transactions and thus became an early form of circulating paper money. As the notes were used directly in trade, the goldsmiths observed that people would not usually redeem all their notes at the same time, and they saw the opportunity to invest their coin reserves in interest-bearing loans and bills. This generated income for the goldsmiths but left them with more notes on issue than reserves with which to pay them. A process was started that altered the role of the goldsmiths from passive guardians of bullion, charging fees for safe storage, to interest-paying and interest-earning banks. Thus fractional-reserve banking was born.
If creditors (note holders of gold originally deposited) lost faith in the ability of a bank to pay their notes, however, many would try to redeem their notes at the same time. If, in response, a bank could not raise enough funds by calling in loans or selling bills, the bank would either go into insolvency or default on its notes. Such a situation is called a bank run and caused the demise of many early banks.
These early financial crises led to the creation of central banks. The Swedish Riksbank was the world's first central bank, created in 1668. Many nations followed suit in the late 1600s to establish central banks which were given the legal power to set the reserve requirement, and to specify the form in which such assets (called the monetary base) are required to be held. In order to mitigate the impact of bank failures and financial crises, central banks were also granted the authority to centralize banks' storage of precious metal reserves, thereby facilitating transfer of gold in the event of bank runs, to regulate commercial banks, to impose reserve requirements, and to act as lender-of-last-resort if any bank faced a bank run. The emergence of central banks reduced the risk of bank runs which is inherent in fractional-reserve banking, and it allowed the practice to continue as it does today.
During the twentieth century, the role of the central bank grew to include influencing or managing various macroeconomic policy variables, including measures of inflation, unemployment, and the international balance of payments. In the course of enacting such policy, central banks have from time to time attempted to manage interest rates, reserve requirements, and various measures of the money supply and monetary base.
Regulatory framework
In most legal systems, a bank deposit is not a bailment. In other words, the funds deposited are no longer the property of the customer. The funds become the property of the bank, and the customer in turn receives an asset called a deposit account (a checking or savings account). That deposit account is a liability on the balance sheet of the bank.
Each bank is legally authorized to issue credit up to a specified multiple of its reserves, so reserves available to satisfy payment of deposit liabilities are less than the total amount which the bank is obligated to pay in satisfaction of demand deposits. Largely, fractional-reserve banking functions smoothly, as relatively few depositors demand payment at any given time, and banks maintain enough of a buffer of reserves to cover depositors' cash withdrawals and other demands for funds. However, during a bank run or a generalized financial crisis, demands for withdrawal can exceed the bank's funding buffer, and the bank will be forced to raise additional reserves to avoid defaulting on its obligations. A bank can raise funds from additional borrowings (e.g., by borrowing in the interbank lending market or from the central bank), by selling assets, or by calling in short-term loans. If creditors are afraid that the bank is running out of reserves or is insolvent, they have an incentive to redeem their deposits as soon as possible before other depositors access the remaining reserves. Thus the fear of a bank run can actually precipitate the crisis.
Many of the practices of contemporary bank regulation and central banking—including centralized clearing of payments, central bank lending to member banks, regulatory auditing, and government-administered deposit insurance—are designed to prevent the occurrence of such bank runs.
Economic function
Fractional-reserve banking allows banks to provide credit, which represent immediate liquidity to borrowers. The banks also provide longer-term loans, and act as financial intermediaries for those funds. Less liquid forms of deposit (such as time deposits) or riskier classes of financial assets (such as equities or long-term bonds) may lock up a depositor's wealth for a period of time, making it unavailable for use on demand. This "borrowing short, lending long" or maturity transformation function of fractional-reserve banking is a role that, according to many economists, can be considered to be an important function of the commercial banking system.
The process of fractional-reserve banking expands the money supply of the economy but also increases the risk that a bank cannot meet its depositor withdrawals. Modern central banking allows banks to practice fractional-reserve banking with inter-bank business transactions with a reduced risk of bankruptcy.
Additionally, according to macroeconomic theory, a well-regulated fractional-reserve bank system also benefits the economy by providing regulators with powerful tools for influencing the money supply and interest rates. Many economists believe that these should be adjusted by the government to promote macroeconomic stability.
Money creation process
When a loan is made by the commercial bank, the bank creates new demand deposits and the money supply expands by the size of the loan.
The proceeds of most bank loans are not in the form of currency. Banks typically make loans by accepting promissory notes in exchange for credits they make to the borrowers' deposit accounts. Deposits created in this way are sometimes called derivative deposits and are part of the process of creation of money by commercial banks. Issuing loan proceeds in the form of paper currency and current coins is considered to be a weakness in internal control.
The money creation process is also affected by the currency drain ratio (the propensity of the public to hold banknotes rather than deposit them with a commercial bank), and the safety reserve ratio (excess reserves beyond the legal requirement that commercial banks voluntarily hold). Data for "excess" reserves and vault cash are published regularly by the Federal Reserve in the United States.
Just as taking out a new loan expands the money supply, the repayment of bank loans reduces the money supply.
Types of money
There are two types of money created in a fractional-reserve banking system operating with a central bank:
Central bank money: money created or adopted by the central bank regardless of its form – precious metals, commodity certificates, banknotes, coins, electronic money loaned to commercial banks, or anything else the central bank chooses as its form of money.
Commercial bank money: demand deposits in the commercial banking system; also referred to as "chequebook money", "sight deposits" or simply "credit".
Money multiplier
The money multiplier is a heuristic used to demonstrate the maximum amount of broad money that could be created by commercial banks for a given fixed amount of base money and reserve ratio. This theoretical maximum is never reached, because some eligible reserves are held as cash outside of banks. Rather than holding the quantity of base money fixed, central banks have recently pursued an interest rate target to control bank issuance of credit indirectly so the ceiling implied by the money multiplier does not impose a limit on money creation in practice.
Formula
The money multiplier, m, is the inverse of the reserve requirement, R:
Money supply
In countries with fractional-reserve banking, commercial bank money usually forms the majority of the money supply. The acceptance and value of commercial bank money is based on the fact that it can be exchanged freely at a commercial bank for central bank money.
The actual increase in the money supply through this process may be lower, as (at each step) banks may choose to hold reserves in excess of the statutory minimum, borrowers may let some funds sit idle, and some members of the public may choose to hold cash, and there also may be delays or frictions in the lending process. Government regulations may also limit the money creation process by preventing banks from giving out loans even when the reserve requirements have been fulfilled.
Regulation
Because the nature of fractional-reserve banking involves the possibility of bank runs, central banks have been created throughout the world to address these problems.
Central banks
Government controls and bank regulations related to fractional-reserve banking have generally been used to impose restrictive requirements on note issue and deposit-taking on the one hand, and to provide relief from bankruptcy and creditor claims, and/or protect creditors with government funds, when banks defaulted on the other hand. Such measures have included:
Minimum required reserve ratios (RRRs)
Minimum capital ratios
Government bond deposit requirements for note issue
100% Marginal Reserve requirements for note issue, such as the Bank Charter Act 1844 (UK)
Sanction on bank defaults and protection from creditors for many months or even years, and
Central bank support for distressed banks, and government guarantee funds for notes and deposits, both to counteract bank runs and to protect bank creditors.
Reserve requirements
The currently prevailing view of reserve requirements is that they are intended to prevent banks from:
Generating too much money by making too many loans against a narrow money deposit base;
Having a shortage of cash when large deposits are withdrawn (although a legal minimum reserve amount is often established as a regulatory requirement, reserves may be made available on a temporary basis in the event of a crisis or bank run).
In some jurisdictions (such as the European Union), the central bank does not require reserves to be held during the day. Reserve requirements are intended to ensure that the banks have sufficient supplies of highly liquid assets, so that the system operates in an orderly fashion and maintains public confidence.
In other jurisdictions (such as the United States), the central bank does not require reserves to be held at any time – that is, it does not impose reserve requirements.
In addition to reserve requirements, there are other required financial ratios that affect the amount of loans that a bank can fund. The capital requirement ratio is perhaps the most important of these other required ratios. When there are no mandatory reserve requirements, which are considered by some economists to restrict lending, the capital requirement ratio acts to prevent an infinite amount of bank lending.
Liquidity and capital management for a bank
To avoid defaulting on its obligations, the bank must maintain a minimal reserve ratio that it fixes in accordance with regulations and its liabilities. In practice this means that the bank sets a reserve ratio target and responds when the actual ratio falls below the target. Such response can be, for instance:
Selling or redeeming other assets, or securitization of illiquid assets,
Restricting investment in new loans,
Borrowing funds (whether repayable on demand or at a fixed maturity),
Issuing additional capital instruments, or
Reducing dividends.
Because different funding options have different costs and differ in reliability, banks maintain a stock of low cost and reliable sources of liquidity such as:
Demand deposits with other banks
High quality marketable debt securities
Committed lines of credit with other banks
As with reserves, other sources of liquidity are managed with targets.
The ability of the bank to borrow money reliably and economically is crucial, which is why confidence in the bank's creditworthiness is important to its liquidity. This means that the bank needs to maintain adequate capitalisation and to effectively control its exposures to risk in order to continue its operations. If creditors doubt the bank's assets are worth more than its liabilities, all demand creditors have an incentive to demand payment immediately, causing a bank run to occur.
Contemporary bank management methods for liquidity are based on maturity analysis of all the bank's assets and liabilities (off balance sheet exposures may also be included). Assets and liabilities are put into residual contractual maturity buckets such as 'on demand', 'less than 1 month', '2–3 months' etc. These residual contractual maturities may be adjusted to account for expected counterparty behaviour such as early loan repayments due to borrowers refinancing and expected renewals of term deposits to give forecast cash flows. This analysis highlights any large future net outflows of cash and enables the bank to respond before they occur. Scenario analysis may also be conducted, depicting scenarios including stress scenarios such as a bank-specific crisis.
Hypothetical example of a bank balance sheet and financial ratios
An example of fractional-reserve banking, and the calculation of the "reserve ratio" is shown in the balance sheet below:
In this example the cash reserves held by the bank is NZ$3,010m (NZ$201m cash + NZ$2,809m balance at Central Bank) and the demand deposits (liabilities) of the bank are NZ$25,482m, for a cash reserve ratio of 11.81%.
Other financial ratios
The key financial ratio used to analyze fractional-reserve banks is the cash reserve ratio, which is the ratio of cash reserves to demand deposits. However, other important financial ratios are also used to analyze the bank's liquidity, financial strength, profitability etc.
For example, the ANZ National Bank Limited balance sheet above gives the following financial ratios:
Cash reserve ratio is $3,010m/$25,482m, i.e., 11.81%.
Liquid assets reserve ratio is ($201m + $2,809m + $1,797m)/$25,482m, i.e., 18.86%.
Equity capital ratio is $8,703m/107,787m, i.e., 8.07%.
Tangible equity ratio is ($8,703m − $3,297m)/107,787m, i.e., 5.02%
Total capital ratio is ($8,703m + $2,062m)/$107,787m, i.e., 9.99%.
It is important how the term "reserves" is defined for calculating the reserve ratio, as different definitions give different results. Other important financial ratios may require analysis of disclosures in other parts of the bank's financial statements. In particular, for liquidity risk, disclosures are incorporated into a note to the financial statements that provides maturity analysis of the bank's assets and liabilities and an explanation of how the bank manages its liquidity.
Commentary
Instability
In 1935, economist Irving Fisher proposed a system of full-reserve banking, where banks would not lend on demand deposits but would only lend from time deposits. It was proposed as a method of reversing the deflation of the Great Depression, as it would give the central bank (the Federal Reserve in the US) more direct control of the money supply.
Austrian School criticism
Austrian School economists such as Jesús Huerta de Soto and Murray Rothbard have strongly criticized fractional-reserve banking, calling for it to be outlawed and criminalized. According to them, not only does money creation cause macroeconomic instability (based on the Austrian Business Cycle Theory), but it is a form of embezzlement or financial fraud, legalized only due to the influence of powerful rich bankers on corrupt governments around the world. US politician Ron Paul has also criticized fractional-reserve banking based on Austrian School arguments.
Descriptions
Adair Turner, former chief financial regulator of the United Kingdom, stated that banks "create credit and money ex nihilo extending a loan to the borrower and simultaneously crediting the borrower's money account".
See also
Asset liability management
Austrian business cycle theory
Basel II
Basel III
Chicago plan
The Chicago Plan Revisited
Credit theory of money
Endogenous money
Full-reserve banking
Monetary reform
Positive Money
Notes
References
Further reading
Crick, W.F. (1927), The genesis of bank deposits, Economica, vol 7, 1927, pp 191–202.
Friedman, Milton (1960), A Program for Monetary Stability, New York, Fordham University Press.
Lanchester, John, "The Invention of Money: How the heresies of two bankers became the basis of our modern economy", The New Yorker, 5 & 12 August 2019, pp. 28–31.
Meigs, A.J. (1962), Free reserves and the money supply, Chicago, University of Chicago, 1962.
Philips, C.A. (1921), Bank Credit, New York, Macmillan, chapters 1–4, 1921,
Thomson, P. (1956), Variations on a theme by Philips, American Economic Review vol 46, December 1956, pp. 965–970.
External links
Money creation in the modern economy Bank of England
Regulation D of the Federal Reserve Board of the U.S.
Bank for International Settlements – The Role of Central Bank Money in Payment Systems
Banking
Central banks
Criticisms of economics
Schools of economic thought
Monetary economics
Monetary policy
Monetary reform
Systemic risk
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20Portland
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University of Portland
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The University of Portland (UP) is a private Catholic university in Portland, Oregon. It was founded in 1901 and is affiliated with the Congregation of Holy Cross, which also founded UP's sister school the University of Notre Dame. The university enrolls approximately 3,730 students.
The campus is located in the University Park neighborhood near St. Johns, on a bluff overlooking the Willamette River. With a college of arts and sciences; a graduate school; and schools of business, education, engineering, and nursing and health innovations, it is the only comprehensive Catholic university in Oregon. It is the largest corporation in North Portland and has an annual economic impact on Portland of some $170 million. More than 13,000 alumni live in the Portland metropolitan area.
History
The first institution located on Waud's Bluff was Portland University, which was established by the Methodist Episcopal Church in 1891. Amid financial setbacks following the Panic of 1893, Portland University vacated the Bluff Campus to hold classes from 1896 to 1897 in East Portland, where it was joined temporarily by the recently insolvent College of Puget Sound.
According to University of Portland tradition, Archbishop Alexander Christie, the head of the Archdiocese of Portland in Oregon, saw a large building on the bluff from aboard a ship on the nearby Willamette River. He learned that it was called West Hall and had been unoccupied for several years since the closure of Portland University.
The Archdiocese purchased West Hall (renamed Waldschmidt Hall in 1992) and the surrounding campus with financial assistance from the Congregation of Holy Cross, and named the new institution Columbia University after the nearby Columbia River. The university opened its doors to 52 young men on September 5, 1901, with eight Catholic priests from the local archdiocese serving as professors. At the request of the archbishop, the Congregation of the Holy Cross assumed ownership of the university in 1902.
After two decades, Columbia University achieved junior college status. In 1925, the university's College of Arts and Sciences was founded, and in 1929, a class of seven men were awarded the university's first bachelor's degrees. In 1935, the school took on its present name. The 1930s also saw the St. Vincent Hospital school incorporated to the university as the School of Nursing & Health Innovations, and the creation of the School of Business.
In 1948 the school of Engineering was founded, followed by the Graduate School in 1950 and the School of Education in 1962. University of Portland admitted women to all courses of study in 1951. Prior to this transition, Marylhurst University had been the only Catholic institution of higher learning to serve the educational needs of Oregon women. The building housing the library was completed in 1957. In 1967 ownership of the school was transferred from the Congregation of Holy Cross to a board of Regents. Multnomah College became part of the University of Portland (UP) in 1969.
Rankings
The University of Portland was ranked as the #1 regional university in the West by U.S. News & World Report for 2022. The University ranked third for Best Undergraduate Teaching and eighth for Best Value.
Admissions
Admission to UP is rated as "selective" by U.S. News & World Report.
For the Fall of 2021 Portland had an acceptance rate of 81%. Half the applicants admitted to University of Portland have an SAT score between 1160 and 1360 or an ACT score of 26 and 31.
Academics
UP has six divisions of study: the College of Arts & Sciences, the Pamplin School of Business Administration, the School of Education, the Shiley School of Engineering, the School of Nursing & Health Innovations, and the Graduate School. The most popular majors for undergraduates are Nursing, Biology, Marketing & Management, Finance, Elementary Education, Organizational Communication, Psychology, and Spanish.
College of Arts & Sciences
The College of Arts & Sciences is the liberal arts core of the university and has seventeen departments: Biology, Chemistry, Communication Studies, English, Environmental Studies, International Languages & Cultures, History, Mathematics, Performing & Fine Arts, Philosophy, Physics, Political Science, Psychology, Social & Behavioral Sciences, Social Work, Sociology, and Theology.
Several of the departments offer graduate programs in addition to their undergraduate majors, and these programs dual report to the Dean of the College of Arts & Sciences and the Dean of the Graduate School. The Communication Studies department offers a M.A. in communication and a M.S. in Management Communication. The Performing & Fine Arts department offers the M.F.A. in Directing. This program is accredited by the National Association of Schools of Theatre. The Theology department offers a three-year Master of Arts in Pastoral Ministry. The M.A.P.M. program was started in 2000 in collaboration with Gonzaga University, but in 2010 the partnership ended and the University of Portland continues to offer the program independently.
Pamplin School of Business Administration
The Pamplin School of Business Administration is accredited by the Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB) and offers both undergraduate and graduate degrees. Its undergraduate program ranked as among the "Best Undergraduate Business Programs" by U.S. News and its Part-Time MBA is placed highly in U.S. News Best Grad School rankings.
The undergraduate program offers a BA in economics and a BBA in five different areas: Accounting, Finance, Economics, Marketing and Sustainability, and Operations and Technology Management.
At the graduate level the PSOBA offers a MS in finance, a MS in Operations & Technology Management, an MBA, an MBA in Nonprofit Administration, a technology entrepreneurship certificate, and a post-MBA certificate. The graduate degrees are accountable to both the Dean of the PSOBA and the Dean of the Graduate School. The MBA program is noted for its diversity within the context of Oregon. Among the five AACSB MBA programs in Oregon, Pamplin School of Business has the highest percentage of women, minorities, and international students.
School of Education
The University of Portland School of Education is an undergraduate and graduate program which provides graduates with a teaching license in some, but not all U.S. states. The program is characterized by an emphasis on field experience, and inclusion, with first classroom placements beginning almost immediately. It received the 2002 Model of Excellence Award from the Association of Independent Colleges for Teacher Education (AILACTE).
The PACE (Pacific Alliance for Catholic Education) program allows 15–25 teachers to earn a graduate degree during summer school, while gaining in-classroom teaching experience during the academic year at a Catholic school over a three-year period. PACE students live in community with other PACE students in Draper, Ogden, and Salt Lake City, Utah; Seattle, and Tri-Cities, Washington; Redding and Red Bluff, and Sacramento, California; Fairbanks, Alaska; and Portland, Oregon.
At the graduate level, the school of education offers a Doctor of Education (Ed.D.) degree, a Master of Arts, a Master of Arts in Teaching, a Master of Education, and post-Master's certificate programs in neuroeducation, reading, special education, English for Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL), and educational administration.
Shiley School of Engineering
The school of engineering was founded in 1948 and grew substantially in 1969 when UP absorbed Multnomah College. Multnomah College had been established in 1897 as the Educational Department of the YMCA in downtown Portland, Oregon,
and in 1969 was the oldest fully accredited two-year college in the U.S. Pacific Northwest. Multnomah College was noted for its engineering program and as a result of the merger UP renamed its school the Multnomah School of Engineering. University of Portland's School of Engineering is a perennially top-40 school among the nation's bachelor's and master's degrees-granting institutions, according to U.S. News & World Report. In 2012, it ranked 35th.
In 2007 the University of Portland was given a $12 million gift (the largest in UP's history at that time) toward the School of Engineering by Donald and Darlene Shiley of San Diego. Donald Shiley arrived at UP the year the school of engineering was founded. Graduating in 1951 with a bachelor's degree in general engineering, he would later invent a heart valve and various medical devices that have been credited with saving thousands of lives. Shiley Hall is now the largest building on the UP campus and has won several awards for sustainable design and construction. The Shileys later gave an additional $8 million gift to the engineering school, which was then renamed the Donald P. Shiley School of Engineering.
The school offers accredited Bachelor of Science degrees in mechanical, civil, and electrical engineering, as well as a Bachelor of Science in computer science. A Master of Engineering degree, in collaboration with the Pamplin School of Business Administration, is offered at the graduate level.
School of Nursing & Health Innovations
The School of Nursing & Health Innovations was established as the St. Vincent Hospital School of Nursing & Health Innovations in 1892, two years after the northwest region's first nurse training program was founded at nearby Good Samaritan Hospital. Throughout the 20th century many nursing education programs relocated from hospitals to institutions of higher learning; the St. Vincent school became part of this national trend when it joined the University of Portland in 1934 and began granting a four-year degree in 1938. Today most clinical practice still takes place at St. Vincent Hospital and other hospitals associated with Providence Health & Services, a not-for-profit Catholic health care ministry.
The School of Nursing & Health Innovations awards the BS in Nursing baccalaureate degree and the MS in Nursing graduate degree. The Doctor of Nursing Practice (DNP) is a professional doctorate program initiated in 2008. The master's entry program (AEM-UP) enables individuals who possess a non-nursing bachelor's degree to enter nursing at the graduate level. In collaboration with practice partners, the clinical nurse leader Master of Science degree prepares generalists for leadership at the point of care. In 2007, the School of Nursing & Health Innovations was ranked 72nd in the nation by U.S. News & World Report. American Assembly for Men in Nursing named the University of Portland the nation's Best Nursing School for Men.
Graduate school
The Graduate School oversees the post-bachelor's degree programs that are embedded within the College of Arts & Sciences and the four professional schools. The Dean of the Graduate School reports to the Provost and collaborates with the deans of the various schools to ensure academic standards are enforced for their respective graduate-level courses of study.
Campus
The University of Portland sits on top of Waud's Bluff overlooking the industrialized Swan Island and the Willamette River. The university is located in the University Park neighborhood of North Portland, a primarily residential area of the city. The university campus is bordered by Willamette Boulevard to the east, the Willamette River to the west and south and private residences to the north.
The campus itself is a traditional college campus with three residential quads, East Quad, Villa Quad, and North Quad, as well as an Academic Quad. The main academic building on campus is Franz Hall. Located at the center of the university across from the Chapel of Christ the Teacher, it houses the Pamplin School of Business and the School of Education. Other academic buildings include Buckley Center, Swindells Hall, Shiley Hall, Romanaggi Hall, Mago Hunt Center, and the Clark Library.
There are ten main residence hall communities on campus: Mehling Hall, Corrado Hall, Villa Maria, Shipstad Hall, Kenna Hall, Christie Hall, Haggerty and Tyson Halls, Fields Hall, Schoenfeldt Hall, and Lund Family Hall. They are divided into three residential quads: Villa Quad, East Quad, and North Quad. Mehling, Corrado, and Villa Maria are situated around the Villa Quad, and Shipstad, Kenna, and Christie are situated around the East Quad. The North Quad comprises Fields, Schoenfeldt, Haggerty & Tyson, and Lund Family Hall.
Reserve Officers' Training Corps
The University of Portland currently host two detachments of the Reserve Officers' Training Corps: the Air Force Reserve Officer's Training Corps and the Army Reserve Officer's Training Corps.
The Air Force ROTC program at the University of Portland is one of the oldest programs on campus, established in 1951. The AFROTC unit on the campus, known as Detachment 695, is also one of the largest in the country, with its membership numbering nearly 4% of the campus undergraduate student population. In 2004, Detachment 695 was recognized as the top large detachment in the nation, receiving AFROTC's prestigious Right of Line Award. In 2011, the detachment received recognition as the top unit of 34 in the AFROTC Northwest Region. In 2012, Detachment 695 again won AFROTC's Right of Line Award, this time as the best medium-sized detachment in the nation. The offices for Detachment 695 are located in the basement of Kenna Hall.
Since 1996, the university has hosted an Army ROTC program which has grown to include over 70 cadets and a cadre of seven faculty and staff. Offices for the University of Portland Pilot Battalion of the Army ROTC are located in Villa Maria.
Athletics
UP's NCAA soccer program became well known after Clive Charles, who started coaching the men's team in 1986, added the women's head coaching job in 1989, heading both teams until his death in 2003. The women's team won the NCAA Division I National Championship in 2002 and 2005, led both years by current Canadian international star Christine Sinclair. Home matches are played at 4,892-seat Merlo Field, part of the Clive Charles Soccer Complex on campus. The University of Portland's soccer team is one of the oldest college programs in the U.S., going back to 1910, and was played as a club sport almost continually until 1977, when it gained full varsity status.
Beyond soccer, UP also boasts one of the nation's top NCAA Division I men's cross country teams. The Pilots won 31 straight West Coast Conference Championships through 2010, one of the longest conference championship streaks in the NCAA. On the national level, UP has finished in the top ten at the NCAA Championships five times. In 2008, the Pilots placed seventh in the nation, matching their finish from 2001, and later in 2013. In 2014 the Pilots placed third at the Division 1 national cross country Championships. In 2017 the Pilots cross country program placed second at the Division 1 national cross country championships for their highest ever finish.
Other intercollegiate sports at UP include basketball, baseball, volleyball, track and field, tennis, and rowing. In November 2010, the school announced it would add Women's Rowing effective with the 2011–12 academic year, while dropping both men's and women's golf. In 2017 Beach Volleyball was added as the 16th varsity sport. In November 2005, the University of Portland stood at 25th in Sports Illustrated's College All Sport rankings. UP's previously sponsored football program was disbanded in 1950 due to lack of funding.
Students participate in club level sports such as men's and women's lacrosse, ultimate frisbee, crew, and water polo, as well as a variety of intramural sports.
Expansion and development
The school is undergoing expansion and renovations for both its campus housing facilities, academic buildings, and recreation facilities. For housing, a new residence hall (Lund Family) was built for the 2016–2017 school year. The university also renovated the existing dining facility known as The Commons, which was renamed the Bauccio Commons in honor of alumnus Fedele Bauccio, who founded the Bon Appetit Management Company which provides food services to the campus.
In academics, the Engineering Building was renovated using a $12 million gift for its expansion and improvement from Donald and Darlene Shiley. Additionally, the university has completely renovated the Clark Library. Elsewhere, a bell tower located adjacent to the Christ the Teacher Chapel was completed in September 2009. At 100 feet, it is the tallest structure on campus, as well as in North Portland, a title that Mehling Hall held previously.
In athletics and recreation, in May 2014, the university began construction on the Beauchamp Recreation and Wellness Center, named after the university's 19th president, Rev. E. William Beauchamp. It will feature state of the art strength and cardio training facilities, 3 gymnasiums, a suspended track, a bike shop, classrooms, and an outdoor pursuits office. It was scheduled to be completed by May 2015. Additionally, in June 2014, renovations began on Joe Etzel Baseball field to include improved lighting, fencing, and artificial turf.
Plans for a $30 million, three-story academic building were announced in March 2017. The building encompasses 65,616 square feet with 17 classrooms, 35 faculty offices, 12 informal and formal gathering spaces, including 4 conference rooms, and the 146-seat Brian J. Doyle Auditorium. Construction began September 2017, delayed a few months while the university was raising $15 million. The hall is named the Dundon-Berchtold Hall, and was completed before the start of the 2019–2020 academic year.
Notable alumni
See also
The Beacon
Notes
References
External links
University of Portland Athletics website
Holy Cross universities and colleges
Universities and colleges established in 1901
Universities and colleges accredited by the Northwest Commission on Colleges and Universities
1901 establishments in Oregon
Universities and colleges in Portland, Oregon
Catholic universities and colleges in Oregon
Association of Catholic Colleges and Universities
Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Portland in Oregon
Robert A. M. Stern buildings
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indeterminism
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Indeterminism
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Indeterminism is the idea that events (or certain events, or events of certain types) are not caused, or are not caused deterministically.
It is the opposite of determinism and related to chance. It is highly relevant to the philosophical problem of free will, particularly in the form of libertarianism. In science, most specifically quantum theory in physics, indeterminism is the belief that no event is certain and the entire outcome of anything is probabilistic. Heisenberg's uncertainty principle and the "Born rule", proposed by Max Born, are often starting points in support of the indeterministic nature of the universe. Indeterminism is also asserted by Sir Arthur Eddington, and Murray Gell-Mann. Indeterminism has been promoted by the French biologist Jacques Monod's essay "Chance and Necessity".
The physicist-chemist Ilya Prigogine argued for indeterminism in complex systems.
Necessary but insufficient causation
Indeterminists do not have to deny that causes exist. Instead, they can maintain that the only causes that exist are of a type that do not constrain the future to a single course; for instance, they can maintain that only necessary and not sufficient causes exist. The necessary/sufficient distinction works as follows:
If x is a necessary cause of y; then the presence of y implies that x definitely preceded it. The presence of x, however, does not imply that y will occur.
If x is a sufficient cause of y, then the presence of y implies that x may have preceded it. (However, another cause z may alternatively cause y. Thus the presence of y does not imply the presence of x, or z, or any other suspect.)
It is possible for everything to have a necessary cause, even while indeterminism holds and the future is open, because a necessary condition does not lead to a single inevitable effect. Indeterministic (or probabilistic) causation is a proposed possibility, such that "everything has a cause" is not a clear statement of indeterminism.
Probabilistic causation
Interpreting causation as a deterministic relation means that if A causes B, then A must always be followed by B. In this sense, war does not cause deaths, nor does smoking cause cancer. As a result, many turn to a notion of probabilistic causation. Informally, A probabilistically causes B if As occurrence increases the probability of B. This is sometimes interpreted to reflect the imperfect knowledge of a deterministic system but other times interpreted to mean that the causal system under study has an inherently indeterministic nature. (Propensity probability is an analogous idea, according to which probabilities have an objective existence and are not just limitations in a subject's knowledge).
It can be proved that realizations of any probability distribution other than the uniform one are mathematically equal to applying a (deterministic) function (namely, an inverse distribution function) on a random variable following the latter (i.e. an "absolutely random" one); the probabilities are contained in the deterministic element. A simple form of demonstrating it would be shooting randomly within a square and then (deterministically) interpreting a relatively large subsquare as the more probable outcome.
Intrinsic indeterminism versus unpredictability
A distinction is generally made between indeterminism and the mere inability to measure the variables (limits of precision). This is especially the case for physical indeterminism (as proposed by various interpretations of quantum mechanics). Yet some philosophers have argued that indeterminism and unpredictability are synonymous.
Philosophy
Ancient Greek philosophy
Leucippus
The oldest mention of the concept of chance''' is by the earliest philosopher of atomism, Leucippus, who said:
"The cosmos, then, became like a spherical form in this way: the atoms being submitted to a casual and unpredictable movement, quickly and incessantly".
Aristotle
Aristotle described four possible causes (material, efficient, formal, and final). Aristotle's word for these causes was αἰτίαι (aitiai, as in aetiology), which translates as causes in the sense of the multiple factors responsible for an event. Aristotle did not subscribe to the simplistic "every event has a (single) cause" idea that was to come later.
In his Physics and Metaphysics, Aristotle said there were accidents (συμβεβηκός, sumbebekos) caused by nothing but chance (τύχη, tukhe). He noted that he and the early physicists found no place for chance among their causes.
Aristotle opposed his accidental chance to necessity:
Nor is there any definite cause for an accident, but only chance (τυχόν), namely an indefinite (ἀόριστον) cause.
It is obvious that there are principles and causes which are generable and destructible apart from the actual processes of generation and destruction; for if this is not true, everything will be of necessity: that is, if there must necessarily be some cause, other than accidental, of that which is generated and destroyed. Will this be, or not? Yes, if this happens; otherwise not.
Pyrrhonism
The philosopher Sextus Empiricus described the Pyrrhonist position on causes as follows:
...we show the existence of causes are plausible, and if those, too, are plausible which prove that it is incorrect to assert the existence of a cause, and if there is no way to give preference to any of these over others – since we have no agreed-upon sign, criterion, or proof, as has been pointed out earlier – then, if we go by the statements of the Dogmatists, it is necessary to suspend judgment about the existence of causes, too, saying that they are no more existent than non-existent
Epicureanism
Epicurus argued that as atoms moved through the void, there were occasions when they would "swerve" (clinamen) from their otherwise determined paths, thus initiating new causal chains. Epicurus argued that these swerves would allow us to be more responsible for our actions, something impossible if every action was deterministically caused. For Epicureanism, the occasional interventions of arbitrary gods would be preferable to strict determinism.
Early modern philosophy
In 1729 theTestament of Jean Meslier states:
"The matter, by virtue of its own active force, moves and acts in blind manner".
Soon after Julien Offroy de la Mettrie in his L'Homme Machine. (1748, anon.) wrote:
"Perhaps, the cause of man's existence is just in existence itself? Perhaps he is by chance thrown in some point of this terrestrial surface without any how and why".
In his Anti-Sénèque [Traité de la vie heureuse, par Sénèque, avec un Discours du traducteur sur le même sujet, 1750] we read:
"Then, the chance has thrown us in life".
In the 19th century the French Philosopher Antoine-Augustin Cournot theorized chance in a new way, as series of not-linear causes. He wrote in Essai sur les fondements de nos connaissances (1851):
"It is not because of rarity that the chance is actual. On the contrary, it is because of chance they produce many possible others."
Modern philosophy
Charles Peirce
Tychism ( "chance") is a thesis proposed by the American philosopher Charles Sanders Peirce in the 1890s. It holds that absolute chance, also called spontaneity, is a real factor operative in the universe. It may be considered both the direct opposite of Albert Einstein's oft quoted dictum that: "God does not play dice with the universe" and an early philosophical anticipation of Werner Heisenberg's uncertainty principle.
Peirce does not, of course, assert that there is no law in the universe. On the contrary, he maintains that an absolutely chance world would be a contradiction and thus impossible.
Complete lack of order is itself a sort of order. The position he advocates is rather that there are in the universe both regularities and irregularities.
Karl Popper comments that Peirce's theory received little contemporary attention, and that other philosophers did not adopt indeterminism until the rise of quantum mechanics.
Arthur Holly Compton
In 1931, Arthur Holly Compton championed the idea of human freedom based on quantum indeterminacy and invented the notion of amplification of microscopic quantum events to bring chance into the macroscopic world. In his somewhat bizarre mechanism, he imagined sticks of dynamite attached to his amplifier, anticipating the Schrödinger's cat paradox.
Reacting to criticisms that his ideas made chance the direct cause of our actions, Compton clarified the two-stage nature of his idea in an Atlantic Monthly article in 1955. First there is a range of random possible events, then one adds a determining factor in the act of choice.
A set of known physical conditions is not adequate to specify precisely what a forthcoming event will be. These conditions, insofar as they can be known, define instead a range of possible events from among which some particular event will occur. When one exercises freedom, by his act of choice he is himself adding a factor not supplied by the physical conditions and is thus himself determining what will occur. That he does so is known only to the person himself. From the outside one can see in his act only the working of physical law. It is the inner knowledge that he is in fact doing what he intends to do that tells the actor himself that he is free.
Compton welcomed the rise of indeterminism in 20th century science, writing:
In my own thinking on this vital subject I am in a much more satisfied state of mind than I could have been at any earlier stage of science. If the statements of the laws of physics were assumed correct, one would have had to suppose (as did most philosophers) that the feeling of freedom is illusory, or if [free] choice were considered effective, that the laws of physics ... [were] unreliable. The dilemma has been an uncomfortable one.Together with Arthur Eddington in Britain, Compton was one of those rare distinguished physicists in the English speaking world of the late 1920s and throughout the 1930s arguing for the “liberation of free will” with the help of Heisenberg’s indeterminacy principle, but their efforts had been met not only with physical and philosophical criticism but most primarily with fierce political and ideological campaigns.
Karl Popper
In his essay Of Clouds and Clocks, included in his book Objective Knowledge, Popper
contrasted "clouds", his metaphor for indeterministic systems, with "clocks", meaning deterministic ones.
He sided with indeterminism, writing
I believe Peirce was right in holding that all clocks are clouds to some considerable degree — even the most precise of clocks. This, I think, is the most important inversion of the mistaken determinist view that all clouds are clocks
Popper was also a promoter of propensity probability.
Robert Kane
Kane is one of the leading contemporary philosophers on free will.Information Philosophers "Robert Kane is the acknowledged dean of the libertarian philosophers writing actively on the free will problem." Advocating what is termed within philosophical circles "libertarian freedom", Kane argues that "(1) the existence of alternative possibilities (or the agent's power to do otherwise) is a necessary condition for acting freely, and (2) determinism is not compatible with alternative possibilities (it precludes the power to do otherwise)". It is important to note that the crux of Kane's position is grounded not in a defense of alternative possibilities (AP) but in the notion of what Kane refers to as ultimate responsibility (UR). Thus, AP is a necessary but insufficient criterion for free will. It is necessary that there be (metaphysically) real alternatives for our actions, but that is not enough; our actions could be random without being in our control. The control is found in "ultimate responsibility".
What allows for ultimate responsibility of creation in Kane's picture are what he refers to as "self-forming actions" or SFAs — those moments of indecision during which people experience conflicting wills. These SFAs are the undetermined, regress-stopping voluntary actions or refrainings in the life histories of agents that are required for UR. UR does not require that every act done of our own free will be undetermined and thus that, for every act or choice, we could have done otherwise; it requires only that certain of our choices and actions be undetermined (and thus that we could have done otherwise), namely SFAs. These form our character or nature; they inform our future choices, reasons and motivations in action. If a person has had the opportunity to make a character-forming decision (SFA), he is responsible for the actions that are a result of his character.
Mark Balaguer
Mark Balaguer, in his book Free Will as an Open Scientific Problem argues similarly to Kane. He believes that, conceptually, free will requires indeterminism, and the question of whether the brain behaves indeterministically is open to further empirical research. He has also written on this matter "A Scientifically Reputable Version of Indeterministic Libertarian Free Will".
Science
Mathematics
In probability theory, a stochastic process, or sometimes random process, is the counterpart to a deterministic process (or deterministic system). Instead of dealing with only one possible reality of how the process might evolve over time (as is the case, for example, for solutions of an ordinary differential equation), in a stochastic or random process there is some indeterminacy in its future evolution described by probability distributions. This means that even if the initial condition (or starting point) is known, there are many possibilities the process might go to, but some paths may be more probable and others less so.
Classical and relativistic physics
The idea that Newtonian physics proved causal determinism was highly influential in the early modern period.
"Thus physical determinism [..] became the ruling faith among enlightened men; and everybody who did not embrace this new faith was held to be an obscurantist and a reactionary". However: "Newton himself may be counted among the few dissenters, for he regarded the solar system as imperfect, and consequently as likely to perish".
Classical chaos is not usually considered an example of indeterminism, as it can occur in deterministic systems such as the three-body problem.
John Earman has argued that most physical theories are indeterministic.The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Causal Determinism For instance, Newtonian physics admits solutions where particles accelerate continuously, heading out towards infinity. By the time reversibility of the laws in question, particles could also head inwards, unprompted by any pre-existing state. He calls such hypothetical particles "space invaders".
John D. Norton has suggested another indeterministic scenario, known as Norton's Dome, where a particle is initially situated on the exact apex of a dome.
Branching space-time is a theory uniting indeterminism and the special theory of relativity. The idea was originated by Nuel Belnap. The equations of general relativity admit of both indeterministic and deterministic solutions.
Boltzmann
Ludwig Boltzmann, was one of the founders of statistical mechanics and the modern atomic theory of matter. He is remembered for his discovery that the second law of thermodynamics is a statistical law stemming from disorder. He also speculated that the ordered universe we see is only a small bubble in much larger sea of chaos. The Boltzmann brain is a similar idea.
Evolution and biology
Darwinian evolution has an enhanced reliance on the chance element of random mutation compared to the earlier evolutionary theory of Herbert Spencer. However, the question of whether evolution requires genuine ontological indeterminism is open to debate
In the essay Chance and Necessity (1970) Jacques Monod rejected the role of final causation in biology, instead arguing that a mixture of efficient causation and "pure chance" lead to teleonomy, or merely apparent purposefulness.
The Japanese theoretical population geneticist Motoo Kimura emphasises the role of indeterminism in evolution. According to neutral theory of molecular evolution: "at the molecular level most evolutionary change is caused by random drift of gene mutants that are equivalent in the face of selection.
Prigogine
In his 1997 book, The End of Certainty, Prigogine contends that determinism is no longer a viable scientific belief. "The more we know about our universe, the more difficult it becomes to believe in determinism." This is a major departure from the approach of Newton, Einstein and Schrödinger, all of whom expressed their theories in terms of deterministic equations. According to Prigogine, determinism loses its explanatory power in the face of irreversibility and instability.
Prigogine traces the dispute over determinism back to Darwin, whose attempt to explain individual variability according to evolving populations inspired Ludwig Boltzmann to explain the behavior of gases in terms of populations of particles rather than individual particles. This led to the field of statistical mechanics and the realization that gases undergo irreversible processes. In deterministic physics, all processes are time-reversible, meaning that they can proceed backward as well as forward through time. As Prigogine explains, determinism is fundamentally a denial of the arrow of time. With no arrow of time, there is no longer a privileged moment known as the "present," which follows a determined "past" and precedes an undetermined "future." All of time is simply given, with the future as determined or undetermined as the past. With irreversibility, the arrow of time is reintroduced to physics. Prigogine notes numerous examples of irreversibility, including diffusion, radioactive decay, solar radiation, weather and the emergence and evolution of life. Like weather systems, organisms are unstable systems existing far from thermodynamic equilibrium. Instability resists standard deterministic explanation. Instead, due to sensitivity to initial conditions, unstable systems can only be explained statistically, that is, in terms of probability.
Prigogine asserts that Newtonian physics has now been "extended" three times, first with the use of the wave function in quantum mechanics, then with the introduction of spacetime in general relativity and finally with the recognition of indeterminism in the study of unstable systems.
Quantum mechanics
At one time, it was assumed in the physical sciences that if the behavior observed in a system cannot be predicted, the problem is due to lack of fine-grained information, so that a sufficiently detailed investigation would eventually result in a deterministic theory ("If you knew exactly all the forces acting on the dice, you would be able to predict which number comes up").
However, the advent of quantum mechanics removed the underpinning from that approach, with the claim that (at least according to the Copenhagen interpretation) the most basic constituents of matter at times behave indeterministically. This comes from the collapse of the wave function, in which the state of a system upon measurement cannot in general be predicted. Quantum mechanics only predicts the probabilities of possible outcomes, which are given by the Born rule. Non-deterministic behavior in wave function collapse is not only a feature of the Copenhagen interpretation, with its observer-dependence, but also of objective collapse and other theories.
Opponents of quantum indeterminism suggested that determinism could be restored by formulating a new theory in which additional information, so-called hidden variables, would allow definite outcomes to be determined. For instance, in 1935, Einstein, Podolsky and Rosen wrote a paper titled "Can Quantum-Mechanical Description of Physical Reality Be Considered Complete?" arguing that such a theory was in fact necessary to preserve the principle of locality.
In 1964, John S. Bell was able to define a theoretical test for these local hidden variable theories, which was reformulated as a workable experimental test through the work of Clauser, Horne, Shimony and Holt. The negative result of the 1980s tests by Alain Aspect ruled such theories out, provided certain assumptions about the experiment hold. Thus any interpretation of quantum mechanics, including deterministic reformulations, must either reject locality or reject counterfactual definiteness altogether. David Bohm's theory is the main example of a non-local deterministic quantum theory.
The many-worlds interpretation is said to be deterministic, but experimental results still cannot be predicted: experimenters do not know which 'world' they will end up in. Technically, counterfactual definiteness is lacking.
A notable consequence of quantum indeterminism is the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, which prevents the simultaneous accurate measurement of all a particle's properties.
Cosmology
Primordial fluctuations are density variations in the early universe which are considered the seeds of all structure in the universe. Currently, the most widely accepted explanation for their origin is in the context of cosmic inflation. According to the inflationary paradigm, the exponential growth of the scale factor during inflation caused quantum fluctuations of the inflaton field to be stretched to macroscopic scales, and, upon leaving the horizon, to "freeze in".
At the later stages of radiation- and matter-domination, these fluctuations re-entered the horizon, and thus set the initial conditions for structure formation.
Neuroscience
Neuroscientists such as Björn Brembs and Christof Koch believe thermodynamically stochastic processes in the brain are the basis of free will, and that even very simple organisms such as flies have a form of free will. Similar ideas are put forward by some philosophers such as Robert Kane.
Despite recognizing indeterminism to be a very low-level, necessary prerequisite, Björn Brembs says that it's not even close to being sufficient for addressing things like morality and responsibility. Edward O. Wilson does not extrapolate from bugs to people, and Corina E. Tarnita alerts against trying to draw parallels between people and insects, since human selflessness and cooperation, however, is of a different sort, also involving the interaction of culture and sentience, not just genetics and environment.
Other views
Against Einstein and others who advocated determinism, indeterminism—as championed by the English astronomer Sir Arthur Eddington—says that a physical object has an ontologically undetermined component that is not due to the epistemological limitations of physicists' understanding. The uncertainty principle, then, would not necessarily be due to hidden variables but to an indeterminism in nature itself.
Determinism and indeterminism are examined in Causality and Chance in Modern Physics by David Bohm. He speculates that, since determinism can emerge from underlying indeterminism (via the law of large numbers), and that indeterminism can emerge from determinism (for instance, from classical chaos), the universe could be conceived of as having alternating layers of causality and chaos.
See also
Catastrophism
Chance (disambiguation)
Interpretations of quantum mechanics: Comparisons chart
Free will
Incompatibilism
Luck
Nondeterminism (disambiguation)
Randomness
Uncertainty
References
Bibliography
Lejeunne, Denis. 2012. The Radical Use of Chance in 20th Century Art'', Rodopi. Amsterdam
James, William. The Dilemma of Determinism. Kessinger Publications, 2012.
Narain, Vir, et al. “Determinism, Free Will, and Moral Responsibility.” TheHumanist.com, 21 Oct. 2014, thehumanist.com/magazine/november-december-2014/philosophically-speaking/determinism-free-will-and-moral-responsibility.
Russell, Bertrand. “Elements of Ethics.” Philosophical essays, 1910.
External links
Incompatibilist (Nondeterministic) Theories of Free Will from the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
indeterminism from the Philosophy Professor
Causal Determinism at the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Norton, J.D. Causation as Folk Science
Free will
Randomness
Determinism
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychic%20detective
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Psychic detective
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A psychic detective is a person who investigates crimes by using purported paranormal psychic abilities. Examples have included postcognition (the paranormal perception of the past), psychometry (information psychically gained from objects), telepathy, dowsing, clairvoyance, and remote viewing. In murder cases, psychic detectives may purport to be in communication with the spirits of the murder victims.
Individuals claiming psychic abilities have stated they have helped police departments to solve crimes, however, there is a lack of police corroboration of their claims. Many police departments around the world have released official statements saying that they do not regard psychics as credible or useful on cases.
Prominent cases
Many prominent police cases, often involving missing persons, have received the attention of alleged psychics. In November 2004, purported psychic Sylvia Browne told the mother of kidnapping victim Amanda Berry, who had disappeared 19 months earlier: "She's not alive, honey." Browne also claimed to have had a vision of Berry's jacket in the garbage with "DNA on it". Berry's mother died two years later believing that her daughter had been killed; Berry was found alive in May 2013 having been a kidnapping victim of Ariel Castro along with Michelle Knight and Gina DeJesus. After Berry was found alive, Browne received criticism for the false declaration that Berry was dead. Browne also became involved in the case of Shawn Hornbeck, which received the attention of psychics after the eleven-year-old went missing on 6 October 2002. Browne appeared on The Montel Williams Show and provided the parents of Shawn Hornbeck a detailed description of the abductor and where Hornbeck could be found. Browne responded "No" when asked if he was still alive. When Hornbeck was found alive more than four years later, few of the details given by Browne were correct. Shawn Hornbeck's father, Craig Akers, has stated that Browne's declaration was "one of the hardest things that we've ever had to hear", and that her misinformation diverted investigators wasting precious police time.
When Washington, D.C. intern Chandra Levy went missing on 1 May 2001, psychics from around the world provided tips suggesting that her body would be found in places such as the basement of a Smithsonian storage building, in the Potomac River, and buried in the Nevada desert among many other possible locations. Each tip led nowhere. A little more than a year after her disappearance, Levy's body was accidentally discovered by a man walking his dog in a remote section of Rock Creek Park.
Following the disappearance of Elizabeth Smart on 5 June 2002, the police received as many as 9,000 tips from psychics (and others crediting visions and dreams as their source). Responding to these tips took "many police hours", according to Salt Lake City Police Chief Lieutenant Chris Burbank. Yet, Elizabeth Smart's father, Ed Smart, concluded that: "the family didn't get any valuable information from psychics". Smart was located by observant witnesses who recognized her abductor from a police photograph. No psychic was ever credited with finding Elizabeth Smart.
In the case of the Long Island serial killer, the psychic said the body would be found in a shallow grave, near water and a sign with a G in it would be nearby. Despite the vagueness of this claim (the body was not in a shallow grave, water is everywhere in Long Island, and no sign with a G was nearby) the New York Post stated that the "Psychic Nailed it!". Describing the case, skeptic and author Benjamin Radford wrote: "more surprising than the psychic's failure is the fact that this information was described as an amazing success on over 70,000 websites without anyone realizing that she was completely wrong."
A body was located in the US by psychic Annette Martin. Dennis Prado, a retired US paratrooper, had gone missing from his apartment and police had been unable to locate his whereabouts. With no further leads, the chief investigating officer, Fernando Realyvasquez, a sergeant with the Pacifica (California) Police, contacted psychic detective Annette Martin. Prado had lived near a large forest, some 2000 square miles. Martin was given a map, she circled a small spot on the map, about the size of two city blocks. She said that Prado had struggled for breath, had died, and his body would be there within the indicated area. She described the path he took, and where the body would be found. Although the area had been searched before and Prado had not been found, a search and rescue officer initiated a new search with the help of a search dog, as Martin suggested "A search dog is going to find him." They found the body covered with dirt at the location, as Martin had indicated. While the body had deteriorated, there was no evidence that he had been attacked and it is thought that he had likely died of natural causes, as she also indicated. However, when Joe Nickell, a columnist for Skeptical Inquirer magazine, was shown tapes of Martin at work, he stated he was “underwhelmed”. Regarding the Prado case, he noted that "What she did was very shrewdly ask all kinds of questions of that police officer, who helped her even further and told her all kinds of things. It's probably perfectly sincere, not an act. But it's just the facility of a highly imaginative and emotional person and doesn't mean anything scientifically".
In August 2010, Aboriginal elder Cheryl Carroll-Lagerwey claimed to have seen the location of a missing child, Kiesha Abrahams, in her dream. The missing child's disappearance was being investigated by police. She took them to a location where a dead body was found, however it was of an adult woman and not the body of the child.
In Sydney, Australia, in 1996, a Belgian-born Sydney psychic, Phillipe Durant was approached by the fiancé of missing Paula Brown to help locate her. Durante told police the location of the body of Brown. She was found less than two kilometres from the spot he had indicated in Port Botany, New South Wales, by a lorry driver who came across the body. "Even though the body was discovered purely by chance, the speculation by a clairvoyant appears to have been uncannily accurate", a police spokeswoman conceded. Durant had used a plumb bob and a grid map, combined with some hair from the victim.
In 2001, the body of Thomas Braun was located by Perth-based Aboriginal clairvoyant Leanna Adams in Western Australia. Police had initially been unable to find the body. The family of Braun had been told to contact Adams, an Aboriginal psychic who lived in Perth. The Braun family had requested police to do a search based on Adams's directions but they had not assisted. Adams went to Alice Springs, in the Northern Territory, which was 3600 kilometres away from her home in Perth. She took the family members directly to Braun's remains, a spot high on a ridge west of the town, some 20 kilometres out. The remains were not immediately identifiable. Police later confirmed the remains to be his using DNA testing.
Noreen Renier claimed to have solved the murder of Kimberly McAndrew, who disappeared on August 12, 1989. Six years after McAndrew went missing, in October 1995 the Halifax Regional Police hired Renier to help. Renier gave the police three interviews which were recorded and years later obtained for review by Tampa Bay Skeptics founder Gary P. Posner. Using psychometry, Renier claimed to channel the murder victim. After a long analysis of the tapes, Posner states that Renier took the detectives on a "wild goose chase." Renier's clues were misleading, vague or incoherent, leading to nothing solid that could be verified. Renier assured the police that the body would be found soon, before Christmas of that year (1995), saying it would be "a nice Christmas present for everybody." But decades later it has yet to be located, and as of 2021 the Government of the Province of Nova Scotia is still offering rewards of up to $150,000 for information leading to the arrest and conviction of the person(s) responsible for Kimberly's disappearance.
Official police responses
Many police departments around the world have released official statements saying that they do not regard psychics as credible or useful on cases.
In Australia
Australian police, officially, in general have said that they do not accept assistance from psychics. This was in response to an Australian TV show Sensing Murder in which psychics attempt to crack unsolved murders.
Western Australian Police have a policy that they do not contact psychics for assistance with investigations, however they will accept information contributed by psychics.
An unnamed Australian federal police officer was suspended following his seeking the aid of a clairvoyant in regard to death threats made against Prime Minister John Howard. A federal police spokesman said they do "not condone the use of psychics in security matters."
There are still cases of psychics professing to have trained with the Australian police and failing to provide credible evidence to support qualifications or evidence of being a psychic profiler or intuitive profiler with the Australian police.
While official policy for police forces in Australia does not advocate the use of psychics for investigations, one former Detective Senior Constable, Jeffrey Little, has said police do use them "even though they officially say they don't". Additionally, police in NSW have used psychic Debbie Malone on a number of cases. While no evidence she has supplied has solved murders or missing investigations on their own, her evidence had been used to corroborate theories, and in one case, included in a coroner's brief on a case. Little, in reference to one case she assisted on, felt her description of what happened was "exceptional", other officers also had been impressed by her assistance, while yet other NSW officers felt she had not helped solve any cases. Sergeant Gae Crea and Detective Sergeant Damian Loone, state that she did not give them anything the police and the public didn't already know. Crea recounts "I've dealt with a lot of psychics, but no one has ever said, 'I can see where the body is buried and I'll take you there'".
In New Zealand
New Zealand police have said "spiritual communications were not considered a creditable foundation for investigation."
In the United Kingdom
In 2006, 28 British police forces responded to a query from the Association for Rational Inquiry to say that they did not and have never used psychics, one force saying "We are unaware of any inquiries significantly progressed solely by information provided by a psychic medium." In 2009, when the Metropolitan Police had denied the use of psychics and were then presented with emails suggesting the use of a psychic they made a press statement authorized by the senior investigating officer that was much more ambiguous: "We do not identify people we may or may not speak with in connection with inquiries. We are not prepared to discuss this further."
In the United States
A 1993 survey of police departments in the 50 largest cities in the United States revealed that a third of them had accepted predictions from psychic detectives in the past, although only 7 departments treated such information any differently from information from ordinary sources. No police department reported any instances of a psychic investigator providing information that was more helpful than other information received during the course of a case; since any information has to be proved, only information matching other evidence could be used. A follow-up study looking at small and medium-sized cities in the United States, found that psychics were called upon by the police departments of those cities even less frequently than large cities. A former senior investigator for the FBI has stated that psychics may be used "as a last resort [and] as an investigative tool with caution" for providing clues not directly admissible in the court of law such as a criminal's character, or the location of dead bodies.
Scientific studies
A number of tests have been conducted on psychics detectives, using control groups, to try to establish any psychic ability relating to crime solving. One of the earliest was carried out by Dutch Police officer, Filippus Brink in 1960. He conducted a year-long study of psychics, but found no evidence of any crime-solving abilities. Another study was conducted in 1982 where evidence from four crimes was given to three groups: psychic detectives, students and police detectives. The clues related to four crimes, two crimes that had been solved, and two that had not been. The study found no difference between the three groups in ability to indicate what crimes had been committed by looking at the evidence. Some flaws in the scientific method were apparent in these two tests. A further test was conducted in 1997, this test focusing on improving on the scientific methods used in the previous tests. This study used two groups, one consisting of three students from the University of Hertfordshire, the other group consisting of three psychics (two psychic detectives and a non-detective psychic who had a media profile and had been endorsed by police due to his abilities). The two groups were shown three objects associated with three serious crimes. They then advocated theories, but once again, no difference was found in terms of the accuracy between the two groups.
To assess the claims of psychic crime-solving, the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal (now Committee for Skeptical Inquiry) established a task force of investigators. The group recorded many failures by psychics to provide useful information to criminal investigators, and felt that psychics may use "retrofitting" (or after-the-fact matching), offering vague clues, and then trying to retroactively fit them to details that are only discovered later. In addition to cases of retrofitting, the apparent use of cold reading (a psychic's fishing for information while appearing to gain it paranormally), exaggeration, and examples where the psychic has used non-psychic sources of information, were also reviewed.
In 2008, while being interviewed for the Skeptiko podcast, managing editor of Skeptical Inquirer, Ben Radford challenged the host, Alex Tsakiris, to give him the best case for evidence of a psychic solving a crime. As Tsakiris had "repeatedly accused skeptical investigators of purposely choosing the weakest cases", Radford agreed to investigate in depth a case from any period in history, around the world, "that presented the gold standard for evidence". Tsakiris chose psychic Nancy Weber who, in 2006, appeared on an episode of the Biography Channel Psychic Investigators. Weber claimed to have helped the New Jersey police solve the 1982 serial murders of Amie Hoffman and Dierdre O'Brien. The police arrested James Koedatich in 1983 who was later found guilty of serial murder. Psychic Investigators interviewed Weber as well as the two police detectives she worked with, Hughes and Moore, who verified Weber had given them information "she could not have known". Radford spent the next nine months reviewing the case, and he and Tsakiris re-interviewed the detectives as well as the psychic on the Skeptiko podcast. Radford discovered that the detectives had not kept their notes from the case, and that their story had changed since the TV show aired. In fact, he found that their stories now contradicted the psychic's story. A further discovery by Radford using a New Jersey phone book from 1982 found that if the psychic had indeed given the detectives all the evidence she claimed she had, the police could have discovered the killer with a 15-minute search through the phone book. Radford believes that the police and the psychic "simply fell prey to confirmation bias".
Critical commentary
In 2023, the podcast, Worldwide: The Disappearance of the Thai Silk King, released an episode featuring a professional skeptic discussing the dangers of psychic detectives getting involved in missing person cases. The episode examines Peter Hurkos and Sylvia Brown, in particular, and categorizes and demystifies psychics and their manipulation tools.
ABC's Nightline Beyond Belief program for 17 August 2011 featured psychic detectives and their involvement with the case of Ali Lowitzer. Typical of missing person cases, families are approached by people claiming they will help bring the missing home. "They told me, I see trees, water, dirt...but it is all very vague" according to Susan Lowitzer a mother whose daughter has been missing since 26 April 2010. Retired FBI agent and ABC consultant Brad Garrett states, "In 30 years...I have never seen a psychic solve a mystery", while Bob Nygaard, a retired 20-year veteran of the Nassau County police department and currently a private investigator specializing in the investigation of psychics, noted that he had not worked with, nor did he know of anyone on the force who had worked with, any psychic detectives.
JREF investigator and mentalist Banachek feels that psychic detectives take advantage of families, "...because of fame and money, [they] step in and try to act like an authority". Banachek believes that not all psychic detectives are frauds, some are self-deluded and believe they are helping, but they "send police on wild-goose chases wasting precious time and resources". Psychic Georgia O'Conner states that Ali is dead, she was tortured and her body dismembered. When asked by ABC's JuJu Chang how can she tell parents this kind of information when she might be wrong, O'Conner replies "I can't let my ego get in the way of what I see". Despite the attention from psychic detectives Ali Lowitzer remains missing from her Spring, Texas home.
No psychic detective has ever been praised or given official recognition by the FBI or US national news for solving a crime, preventing a crime, or finding a kidnap victim or corpse.
The Australian Institute of Criminology, Australia's official crime research agency, advises parents of missing children not to resort to using psychics who approach them. Former FBI analyst and profiler Clint Van Zandt has criticized the use of psychic detectives and has stated that "What happens many times is that professed psychics allow themselves the benefit of 20/20 hindsight. After the case is solved, they make their previously vague predictions somehow fit the crime and the criminal." A detailed 2010 study of Sylvia Browne predictions about 115 missing persons and murder cases has found that despite her repeated claims to be more than 85% correct, "Browne has not even been mostly correct in a single case."
Belief in psychic detectives
Psychologists, researchers and other authors have posited a number of possible explanations for the belief that some can provide valuable crime information from psychic abilities. The possible explanations include confirmation bias (or our natural tendency to favor information to confirm our beliefs), wishful thinking (which is the act of making decisions based upon what is appealing rather than reasoned), and retrofitting (or retroactively refining the specifics of a prediction after the facts are revealed). The act of reinterpreting vague and nebulous statements made by psychic detectives is also referred to as the multiple out. Taking advantage of these cognitive limitations is the practice of cold reading which creates the illusion of knowing specific information. Additionally, police detectives and other authors suggest that psychic detectives appear successful due to making common-sense or high-probability predictions such as finding bodies at dump sites or "near water."
While police departments claim they do not seek out or use psychics to solve crimes, they must follow up on all credible tips. If police do not refute this theory then "many in the public continue to believe that psychics are secretly employed by law enforcement" If the police state they do not use psychics then psychics claim that the police do not want to "share the credit" and are just covering up.
Finally, the use of psychics may simply reduce anxiety and fill the emotional needs of individuals who must be experiencing great stress.
In fiction
There is a long history of psychic detectives in horror and crime fiction, and in other genres as well. One of the earliest forms of the genre was the character Flaxman Low, created in 1897 by mother and son Kate and Hesketh Hesketh-Prichard under the pseudonyms H. Heron and E. Heron. The Prichards wrote their stories at the behest of the press baron Cyril Pearson for his monthly Pearson's Magazine, though they were disconcerted to find the tales promoted by Pearson as "real". The collected work was published as The Experiences of Flaxman Low in 1899.
Other literary examples include Jules de Grandin (created by Seabury Quinn), Doctor Occult (created by Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster) and Agent Jasi McLellan created by Cheryl Kaye Tardif.
The popular TV show, Psych features Shawn Spencer (James Roday Rodriguez), a charlatan paranormal detective helping the Santa Barbara police with crimes that range from robberies to kidnappings to murders. However, the man actually uses an acute sense of observation that he acquired as a child; an eidetic memory; excellent vision; and deduction and reasoning to solve cases, making a running gag of his claim to be a psychic.
In Douglas Adams's Dirk Gently novels, the titular character—a "holistic" detective—is implied to have psychic powers on occasion. One incident involved Gently attempting to scam his university classmates into paying for a set of answers to an exam, supposedly obtained using psychic powers that Gently did not think he had. To his surprise, the answers he provided, which he thought he had produced randomly, turned out to be entirely correct. He was expelled as a result.
Peter F. Hamilton wrote a series of books about the ex-military psychic Greg Mandel. In the series, Greg was a retired special forces soldier created as part of an elite spec-ops unit, the Mindstar Brigade, in the 'English Army', having fought a vicious war in Turkey and helped a rebellion overthrow the People's Socialist Party at home. Having won the rebellion he then retired to Rutland, suddenly being called out of retirement by the rich heiress Julia Evans to use his psychic talents to find the root of industrial espionage against her company, Event Horizon [an organisation that was also integral to the overthrow of the communist government]. The series not only focuses on Greg's abilities, but also the abilities of other psychics created as part of the Mindstar Programme, the effects of social and economic change throughout the 21st century, global warming and rapid scientific advances. Greg regularly uses his abilities both for interrogation and as an offensive weapon.
The episode "Bart the Murderer" of The Simpsons depicts a psychic joining the hunt to find Principal Skinner.
The episode "Cartman's Incredible Gift" of South Park depicts a skeptical view of psychic detectives.
The manga and anime series YuYu Hakusho depicts a teenage boy working as a Spirit Detective: a human who hunts down demons using psychic abilities.
See also
Fortune-telling fraud
Houdini's debunking of psychics and mediums
Parapsychology
Psychic
Psychic archaeology
Ganzfeld experiment
Scientific investigation of telepathy
Pseudoscience
List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
Marcello Truzzi
Committee for Skeptical Inquiry
Gerard Croiset
Janet Lee
Literature
Richard Wiseman, Donald West & Roy Stemman: "An experimental test of psychic detection." In: Journal of the Society for Psychical Research. 1996, 61(842), 34–45 (PDF)
References
Criminal investigation
Paranormal
Parapsychology
Pseudoscience
Psychic powers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helsinki%20Metro
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Helsinki Metro
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The Helsinki Metro (, ) is a rapid transit system serving Greater Helsinki, Finland. It is the world's northernmost metro system. It was opened to the general public on 2 August 1982 after 27 years of planning. It is operated by Helsinki City Transport and Metropolitan Area Transport Ltd for Helsinki Regional Transport Authority and carries 92.6 million passengers per year.
The system consists of 2 lines, serving a total of 30 stations. It has a total length of . It is the predominant rail link between the suburbs of East Helsinki and the western suburbs in the city of Espoo and downtown Helsinki.
The line passes under Helsinki Central Station, allowing passengers to transfer to and from the Helsinki commuter rail network, including trains on the Ring Rail Line to Helsinki Airport.
History
1955–67: Light rail plan
The initial motion for building a metropolitan railway system in Helsinki was made in September 1955, though during the five decades beforehand, the idea of a tunneled urban railway for Helsinki had surfaced several times. A suburban traffic committee () was formed under the leadership of (1908–1981), and in late 1955, the committee set to work on the issue of whether or not there was truly a need for a tunneled public transport system in Helsinki. After nearly four years of work, the committee presented its findings to the city council. The findings of the committee were clear: Helsinki needed a metro system built on separate right-of-way. This was the first time the term "metro" was used to describe the planned system. At the time the committee did not yet elaborate on what kind of vehicles should be used on the metro: trams, heavier rail vehicles, buses or trolleybuses were all alternatives. The city council's reaction to the committee's presentation was largely apathetic, with several council members stating to the press that they did not understand anything about Castrén's presentation.
Despite the lacklustre reception, Castrén's committee was asked to continue its work, now as the metro committee, although very little funding was provided. In spring 1963 the committee presented its proposal for the Helsinki Metro system. On a technical level this proposal was very different from the system that was finally realised. In the 1963 proposal the metro was planned as a light rail system, running in tunnels a maximum of below the surface (compared to in the finalized system), and with stations placed at shorter intervals (for instance, the committee's presentation shows ten stations between Sörnäinen and Ruoholahti, compared to the six in the realized system). The Castrén Committee proposed for the system to be built in five phases, with the first complete by 1969 and the final by 2000, by which time the system would have a total length of with 108 stations. This was rejected after lengthy discussions as too extensive. In 1964 the city commissioned experts from Hamburg, Stockholm and Copenhagen to evaluate the metro proposal. Their opinions were unanimous: a metro was needed and the first sections should be built by 1970.
Although no official decision to build a system along the lines proposed by Castrén was ever made, several provisions for a light rail metro system were made during the 1950s–1960s, including separate lanes on the Kulosaari and Naurissaari bridges, and space for a metro station in the 1964 extension of Munkkivuori shopping center. The RM 1, HM V and RM 3 trams built for the Helsinki tram system in the late 1950s were also equipped to be usable on the possible light rail metro lines.
1967–69: Heavy rail plan
In late 1967, Reino Castrén departed Helsinki for Calcutta, where he had been invited as an expert in public transport. Prior to his departure Castrén indicated he planned to return to Helsinki in six months and continue his work as leader of the metro committee. For the duration of Castrén's absence, (1929–1989) was appointed as the leader of the committee. However, by the time Castrén returned, Valtanen's position had been made permanent. Following his appointment Valtanen informed the other members of the committee that the plans made under Castrén's leadership were outdated, and now the metro would be planned as a heavy rail system in deep tunnels mined into bedrock. Following two more years of planning, the Valtanen-led committee's proposal for an initial metro line from Kamppi to Puotila in the east of the city was approved after hours of debate in the city council on the early morning hours of 8 May 1969. The initial section was to be opened for service in 1977.
1969–82: Construction
Construction of a testing track from the depot in Roihupelto to Herttoniemi was begun in 1969 and finished in 1971. The first prototype train, units M1 and M2, arrived from the Valmet factory in Tampere on 10 November 1971, with further four units (M3–M6) arriving the following year. Car M1 burned in the metro depot in 1973.
Excavating the metro tunnels under central Helsinki had begun in June 1971. Most of the tunneling work had been completed by 1976, excluding the Kluuvi bruise (), a wedge of clay and pieces of rock in the bedrock, discovered during the excavation process. To build a tunnel through the bruise an unusual solution was developed: the bruise was turned into a giant freezer, with pipes filled with Freon 22 pushed through the clay. The frozen clay was then carefully blasted away, with cast iron tubes installed to create a durable tunnel. Construction of the first stations, Kulosaari and Hakaniemi begun in 1974. The Kulosaari station was the first to be completed, in 1976, but construction of the other stations took longer. As the case with many underground structures in Helsinki, the underground metro stations were designed to also serve as bomb shelters.
In summer 1976, Teuvo Aura, the mayor of Helsinki, signed an agreement with Valmet and Strömberg to purchase the trains required for the metro from them. In doing so Aura bypassed the city council completely, reportedly because he feared the council would decide to buy the rolling stock from manufacturers in the Soviet Union instead. By this time the direct current–based technology of the M1 series trains had become outdated. In 1977 prototypes for the M100 train series (referred to as "nokkajuna", , to differentiate from the M1 prototypes) were delivered. In these units the direct current from the power rail was converted to alternating current powering induction motors. The M100 trains were the first metro trains in the world to be equipped with such technology.
Aura's bypassing the city council in acquiring the rolling stock was not the only questionable part of the construction process of the Metro. On 3 June 1982, two days after the Metro had been opened for provisional traffic, Unto Valtanen came under investigation for taking bribes. Subsequently, several members of the metro committee and Helsinki municipal executive committee in addition to Valtanen were charged with taking bribes. In the end it was found that charges against all the accused except Valtanen had expired. Valtanen was convicted for having taken bribes from Siemens.
1982 onwards: In service
On 1 June 1982, the test drives were opened to the general public. Trains ran with passengers during the morning and afternoon rush hours between Itäkeskus and Hakaniemi (the Sörnäinen station was not yet opened at this time). On 1 July the provisional service was extended to Rautatientori. President of the Republic of Finland Mauno Koivisto officially opened the Metro for traffic on 2 August 1982 – 27 years after the initial motion to the city assembly had been made.
The Metro did not immediately win the approval from inhabitants of eastern Helsinki, whose direct bus links to the city centre had now been turned into feeder lines for the Metro. Within six months of the Metro's official opening, a petition signed by 11,000 people demanded the restoration of direct bus links. Subsequently, the timetables of the feeder services were adjusted and opposition to the Metro mostly died down.
On 1 March 1983, the Metro was extended in the west to Kamppi. The Sörnäinen station, between Hakaniemi and Kulosaari, was opened on 1 September 1984.
The Metro was extended eastwards in the late 1980s, with the Kontula and Myllypuro stations opened in 1986, and the Mellunmäki station following in 1989. The construction of a westwards expansion begun in 1987 with tunneling works from Kamppi towards Ruoholahti. The Ruoholahti metro station was opened on 16 August 1993.
Another new station followed: the Kaisaniemi station, between Rautatientori and Hakaniemi, was opened on 1 March 1995. Its construction had, in fact, been decided on in 1971, and the station cavern had been carved out of the rock during the original tunneling works, but a lack of funds had pushed back the station's completion.
On 31 August 1998, after four years of construction, the final section of the original plan was completed, with the opening of a three-station fork from Itäkeskus to Vuosaari.
The second generation of Metro trains to be used in passenger service (the M200s) were delivered in 2000 and 2001 by Bombardier. These trains are based on Deutsche Bahn's Class 481 EMUs used on the Berlin S-Bahn network.
On 25 September 2006, the city council of Espoo approved, after decades of debate, planning, and controversy, the construction of a western extension of the Metro. Metro trains began to run to Matinkylä in late 2017. (See section The future below.)
On 1 January 2007, Kalasatama station, between the Sörnäinen and Kulosaari stations, was opened. It serves the new "Sörnäistenranta-Hermanninranta" (Eastern Harbour) area, a former port facility redeveloped as its functions were relocated to the new Port of Vuosaari in the east of the city.
On 8 November 2009, the Rautatientori station, under the Central Railway Station, was closed due to flooding caused by a burst water main. After renovations, the station reopened for public use on 15 February 2010. The lifts were fully replaced; the new ones opened on 21 June 2010. On 23 August 2019, heavy rain caused the Rautatientori station to close once again due to flooding. The station reopened in a matter of days, but the lifts again took many months to fix, finally reopening on 17 March 2020.
2006 onwards: The western extension
The construction of the Western extension from Ruoholahti to Matinkylä in Espoo was approved by the Espoo city council in 2006. Construction began in 2009 and the extension was opened on 18 November 2017. This first stage of the extension was long, with eight new stations, two in Helsinki and six in Espoo and was built entirely in a tunnel excavated in bedrock.
After first stage of the Western extension opened, the bus lines in Southern Espoo were reconfigured as feeder lines to either Matinkylä or Tapiola metro stations instead of terminating at Kamppi in the centre of Helsinki. After much outcry, four new peak-time lines began running into Kamppi on 22 August 2018.
Before the extension of the metro, trains could be a maximum length of three units (each unit being two cars) but the new stations west of Ruoholahti were built shorter than the existing stations because it was originally planned to introduce driverless operation. The driverless project was cancelled in 2015, but the shorter new stations mean that the maximum train length is reduced to two units, shorter than on the original sections of the metro. To increase capacity, the automatic train protection system theoretically permits headway as short as 90 seconds, if required in the future.
The decision to fund the construction of the second stage, from Matinkylä to Kivenlahti, was taken by the Espoo city council and the state of Finland in 2014. Construction began in late 2014. This stage of extension is long and includes five new stations and a new depot in Sammalvuori. All of the track, including the depot, was built in tunnels. The line opened for passenger traffic on the 3rd of December 2022. As with the first phase to Matinkylä, the feeder lines that used ro run to Matinkylä bus terminal were changed to run to Espoonlahti bus terminal in Lippulaiva shopping centre. Also in common with the first phase, many people were unhappy with the reorganisation of bus lines. Those living in Kivenlahti and Saunalahti, especially, were annoyed at direct bus lines into Kamppi, taking 25-30 minutes, being replaced with feeder lines to Espoonlahti, a transfer to the metro and a half-hour metro ride into the city centre.
Network
The Helsinki metro system consists of 30 stations. The stations are located along a Y shape, where the main part runs from the Matinkylä through the center of the city towards the eastern suburbs. The line forks at the Itäkeskus metro station. 22 of the network's stations are located below ground; all eight of those stations located above ground are in Helsinki.
Trains are generally operated as Kivenlahti–Vuosaari or Tapiola–Mellunmäki with some services running Kivenlahti–Mellunmäki in the early mornings and evenings. The rush-hour frequency of 24tph in the central section between Tapiola and Itäkeskus was reduced to 20tph from August 2022, due to a lack of drivers and rolling stock. All services stop at every station, and the names of the stations are announced in both Finnish and Swedish (with the exceptions of Central Railway Station, University of Helsinki and Aalto University, which are also announced in English).
The metro is designed as a core transport route, which means that extensive feeder bus transport links are provided between the stations and the surrounding districts. Taking a feeder bus to the metro is often the only option to get to the city centre from some districts. For example, since the construction of the metro, all daytime bus routes from the islands of Laajasalo terminate at the Herttoniemi metro station with no through routes from Laajasalo to the centre of Helsinki.
Lines
The Helsinki Metro is operated as two lines called M1 and M2, although these designations are not universally applied.
List of stations
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Accessibility
Some stations are located above ground level, making the metro system more friendly to passengers with mobility problems. Sub-surface stations have no stairs from the ticket hall to the platform, and one can access them from the street level via escalators or lifts.
The trains themselves have no steps, and the floors of the trains are level with the platforms, with the gap between the two being just a couple of centimetres.
Ticketing
The ticketing scheme on the Metro is consistent with other forms of transport inside the city of Helsinki, managed by the Helsinki Regional Transport Authority (HSL) agency. The HSL travel card (matkakortti) is the most commonly used ticket, which can be paid either per journey or for a period of two weeks to one year. The metro stations between Koivusaari and Kulosaari lie within zone A. The stations between Keilaniemi and Matinkylä and from Herttoniemi to Mellunmäki or Vuosaari lie within the zone B, and from Finnoo to Kivenlahti in zone C, so an ABC ticket covers the entire system. Single tickets can be bought from ticket machines at the stations (except for the stations between Finnoo and Kivenlahti, which have no ticket machines) or via the HSL mobile app. A single ticket can be used to change to any other form of transport inside the HSL area with the validity time based on the number of zones purchased. There are no gates to the platforms; a proof-of-payment system is used instead.
Safety
Passenger safety instructions are inside train carriages above the doors and stations at ticket hall and platforms. These instructions direct passengers to use emergency phones and also include an emergency phone number to traffic center. Emergency stop handles at platforms discharge traction current and set nearby signals to danger. There are emergency brake handles inside the carriage next to the door.
Especially for people with visual impairments, all platforms have a yellow line marking the safe area on platform. Additionally, there are fire extinguishers on trains and in stations.
Rolling stock
The 750V DC current is drawn from a bottom-contact third rail alongside the running rails. Since the opening of the Länsimetro extension, trains are always formed with 4 carriages.
There are three different types of rolling stock in service on the system as of . The first trains adopted on the system consisted of the M100 series that was built by Strömberg in the late 1970s to the early 1980s. The newer M200 series was built by Bombardier and has been in service since 2000; each set is composed of two cars connected by an open gangway. The latest version, the M300 series, entered service in 2016, built by CAF. A further 5 M300 units were built in 2022 for the extension to Kivenlahti. Unlike the first two series, the M300 trains operate as 4-car sets with open gangways and were designed to run without drivers, though since the cancellation of the automation project, they retain their temporary cabs.
Line speed of the system is inside the tunnels and on the open portion of the network. Points have a maximum speed of , with some sets near termini having a maximum speed of . Technically the M200 and M100 series have a maximum speed of and , respectively, but they are electrically limited to .
Depots and facilities
The original maintenance and storage depot for the metro system is at , between the stations of Siilitie and Itäkeskus. The depot is connected to the metro line from both directions, with a third, central, platform at Itäkeskus used for empty services and during times of disruption. Both warm and cold storage is provided at the depot, to avoid having to pre-heat trains before service in the cold winters.
Behind the Roihupelto depot is the metro test track, allowing testing at speeds of up to ; the far end of this test-track was until 2012 connected via the non-electrified long and then to the VR main line at Oulunkylä railway station. Both the metro and railways share interoperable gauges. The old access line was mostly along the first two-thirds of the old Herttoniemi harbour railway. Through the area of Viikki, this single line had street running since 2002.
In 2012 the old depot link was closed and partially removed when a new metro link line was built from the then present end at Vuosaari metro station, to the electrified long in the new Vuosaari harbour. From 2019 the route of the old link line was redeveloped to form part of the Jokeri light rail line which was opend on 21 October 2023.
The new underground located between Kivenlahti and Espoonlahti stations, opened along with the second stage of Länsimetro on 3 December 2022.
Future
Eastern extension
In 2018, a new zoning plan for the Östersundom area east of Helsinki, was confirmed. New homes are due to be built on the condition that the metro is extended eastwards to serve this area. The eastward extension of the metro has been named Itämetro (English: Eastern Metro, Swedish: Östmetron) as a counterpart to the western extension. The current plan is for the line to continue from Mellunmäki, briefly cross into Vantaa through Länsisalmi and then back into Helsinki through Itäsalmi, before continuing onwards over the municipal border to Majvik in Sipoo. Construction of the metro line is tentatively slated to begin in the 2030s at the earliest.
Proposals also exist for the line to be extended even further east into central Sipoo, possibly as far as to Sibbesborg, to an envisioned new city centre there.
Other
A second Metro line from Laajasalo via Kamppi to Pasila north of the city centre, and possibly onwards to Helsinki-Vantaa Airport, is also in the planning stages. This is being taken into consideration in city plans and has been discussed by the city assembly, but does not look likely to be seriously planned before the mid-2030s at the earliest. To prepare for this eventuality, a platform level for a crossing line was already excavated during the original construction of the Kamppi station.
The Ring Rail Line, which connects the airport to the rail network, began service in 2015. The current plans commissioned by the city recommend the extension of the tram network, instead of the metro, to Laajasalo. Thus construction of a second metro line along the Laajasalo–Kamppi–Airport route appears unlikely.
On 17 May 2006 the Helsinki city council decided that the current, manually driven metro trains would be replaced by automatic ones, operated without drivers. This project was cancelled in 2015 but the western extension was planned with this driverless operation in mind and the stations were built shorter than the existing ones which meant that the maximum train length for the whole system had to be reduced in 2017 when the western extension opened.
The system is planned to be automated eventually as the old M100 trains are approaching the end of their effective service lifespan.
There is a plan to extend the Vuosaari section of the line to the new Vuosaari harbour (see section The depot above).
A new station is being planned in Roihupelto, between Siilitie and Itäkeskus, to serve a possible future suburb.
Unused stations
In addition to the metro stations already in operation, forward-looking design has led to a number of extra facilities being constructed in case they are needed in the future.
Kamppi
The current metro station lies in an east-west direction but there is a second metro station beneath it that was excavated at the same time of construction in 1981. This second station is perpendicular (north-south) to the first one and has platforms in length, slightly shorter than those above. Tunnels designed to eventually connect the two sets of lines curve off from the west-end of Kamppi. See also: Helsingin Sanomat published side elevation plan and photograph of second level.
Hakaniemi
Two station boxes were constructed in Hakaniemi. Intended for future expansion, the second is now unused. The unused area was subsequently designated for use as part of the mainline Helsinki City Rail Loop.
Kaisaniemi (Helsingin Yliopisto)
A second area exists below the current platforms, with the intention to allow for future expansion.
Munkkivuori
The designers of Finland's first shopping centre were very enthusiastic about the rumoured plans for a metro system all over Helsinki – something that would not appear for another 20 years. Built in 1964, the station does not fit into any plans of future metro lines and is unlikely to be ever used. The platform area is partially littered with building-rubble from more recent construction works in the area and the only visible evidence of the ahead-of-its-time station are a pair of large escalators. The escalators lead down from the main part of the shopping mall to the below-ground area where the ticket office would have been. The entrance to the lower level is behind the strange-shaped photographic shop.
Pasila
A metro station was excavated beneath the Mall of Tripla shopping center. It is not known whether the station will ever be actually used as a metro station as only tentative plans exist for a metro line through Pasila. The rationale behind constructing it was that it was cheaper and easier to do it while the mall was being constructed on top of it than to build it under an existing shopping center in the future. The possibility of a Pasila metro line will be considered some time after the year 2036. Meanwhile the metro station will be used for activities such as beach volley and indoor surfing.
Statistics
According to the Helsinki Regional Transport Authority (HSL) yearly report for 2019, the metro system had a total of 92.6 million passengers. According to the yearly report for 2003, the total turnover for the metro division of Helsinki City Transport (HKL) was €16.9 million and it made a profit of €3.8 million.
The Metro is by far the cheapest form of transport in Helsinki to operate, with a cost of only €0.032 per passenger kilometre. The same figure for the second cheapest form – trams – was €0.211.
In 2002, the Metro used 39.8 GWh of electricity, though the figure was rising (from 32.2 GWh in 2001). This equals 0.10 kWh per passenger kilometre, and compares favourably with Helsinki's trams (which used 0.19 kWh per passenger kilometre in 2002).
See also
Geography of Helsinki
Helsinki Metropolitan Area
List of Helsinki metro stations
List of metro systems
Public transport in Helsinki
References
External links
HKL Metro - Official Site
Helsinki City Transport
Metro website of the Finnish Tramway Society
Helsinki at UrbanRail.net
Photos of the Metro of Helsinki
Pictures of Helsinki Metro
Helsinki Metro Map
Railway lines opened in 1982
Underground rapid transit in Finland
Transport in Helsinki
1520 mm gauge railways
1982 establishments in Finland
750 V DC railway electrification
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416115
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa%20Cruz%20Island
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Santa Cruz Island
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Santa Cruz Island (Spanish: Isla Santa Cruz, Chumash: Limuw) is located off the southwestern coast of Ventura, California, United States. It is the largest island in California and largest of the eight islands in the Channel Islands archipelago and Channel Islands National Park. Forming part of the northern group of the Channel Islands, Santa Cruz is long and wide with an area of .
The island's coastline has steep cliffs, large sea caves, coves, and sandy beaches. The highest point is Devils Peak, at over . A central valley splits the island along the Santa Cruz Island Fault, with volcanic rock on the north and older sedimentary rock on the south. This volcanic rock was heavily fractured during an uplift phase that formed the island, and over a hundred large sea caves have been carved into the resulting faults. The largest of these is Painted Cave, among the world's largest.
The island is part of Santa Barbara County, California. The 2000 census showed a population of two people. Santa Cruz is the largest privately owned island off the contiguous United States. Ownership is split between the National Park Service (24%) and the Nature Conservancy (76%).
History
Early history
Archaeological investigations indicate that Santa Cruz Island has been occupied for at least 10,000 years. It was known as Limuw (place of the sea) or Michumash in the Chumash language. The Chumash people who lived on the island developed a highly complex society dependent on marine harvest, craft specialization and trade with the mainland population. Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo first observed the island in 1542, later estimated to be inhabited by 2,000 to 3,000 Chumash on the three northern Channel Islands, with 11 villages on Santa Cruz.
In 1602, Sebastián Vizcaíno led the last Spanish expedition to California. His map named Santa Cruz Island the Isla de Gente Barbuda (island of the bearded people). Between 1602 and 1769 there was no recorded European contact with the island. Finally, in 1769, the land-and-sea expedition of Don Gaspar de Portolà reached Santa Cruz Island. Traveling with him were Father Juan González Vizcaíno and Father Francisco Palóu. Father Palóu wrote of Father Vizcaíno's visit to the Santa Cruz village of Xaxas that the missionaries on ship went ashore and "they were well received by the heathen and presented with fish, in return for which the Indians were given some strings of beads."
The island was considered for establishment of a Catholic mission to serve the large Chumash population. When Mission San Buenaventura was founded across the channel in 1782, it commenced the slow religious conversion of the Santa Cruz Chumash. Beset by diseases such as measles, the Chumash declined in numbers until, in 1822, the last of the Chumash left the island for mainland California missions.
The name of Santa Cruz for the island came about when Gaspar de Portola expedition visited the Chumash village Xaxas on the island. The Chumash on the next day returned a staff, topped by an iron cross, which had been inadvertently left behind by the Spanish. Hence, the name La Isla de la Santa Cruz (island of the holy cross) appeared on their exploration map of 1770. George Vancouver used the same name on his 1793 map.
With Mexico's independence from Spain in 1821, the Mexican government asserted its control over Alta California. In an effort to increase the Mexican presence, the government began sending convicted criminals to California in 1830. Around 80 prisoners were sent to Santa Barbara where, upon arrival, 31 incorrigibles were sent to Santa Cruz Island. They lived for a short time in an area now known as Prisoners' Harbor before escaping to the mainland.
Mexican land grant
Governor Juan Alvarado made a Mexican land grant of the Island of Santa Cruz to his aide Captain Andrés Castillero in 1839. When California became a state in 1850, the United States government, through the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, required that land previously granted by Spanish and Mexican governments be proved before the Board of Land Commissioners. A claim was filed with the Land Commission in 1852, confirmed by the US Supreme Court in 1860, and the grant was patented to Andrés Castillero in 1867. Castillero transferred title to his agent William Barron in 1857.
Ranching
William Barron was a San Francisco businessman and co-owner of the company Barron, Forbes & Co. Dr. James Barron Shaw was hired to manage things, and charged by Barron to start a sheep operation. He built corrals and houses for himself and his employees and expanded the road system. He imported cattle, horses, and sheep to the island and erected one of the earliest wharves along the California coast at Prisoners' Harbor. Shaw was the first rancher to ship sheep to San Francisco by steamer, some selling at $30 per animal. By 1869, the year he left Santa Cruz, Shaw's island sheep ranch was well known, and some 24,000 sheep grazed the hills and valleys of Santa Cruz Island. At that time, the gross proceeds from the ranch on Santa Cruz Island were supposedly $50,000. Barron sold the island for $150,000 in 1869, and Shaw left for San Francisco and Los Alamos where he continued ranching.
The island was purchased by ten investors from San Francisco, headed by Gustave Mahé. One of the investors, Justinian Caire, was a French immigrant and founder of a successful San Francisco hardware business (Justinian Caire Company) that sold equipment to miners. By 1886 Caire had acquired all of the shares of the Santa Cruz Island Company which he and his colleagues had founded in 1869. He then implemented his vision of building a self-sustaining sheep and cattle ranch, vineyard, nut and fruit grove operation on the island. Main Ranch was augmented with nine other ranches, Prisoners' Harbor, Christy, Scorpion, Smugglers, Forney's Cove/Rancho Nuevo, Poso, Buena Vista Portezuela, and Sur Ranch. In 1885, he operated the largest private telephone system in the US at that time. A post office operated from 1895 until 1903, while there were 110 workers on the island in 1889. The operation received water from four springs, El Pato, Gallina, The Dindos and The Peacock, which fed into a reservoir, tanks and dams. The vineyard was planted in 1884 and by 1895, the winery was maturing from the vineyard.
Justinian Caire's will stipulated his two sons, Arthur and Frederic, were to be executors of his will and continue management of operations with little change, though Justinian signed over to his wife Albina, all shares in the Justinian Caire Company and Santa Cruz Company the year before he died in 1897. His sons continued a successful livestock, winemaking and ranching industry on the island after his death, at least until Albina distributed Santa Cruz Island Company shares amongst her children between late 1910 and early 1911. Albina, Fred, Arthur, Delphine and Helene received 86 percent of the stock, while the two married daughters Amelie and Aglaë received 14 percent. Beginning in 1910 an extended and complicated litigation was brought by Caire's two married daughters against their mother and four siblings. The married daughters' families, led by in-law Ambrose Gherini, retained on the east end of the island. In 1936 the Caire family reportedly offered their 90% of the island for $750,000 to the state of California for use as a state or federal park, but nothing came of it. The majority of Caire's descendants were compelled in to sell it in 1937 to pay their legal costs.
The buyer was Los Angeles oilman Edwin Stanton. Stanton's purchase of the major part of Santa Cruz Island brought a major shift in agricultural production on the island. After trying for a short time to continue the sheep operation, bringing in 10,000 head, he decided to switch to beef production. At the time, the beef industry in California was growing rapidly, with Santa Barbara County among the top ten beef producers in the state.
Edwin Stanton's ranch on Santa Cruz Island saw changes that reflected the evolution of cattle ranching in a working landscape. While retaining most of the 19th century structures dating from the Caire period, Stanton constructed a few buildings to meet the needs of his cattle ranch, the most notable of which is Rancho del Norte on the isthmus. Pasture fencing and corrals were altered to suit the cattle operation and an extensive water system was added to provide water to the cattle.
The Gherini family, descendants of Justinian Caire's two daughters, continued their sheep ranching operations on the east end of Santa Cruz Island until 1984, using Scorpion Ranch as their base. This was the area east of the Montañon range, which included Scorpion Harbor and Smugglers Cove. They managed the island with resident managers and laborers and often worked as a family during shearing and during the summer. Production dropped during the 1970s and 1980s and the expense of ranching on a remote island rose.
National Park and Nature Conservancy preserve
Protracted litigation between the Gherinis and the federal government started in 1980, when Channel Islands National Park was designated and Congress authorized the purchase of the family's remaining land, about 10% of the island on the east end. But the purchase was held up as family members pushed the federal government to pay what they believed was the appropriate amount. In the early 1990s, the government managed to buy the interests of Francis Gherini's three siblings for about $4 million apiece. But the former Oxnard attorney continued to insist that the offer was too low, keeping his 25% interest in the 6,264-acre (25.35 km2) ranch and leaving the Park Service with 75%, effectively blocking the establishment of the park. After 16 years of negotiation, in November 1996, government officials settled with Gherini for 14 million dollars which included 2 million dollars in back interest, clearing the way for the park to be opened to the public. The last of the 10,000 sheep on the island were removed by 1999.
With Edwin Stanton's death in 1964, his widow and son, Carey, re-incorporated the Santa Cruz Island Company and continued the cattle operations on the island. Carey Stanton died unexpectedly in 1987 at the ranch and was buried in the family plot in the island chapel yard at the Main Ranch. The real property passed to The Nature Conservancy through a prior agreement that Carey Stanton had established with the non-profit organization. The Nature Conservancy rapidly liquidated the cattle operation and ended the ranching era on the island.
They also were able to eliminate the last of the feral pigs by 2006. The removal of the pigs took a total of 14 months, and was accomplished through a mix of trapping, aerial shooting from helicopters, ground based hunting with dogs, and the use of sterilized adult pigs with radio collars to locate surviving pigs. The time taken to eradicate pigs on Santa Cruz Island was about half that taken on a neighboring island of similar size (Santa Rosa Island) A gift of from the Nature Conservancy to the park was completed in 2000.
The National Park Service owns and operates approximately 24% of Santa Cruz Island. The remaining land, known as the Santa Cruz Island Reserve, is used for scientific research and education, and is managed by a combination of organizations which includes The Nature Conservancy, the University of California Natural Reserve System, and the Santa Cruz Island Foundation. The Reserve and its staff provides accommodations for visiting students and researchers.
Other uses
Santa Cruz was a base for otter hunters, fishermen, and smugglers. The Channel Islands often provided smugglers and bootleggers with convenient yet isolated hideaways where they could store their goods. One such area is known today as Smugglers Cove.
George Nidever recalled hunting otter at Santa Cruz in the winter of 1835–36. Working from a base camp at Santa Rosa Island, he and two others obtained 60 skins that season. Fishermen encamped on the island, trading fish for other goods from passing boats.
Several movies were shot on the island, including Peter Pan and The Rescue.
The Richfield Oil Corporation acquired an exploration lease in 1954 but did not find oil.
UC Santa Barbara established a summer geology class in 1963, and the Santa Cruz Island Field Station in 1966.
The Santa Cruz Island Hunt Club operated from 1966 until 1985, beginning as a sheep and pig hunting during a rifle season and an archery season.
The United States military began to use Santa Cruz Island during World War II, and has constructed and maintained strategic installations on the island. Like all of the Channel Islands, Santa Cruz Island was used as an early warning outpost for observing enemy planes and ships during World War II. During the Cold War a communications station was installed as a part of the Pacific Missile Range Facility. This station remains in operation, although not at the levels of use seen in the 1950s and 1960s.
Wildlife, plants, and climate
Santa Cruz Island is home to some endemic species of animals and plants, including the Santa Cruz Island fox (Urocyon littoralis santacruzae), a subspecies of the island fox.
Introduced and invasive species on Santa Cruz Island include:
Golden eagle (invader), which replaced the native bald eagle, and hunted island foxes to threatened status. Attracted initially by the presence of pigs.
Fennel (introduced), served as cover for Island foxes, but as forage for the feral pigs.
Feral pigs (introduced), displaced native island foxes. No longer present as of 2006.
Santa Cruz sheep, no longer present.
Santa Cruz Island horse, no longer present as of 1999.
Native species include:
Island Spotted Skunk
Island scrub-jay, which is only found on Santa Cruz Island
Hoffman's rockcress, which is found only from Santa Cruz Island and Santa Rosa Island.
Island manzanita and whitehair manzanita, shrubs which are endemic to Santa Cruz Island.
Island fence lizard, endemic to the Channel Islands of California
Island foxes are indigenous to the island. Roughly the size of housecats, island foxes are unafraid of humans. They can be seen with regularity in most of the campgrounds on Santa Cruz Island. The Santa Cruz Island Fox (Urocyon littoralis santacruzae) is the subspecies of Island Fox native to Santa Cruz Island.
The native plant communities of Santa Cruz Island include chaparral, oak woodland, Bishop pine (Pinus muriacata) forest, grassland and coastal sage scrub. Where sheep grazing was prevalent, the native plant cover has been damaged, and erosion and gullying has been a problem in some areas. The native plant communities are slowly recovering since the removal of feral sheep and pigs.
Bald eagle reintroduction
Bald eagles were once numerous on California's Channel Islands. Because of eggshell thinning caused by DDT and other factors, successful bald eagle nesting in the northern Channel Islands ended by 1949. By the 1960s, bald eagles could no longer be found on any of the Channel Islands.
, there were five breeding pairs on Santa Cruz Island, two on Santa Rosa, and one on Anacapa, and a total of over 40 bald eagles on the northern Channel Islands. Between 2002 and 2006, the Channel Islands National Park (in conjunction with partner, Institute for Wildlife Studies) introduced sixty-one young bald eagles to the northern Channel Islands, using a "hacking" process of keeping 8 weeks old eagles in one of two hack towers on Santa Cruz Island, until at age three months, they were ready to fly. On the Channel Islands, where large trees are scarce, bald eagles have built nests on cliff faces, rock shelves and shallow cliffs, as well as in island pines and Torrey pines. One pair even attempted nesting in a grassland on Santa Cruz Island. In 2006, for the first time in over 50 years, a bald eagle hatched on Santa Cruz Island.
Because nesting bald eagles can deter golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) from breeding, the recovery of bald eagles on the northern Channel Islands has also helped enable recovery of the endangered island fox. Golden eagle predation had been responsible for the steep decline of island foxes on the northern Channel Islands in the 1990s.
Climate
The climate of Santa Cruz Island is marine temperate, with frosts rare and snow almost unknown except very rarely on the highest mountain slopes. Annual rainfall varies from about on the shoreline, to on the highest mountain slopes. Precipitation is highly variable from year to year, with wet years alternating with drought years. Most of the rain falls from November to March. Summers are dry, but often overcast and cool with coastal fog.
Transportation
Santa Cruz Island has several airstrips, all operated by The Nature Conservancy:
Santa Cruz Island Airport had one turf runway with orientation 9/27 and was located at . The airport is no longer registered or active.
Christy Airstrip has a turf runway with orientation 9/27 and is located at .
Santa Cruz Ranch Airport has a turf runway with orientation 9/27 and is located at .
References
Notes
Bibliography
Block 3000, Block Group 3, Census Tract 29.10, Santa Barbara County United States Census Bureau (2000)]
C. Michael Hogan (2008) "Western fence lizard (Sceloporus occidentalis)", Globaltwitcher, ed. Nicklas Stromberg
Willis Linn Jepson (1993) Jepson Manual, University of California Press, Berkeley, California
External links
The Nature Conservancy: Santa Cruz Island
Santa Cruz Island Foundation
Santa Cruz Island Channel Islands National Park
Volunteer on Santa Cruz Island!
University of California Natural Reserve System - Santa Cruz Island
A guide to the Santa Cruz Island report, 1922
Islands of the Channel Islands of California
Islands of Santa Barbara County, California
Channel Islands National Park
Nature Conservancy preserves
Nature reserves in California
Islands of Southern California
Islands of California
Private islands of the United States
Island restoration
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empress%20Dowager%20Ci%27an
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Empress Dowager Ci'an
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Empress Xiaozhenxian (12 August 1837 – 8 April 1881), of the Manchu Bordered Yellow Banner Niohuru clan, was a posthumous name bestowed to the wife and empress consort of Yizhu, the Xianfeng Emperor. She was empress consort of Qing from 1852 until her husband's death in 1861, after which she was honoured as Empress Dowager Ci'an.
As empress dowager and one of the most senior members of the imperial family, she and Empress Dowager Cixi became co-regents during the reign of two young emperors: Zaichun, the Tongzhi Emperor and later Zaitian, the Guangxu Emperor. Although in principle, she had precedence over Cixi, Ci'an was in fact a self-effacing person and seldom intervened in politics, but she was the decision-maker in most family affairs. Instead, Empress Dowager Cixi was the decision-maker in most state affairs.
A popular view of Empress Dowager Ci'an is that she was a highly respectable person, always quiet, never hot-tempered, and that she treated everybody very well and was highly respected by the Xianfeng Emperor. However, some historians have painted a very different reality, mainly that of a self-indulgent and idle Empress Dowager Ci'an, who did not care as much for government and hard work as she cared for the pleasures and sweet life inside the Forbidden City.
Life
Family background
Empress Xiaozhenxian's personal name was not recorded in history.
Father: Muyang'a (), served as an official in Guangxi, and held the title of a third class duke ()
Paternal grandfather: Fukejing'a ()
Paternal grandmother: Lady Aisin Gioro
Paternal aunt: Lady Niohuru, Duanhua's primary consort, the maternal grandmother of Empress Xiaozheyi (1854–1875)
Mother: Lady Giyanggiya
One brother: Guangke
One sister: Lady Niohuru, primary consort of Prince Zhuanghou of the first rank, Yiren
Xiaozhenxian was a descendant of Eidu (1562–1621), one of the top five generals who served under Nurhaci (the founder of the Qing dynasty), through Eidu's third son, Celge (車爾格; d. 1647).
The future empress' great-grandfather, Fukejing'a (福克精阿), served as a management official in Xining and held the title of a baron. Her grandfather, Cebutan (策布坦; d. 1794), served as a second-rank commander in Shanxi Province and also held the title of a baron. Her father, Muyang'a (d. before 1852), served as an official in Guangxi Province and held the title of a third class cheng'en duke. Muyang'a's primary consort was the granddaughter of Qingheng (慶恆; d. 1779), a great-grandson of Nurhaci, but it was Lady Jiang (姜氏), a concubine of Muyang'a, who was Xiaozhenxian's birth mother. Her brother, Guangke (廣科; d. 1880), served as a general in Hangzhou. Her aunt married Duanhua (Prince Zheng), a prominent noble and close adviser of the Xianfeng Emperor.
Daoguang era
The future Empress Xiaozhenxian was born on the 12th day of the seventh lunar month in the 17th year of the reign of the Daoguang Emperor, which translates to 12 August 1837 in the Gregorian calendar.
Xianfeng era
When the Daoguang Emperor died on 15 February 1850, his fourth son, Yizhu, succeeded him and was enthroned as the Xianfeng Emperor. The Xianfeng Emperor's primary consort had died a month before the emperor's coronation and was posthumously honoured as "Empress Xiaodexian". The process of selecting a new primary consort to be the Xianfeng Emperor's empress consort, however, was delayed due to the mourning period for the Daoguang Emperor.
The auditions for the Xianfeng Emperor's consorts took place in 1851 in the Forbidden City. Lady Niohuru was among the candidates shortlisted by Dowager Consort Kangci, the highest ranked living consort of the Daoguang Emperor at the time. However, some sources claimed that Lady Niohuru entered the Forbidden City in the late 1840s and became a concubine of the Xianfeng Emperor, who was still known as the Fourth Prince then.
Lady Niohuru's status within the palace rose rapidly. On 14 June 1852, she was granted the title "Concubine Zhen" ("Zhen" meaning "upright", "chaste", "virtuous", or "faithful to the memory of one's husband", i.e., by remaining chaste after his death and not remarrying). In late June or early July 1852, she was elevated to "Noble Consort Zhen". On 24 July 1852, she was officially designated as the Empress. As Empress, she was put in charge of the emperor's harem. Some sources claim that Lady Niohuru was already designated as the Xianfeng Emperor's primary spouse after the death of her predecessor, Empress Xiaodexian.
Imperial customs required that the emperor spend one day a month with the empress. The Empress remained childless. On 27 April 1856, another of the Xianfeng Emperor's consorts, Concubine Yi (the future Empress Dowager Cixi), gave birth to the emperor's first son, Zaichun. Some biographers mentioned that the Empress gave birth to the Xianfeng Emperor's only daughter, Princess Rong'an of the First Rank, who was actually born to Concubine Li. However, as Empress, Lady Niohuru was nominally the mother of all the Xianfeng Emperor's children, regardless of whether or not she was their birth mother. Consequently, it was the Empress who raised the Xianfeng Emperor's children and decided their punishment when they did not obey her. Concubine Yi had little to say in her son's upbringing. She once recalled, "I had... quite a lot of trouble with (the Empress) and found it very difficult to keep on good terms with her."
Tongzhi era
On 22 August 1861, in the wake of the Second Opium War, the Xianfeng Emperor died at the Rehe Traveling Palace (), northeast of Beijing, where he and his imperial court had fled to when the Anglo-French forces closed in on the Forbidden City. He was succeeded by his sole surviving son, Zaichun, who was only five years old then; Zaichun was enthroned as the Tongzhi Emperor. A power struggle broke out between two factions over the issue of who should assume the regency until Zaichun was old enough to rule on his own. On his deathbed, the Xianfeng Emperor had appointed his close adviser Sushun and seven others to be the regents. However, Noble Consort Yi, the Tongzhi Emperor's birth mother, also wanted to assume the regency. The Empress initially agreed to cooperate with Sushun and his seven co-regents, but changed her mind after being persuaded by Noble Consort Yi. In November 1861, with aid from Yixin (Prince Kung), the Xianfeng Emperor's sixth brother, the Empress and Noble Consort Yi staged a coup – historically known as the Xinyou Coup – against the eight regents and ousted them from power, thereby securing control of the regency.
Noble Consort Yi was elevated to the status of empress dowager and honoured as "Holy Mother, Empress Dowager"母后皇太后, a great privilege for her since she was never empress while the Xianfeng Emperor was still living; she became empress dowager only because she was the biological mother of the reigning Tongzhi Emperor. She was also given the honorific name "Cixi" (meaning "motherly and auspicious"), hence she is known as "Empress Dowager Cixi". The Empress, on the other hand, as the former emperor's primary wife and the reigning emperor's nominal mother, was also elevated to empress dowager and honoured as "Mother Empress, Empress Dowager" – a title which gave her precedence over Empress Dowager Cixi – and given the honorific name "Ci'an" (meaning "motherly and calming"). Because her living quarters were in the eastern part of the Forbidden City, Empress Dowager Ci'an was informally referred to as the "East Empress Dowager"; Empress Dowager Cixi, who lived in the western part, was also informally known as the "West Empress Dowager". Empress Dowager Ci'an spent most of her life in the Palace of Gathering Essence. On several occasions after 1861, Ci'an was given additional honorific names (two Chinese characters at a time), as was customary for emperors and empresses, until by the end of her life her name was a long even string of characters beginning with Ci'an.
Imperial records did not explain why there was a difference of 24 hours between the times when the Empress Niohuru and Noble Consort Yi were elevated from their original statuses to the same position of empress dowager. According to Tony Teng, Noble Consort Yi and Sushun had a quarrel over the granting of honours after the Xianfeng Emperor's death. It is believed that the Empress, as the primary wife of the recently deceased emperor, had supported Noble Consort Yi, thus forcing Sushun to yield.
The two empresses dowager were appointed joint de facto regents for the Tongzhi Emperor. Because women were not allowed to be seen during imperial court sessions, they had to sit behind a curtain while attending such sessions together with the child emperor. Although in principle she had precedence over Cixi, Ci'an was in fact a self-effacing person and seldom intervened in politics, unlike Cixi, who actually controlled the imperial court. As de facto ruler, Ci'an had to learn about politics, so she and Cixi studied history. In November 1861, in keeping with the imperial custom, they began to consult the records of their Manchu predecessors. In June 1863, they had the contents of Tong Jian Ji Lan (通鑑輯覽) explained to them. About a year earlier, an earlier compilation by scholars from the Hanlin Academy, entitled A Valuable Mirror for Excellent Governance (治平寶鑑), became the text for a series of lectures by scholars and officials that the empresses dowager attended for over two years, the last lecture given in November 1866.
It is thought by many biographers that Cixi was the actual power behind the throne. Despite this, for the first 20 years of her regency she was not allowed to make decisions on her own. Any decree needed the approval of both regents. Both Ci'an and the Tongzhi Emperor were given a seal, but because the emperor was underage, the seal was given to his mother, Cixi. Ci'an's seal was engraved with "Yushang" (Imperial Award) and Cixi's with "Tongdaotang" (Hall of Accord with the Way).
The case of An Dehai
The years after the Xianfeng Emperor's death were called the Tongzhi Restoration. It was a period of peace; the Taiping Rebellion and the Opium Wars with the British ceased. The treasury began growing again after decades of depletion. Empress Dowager Ci'an was little mentioned during this period and her only notable intervention in politics was in 1869. An Dehai, a court eunuch and close aide of Empress Dowager Cixi, was on a trip south to purchase a set of dragon robes for Cixi. While travelling in Shandong Province, he abused his authority by extorting money from people and causing trouble. Ding Baozhen, the Governor of Shandong, reported An Dehai's deeds to the imperial court. Empress Dowager Ci'an received news about it and drafted an imperial decree as follows:
Ding Baozhen reports that a eunuch has been creating disturbance in Shandong Province. According to the magistrate of Dezhou, a eunuch surnamed An and his followers passed through that place by the way of the imperial canal, in two dragon barges, with much display of pomp and pageantry. He announced that he had come on an imperial mission to procure dragon robes. His barges flew a black banner, bearing in its centre the triple imperial emblems of the sun, and there were also dragon and phoenix flags flying on both side, of his vessels. A goodly company of both sexes were in the attendance on this person; there were female musicians, skilled in the use of string and wind instruments. The banks of the canal were lined with crowds of spectators, who witnessed with amazement and admiration his progress. The 21st day of the last month happened to be this eunuch's birthday, so he arrayed himself in dragon robes and stood on the foredeck of his barge, to receive the homage of his suite. The local magistrate was just about to order his arrest when the barges set sail and proceeded southwards. The governor adds that he has already given orders for his immediate arrest.
We are dumbfounded at his report. How can we ever hope to uphold moral standards within the palace and frighten evildoers unless we make an example of this insolent eunuch, who was dared to leave Beijing without permission and commit these lawless deeds? The governors of these three provinces of Shandong, Henan and Jiangsu are ordered to seek out and arrest the eunuch An whom we had formerly honored with the rank of the sixth grade and the decoration of the crow's feather. Upon his being duly identified by his companions, let him be forth with beheaded, without further formalities, no attention is to be paid to any crafty explanations which he may attempt to make. The governors concerned will be held responsible in the event of failure to affect his arrest.
An Dehai was beheaded on 12 September 1869. This was quite an unusual reaction for Empress Dowager Ci'an, and the execution of An Dehai is said to have greatly displeased Empress Dowager Cixi. Some sources say that Prince Kung forced Ci'an to take an independent decision for a change. Several days after the arrest an edict was issued by Ci'an:
"Ding Baozhen now reports that the eunuch was arrested in Tai'an Prefecture and has been summarily beheaded. Our dynasty's house law is most strict in regard to the proper discipline of eunuchs, and provides severe punishment for any offences to which they may commit. They have always been sternly forbidden to make expeditions to the provinces, or to create trouble. Nevertheless, An Dehai actually had brazen effrontery to violate this law, and for his crimes his execution is only a fitting reward. In future, let all eunuchs take warning by his example; should we have further cause of complaint, the chief eunuchs of the several departments of the household will be punished as well as the actual offender. Any eunuch who may hereafter pretend that he has been sent on imperial business to the provinces shall be cast into chains at once, and sent to Beijing for punishment".
The Tongzhi Emperor's marriage and death
In 1872, both Ci'an and Cixi agreed it was time for the Tongzhi Emperor to marry. As the highest-ranking woman in the Forbidden City, Ci'an was put in charge of selecting the Tongzhi Emperor's new empress and consorts. It was decided that a girl from the Mongol Alute clan (the later Empress Xiaozheyi) would become the new empress. Lady Alute's mother was Empress Dowager Ci'an's cousin from her father's side. After the wedding, both empresses dowager resigned as co-regents, but they resumed the regency in December 1874 during the Tongzhi Emperor's illness. In January 1875, the Tongzhi Emperor died and Empress Dowager Cixi's nephew, Zaitian, was enthroned as the Guangxu Emperor. As the Guangxu Emperor was also underage at the time of his coronation, the two empresses dowager became the regents again.
Guangxu era
During the late 1870s, Empress Dowager Cixi became ill from liver problems, so Empress Dowager Ci'an had to rule on her own. During this time, she had to deal with the war with the Russian Empire over Ili Prefecture. In 1871, the Dungan Revolt broke out in Xinjiang. The Qing Empire soon lost power and the Russians occupied the Ili basin region. The Qing government regained control over Xinjiang in 1877. In 1879, the Russians suggested that they maintain a strong presence in the region but the Qing government did not agree. The conflict ended with the signing of the Treaty of Saint Petersburg in February 1881.
Although Ci'an rarely left the Forbidden City, she did visit the imperial tombs to pay respect to her husband and ancestors. In 1880, while at the Eastern Qing tombs, Ci'an, probably encouraged by Prince Kung to assert herself and her rights, took precedence in all the ceremonies. While at the Xianfeng Emperor's tomb, a commotion happened between Ci'an and Cixi. Ci'an, as the primary wife of the deceased emperor, took the central position. She told Cixi to stand on the right and reminded her that she was only a concubine while the Xianfeng Emperor was still living. The vacant spot on the left was symbolically reserved for the Xianfeng Emperor's first consort, Empress Xiaodexian. It is not known how Cixi reacted to this incident.
Death
On 8 April 1881, while attending an imperial court session, Empress Dowager Ci'an became ill and was escorted to her private quarters, where she died within a few hours. Her sudden death was a shock to many people. Although she was in good health, Ci'an had fallen seriously ill at least three times according to Weng Tonghe, who tutored the Guangxu Emperor. She had a history of what appeared to be strokes. In his diary, Weng Tonghe recorded the first stroke in March 1863, when Ci'an suddenly fainted and lost her ability to speak for nearly a month. Her reputation for 'speaking slowly and with difficulty' during audiences may have been a consequence of her stroke. A second stroke was recorded in January 1870. The official cause of her death between 2100 and 2300 hours was a sudden stroke. Physicians who studied her medical records are almost certain that she died of a massive brain haemorrhage.
Thirty years after her death, rumours started spreading that she had been poisoned by Empress Dowager Cixi. However, such claims have never been substantiated and new evidence has not appeared in the many years since. Furthermore, Cixi herself had been ill to the point of being unable to serve her functions at court, making her involvement in Ci'an's death highly unlikely.
One of the most circulated rumours is that before his death, the Xianfeng Emperor wrote a secret imperial edict and gave it to Ci'an. Apparently, the emperor foresaw that Cixi would try to overrule Ci'an and dominate the imperial court, so he wrote the edict to authorise Ci'an to have Cixi eliminated if necessary. Ci'an, believing that Cixi would not harm her, showed her the secret edict and burnt it to demonstrate her trust in her co-regent. She died under mysterious circumstances later that day.
The posthumous name given to Empress Dowager Ci'an, which combines the honorific names she gained during her lifetime with new names added just after her death, was:
()
which reads:
"Empress Xiao ² -zhen ³ Ci'an Yuqing Hejing Chengjing Yitian Zuosheng 4 Xian 5 ".
This long name is still the one that can be seen on Ci'an's tomb today. The short form of her posthumous name is:
"Empress Xiaozhenxian" ().
After her death a valedictory degree was written for Ci'an which reads:
"In spite of the arduous duties of the State, which have fully occupied my time, I was naturally of robust constitution and had therefore fully expected to attain to a good old age and to enjoy the Emperor's dutiful ministrations. Yesterday, however, I was suddenly stricken with a slight illness and his Majesty thereupon commanded his physician to attend me; later his Majesty came in person to enquire as to my health. And now, most unexpectedly, I have had a most dangerous relapse. At 1900 hours this evening I became completely confused in mind and now all hope of my recovery appears to be vain. I am forty-five years of age and for close on twenty years have held the high position of a regent of the empire. Many honorific titles and ceremonies of congratulation have been bestowed upon me: what cause have I therefore to regret?"
This translation of the valedictory comes from John Bland and Edmund Backhouse's book China Under the Empress Dowager. Another translation of the valedictory is found in "Papers relating to the foreign relations of the United States" which contains corresponding letters between James Burrill Angell and James B. Blaine. Angell's first letter about Ci'an was written three days after her death and received on 23 June 1881:
"Sir: I have to announce that on the 8th instant, at 6PM, the Empress Dowager, commonly known as the Empress of the East Palace, in distinction from the Empress Dowager of the West Palace, died after an illness of only two days. The legations have, at the time of this writing, received no official announcement of the event. But the Peking Gazette contains two imperial rescripts concerning her death. As the mail leaves at once I cannot now inclose translation of them.
The deceased Empress is the widow of the Emperor Hsien-Fung, who reigned from 1850 to 1861. Having lost his wife just as he ascended the throne, he married the lady just deceased. She bore him no son. In 1856 one of his concubines or second wives bore him a son, who succeeded him as the Emperor Tung-Chih in 1861. At the death of Hsien-Fung, his wife, the woman who just died, was, of course, the Empress Dowager. But by decree of the new Emperor, Tung-Chih, his mother was also raised to the honor of Empress Dowager. So there have been two Empresses Dowager since 1861. The present Emperor, Kwang-Hsü, who came to the throne in 1874, is the cousin of Tung-Chih and nephew of the surviving Empress Dowager. The two Empresses, it is thought, have played a considerable part in the conduct of affairs. The deceased Empress has been reputed to be of a pacific spirit, and friendly to Prince Kung. The surviving Empress has been thought to take a more active part in shaping the policy of the empire. She has been so ill for months that her death has been daily expected, and several times reported in the streets. But the Empress of the East Palace has not been ill, until she was seized last week with her fatal disease. I think she was about forty-five years of age. It is feared that her sudden death may have an unfavorable and possibly fatal effect on the surviving Empress in her condition of weakness.
It is impossible to say yet whether the death of the Empress of the East Palace will lead to any important political results. Should the other Empress also die, it is extremely possible that important consequences would follow, though no one can predict what they would be. Vague rumors of plottings in the palace are afloat, but as yet they are but rumors and not worth repeating.
On 30 April 1881, Angell wrote a second letter about Ci'an, to Blaine. It contained a translation of an imperial edict sent by Prince Kung and a farewell mandate which appeared in the Peking Gazette. The imperial edict reads as follows:
Since Our entrance upon the inheritance of the great dynastic line, looking upward, We have been the recipient of fostering care and unbounded maternal affection from the departed Empress, T'zu-an Twan-Yu-K'ang-Ching-Chao-Ho-Chwang-Ching.
During the seven years which have elapsed since Our accession to the Throne, as, anticipating Her wishes, with respectable care we provided for her wants. Our efforts have been greatly rewarded by the joyous and happy contentment which She has always manifested.
The robust health which we seemed to recognize in Her appearance and movements, and Her zeal for state affairs at all times, were a source of great joy and comfort to our mind, and we hoped that Her life would be prolonged a hundred years, that She might long continue in the enjoyment of happiness. On the 7th instant the benign body was suddenly taken ill. A decoction of medicine was immediately given to dissipate the ailment and restore health, but unexpectedly on the following day the sickness rapidly grew dangerous, respiration was hindered by copious generation of phlegm, and the case became urgent and desperate. Between the hours of 7 and 9PM the benign spirit rode in the fairy chariot and ascended to the remote regions. Prostrate upon the earth, with outstretched arms, we raised our cry to Heaven, bewailing our overwhelming grief.
We have reverently received the dying behest of the departed Empress that the mourning garb be laid aside after twenty-seven days. Our feelings would indeed be hard to reconcile if we should do this. We shall therefore observe deep mourning for one hundred days, and half mourning for the full term of twenty-seven months, to manifest in some degree our sincere sorrow at this bereavement. The departed Empress having also admonished us to endeavor to control our sorrow and give due regard to the importance of state affairs so as to console the Empress Dowager, "T'zu-hsi Twan-Yü-Kang-Yi-Chao-Yü-Chwang-Ch'eng," in return for Her care in educating and nurturing us, we dare not disregard this advice, and, in respectful obedience to the bequaethed command, we shall endeavor to check and restrain our sorrow.
Let the Prince of T'un, Yi Tsung; the Prince of Kung, Yi Hsin; the Beile, Yi-Kwang; the minister of the presence, Ching Shou; the grand secretary, Pao-Chun; the assistant great secretary and president, Ling-Kuei; and the presidents, Ngen-Ch'eng and Ong-Fung-Ho, with respectful care attend to the rites and ceremonies to be observed in the present mourning.[Let them carefully examine the prescriptions of the old canon and memorialize us as to the appropriate rites and ceremonies to be observed. Let this decree be promulgated throughout the Empire for the information of all.]
Respect this.
Empress Dowager Ci'an was interred amidst the Eastern Qing tombs, east of Beijing. She was denied burial next to her husband in the Ding Mausoleum. Instead she was interred in the Eastern Ding Mausoleum () tomb complex, along with Empress Dowager Cixi. More precisely, Empress Dowager Ci'an lies in the Puxiangyu Eastern Ding Mausoleum (), while Cixi built herself the much larger Putuoyu Eastern Ding Mausoleum (). The Ding Mausoleum (literally "tomb of quietude") is the tomb of the Xianfeng Emperor and is located west of the Dingdongling. The vale of Putuo owes its name to Mount Putuo, at the foot of which the Eastern Ding Mausoleum is located.
Appraisal
A popular view of Empress Dowager Ci'an is that she was a highly respectable person, always quiet, never hot-tempered, and that she treated everybody very well and was highly respected by the Xianfeng Emperor. Both the Tongzhi and Guangxu Emperors preferred Ci'an above Cixi. Her good-hearted personality was no match for Empress Dowager Cixi, who managed to sideline the naive and candid Empress Dowager Ci'an. This is still the popular view in China, the image of a quiet Empress Dowager Ci'an perhaps stemming from the meaning of her honorific name.
However, some historians have painted a very different reality, mainly that of a self-indulgent and idle Empress Dowager Ci'an, who did not care as much for government and hard work as she cared for the pleasures and sweet life inside the Forbidden City. Empress Dowager Cixi, on the other hand, was a shrewd and intelligent woman who was ready to make sacrifices and work hard in order to obtain supreme power, and who faced the complex problems that were besetting China at the time. As often, the reality may lie in between these two extremes and some even claim that Ci'an is said to have exhibited temper and willpower. The popular view of Ci'an being a nice simple girl was exaggerated by the reformer Kang Youwei and biographers John Bland and Edmund Backhouse, to build up the contrast between her and Cixi. There are no documented meetings between any foreigner and Ci'an, unlike Cixi, who met many foreigners after 1900.
Katherine Carl, who spent nine months with Empress Dowager Cixi in 1903, described Ci'an, even though she never met her, as follows: Ci'an was known as the "Literary Empress". While Cixi handled all state affairs, Ci'an gave herself up to literary pursuits and led the life of a student. She was a woman of such fine literary ability that she herself sometimes examined the essays of the aspirants for the highest literary honours at the University of Beijing. She was also a writer of distinction. Ci'an and Cixi lived amicably together, appreciated each other's qualities, and are said to have had a sincere affection for each other, which never weakened during the whole of their long association. Their amicable relation ended with the death of Ci'an in 1881.
Another view of Ci'an was written by Lim Boon Keng. The beautiful Yehenara, like the Jew Hagar, was the handmaid who was to bear a son for her master. Ci'an appears to have been like Sarah, who in her anxiety to make up for her own sterility, encouraged her husband to show his favour to his maid. Perhaps the Xianfeng Emperor did not need encouragement, but Ci'an took great interest in the concubine as the prospective mother of the emperor's son and heir. Cixi was quick-tempered and probably jealous of the empress. Just before the birth of the Tongzhi Emperor, Cixi was nearly demoted in rank for her bad temper and insolence. Ci'an intervened on her behalf. In contrast to Hagar, Cixi did not openly despise her mistress. She was as tame as a lamb, and for many years they lived on terms of friendship.
Titles
During the reign of the Daoguang Emperor (r. 1820–1850):
Lady Niohuru (from 12 August 1837)
During the reign of the Xianfeng Emperor (r. 1850–1861):
Imperial Concubine Zhen (; from 14 June 1852), fifth rank consort
Noble Consort Zhen (; from June/July 1852), third rank consort
Empress (; from November/December 1852)
During the reign of the Tongzhi Emperor (r. 1861–1875):
Empress Dowager Ci'an (; from 22 August 1861)
During the reign of the Guangxu Emperor (r. 1875–1908):
Empress Xiaozhenxian (; from May/June 1881)
Gallery
In fiction and popular culture
Portrayed by Chan Wah in The Burning of Imperial Palace (1983) and Reign Behind a Curtain (1983)
Portrayed by Sam-sam in The Rise and Fall of Qing Dynasty (1990)
Portrayed by Song Jia in Sigh of His Highness (2006)
Portrayed by Rachel Kan in Land of Wealth (2006)
Portrayed by Maggie Shiu in The Confidant (2012)
See also
Ranks of imperial consorts in China#Qing
Royal and noble ranks of the Qing dynasty
Notes
1. i.e. mother of the Tongzhi Emperor
2. "filial"; during the Qing dynasty, this was always the first character at the beginning of empresses' posthumous names
3. same character as when she was a concubine
4. this string of 12 characters are the honorific names that she received while alive, with possibly the last characters having been added only just after her death
5. "the Clear", or "the Illustrious"; this is the posthumous name of the Xianfeng Emperor; during the Qing dynasty the last character of empresses' posthumous names was always the posthumous name of their emperor
References
Chinese sources
English and non-Chinese sources
Other literature
These sources are about Empress Dowager Cixi but Empress Dowager Ci'an is mentioned in them as well:
1837 births
1881 deaths
19th-century Chinese people
19th-century Chinese women
19th-century regents
19th-century women rulers
Qing dynasty empresses
Qing dynasty empresses dowager
Manchu people
Qing dynasty regents
Leaders who took power by coup
Consorts of the Xianfeng Emperor
People from Liuzhou
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branch%20predictor
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Branch predictor
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In computer architecture, a branch predictor is a digital circuit that tries to guess which way a branch (e.g., an if–then–else structure) will go before this is known definitively. The purpose of the branch predictor is to improve the flow in the instruction pipeline. Branch predictors play a critical role in achieving high performance in many modern pipelined microprocessor architectures.
Two-way branching is usually implemented with a conditional jump instruction. A conditional jump can either be "taken" and jump to a different place in program memory, or it can be "not taken" and continue execution immediately after the conditional jump. It is not known for certain whether a conditional jump will be taken or not taken until the condition has been calculated and the conditional jump has passed the execution stage in the instruction pipeline (see fig. 1).
Without branch prediction, the processor would have to wait until the conditional jump instruction has passed the execute stage before the next instruction can enter the fetch stage in the pipeline. The branch predictor attempts to avoid this waste of time by trying to guess whether the conditional jump is most likely to be taken or not taken. The branch that is guessed to be the most likely is then fetched and speculatively executed. If it is later detected that the guess was wrong, then the speculatively executed or partially executed instructions are discarded and the pipeline starts over with the correct branch, incurring a delay.
The time that is wasted in case of a branch misprediction is equal to the number of stages in the pipeline from the fetch stage to the execute stage. Modern microprocessors tend to have quite long pipelines so that the misprediction delay is between 10 and 20 clock cycles. As a result, making a pipeline longer increases the need for a more advanced branch predictor.
The first time a conditional jump instruction is encountered, there is not much information to base a prediction on. But the branch predictor keeps records of whether branches are taken or not taken. When it encounters a conditional jump that has been seen several times before, then it can base the prediction on the history. The branch predictor may, for example, recognize that the conditional jump is taken more often than not, or that it is taken every second time.
Branch prediction is not the same as branch target prediction. Branch prediction attempts to guess whether a conditional jump will be taken or not. Branch target prediction attempts to guess the target of a taken conditional or unconditional jump before it is computed by decoding and executing the instruction itself. Branch prediction and branch target prediction are often combined into the same circuitry.
Implementation
Static branch prediction
Static prediction is the simplest branch prediction technique because it does not rely on information about the dynamic history of code executing. Instead, it predicts the outcome of a branch based solely on the branch instruction.
The early implementations of SPARC and MIPS (two of the first commercial RISC architectures) used single-direction static branch prediction: they always predict that a conditional jump will not be taken, so they always fetch the next sequential instruction. Only when the branch or jump is evaluated and found to be taken, does the instruction pointer get set to a non-sequential address.
Both CPUs evaluate branches in the decode stage and have a single cycle instruction fetch. As a result, the branch target recurrence is two cycles long, and the machine always fetches the instruction immediately after any taken branch. Both architectures define branch delay slots in order to utilize these fetched instructions.
A more advanced form of static prediction presumes that backward branches will be taken and that forward branches will not. A backward branch is one that has a target address that is lower than its own address. This technique can help with prediction accuracy of loops, which are usually backward-pointing branches, and are taken more often than not taken.
Some processors allow branch prediction hints to be inserted into the code to tell whether the static prediction should be taken or not taken. The Intel Pentium 4 accepts branch prediction hints, but this feature was abandoned in later Intel processors.
Static prediction is used as a fall-back technique in some processors with dynamic branch prediction when dynamic predictors do not have sufficient information to use. Both the Motorola MPC7450 (G4e) and the Intel Pentium 4 use this technique as a fall-back.
In static prediction, all decisions are made at compile time, before the execution of the program.
Dynamic branch prediction
Dynamic branch prediction uses information about taken or not taken branches gathered at run-time to predict the outcome of a branch.
Random branch prediction
Using a random or pseudorandom bit (a pure guess) would guarantee every branch a 50% correct prediction rate, which cannot be improved (or worsened) by reordering instructions. (With the simplest static prediction of "assume take", compilers can reorder instructions to get better than 50% correct prediction.) Also, it would make timing [much more] nondeterministic.
Next line prediction
Some superscalar processors (MIPS R8000, Alpha 21264, and Alpha 21464 (EV8)) fetch each line of instructions with a pointer to the next line. This next-line predictor handles branch target prediction as well as branch direction prediction.
When a next-line predictor points to aligned groups of 2, 4, or 8 instructions, the branch target will usually not be the first instruction fetched, and so the initial instructions fetched are wasted. Assuming for simplicity, a uniform distribution of branch targets, 0.5, 1.5, and 3.5 instructions fetched are discarded, respectively.
Since the branch itself will generally not be the last instruction in an aligned group, instructions after the taken branch (or its delay slot) will be discarded. Once again, assuming a uniform distribution of branch instruction placements, 0.5, 1.5, and 3.5 instructions fetched are discarded.
The discarded instructions at the branch and destination lines add up to nearly a complete fetch cycle, even for a single-cycle next-line predictor.
One-level branch prediction
Saturating counter
A 1-bit saturating counter (essentially a flip-flop) records the last outcome of the branch. This is the most simple version of dynamic branch predictor possible, although it is not very accurate.
A 2-bit saturating counter is a state machine with four states:
Strongly not taken
Weakly not taken
Weakly taken
Strongly taken
When a branch is evaluated, the corresponding state machine is updated. Branches evaluated as not taken change the state toward strongly not taken, and branches evaluated as taken change the state toward strongly taken. The advantage of the two-bit counter scheme over a one-bit scheme is that a conditional jump has to deviate twice from what it has done most in the past before the prediction changes. For example, a loop-closing conditional jump is mispredicted once rather than twice.
The original, non-MMX Intel Pentium processor uses a saturating counter, though with an imperfect implementation.
On the SPEC'89 benchmarks, very large bimodal predictors saturate at 93.5% correct, once every branch maps to a unique counter.
The predictor table is indexed with the instruction address bits, so that the processor can fetch a prediction for every instruction before the instruction is decoded.
Two-level predictor
The Two-Level Branch Predictor, also referred to as Correlation-Based Branch Predictor, uses a two-dimensional table of counters, also called "Pattern History Table". The table entries are two-bit counters.
Two-level adaptive predictor
If an if statement is executed three times, the decision made on the third execution might depend upon whether the previous two were taken or not. In such scenarios, a two-level adaptive predictor works more efficiently than a saturation counter. Conditional jumps that are taken every second time or have some other regularly recurring pattern are not predicted well by the saturating counter. A two-level adaptive predictor remembers the history of the last n occurrences of the branch and uses one saturating counter for each of the possible 2n history patterns. This method is illustrated in figure 3.
Consider the example of n = 2. This means that the last two occurrences of the branch are stored in a two-bit shift register. This branch history register can have four different binary values, 00, 01, 10, and 11, where zero means "not taken" and one means "taken". A pattern history table contains four entries per branch, one for each of the 22 = 4 possible branch histories, and each entry in the table contains a two-bit saturating counter of the same type as in figure 2 for each branch. The branch history register is used for choosing which of the four saturating counters to use. If the history is 00, then the first counter is used; if the history is 11, then the last of the four counters is used.
Assume, for example, that a conditional jump is taken every third time. The branch sequence is 001001001... In this case, entry number 00 in the pattern history table will go to state "strongly taken", indicating that after two zeroes comes a one. Entry number 01 will go to state "strongly not taken", indicating that after 01 comes a zero. The same is the case with entry number 10, while entry number 11 is never used because there are never two consecutive ones.
The general rule for a two-level adaptive predictor with an n-bit history is that it can predict any repetitive sequence with any period if all n-bit sub-sequences are different.
The advantage of the two-level adaptive predictor is that it can quickly learn to predict an arbitrary repetitive pattern. This method was invented by T.-Y. Yeh and Yale Patt at the University of Michigan. Since the initial publication in 1991, this method has become very popular. Variants of this prediction method are used in most modern microprocessors.
Two-level neural predictor
A two-level branch predictor where the second level is replaced with a neural network has been proposed.
Local branch prediction
A local branch predictor has a separate history buffer for each conditional jump instruction. It may use a two-level adaptive predictor. The history buffer is separate for each conditional jump instruction, while the pattern history table may be separate as well or it may be shared between all conditional jumps.
The Intel Pentium MMX, Pentium II, and Pentium III have local branch predictors with a local 4-bit history and a local pattern history table with 16 entries for each conditional jump.
On the SPEC'89 benchmarks, very large local predictors saturate at 97.1% correct.
Global branch prediction
A global branch predictor does not keep a separate history record for each conditional jump. Instead it keeps a shared history of all conditional jumps. The advantage of a shared history is that any correlation between different conditional jumps is part of making the predictions. The disadvantage is that the history is diluted by irrelevant information if the different conditional jumps are uncorrelated, and that the history buffer may not include any bits from the same branch if there are many other branches in between. It may use a two-level adaptive predictor.
This scheme is better than the saturating counter scheme only for large table sizes, and it is rarely as good as local prediction. The history buffer must be longer in order to make a good prediction. The size of the pattern history table grows exponentially with the size of the history buffer. Hence, the big pattern history table must be shared among all conditional jumps.
A two-level adaptive predictor with globally shared history buffer and pattern history table is called a "gshare" predictor if it xors the global history and branch PC, and "gselect" if it concatenates them. Global branch prediction is used in AMD processors, and in Intel Pentium M, Core, Core 2, and Silvermont-based Atom processors.
Alloyed branch prediction
An alloyed branch predictor combines the local and global prediction principles by concatenating local and global branch histories, possibly with some bits from the program counter as well. Tests indicate that the VIA Nano processor may be using this technique.
Agree predictor
An agree predictor is a two-level adaptive predictor with globally shared history buffer and pattern history table, and an additional local saturating counter. The outputs of the local and the global predictors are XORed with each other to give the final prediction. The purpose is to reduce contentions in the pattern history table where two branches with opposite prediction happen to share the same entry in the pattern history table.
Hybrid predictor
A hybrid predictor, also called combined predictor, implements more than one prediction mechanism. The final prediction is based either on a meta-predictor that remembers which of the predictors has made the best predictions in the past, or a majority vote function based on an odd number of different predictors.
Scott McFarling proposed combined branch prediction in his 1993 paper.
On the SPEC'89 benchmarks, such a predictor is about as good as the local predictor.
Predictors like gshare use multiple table entries to track the behavior of any particular branch. This multiplication of entries makes it much more likely that two branches will map to the same table entry (a situation called aliasing), which in turn makes it much more likely that prediction accuracy will suffer for those branches. Once you have multiple predictors, it is beneficial to arrange that each predictor will have different aliasing patterns, so that it is more likely that at least one predictor will have no aliasing. Combined predictors with different indexing functions for the different predictors are called gskew predictors, and are analogous to skewed associative caches used for data and instruction caching.
Loop predictor
A conditional jump that controls a loop is best predicted with a special loop predictor. A conditional jump in the bottom of a loop that repeats N times will be taken N-1 times and then not taken once. If the conditional jump is placed at the top of the loop, it will be not taken N-1 times and then taken once. A conditional jump that goes many times one way and then the other way once is detected as having loop behavior. Such a conditional jump can be predicted easily with a simple counter. A loop predictor is part of a hybrid predictor where a meta-predictor detects whether the conditional jump has loop behavior.
Indirect branch predictor
An indirect jump instruction can choose among more than two branches. Some processors have specialized indirect branch predictors. Newer processors from Intel and AMD can predict indirect branches by using a two-level adaptive predictor. This kind of instruction contributes more than one bit to the history buffer. The zEC12 and later z/Architecture processors from IBM support a instruction that can preload the branch predictor entry for a given instruction with a branch target address constructed by adding the contents of a general-purpose register to an immediate displacement value.
Processors without this mechanism will simply predict an indirect jump to go to the same target as it did last time.
Prediction of function returns
A function will normally return to where it is called from. The return instruction is an indirect jump that reads its target address from the call stack. Many microprocessors have a separate prediction mechanism for return instructions. This mechanism is based on a so-called return stack buffer, which is a local mirror of the call stack. The size of the return stack buffer is typically 4–16 entries.
Overriding branch prediction
The trade-off between fast branch prediction and good branch prediction is sometimes dealt with by having two branch predictors. The first branch predictor is fast and simple. The second branch predictor, which is slower, more complicated, and with bigger tables, will override a possibly wrong prediction made by the first predictor.
The Alpha 21264 and Alpha EV8 microprocessors used a fast single-cycle next-line predictor to handle the branch target recurrence and provide a simple and fast branch prediction. Because the next-line predictor is so inaccurate, and the branch resolution recurrence takes so long, both cores have two-cycle secondary branch predictors that can override the prediction of the next-line predictor at the cost of a single lost fetch cycle.
The Intel Core i7 has two branch target buffers and possibly two or more branch predictors.
Neural branch prediction
Machine learning for branch prediction using LVQ and multi-layer perceptrons, called "neural branch prediction", was proposed by Lucian Vintan (Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu).
One year later he developed the perceptron branch predictor.
The neural branch predictor research was developed much further by Daniel Jimenez.
In 2001, the first perceptron predictor was presented that was feasible to implement in hardware. The first commercial implementation of a perceptron branch predictor was in AMD's Piledriver microarchitecture.
The main advantage of the neural predictor is its ability to exploit long histories while requiring only linear resource growth. Classical predictors require exponential resource growth. Jimenez reports a global improvement of 5.7% over a McFarling-style hybrid predictor. He also used a gshare/perceptron overriding hybrid predictors.
The main disadvantage of the perceptron predictor is its high latency. Even after taking advantage of high-speed arithmetic tricks, the computation latency is relatively high compared to the clock period of many modern microarchitectures. In order to reduce the prediction latency, Jimenez proposed in 2003 the fast-path neural predictor, where the perceptron predictor chooses its weights according to the current branch's path, rather than according to the branch's PC. Many other researchers developed this concept (A. Seznec, M. Monchiero, D. Tarjan & K. Skadron, V. Desmet, Akkary et al., K. Aasaraai, Michael Black, etc.).
Most of the state-of-the-art branch predictors are using a perceptron predictor (see Intel's "Championship Branch Prediction Competition"). Intel already implements this idea in one of the IA-64's simulators (2003).
The AMD Ryzen multi-core processor's Infinity Fabric and the Samsung Exynos processor include a perceptron-based neural branch predictor.
History
The IBM 7030 Stretch, designed in the late 1950s, pre-executes all unconditional branches and any conditional branches that depended on the index registers. For other conditional branches, the first two production models implemented predict untaken; subsequent models were changed to implement predictions based on the current values of the indicator bits (corresponding to today's condition codes). The Stretch designers had considered static hint bits in the branch instructions early in the project but decided against them. Misprediction recovery was provided by the lookahead unit on Stretch, and part of Stretch's reputation for less-than-stellar performance was blamed on the time required for misprediction recovery. Subsequent IBM large computer designs did not use branch prediction with speculative execution until the IBM 3090 in 1985.
Two-bit predictors were introduced by Tom McWilliams and Curt Widdoes in 1977 for the Lawrence Livermore National Lab S-1 supercomputer and independently by Jim Smith in 1979 at CDC.
Microprogrammed processors, popular from the 1960s to the 1980s and beyond, took multiple cycles per instruction, and generally did not require branch prediction. However, in addition to the IBM 3090, there are several other examples of microprogrammed designs that incorporated branch prediction.
The Burroughs B4900, a microprogrammed COBOL machine released around 1982, was pipelined and used branch prediction. The B4900 branch prediction history state is stored back into the in-memory instructions during program execution. The B4900 implements 4-state branch prediction by using 4 semantically equivalent branch opcodes to represent each branch operator type. The opcode used indicated the history of that particular branch instruction. If the hardware determines that the branch prediction state of a particular branch needs to be updated, it rewrites the opcode with the semantically equivalent opcode that hinted the proper history. This scheme obtains a 93% hit rate. and others were granted on this scheme.
The DEC VAX 9000, announced in 1989, is both microprogrammed and pipelined, and performs branch prediction.
The first commercial RISC processors, the MIPS R2000 and R3000 and the earlier SPARC processors, do only trivial "not-taken" branch prediction. Because they use branch delay slots, fetched just one instruction per cycle, and execute in-order, there is no performance loss. The later R4000 uses the same trivial "not-taken" branch prediction, and loses two cycles to each taken branch because the branch resolution recurrence is four cycles long.
Branch prediction became more important with the introduction of pipelined superscalar processors like the Intel Pentium, DEC Alpha 21064, the MIPS R8000, and the IBM POWER series. These processors all rely on one-bit or simple bimodal predictors.
The DEC Alpha 21264 (EV6) uses a next-line predictor overridden by a combined local predictor and global predictor, where the combining choice is made by a bimodal predictor.
The AMD K8 has a combined bimodal and global predictor, where the combining choice is another bimodal predictor. This processor caches the base and choice bimodal predictor counters in bits of the L2 cache otherwise used for ECC. As a result, it has effectively very large base and choice predictor tables, and parity rather than ECC on instructions in the L2 cache. The parity design is sufficient, since any instruction suffering a parity error can be invalidated and refetched from memory.
The Alpha 21464 (EV8, cancelled late in design) had a minimum branch misprediction penalty of 14 cycles. It was to use a complex but fast next-line predictor overridden by a combined bimodal and majority-voting predictor. The majority vote was between the bimodal and two gskew predictors.
In 2018 a catastrophic security vulnerability called Spectre was made public by Google's Project Zero and other researchers. Affecting virtually all modern CPUs, the vulnerability involves extracting private data from the leftover data caches of branch mispredictions.
See also
Branch target predictor
Branch predication
Branch prediction analysis attacks – on RSA public-key cryptography
Instruction unit
Cache prefetching
Indirect branch control (IBC)
Indirect branch prediction barrier (IBPB)
Indirect branch restricted speculation (IBRS)
Single thread indirect branch predictor (STIBP)
References
External links
Seznec et al. (1996). "Multiple-Block Ahead Branch Predictors " demonstrates prediction accuracy is not impaired by indexing with previous branch address.
Seznec et al. (2002). "Design Tradeoffs for the Alpha EV8 Conditional Branch Predictor " describes the Alpha EV8 branch predictor. This paper does an excellent job discussing how they arrived at their design from various hardware constraints and simulation studies.
Jimenez (2003). "Reconsidering Complex Branch Predictors " describes the EV6 and K8 branch predictors, and pipelining considerations.
Instruction processing
Speculative execution
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opel%20RAK.1
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Opel RAK.1
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The Opel RAK.1 (also known as the Opel RAK.3) was the world's first purpose-built rocket-powered aircraft. It was designed and built by Julius Hatry under commission from Fritz von Opel, who flew it on September 30, 1929 in front of a large crowd at Rebstock airport near Frankfurt am Main. The RAK.1 plane was part of a series of rocket-powered vehicles that were developed and demonstrated within the Opel RAK program, the world's first large-scale rocket program.
The idea to build and race a rocket-powered car as an intermediate step to realize rocket-powered aviation and even spaceflight was suggested to von Opel by Max Valier. After the World War I, Valier became highly interested in rocketry. Valier, in 1927, he was one of the co-founders of the German Verein für Raumschiffahrt, or "Spaceflight Society", a group of later highly influential scientists who would play a major role in making rocket spaceflight a reality. As an early spaceflight advocate, Valier was more interested in publicizing rocketry than marketing Opel automobiles but came to the conclusion that building a successful rocket-powered car would achieve both goals. Von Opel confirmed his interest in realizing Valier's proposal. On behalf of von Opel, Valier eventually contacted Friedrich Wilhelm Sander, a German pyrotechnical engineer who, in 1923, had purchased H.G. Cordes, a Bremerhaven firm famous for its manufacture of black-powder rockets used mainly for harpoons, signal devices and similar devices. Opel, Sander and Valier joined forces and combined into one entity the financing, the theoretical knowledge, and the practical capability necessary for success. Moreover, von Opel, Valier, and Sander said from the start that their experiments with cars were only a prelude to grander experiments with air- and spacecraft: They agreed on the final goal for Opel RAK of working on rocket-powered aircraft at the same time they were building their famous rocket cars, as pre-condition for the anticipated spaceflight application.
Preparatory work on rocket-powered land vehicles
The group went to an Opel race car, “RAK 1.” The RAK 1 demonstrator was stripped of its engine and radiator to reduce weight. To help keep the car’s wheels on the ground at expected high speeds, the group attached behind each front wheel a small, wing-like stub, set at a negative angle of attack. For propulsion, they elected to use 12 black-powder rockets, mounted in four rows of three rockets each and ignited electrically. The propellant, similar to gunpowder, burned in a subsonic deflagration wave and not in a supersonic detonation wave. A demonstration for the press on April 11, 1928, in Rüsselsheim was arranged: Opel engineer and race driver Kurt C. Volkhart developed and tested the Opel-RAK 1, a converted racing car equipped with Sander rockets instead of an internal combustion engine, which was the first rocket powered automobile. During the April 1928 experiments, piloted by Volkhart, RAK 1 reached the symbolic speed of 100 km/h in just eight seconds.
Von Opel, Sander and Valier were satisfied by RAK 1’s performance, and in particular by the attracted positive publicity for the science of rocketry, but also the Opel company. Nevertheless it was clear to the RAK program leadership, they had no plans to commercially produce rocket cars for end customers, the aim was the development and demonstration of a rocket-powered aircraft. The group continued their land projects and built RAK 2, designed by Volkhart from the ground up as a rocket car. It was far larger and more streamlined than its predecessor. The RAK 2 was powered by 24 rockets packing 264 pounds of explosives. On May 23, 1928, Fritz von Opel himself demonstrated the car, Opel RAK 2, on the Avus Speedway near Berlin. Prior to the start Professor Johann Schütte, Chairman of the Scientific Society of Aviation, and Fritz von Opel held prophetic speeches on the future of rocket-based aviation and spaceflight. After these introductory remarks, mechanics August Becker and Karl Treber then took the tarpaulin off the Opel RAK 2 and carefully pushed it to the start. Eventually the rockets were installed and connected to the ignition mechanism. Police cleared the AVUS track and von Opel drove the RAK 2 car to a record-setting speed of 238 km/h, successfully mastering the challenge of insufficient downforce from the wings for these velocities. The RAK 2 rockets were operational for a ride of circa three minutes, watched by 3,000 spectators and world media, among them Fritz Lang, director of Metropolis and Woman in the Moon, world boxing champion Max Schmeling and many more sports and show business celebrities:
A world record for rail vehicles was reached with RAK3 on June 23, 1928, with the car attaining a top speed of 256 km/h over a 5-km stretch of straight track near Hanover. Some 20,000 spectators watched RAK 3 breaking the existing world speed record of railcars by nearly 40 km/h. The resulting international publicity after RAK2 and RAK3 demonstrations was enormous and gave the science of rocketry a major boost. A replica of the RAK 2 rocket-propelled car is on display at the Opel museum in Rüsselsheim, another one at the "Deutsches Museum" in Munich.
Pioneering phase at Wasserkuppe Mountain
After testing at Wasserkuppe, in June 1928, Fritz von Opel had purchased an Alexander Lippisch-designed sailplane, the Ente, and fitted it with rockets. Fritz Stamer was the pilot during the OPEL RAK experimentations with Lippisch's design. Opel did not get the chance to fly it, however, as the aircraft was destroyed by an engine explosion on its second test flight. With a wingspan of just under , and a length of some , the Ente featured a canoe-like fuselage, canard surfaces, and rudders mounted outboard on a straight rectangular wing. Each of the aircraft’s two rocket engines were tightly packed with about of black powder. Designed to fire in sequence, the rockets were ignited electrically by the pilot. An automatic counterweight system was set to adjust the aircraft’s center of gravity as the rocket fuel was consumed. An elastic launching rope was used to catapult the Ente into the air. After one false start, the aircraft took off and flew a 1,500 metre (4,900 ft) circuit of the Wasserkuppe's landing strip. On the second flight, the team decided to try firing both rockets together for increased thrust over a shorter period. Something went wrong, however, and rather than burning properly, one of the rockets exploded, punching holes in both wings and setting the aircraft afire. Stamer was nevertheless able to bring it down from a height of around 20 metres (65 ft) before hastily abandoning the Ente, which was burned beyond any hope of salvage.
Opel RAK.1 as the world's first dedicated rocket plane
Despite the loss of the first rocket plane, von Opel immediately contracted with Julius Hatry for a specialized rocket aircraft. Hatry’s design for Opel was rather more elegant than the Ente. With a wingspan of 36 feet and length of 16 feet, the new aircraft Opel RAK.1 had a typical sailplane wing, under which a pod was suspended to accommodate the pilot and sixteen of Sander's solid rocket engines each with 50 pounds of thrust. The tailplane was mounted on booms behind the wing and high out of the way of the rocket exhaust. The aircraft is sometimes referred to as the Opel-Hatry RAK.1 or Opel-Sander RAK.1 in acknowledgment of its builder or the supplier of its engines respectively. In still other references it is called the RAK.3 to distinguish it from Opel's previous RAK.1 and RAK.2 rocket cars. As it happened, all three names, Opel, Sander, and Hatry were painted on the aircraft (with Opel’s most prominent), as was the RAK.1 designation. The first public flight came on Sept. 30, 1929. Before a large crowd assembled outside of Frankfurt, the intrepid von Opel made a successful flight of almost 3.5 km in 75 seconds, reaching an estimated top speed of around 150 km/h. RAK.1 made a hard landing, but it had made an emphatic point about rocket aviation and immensely popularized rockets as means of propulsion, causing a so called global "rocket rumble". The Mannheim Museum of Technology, Technoseum, has a replica of RAK.1 as the world's first dedicated rocket-plane on display, the execution of which Julius Hatry himself supervised. Technoseum also hosts original parts of the RAK.1 and Hatry's estate.
According to Frank H. Winter in SPACEFLIGHT magazine, the initial plan was a course from Frankfurt to Rüsselsheim, site of the Opel Automobile Works and about 16 km due southwest. At the last minute, however, the Government intervened in the name of safety: There was fear that he might crash into a village or railroad station. He was thus obliged to confine the flight to the immediate environs of the Rebstock Airport, set in an otherwise uninhabited forest glade. As for the press and public, von Opel this time sincerely wished to keep them within limits, "to avoid any possible trouble with the unruly crowds." According to Winter, von Opel had invited a few newspaper media and granted exclusive American rights to The New York Times and Fox Movietone for filming. Nevertheless, Universal Newsreel of the US also found a way to report on the flight with film footage as "Speeds through air in rocket airplane - Fritz von Opel, millionaire daredevil, goes one and a quarter miles in flying inferno".
On 30 September 1929, it first appeared as if the flight was never going to be made. At 9 a.m., von Opel entered the RAK.1 and prepared for liftoff. Just briefly before the anticipated launch, Major Hellmuth Felmy came up informing von Opel: "A telegram just came from the Oberpraesidium in Kassel. All flight tests are forbidden. Take off quick! I haven't had the telegram yet!". Winter reports on a comment by von Opel: "Felmy's willingness to risk his position to protect my first rocket flight from bureaucratic prohibitions is something I will never forget." The order for the catapult release could be given, but the first attempt failed. Fire and smoke leapt out of the big boosters, but the sustainers failed to ignite. The RAK-1 glided back to Earth at only 50 metres (164 ft.). At 11 a.m. a second attempt was made, but the result was similar to the initial launch attempt.
At about 3:30 or 4:00 in the afternoon another attempt was made. Aviation enthusiasts, von Opel's supporters and friends, and some of the media organizations were present. Stamer, Sander and von Opel's fiancee and future wife Margot Löwenstein (also known as Sellnik), were there as well. Sellnik, herself a pilot and one of Germany's six aviatrixes, had been another of von Opel's professional advisors on aviation for the previous several months. After the flight (according to one account), she was the first to run up and congratulate him. Ten minutes after the flight, von Opel wrote down his impressions, which he afterwards dispatched to The New York Times as his exclusive. "My first rocket flight!," he began. "...For today's flight I have trained for a year... For an hour before this morning's start I inspected the course and personally went over every detail of the plane — cables, fittings and rockets... Finally I draw a deep breath and then ignite. Tremendous pressure! I feel the machine racing forward. It tries to rear like a horse. Thus I race into space as in a dream, without any feeling for space or time. The machine practically flies itself. I scarcely need to touch the wheel. I only feel the boundless intoxicating joy of making a flight such as man has never made before... The force of the rockets has expired. Visions cease; actuality calls. I must return to Earth.. Gliding with terrible bumps along the ground, the plane comes to a halt."
Exact measurements of the flight were impossible. After he had levelled off to about 100 ft. (30.5 metres), the ground crew attempted to time the flight. It was determined that he was then going at 90 mph (150 km/h). According to Heinz Gartmann, "a downward gust of wind, coinciding with the edge of the landing ground, caused him to make a forced landing after only using up five rockets. At a speed of 80 mph (129 km/h) this was a difficult feat, and Opel hit the ground with a crash as the landing-skid broke and the cockpit floor was shaved away, leaving him hanging by his safety-belt with an inch to spare." Officially, von Opel had been aloft for an estimated 75 seconds, attaining a maximum velocity of 95 mph (153 km/h) and had traversed a distance of circa 3 km.
Specifications (Opel RAK.1)
Legacy and importance of Opel RAK for the history of spaceflight
Biographic Aspects
Shortly after the September 1929 flight of RAK.1, the Opel rocket experiments were brought to an end by the Great Depression and the Opel company focused its engineering capacities on vehicle development. Von Opel left Germany before 1930, first to the US and eventually to France and Switzerland where he died in 1971. He lived long enough to see the fulfillment of his dreams with the successful Apollo missions which can be traced back to Opel RAK. His sister Elinor von Opel had to flee Germany in 1935 with her sons, Ernst Wilhelm Sachs von Opel and Gunter Sachs von Opel, due a legal battle on her divorce, particularly bitter about the custody of both sons, and because of her public aversion to Nazi leadership, friends of her former husband Willy Sachs. Elinor's German assets were blocked and confiscated by the German Reich government. Valier continued the rocket development after the Opel RAK break-up on his own. In collaboration with Heylandt-Werke, he also was focusing his efforts on liquid-fuelled rockets. Their first successful test firing with liquid fuel (five minutes) occurred in the Heylandt plant on 25 January 1930. Valier was killed less than a month later when an alcohol-fuelled rocket exploded on his test bench in Berlin. He is considered the first fatality of the dawning space age. His protégé Arthur Rudolph went on to develop an improved and safer version of Valier's engine. Sander was eventually engaged in the 1930s in German military projects under General Walter R. Dornberger but was imprisoned for treason by the Nazis and forced to sell his business, he died in 1938. Hatry tried to continue the work on his aircraft developments, but was sidelined by the Nazis since he had a Jewish grandfather. He had to start anew and became a screenwriter and documentary filmmaker. Finally, Hatry is drawn into theater and fiction. As last survivor of the original RAK.1 aircraft team, he died in 2000.
Technology aspects
The impact of Opel RAK was both immediate and long-lasting on later spaceflight pioneers, but also on the general audience and media. The experiments, not only the first rocket-powered flights but also the speed records of the land vehicles, were described in the media as the start of a new era:
»… Nevertheless, few, if any, among the many thousands of onlookers who witnessed the demonstration on the AVUS track could help but feel that we are poised at the beginning of a new era.« (…) P. Friedmann, Das Motorrad No. 12/1928, June 9, 1928
»The amazing thing about Opel’s rocket run on the AVUS track in Berlin is not just the daring feat itself, but its aftermath: Both the public and academics have finally seen the light and have begun to believe in the future of the rocket as an engine for new rapid transit devices.« Otto Willi Gail, Illustrierte Zeitung, Leipzig, 1928
Opel, Sander, Valier and Hatry had engaged in a program that led directly to use of jet-assisted takeoff for heavily laden aircraft. The German Reich was first to test the approach in August 1929 when a battery of solid rocket propellants supported a Junkers Ju-33 seaplane to get airborne. The Opel RAK experiments had a tremendous influence on Lippisch, whose experience with the rocket-powered "Ente" eventually paved the way to the Messerschmitt Me-163, the first operational rocket fighter craft. The Opel RAK experiments excited also the interest of the German military, which provided funding for further development of rockets as a replacement for artillery. This led to an array of military applications, among them Germany's V-2 terror weapon, the world’s first ballistic missile. After World War II, these German rocket and missile scientists and engineers would have an immense impact on missile and space programs by the United States of America. Walter J. Boyne, Director of the National Air and Space Museum in Washington, DC, concluded "Working together, von Opel, Valier, and Sander had thrown a big rock of publicity into the mill pond of science. The ripples have not yet ceased to spread."
Universal Newsreel video footage of RAK.1 flight
(Youtube) video clip: Fritz Von Opel with his Opel RAK 1 rocket air plane. HD Stock Footage
References
1920s German experimental aircraft
Rocket-powered aircraft
Glider aircraft
Rak.1
Motor gliders
Aircraft first flown in 1929
High-wing aircraft
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20compositions%20by%20Ludwig%20van%20Beethoven
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List of compositions by Ludwig van Beethoven
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The compositions of Ludwig van Beethoven consist of 722 works written over forty-five years, from his earliest work in 1782 (variations for piano on a march by Ernst Christoph Dressler) when he was only eleven years old and still in Bonn, until his last work just before his death in Vienna in 1827. Beethoven composed works in all the main genres of classical music, including symphonies, concertos, string quartets, piano sonatas and opera. His compositions range from solo works to those requiring a large orchestra and chorus.
Beethoven straddled both the Classical and Romantic periods, working in genres associated with Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and his teacher Joseph Haydn, such as the piano concerto, string quartet and symphony, while on the other hand providing the groundwork for other Romantic composers, such as Hector Berlioz and Franz Liszt, with programmatic works such as his Pastoral Symphony and Piano Sonata "Les Adieux". Beethoven's work is typically divided into three periods: the "Early" period, where he composed in the "Viennese" style; the "Middle" or "Heroic" period, where his work is characterised by struggle and heroism, such as in the Eroica Symphony, the Fifth Symphony, the Appassionata Sonata and in his sole opera Fidelio; and the "Late" period, marked by intense personal expression and an emotional and intellectual profundity. Although his output greatly diminished in his later years, this period saw the composition of masterpieces such as the late string quartets, the final five piano sonatas, the Diabelli Variations, the Missa Solemnis and the Ninth Symphony.
Beethoven's works are classified by both genre and various numbering systems. The best-known numbering system for Beethoven's works is that by opus number, assigned by Beethoven's publishers during his lifetime. Only 172 of Beethoven's works have opus numbers, divided among 138 opus numbers. Many works that were unpublished or published without opus numbers have been assigned one of "WoO" (Werke ohne Opuszahl—works without opus number), Hess or Biamonti numbers. For example, the short piano piece "Für Elise" is more fully known as the "Bagatelle in A minor, WoO 59 ('Für Elise')". Some works are also commonly referred to by their nicknames, such as the Kreutzer Violin Sonata, or the Archduke Piano Trio.
Works are also often identified by their number within their genre. For example, the 14th string quartet, published as Opus 131, may be referenced either as "String Quartet No. 14" or "the Opus 131 String Quartet". The listings below include all of these relevant identifiers. While other catalogues of Beethoven's works exist, the numbers here represent the most commonly used.
List of works by genre
Beethoven's works are published in several editions, the first of these was Ludwig van Beethovens Werke: Vollständige kritisch durchgesehene überall berechtigte Ausgabe published between 1862 and 1865 with a supplemental volume in 1888 by Breitkopf & Härtel, commonly known as the "Beethoven Gesamtausgabe" [GA]. While this was a landmark achievement at the time, the limitations of this edition soon became apparent. Between 1959 and 1971 Willy Hess prepared a supplemental edition, Beethoven: Sämtliche Werke: Supplemente zur Gesamtausgabe, [HS] containing works that were not in the Gesamtausgabe.
Since 1961 the Beethoven Archive has been publishing a new scholarly–critical Complete Edition of Beethoven's works, Beethoven: Werke: neue Ausgabe sämtlicher Werke [NA]. However, only 42 of the projected 56 volumes have been published so far. As this edition has not been published in full there are works without an NA designation.
Legend for publications – p: parts s: full score vs: vocal score
Orchestral music
Beethoven wrote nine symphonies, nine concertos, and a variety of other orchestral music, ranging from overtures and incidental music for theatrical productions to other miscellaneous "occasional" works, written for a particular occasion. Of the concertos, seven are widely known (one violin concerto, five piano concertos, and one triple concerto for violin, piano, and cello); the other two are an early piano concerto (WoO 4) and an arrangement of the Violin Concerto for piano and orchestra (Opus 61a).
Symphonies
Beethoven is believed to have intended to write a Tenth Symphony in the last year of his life; a performing version of possible sketches was assembled by Barry Cooper.
Concertos
Other works for soloist and orchestra
Overtures and incidental music
Chamber music
Beethoven wrote 16 string quartets and numerous other forms of chamber music, including piano trios, string trios, and sonatas for violin and cello with piano, as well as works with wind instruments.
Chamber music for strings
String quartets
Other chamber music for strings
Chamber music with piano
Solo instrument and piano
Piano trios
Other chamber music with piano
Chamber music for winds
Solo piano music
In addition to the 32 celebrated sonatas, Beethoven's work for solo piano includes many one-movement pieces, more than twenty sets of variations, most unpublished in his lifetime or published without opus number, and over thirty bagatelles, including the well-known "Für Elise".
Piano sonatas
Piano variations
Shorter piano pieces
Piano four hands
Vocal music
While he completed only one opera, Beethoven wrote vocal music throughout his life, including two Mass settings, other works for chorus and orchestra (in addition to the Ninth Symphony), arias, duets, art songs (lieder), and true song cycles.
Operas
Choral works with orchestra
Other choral works
Solo voices and orchestra
Songs
Folksongs
Wind Band
Collections of dances
Canons and musical jokes
Miscellaneous
List of works by Beethoven
The following is a list of Beethoven's works, sorted by Opus number, followed by works listed as WoO in the Kinsky–Halm Catalogue, and then works listed in the appendix of that catalogue, which are given "Anhang" numbers. These are followed by additional works with Hess numbers listed in the catalogue of Willy Hess that are not otherwise listed in the Kinsky–Halm Catalogue. Lastly there are works with Biamonti numbers (Bia.), from the Biamonti Catalogue, an attempt to catalogue everything that Beethoven wrote in chronological order, though there are works that were not known at the time it was compiled. Thus there is no definitive catalogue of Beethoven's works to match the Deutsch catalogue for Schubert or the Köchel catalogue for Mozart.
Works with opus numbers
The opus numbers were assigned by publishers to Beethoven's works as they were published. The opus numbers do not include all works that were published in Beethoven's lifetime nor are they in chronological order. For instance, the Octet Op. 103 was written before November 1792, while Op. 102 and Op. 104 were written in 1815 and 1817 respectively.
Op. 1: Three Piano Trios (1795)
No. 1: Piano Trio No. 1 in E major
No. 2: Piano Trio No. 2 in G major
No. 3: Piano Trio No. 3 in C minor
Op. 2: Three Piano Sonatas (1796)
No. 1: Piano Sonata No. 1 in F minor
No. 2: Piano Sonata No. 2 in A major
No. 3: Piano Sonata No. 3 in C major
Op. 3: String Trio No. 1 in E major (1794)
Op. 4: String Quintet (Reworking of Wind Octet (Op. 103), 1795)
Op. 5: Two Cello Sonatas (1796)
No. 1: Cello Sonata No. 1 in F major
No. 2: Cello Sonata No. 2 in G minor
Op. 6: Sonata for Piano, Four Hands in D major (1797)
Op. 7: Piano Sonata No. 4 in E major (1797)
Op. 8: String Trio No. 2 (Serenade) in D major (1797)
Op. 9: Three String Trios (1798)
No. 1: String Trio No. 3 in G major
No. 2: String Trio No. 4 in D major
No. 3: String Trio No. 5 in C minor
Op. 10: Three Piano Sonatas (1798)
No. 1: Piano Sonata No. 5 in C minor
No. 2: Piano Sonata No. 6 in F major
No. 3: Piano Sonata No. 7 in D major
Op. 11: Piano Trio No. 4 in B major ("Gassenhauer") (1797) (for clarinet (or violin), cello (sometimes bassoon), and piano)
Op. 12: Three Violin Sonatas (1798)
No. 1: Violin Sonata No. 1 in D major
No. 2: Violin Sonata No. 2 in A major
No. 3: Violin Sonata No. 3 in E major
Op. 13: Piano Sonata No. 8 in C minor ("Pathetique") (1799)
Op. 14: Two Piano Sonatas (1799)
No. 1: Piano Sonata No. 9 in E major (arranged for String Quartet by the composer in F major, H 34, in 1801)
No. 2: Piano Sonata No. 10 in G major
Op. 15: Piano Concerto No. 1 in C major (1795)
Op. 16: Quintet for Piano and Winds (1796) (later arranged for piano quartet)
Op. 17: Horn Sonata in F major (1800)
Op. 18: Six String Quartets (1800)
No. 1: String Quartet No. 1 in F major
No. 2: String Quartet No. 2 in G major
No. 3: String Quartet No. 3 in D major
No. 4: String Quartet No. 4 in C minor
No. 5: String Quartet No. 5 in A major
No. 6: String Quartet No. 6 in B major
Op. 19: Piano Concerto No. 2 in B major (1795)
Op. 20: Septet in E major (1799)
Op. 21: Symphony No. 1 in C major (1800)
Op. 22: Piano Sonata No. 11 in B major (1800)
Op. 23: Violin Sonata No. 4 in A minor (1801)
Op. 24: Violin Sonata No. 5 in F major ("Spring") (1801)
Op. 25: Serenade for Flute, Violin and Viola in D major (1801)
Op. 26: Piano Sonata No. 12 in A major (1801)
Op. 27: Two Piano Sonatas (1801)
No. 1: Piano Sonata No. 13 in E major
No. 2: Piano Sonata No. 14 in C minor ("Moonlight")
Op. 28: Piano Sonata No. 15 in D major ("Pastoral") (1801)
Op. 29: String Quintet in C major (1801)
Op. 30: Three Violin Sonatas (1802)
No. 1: Violin Sonata No. 6 in A major
No. 2: Violin Sonata No. 7 in C minor
No. 3: Violin Sonata No. 8 in G major
Op. 31: Three Piano Sonatas (1802)
No. 1: Piano Sonata No. 16 in G major
No. 2: Piano Sonata No. 17 in D minor ("Tempest")
No. 3: Piano Sonata No. 18 in E major ("Hunt")
Op. 32: Song "An die Hoffnung" (1805)
Op. 33: Seven Bagatelles for piano (1802)
Op. 34: Six variations on an original theme for piano in F major (1802)
Op. 35: Fifteen variations and a fugue for piano on an original theme in E major ("Eroica Variations") (1802)
Op. 36: Symphony No. 2 in D major (1802)
Op. 37: Piano Concerto No. 3 in C minor (1800)
Op. 38: Piano Trio in E major (arrangement of the Septet, Opus 20) (1803) (for clarinet (or violin), cello, and piano)
Op. 39: Two Preludes through all twelve major keys for piano (1789)
Op. 40: Romance for Violin and Orchestra No. 1 in G major (1802)
Op. 41: Serenade for Piano and Flute (or Violin) in D major (1803) (Arrangement of Op. 25 Serenade for Flute, Violin and Viola)
Op. 42: Notturno for Viola and Piano in D major (1803) (Arrangement of Opus 8 Serenade for Violin, Viola and Cello)
Op. 43: The Creatures of Prometheus, overture and ballet music (1801)
Op. 44: Variations on an original theme in E major for piano trio (1792)
Op. 45: Three Marches for Piano, 4 hands (1803)
Op. 46: Song – "Adelaide" (1795)
Op. 47: Violin Sonata No. 9 in A major ("Kreutzer") (1803)
Op. 48: Six Songs (1802)
Op. 49: Two Piano Sonatas (between 1795 and 1798)
No. 1: Piano Sonata No. 19 in G minor
No. 2: Piano Sonata No. 20 in G major
Op. 50: Romance for Violin and Orchestra No. 2 in F major (1798)
Op. 51: Two Rondos for Piano (1797)
No. 1: Rondo in C major
No. 2: Rondo in G major
Op. 52: Eight Songs (1804–1805)
Op. 53: Piano Sonata No. 21 in C major ("Waldstein") (1804)
Op. 54: Piano Sonata No. 22 in F major (1804)
Op. 55: Symphony No. 3 in E major ("Eroica") (1805)
Op. 56: Triple Concerto for violin, cello, and piano in C major (1804–1805)
Op. 57: Piano Sonata No. 23 in F minor ("Appassionata") (1805–1806)
Op. 58: Piano Concerto No. 4 in G major (1805–1806)
Op. 59: Three String Quartets ("Rasumovsky") (1806)
No. 1: String Quartet No. 7 in F major
No. 2: String Quartet No. 8 in E minor
No. 3: String Quartet No. 9 in C major
Op. 60: Symphony No. 4 in B major (1806)
Op. 61: Violin Concerto in D major (1806)
Op. 61a: Piano Transcription of Violin Concerto, Opus 61
Op. 62: Coriolan Overture (1807)
Op. 63: Arrangement of String Quintet (Opus 4) for Piano Trio (1806) (doubtful)
Op. 64: Arrangement of String Trio (Opus 3) for Piano and Cello (1807) (spurious – author unknown)
Op. 65: Aria: "" (1796)
Op. 66: 12 Variations for cello and piano in F major on "Ein Mädchen oder Weibchen" from Mozart's The Magic Flute (1796)
Op. 67: Symphony No. 5 in C minor (1807–1808)
Op. 68: Symphony No. 6 in F major ("Pastoral") (1807–1808)
Op. 69: Cello Sonata No. 3 in A major (1808)
Op. 70: Two Piano Trios (1808)
No. 1: Piano Trio No. 5 in D major ("Ghost")
No. 2: Piano Trio No. 6 in E major
Op. 71: Wind sextet in E (1796)
Op. 72: Fidelio, opera (c. 1803–05; Fidelio Overture composed 1814)
Op. 72a: Leonore (earlier version of Fidelio, with Leonore Overture No. 2) (1805)
Op. 72b: Leonore (earlier version of Fidelio, with Leonore Overture No. 3) (1806)
Op. 73: Piano Concerto No. 5 in E major ("Emperor") (1809)
Op. 74: String Quartet No. 10 in E major ("Harp") (1809)
Op. 75: Six Songs (1809)
Op. 76: Six variations on an original theme for piano in D major (includes the Turkish March from The Ruins of Athens) (1809)
Op. 77: Piano Fantasia in G minor (1809)
Op. 78: Piano Sonata No. 24 in F major (1809)
Op. 79: Piano Sonata No. 25 in G major (1809)
Op. 80: "Choral Fantasy" (Fantasia in C minor for piano, chorus, and orchestra) (1808)
Op. 81a: Piano Sonata No. 26 in E major ("Les Adieux") (1809)
Op. 81b: Sextet in E major (1795)
Op. 82: Four Ariettas and a Duet (1809)
Op. 83: Three Songs (1810)
Op. 84: Egmont, overture and incidental music (1810)
Op. 85: Oratorio: Christus am Ölberge (Christ on the Mount of Olives) (1803)
Op. 86: Mass in C major (1807)
Op. 87: Trio for two Oboes and English Horn in C major (1795)
Op. 88: Song: "Das Glück der Freundschaft" (1803)
Op. 89: Polonaise in C major (1814)
Op. 90: Piano Sonata No. 27 in E minor (1814)
Op. 91: Wellington's Victory ("Battle Symphony") (1813)
Op. 92: Symphony No. 7 in A major (1812)
Op. 93: Symphony No. 8 in F major (1812)
Op. 94: Song "An die Hoffnung" (1814)
Op. 95: String Quartet No. 11 in F minor ("Serioso") (1810)
Op. 96: Violin Sonata No. 10 in G major (1812)
Op. 97: Piano Trio No. 7 in B major ("Archduke") (1811)
Op. 98: An die ferne Geliebte, song cycle (1816)
Op. 99: Song "Der Mann von Wort" (1816)
Op. 100: Song "Merkenstein" (1814, about the Merkenstein ruins)
Op. 101: Piano Sonata No. 28 in A major (1816)
Op. 102: Two Cello Sonatas (1815)
No. 1: Cello Sonata No. 4 in C major
No. 2: Cello Sonata No. 5 in D major.
Op. 103: Octet in E (1792)
Op. 104: String Quintet (arrangement of Piano Trio No. 3, 1817)
Op. 105: Six National Airs with Variations for Flute (or Violin) and Piano (1819)
Op. 106: Piano Sonata No. 29 in B major ("Hammerklavier") (1818)
Op. 107: Ten National Airs with Variations for Flute (or Violin) and Piano (1820)
Op. 108: Twenty-Five Scottish Songs (1818)
Op. 109: Piano Sonata No. 30 in E major (1820)
Op. 110: Piano Sonata No. 31 in A major (1821)
Op. 111: Piano Sonata No. 32 in C minor (1822)
Op. 112: Meeresstille und glückliche Fahrt (Calm Sea and Prosperous Voyage), for chorus and orchestra (1815)
Op. 113: Die Ruinen von Athen (The ruins of Athens), overture and incidental music (1811)
Op. 114: March and Chorus for Die Weihe des Hauses (The Consecration of the House) from Die Ruinen von Athen (The ruins of Athens) (1822)
Op. 115: Zur Namensfeier (Feastday), overture (1815)
Op. 116: "Tremate, empi tremate", vocal trio with orchestra (1802)
Op. 117: König Stephan (King Stephen), overture and incidental music (1811)
Op. 118: "Elegischer Gesang" for four voices and string quartet (1814)
Op. 119: Eleven new Bagatelles for piano (1822)
Op. 120: Thirty-three variations on a waltz by Diabelli for piano in C major ("Diabelli Variations") (1823)
Op. 121a: Kakadu Variations, for Piano Trio (Variations on "Ich bin der Schneider Kakadu") (1803)
Op. 121b: "Opferlied" for soprano, chorus and orchestra (1822)
Op. 122: "Bundeslied" for soprano, alto, chorus and wind instruments (1824)
Op. 123: Missa solemnis in D major (1823)
Op. 124: Die Weihe des Hauses (The Consecration of the House), overture and incidental music (1822)
Op. 125: Symphony No. 9 in D minor ("Choral") (1824)
Op. 126: Six Bagatelles for piano (1824)
Op. 127: String Quartet No. 12 in E major (1825)
Op. 128: Song: "Der Kuss" (1822)
Op. 129: Rondo à Capriccio for piano in G major ("Rage over a lost penny") (1795)
Op. 130: String Quartet No. 13 in B major (1825–1826)
Op. 131: String Quartet No. 14 in C minor (1826)
Op. 132: String Quartet No. 15 in A minor (1825)
Op. 133: Große Fuge in B major for string quartet (originally finale of Opus 130) (1825)
Op. 134: Piano arrangement (4 hands) of the Große Fuge, Opus 133 (1826)
Op. 135: String Quartet No. 16 in F major (1826)
Op. 136: Cantata: Der glorreiche Augenblick (1814)
Op. 137: Fugue for String Quintet in D major (1817)
Op. 138: Leonore, opera (earlier version of Fidelio, with Leonore Overture No. 1) (1807)
Works with WoO numbers
The numbers and categories used below are from the Kinsky–Halm Catalogue of 1955. WoO is an abbreviation of "Werke ohne Opuszahl", German for "Works without Opus number". While some of these works were published during Beethoven's lifetime but not given opus numbers, for instance the piano variations WoO 80, others like Für Elise WoO 59 were not published until later. Unlike with opus numbers which were assigned depending on when the works were published, WoO numbers were assigned by genre.
Instrumental works: WoO 1–86
Orchestral works
Orchestra alone
WoO 1: Musik zu einem Ritterballett (Music for a ballet on horseback) (1790–01)
WoO 2a: Triumphal March for orchestra for 's tragedy Tarpeja (1813)
WoO 2b: Introduction to Act II of Leonore (1805)
WoO 3: "Gratulations-Menuett", minuet for orchestra (1822)
Concertante
WoO 4: Piano Concerto No. 0 in E major (solo part only with indications of orchestration) (1784)
WoO 5: Violin Concerto movement in C major, fragment (1790–92)
WoO 6: Rondo in B major for piano and orchestra, possibly part of initial version of the Piano Concerto No. 2 (1793)
Dances
WoO 7: Twelve minuets for orchestra (later arranged for piano, Hess 101) (1795)
WoO 8: Twelve German Dances for orchestra (later arranged for piano, Hess 100) (1795)
WoO 9: Six minuets for two violins and double bass (authenticity not fully confirmed) (?before 1795)
WoO 10: Six minuets for orchestra (original version lost, only an arrangement for piano is extant) (1795)
WoO 11: Seven Ländler for two violins and cello (original version lost, only an arrangement for piano is extant) (1799)
WoO 12: Twelve minuets for orchestra (spurious, actually by Beethoven's brother Carl) (1799)
WoO 13: Twelve German Dances for orchestra (original version lost, only an arrangement for piano is extant) (1792–97)
WoO 14: Twelve contredanses for orchestra (nos. 1–2, 4–5, 7–10, 12, later arranged for piano, Hess 102) (1791–1801)
WoO 15: Six Ländler for two violins and double bass (later arranged for piano) (1802)
WoO 16: Twelve Écossaises for orchestra (fraudulent) (1806)
WoO 17: Eleven "Mödlinger Tänze" for seven instruments (probably spurious) (1819)
Marches and dances for winds
WoO 18: March for Military Band "Für die Böhmische Landwehr" ["For the Bohemian Ward"] (later arranged for piano, Hess 99) (1809)
WoO 19: March for Military Band "Pferdemusik" ["Horse-music"] (1810)
WoO 20: March for Military Band "Zapfenstreich" ["The Tattoo"] (1810)
WoO 21: Polonaise for Military Band (1810)
WoO 22: Écossaise for Military Band (1810)
WoO 23: Écossaise for Military Band (only a piano arrangement by Carl Czerny is extant) (1810)
WoO 24: March for Military Band (1816)
Chamber works
Without piano
WoO 25: Rondo for wind octet (believed to be the original finale of the Octet, opus 103) (1792)
WoO 26: Duo for two flutes (1792)
WoO 27: Three duets for clarinet and bassoon (probably spurious)
WoO 28: Variations for two oboes and English horn on "Là ci darem la mano" from Mozart's opera Don Giovanni (1795)
WoO 29: March for Wind Sextet in B (1797–98)
WoO 30: Three Equale for four trombones (vocal arrangements of these were performed at Beethoven's funeral) (1812)
WoO 31: Fugue for organ (1783)
WoO 32: Duo for viola and cello, "mit zwei obligaten Augengläsern" ("with two obbligato eyeglasses") (1796–97)
WoO 33: Five pieces for mechanical clock (1794–1800)
WoO 34: Duet for two violins (1822)
WoO 35: Canon for two violins (1825)
With piano
WoO 36: Three piano quartets (1785)
WoO 37: Trio for piano, flute, and bassoon in G major (1786)
WoO 38: Piano Trio in E major (Piano Trio No. 8) (1791)
WoO 39: Allegretto for piano trio in B major (1812)
WoO 40: Twelve variations for piano and violin on "Se vuol ballare" from Mozart's The Marriage of Figaro (1792–93)
WoO 41: Rondo for piano and violin in G major (1793–94)
WoO 42: Six German Dances for violin and piano (1796)
WoO 43a: Sonatina for mandolin and piano (1796)
WoO 43b: Adagio for mandolin and piano (1796)
WoO 44a: Sonatina for mandolin and piano (1796)
WoO 44b: Andante and variations for mandolin and piano (1796)
WoO 45: Twelve Variations for cello and piano on "See, the conqu'ring hero comes" from Handel's Judas Maccabaeus (1796)
WoO 46: Seven Variations for cello and piano in E major on "Bei Männern welche Liebe fühlen" from Mozart's The Magic Flute (1801)
Piano works for 2 or 4 hands
Sonatas and single-movement works
WoO 47: Three piano sonatas (E major, F minor, D major) ("Kurfürsten Sonatas") (1783)
WoO 48: Rondo for piano in C major (1783)
WoO 49: Rondo for piano in A major (1783)
WoO 50: Piano Sonatina (?) in F major (1790–92, two movements)
WoO 51: Piano Sonata in C major (1797–98, fragment) completed Ferdinand Ries, 1830
WoO 52: Presto (Bagatelle) for piano in C minor (1795)
WoO 53: Allegretto (Bagatelle) for piano in C minor (1796–97)
WoO 54: Lustig-Traurig (Bagatelle) for piano in C major (1802)
WoO 55: Prelude for piano in F minor (1803)
WoO 56: Allegretto (Bagatelle) for piano in C major (1803)
WoO 57: Andante favori – original middle movement from Piano Sonata No. 21 (Waldstein) (1805)
WoO 58: Cadenzas for 1st and 3rd movements of Mozart's D minor Piano Concerto (K. 466) (1809)
WoO 59: Poco moto (Bagatelle) for piano in A minor ("Für Elise") (c. 1810)
WoO 60: Ziemlich lebhaft (Bagatelle) for piano in B major (1818))
WoO 61: Allegretto for piano in B minor (1821)
WoO 61a: Allegretto quasi andante for piano in G minor (1825)
WoO 62: (fragment, piano transcription)
Variations
WoO 63: Nine variations for piano on a march by Ernst Christoph Dressler (1782)
WoO 64: Six Variations on a Swiss song for piano or harp (1790–1792)
WoO 65: Twenty-four variations for piano on Vincenzo Righini's aria "Venni Amore" (1790–1791)
WoO 66: Thirteen variations for piano on the aria "Es war einmal ein alter Mann" from Carl Ditters von Dittersdorf's opera Das rote Käppchen (1792)
WoO 67: Eight variations for piano four hands on a theme by Count Waldstein (1792)
WoO 68: Twelve variations for piano on the "Menuet a la Vigano" from Jakob Haibel's ballet Le nozze disturbate (1795)
WoO 69: Nine variations for piano on "Quant'e piu bello" from Giovanni Paisiello's opera La Molinara (1795)
WoO 70: Six variations for piano on "Nel cor più non mi sento" from Giovanni Paisiello's opera La Molinara (1795)
WoO 71: Twelve variations for piano on the Russian dance from Paul Wranitzky's ballet Das Waldmädchen (1796–1797)
WoO 72: Eight variations for piano on "Une Fièvre Brûlante" from André Ernest Modeste Grétry's opera Richard Coeur-de-lion (1795)
WoO 73: Ten variations for piano on "La stessa, la stessissima" from Antonio Salieri's opera Falstaff (1799)
WoO 74: "Ich denke dein" – song with six variations for piano four hands (1799)
WoO 75: Seven variations for piano on "Kind, willst du ruhig schlafen" from Peter Winter's opera Das unterbrochene Opferfest (1799)
WoO 76: Eight variations for piano on "Tändeln und scherzen" from Franz Xaver Süssmayr's opera Soliman II (1799)
WoO 77: Six easy variations on an original theme for piano (1800)
WoO 78: Seven variations for piano on "God Save the King" (1802–1803)
WoO 79: Five variations for piano on "Rule Britannia!" (1803)
WoO 80: Thirty-two variations on an original theme in C minor for piano (1806)
Dances
WoO 81: Allemande for piano in A major (1793)
WoO 82: Minuet for piano in E major (1803)
WoO 83: Six Écossaises for piano in E major (1806)
WoO 84: Waltz for piano in E major (1824)
WoO 85: Waltz for piano in D major (1825)
WoO 86: Écossaise for piano in E major (1825)
Vocal works: WoO 87–205
Cantatas, choruses and arias with orchestra
WoO 87: Cantata on the Death of Emperor Joseph II (1790)
WoO 88: Cantata on the Accession of Emperor Leopold II (1790)
WoO 89: Aria "Prüfung des Küssens" (1790–92)
WoO 90: Aria "Mit Mädeln sich vertragen" (1790–92)
WoO 91: Two arias for Die Schöne Schusterin (1795–96)
WoO 92: Aria "Primo Amore" (1790–92)
WoO 92a: Aria "No, non turbati" (1802)
WoO 93: Duet "Nei giorni tuoi felici" (1802)
WoO 94: "Germania", aria with chorus in B major (1814)
WoO 95: Chorus for the Congress of Vienna (1815)
WoO 96: Incidental Music to Leonore Prohaska (1815)
WoO 97: "Es ist vollbracht" for Die Ehrenpforten (1815)
WoO 98: "Wo sich die Pulse", chorus for The Consecration of the House (1822)
Works for multiple voices with piano accompaniment, or unaccompanied
WoO 99 – Polyphonic songs (Italian Part-songs)
No. 1 Bei labbri che amore (Hess 211) (old no. 1)
No. 2 Ma tu tremi (Hess 212) (old no. 6)
No. 3 E pur fra le tempeste (Hess 232)
No. 4 Sei mio ben (Hess 231)
No. 5a Giura il nocchier (Hess 227) (old no. 5b)
No. 5b Giura il nocchier (Hess 230)
No. 5c Giura il nocchier (Hess 221) (old no. 5a)
No. 6 Ah rammenta
No. 7 Chi mai di questo core (Hess 214) (old no. 2)
No. 8 Scrivo in te (Hess 215) (old no. 11)
No. 9 Per te d'amico aprile (Hess 216) (old no. 9)
No. 10a Nei campi e nelle selve (Hess 217) (old no. 7a)
No. 10b Nei campi e nelle selve (Hess 220) (old no. 7b)
No. 11a Fra tutte le pene (Hess 208) (old no. 3a)
No. 11b Fra tutte le pene (Hess 225/209) (old no. 3b)
No. 11c Fra tutte le pene (Hess 224/210) (old no. 3c)
No. 12a Salvo tu vuoi lo sposo
No. 12b Salvo tu vuoi lo sposo (Hess 228)
No. 13a Quella cetra ah pur tu sei (Hess 218) (old no. 10b)
No. 13b Quella cetra ah pur tu sei (Hess 219) (old no. 10c)
No. 13c Quella cetra ah pur tu sei (Hess 213) (old no. 10a)
No. 14a Gia la notte savvicina (Hess 223) (old no. 4b)
No. 14b Gia la notte savvicina (Hess 222) (old no. 4a)
No. 15 Silvio amante disperato (lost) (Hess 226) (old no. 12)
WoO 100: Musical joke for three voices "Lob auf den Dicken"
WoO 101: Musical joke for three voices and chorus "Graf, Graf, liebster Graf"
WoO 102: Chorus for male voices "Abschiedsgesang"
WoO 103: Cantata Un lieto Brindisi
WoO 104: "Gesang der Mönche" from Schiller's Wilhelm Tell for three male voices
WoO 105: Song for solo voice, chorus and piano "Hochzeitslied"
WoO 106: Birthday Cantata for Prince Lobkowitz
Lieder and songs for solo voice and piano
WoO 107–151: Forty-five songs
Folksong arrangements for one or more voices, with piano trio accompaniment
WoO 152: Twenty-five Irish folksongs
WoO 153: Twenty Irish folksongs
WoO 154: Twelve Irish folksongs
WoO 155: Twenty-six Welsh folksongs
WoO 156: Twelve Scottish folksongs
WoO 157: Twelve folksongs of various nationalities
WoO 158a: Twenty-three continental folksongs
WoO 158b: Seven British folksongs
WoO 158c: Six assorted folksongs
WoO 158d: "Air Français"
Vocal canons
WoO 159–198: Forty-three Canons
Musical jokes, quips, and dedications
WoO 199: Musical joke "Ich bin der Herr von zu"
WoO 200: Piano Exercise "O Hoffnung!"
WoO 201: Musical joke "Ich bin bereit!"
WoO 202: Riddle canon "Das Schöne zu dem Guten" (first version)
WoO 203: Riddle canon "Das Schöne zu dem Guten" (second version)
WoO 204: Musical joke "Holz, Holz, Geigt die Quartette So" (Spurious, actually composed by Karl Holz)
WoO 205: Ten musical quips (Kinsky's word is "Notenscherze") from Beethoven's letters
Added works: WoO 206–228
The 2014 revision to the Kinsky catalogue, edited by Dorfmüller, Gertsch and Ronge, assigned WoO numbers to a number of works that appear in other listings.
WoO 206: Oboe Concerto in F major (lost; only incipits and draft of 2nd movement extant) (Hess 12)
WoO 207: Romance cantabile for soloists and orchestra (Hess 13)
WoO 208: Wind Quintet in E (fragment) (Hess 19)
WoO 209: Minuet in A for string quartet (Hess 33, piano version Hess 88)
WoO 210: Allegretto for string quartet in B minor (Pencarrow Quartet, Gardi 16)
WoO 211: Andante in C major (Biamonti 52)
WoO 212: Anglaise for piano in D major (Hess 61)
WoO 213a: Andante (bagatelle) in D major (Biamonti 283)
WoO 213b: Finale (bagatelle) in G major (Biamonti 282)
WoO 213c: Allegro (bagatelle) in A major (second part of the Allegro in A and A, Biamonti 284)
WoO 213d: Rondo (bagatelle) in A major (Biamonti 275)
WoO 214: Allegretto (bagatelle) in C minor (Hess 69)
WoO 215: Fugue in C major (Hess 64)
WoO 216a: Bagatelle in C major for piano (Hess 73)
WoO 216b: Bagatelle in E major (Hess 74)
WoO 217: Minuet in F major (Biamonti 66)
WoO 218: Minuet in C major (Biamonti 74)
WoO 219: Waltz or Ländler in C minor (Hess 68)
WoO 220: Kriegslied für die verbündeten Heere (lost) (Hess 123)
WoO 221: Canon, Herr Graf (Hess 276)
WoO 222: Canon in A major (Hess 275, Hess 328)
WoO 223: Thut auf (Biamonti 752)
WoO 224: Cacatum non est Pictum (Gardi 9)
WoO 225: Grossen Dank für solche Gnade (Hess 303)
WoO 226: Fettlümerl und Bankert haben triumphirt (Hess 260)
WoO 227: Musical joke "Esel aller Esel" (Hess 277)
WoO 228a: Musical joke "Ah, Tobias" (Gardi 14)
WoO 228b: Musical joke "Tobias" (Hess 285)
Works with Anhang (Anh.) and Unvollendete (Unv.) numbers
These are works from the Appendix (Anhang in German) of Kinsky's catalog that were attributed to Beethoven at the time the catalog was compiled, but might not have been written by him. The 2014 revision to the Kinsky catalogue, edited by Dorfmüller, Gertsch and Ronge also introduced the category of Unvollendete (unfinished works), for several works that had previously appeared in other listings.
Anh. 1: Symphony in C major ("Jena Symphony") (spurious, actually composed by Friedrich Witt)
Anh. 2: Six string quartets (doubtful)
Anh. 3: Piano trio in D major (spurious, actually composed by Beethoven's brother Karl)
Anh. 4: Sonata for piano and flute in B major (not certain)
Anh. 5: Two piano sonatinas (probably spurious)
Sonatina in G major
Sonatina in F major
Anh. 6: Rondo for piano in B major (spurious, actually composed by Beethoven's brother Karl)
Anh. 7: Piano concerto (Allegro) in D major (first movement) (probably by Johann Joseph Rösler)
Anh. 8: Three pieces for piano four-hands (spurious, actually composed by Leopold Anton Koželuch)
Anh. 9: Nine German dances for piano four-hands (probably doubtful)
Anh. 10: Eight variations on the song "Ich hab'ein kleines Hüttchen nur" for piano in B major (doubtful)
Anh. 11: "Alexandermarsch" for Louis Duport ballet "Der blode Ritter" march for piano in F major (probably doubtful)
Anh. 12: "Pariser Einzugsmarsch" march for piano in C major (spurious, actually composed by Johann Heinrich Walch)
Anh. 13: Funeral march for piano in F minor (spurious, actually composed by Johann Heinrich Walch, but still popularly called "Beethoven's Funeral March" in the UK; where it is famously played during the Remembrance Sunday service at the Cenotaph)
Anh. 14: Six piano waltzes (probably spurious)
Anh. 15: "Glaube, Liebe, und Hoffnung" waltz for piano in F major, most known as "Adieu to the piano" (probably doubtful)
Anh. 16: Four piano waltzes
"Jubelwalzer" waltz for piano in C major (probably doubtful)
"Gertruds Traumwalzer" waltz for piano in B major, most known as "Gertrude's Dream Waltz" (spurious, author unknown)
"Sonnenscheinwalzer" waltz for piano in E major (probably doubtful)
"Mondscheinwalzer" waltz for piano in A major (probably doubtful)
Anh. 17: "Introduction and Waltz (Klavierstück)" waltz for piano in F major (probably doubtful)
Anh. 18: "An Sie" or "Nachruf" song in A major (Voice and Piano or Guitar) (probably doubtful)
Unv. 1 Symphony in C minor = Hess 298
Unv. 2 Sketches for a symphony in C (parts of which were reused for Symphony #1) = Biamonti 73
Unv. 3 Symphony No. 10 = Biamonti 838
Unv. 4 Sketches for a BACH Overture = Biamonti 832
Unv. 5 Concertante in D = Gardi 3
Unv. 6 Piano Concerto #6 in D = Hess 15
Unv. 7 String Quintet movement in D minor = Hess 40
Unv. 8 Duo for Violin and Cello in E-flat = Gardi 2
Unv. 9 Allegretto in E-flat for Piano Trio = Hess 48
Unv. 10 Piano Trio in F minor = Biamonti 637
Unv. 11 Violin Sonata in A = Hess 46
Unv. 12 Fantasia/Piano Sonata in D = Biamonti 213
Unv. 13 Piano Sonata in E-flat (found at Fischhof 42v, previously uncatalogued)
Unv. 14 Variations for Piano in A (found at Fischhof 25v through 26v, previously uncatalogued)
Unv. 15 Opera, Vestas Feuer = Hess 115
Unv. 16 Opera, Macbeth = Biamonti 454 (Beethoven is believed to have intended to write the opera Macbeth; a performing version of possible sketches was assembled by Albert Willem Holsbergen between 1999 and 2001. The premiere performance of the Beethoven Macbeth Overture was by the National Symphony Orchestra on September 20–22, 2001, under the direction of Leonard Slatkin).
Unv. 17 Cantata, Europens Befreiungsstunde = Hess 317
Unv. 18 Östreich über alles, Song for Chorus and Orchestra, Biamonti 477
Unv. 19 Cantata for voice and piano in B-flat, (found in Fischhof f.1v, Kafka f.100r and a.66 f.1r. previously uncatalogued)
Unv. 20 Lamentations of Jeremiah = Gardi 4
Unv. 21 Song, "Traute Henriette" = Hess 151
Unv. 22 Song, "Rastlose Liebe" = Hess 149
Unv. 23 Song, "Heidenröslein" = Hess 150
Works with Hess numbers
Works with Hess number
These works have numbers that were assigned by Willy Hess in his catalogue of Beethoven's works. Many of the works in the Hess catalog also have WoO or Unv. numbers; those entries are not listed here.
Hess 1: Original ending to first movement of Symphony No. 8 (1812)
Hess 3: Twelve Ecossaise for piano or orchestra
Hess 11: Romance No. 3 for violin & orchestra (1816)
Hess 14: Fragment of original version of Piano Concerto No. 2 (1794–95)
Hess 16: Original introduction to the Choral Fantasy (1808)
Hess 25: String Trio Opus 3 (first version) (1793)
Hess 28: Movement in A major for string trio Opus 9 No. 1 (second trio to the Scherzo) (1797)
Hess 29–31: Preludes and Fugues for Albrechtsberger (1794–95)
Hess 32: String Quartet in F major (first version of Opus 18 No. 1) (1799)
Hess 34: String Quartet in F major (arrangement of Opus 14 No. 1) (1801–02)
Hess 35: Bach fugue arranged for string quartet (fragment) (1817)
Hess 36: Handel fugue arranged for string quartet (1798)
Hess 37: Mozart fugue arranged for piano four hands
Hess 38: Bach fugue arranged for string quintet (1801–02)
Hess 39: String Quintet in F major (lost)
Hess 40: Prelude for String Quintet (incomplete) (1817)
Hess 44: Adagio ma non troppo for mandolin & harpsichord in E major
Hess 46: Violin Sonata in A major (fragment) (c.1790)
Hess 47: Allegro con brio in E major for piano trio (arrangement of String Trio Opus 3)
Hess 49: Piano Trio in E major (1786)
Hess 50: Piano Trio in B major (1786)
Hess 52: Piano Sonata in C major
Hess 54: Piano variations on Freudvoll und Liedvoll
Hess 57: Bagatelle in C major (1824)
Hess 58: Piano Exercise in B major (1800)
Hess 59: Piano Exercise in C (1792–1800)
Hess 60: Draft in A for Piano (1793)
Hess 63: Arrangement of Christian Friedrich Daniel Schubart's "Kaplied" for piano (1789)
Hess 65: Concerto excerpt (arrangement of Opus 37) (1820–01)
Hess 66: Allegretto in C minor (1796–97)
Hess 67: Two German dances for piano (1811)
Hess 69: Allegretto for piano in C minor (1794)
Hess 70: Adagio for piano in G major (1803–04)
Hess 71: Molto adagio for piano in G major (1803–04)
Hess 72: Variations for piano in A major (1803)
Hess 76–83: Cadenzas for Piano
Hess 84: Rondo for piano
Hess 85: Piano cadenza for Op. 61a
Hess 87: Grenadiermarsch for piano (arrangement of WoO 29) (1797–98)
Hess 88: Minuet for piano (arrangement of WoO 209) (1790–92)
Hess 89: Ritterballet for piano (arrangement of WoO 1) (1791)
Hess 90: The Creatures of Prometheus for piano (arrangement of Op. 43) (1801)
Hess 91–5: Five Songs
Hess 96: Fragment of Symphony No. 7 for piano (1813)
Hess 97: Wellington's Victory for piano and two cannons (arrangement of Op. 91) (1816)
Hess 98: Scherzo for piano (1794–99)
Hess 99: Yorckscher Marsch (piano arrangement of WoO 18) (1809–10)
Hess 100: Twelve German dances (piano arrangement of WoO 8) (1795)
Hess 101: Twelve Minuets (piano arrangement of WoO 7) (1795)
Hess 102: Nine contredanses (piano arrangement of nos. 1–2, 4–5, 7–10, 12 from Twelve contredanses for orchestra WoO 14) (1791–1801)
Hess 107: Grenadiermarsch (musical clock arrangement of WoO 29) (1798)
Hess 108: Wellington's Victory (panharmonicon arrangement of the second part of Opus 91) (1813)
Hess 110–114: Parts from 'Leonore
Hess 116: Fragment for Solo Voice(s): "Ritterblatt"
Hess 118: Music for The Consecration of the House (from Opus 113) (1822)
Hess 121–122: Arias from Leonore
Hess 123–1247: Songs
Hess 152–207: Folksong settings
Hess 208–232: Italian partsongs
Hess 233–246: Counterpoint exercises
Hess 254: Canon in G major: "Hol dich der Teufel" (1801)
Hess 263–264: Two canons
Hess 274: Canons in G major (1803)
Hess 296: Little Cadenza for Instrument(s) (1822)
Hess 297: Adagio for three horns (1815)
Hess 299–305: Sketches for canons
Hess 306–309: Four canons
Hess 310: Prelude in C for Organ
Hess 311–312: Two canons
Hess 313: Song: "Te solo adoro" (1824)
Hess 314: Funeral Cantata (1781)
Hess 315: Fugue
Hess 316: Quintet (1793)
Hess 318–319: String Quintets
Hess 320: Andante for String Quartet in G major (1815)
Hess 321–324: Melodies
Hess 325: Piece for piano in D major (1802)
Hess 326: Fugue for piano in C major (1800–01)
Hess 327: Two little melodies (1803)
Hess 329–330: Sketches
Hess 331: Minuet for piano in B major
Hess 332: Pastorella for String Quartet in D major (1799)
Hess 333: Minuet-Scherzo for String Quartet in A major (1799)
Hess 334: Draft for String Quartet in A major (1799)
Hess 335: Two exercises on the song "Gedenke Mein"
Works with Hess Anhang (Anh.) numbers
These are works included in the appendix of Hess's catalogue that might not be genuine works by Beethoven.
Anh. 3: Marches zur großen Wachtparade (not certain)
Anh. 4: Marsch in geschwinden tempo (not certain)
Anh. 5: Twelve waltzes for 2 Violins and Bass, with 2 Flutes and 2 Horns ad libitum (not certain) (1807)
Anh. 8: Quintet for Flute, Violin, 2 Violas, and Cello (not certain)
Anh. 9: Sonata for 2 Violins and Cello (not certain)
Anh. 10: Andante favori for string quartet (arrangement of WoO 57) (not certain)
Anh. 17: Adagio and Andante for violin and piano (not certain)
Anh. 21: Bagatelle "An Laura" for piano (arrangement of WoO 112) (doubtful)
Anh. 22: Funeral March in C Minor (not certain)
Anh. 38–56: Songs (not certain)
Anh. 57: Fugue "Dona nobis pacem" (now thought genuine) (1795)
Anh. 58: Bundeslied (not certain)
Anh. 59: Folksong "As I was wandering" (not certain)
Anh. 60: Canon in C major (probably spurious)
Anh. 61–62: Canons (spurious)
Anh. 63–64: Canons (not certain)
Anh. 65: Cantata Karfreitagskantate (not certain)
Anh. 66: Two fragments for chorus (not certain)
Works with Biamonti numbers
The Italian musicologist Giovanni Biamonti compiled a chronological catalogue Beethoven's entire output known at the time, including sketches and fragments. While most of these works were already included in other catalogues, there were some that had been missed by earlier compilers. This list does not include works with opus, WoO or Hess numbers, nor does it include sketches.
Bia 15: Song "Der Arme Componist" (1788–91)
Bia 16: Cello part to the Lost Cadenza for Leopold Cantata WoO 88
Bia 43: Song "Meine Mutter fragt mich immer: trinkst du?"
Bia 48: Anglaise for piano for G minor (1792)
Bia 238: Presto in F major (1800)
Bia 249: Minuet for orchestra in D major (1800)
Bia 252: Minuet for orchestra in D major (1800)
Bia 269: Andante molto for piano in E major
Bia 272: Andante for piano in B major (1793)
Bia 274: Andante for String Quartet in C major (1793)
Bia 277: Presto for piano in G major (1793)
Bia 279: Allegro for piano in C major (1793)
Bia 291: Andante, for a symphony (1801)
Bia 292: March with variations (1801)
Bia 319: Finale for piano (1802)
Bia 322: Piece for piano in C minor (1802)
Bia 323: Piece for piano (1802)
Bia 346: Fuga Antique for piano in C major (1803)
Bia 347: Passage for piano through all the keys (1803)
Bia 359: Rondo for "all the instruments" (1803)
Bia 380: Song "Zur Erde sank die Ruh' vom Himmel nieder" (1803)
Bia 383: Exercise for piano
Bia 389: Piece for viola, cello, horn and double bass (1803)
Bia 392: Rondo for piano (1803)
Bia 447: Passage for piano (1808)
Bia 547: Symphony No. 8 with the original ending of Hess 1 (1812)
Bia 606: Andante for pizzicati basses with clarinets in B minor (1815)
Bia 621: Allemande for piano (1815)
Bia 622: Pastorella for piano in C major (1815)
Bia 624: Etude, study of prosody on a text of Homer (1815)
Bia 632: Song "Die Zufrieddenheit" (1815)
Bia 634: German dance for piano trio in F minor (1815)
Bia 638: Exercise for piano (1815)
Bia 797: Adagio for String Quartet in E major (1824)
Bia 811: Canon in C minor (1825)
Bia 849: Draft for piano (last notes written by Beethoven) (1827)
There were also several projected works by Beethoven, including the operas Alessandro, Memnons Dreiklang, and Bradamante; an oratorio on a text by Meissner, an oratorio "Die Befrieung Jerusalems", and an oratorio "Die Sündflut" with text by Hammer-Purgstall.
See also
Symphony No. 10 (Beethoven/Cooper) (hypothetical)
References
Notes
Sources
Catalogues and bibliographies
Biamonti, Giovanni. Catologo cronologo e tematico delle opere di Beethoven. Torino: ILTE, 1968. —Encompasses works with and without opus numbers, as well as sketches and fragments, in 849 chronologically arranged entries.
Bruers, Antonio. Beethoven: Catalogo Storico-Critico di Tutte le Opere. Rome: G. Bardi, 1951.
Dorfmüller, Kurt (ed). Beiträge zur Beethoven-Bibliographie: Studien und Materialen zum Werkverzeichnis von Kinsky-Halm. München: G. Henle, 1978
Dorfmüller, Kurt, Gertsch, Norbert and Ronge, Julia. Ludwig van Beethoven Thematisch-bibliographisches Werkverzeichnis. München: G. Henle, 2014. .—Revised and expanded edition of the catalogue of works by Kinsky and Halm.
Green, James (ed. and trans). The New Hess Catalog of Beethoven's Works. West Newbury, Vermont: Vance Brook, 2003. .—An English translation of Willy Hess' important 1957 catalogue and study, updated to reflect more recent scholarship.
Haas, Wilhelm. Systematische Ordnung Beethovenscher Melodien. Leipzig: Quelle & Meyer, 1932.
Hess, Willy. Verzeichnis der nicht in der Gesamtausgabe veröffentlichen Werke Ludwig van Beethovens. Wiesbaden: Breitkopf & Härtel, 1957. —Hess' original study and catalogue; still more widely available in libraries than Green's edition.
Johnson, Douglas, Tyson, Alan and Winter, Robert. The Beethoven Sketchbooks: History, Reconstruction, Inventory. Berkeley : University of California Press, 1985.
Johnson, Douglas and Burnham, Scott G. "Beethoven, Ludwig Van (Works)", Grove Music Online ed. L. Macy (Subscription access). Accessed 19 April 2007.—Includes categorized works list with bibliographical and other information.
Kastner, Emerich and Frimmel, Theodor von. Bibliotheca Beethoveniana. Leipzig: Breitkopf & Härtel, 1925.
Kinsky, Georg and Halm, Hanss. Das Werk Beethovens: thematisch-bibliographisches Verzeichnis seiner sämtlichen vollendeten Kompositionen. München: G. Henle, 1955. —The standard thematic and bibliographical catalogue of Beethoven's works.
Nottebohm, Gustav. Thematisches Verzeichnis der im Druck erschienenen Werke von Ludwig van Beethoven. Leipzig, Breitkopf & Härtel, 1925 . Reprinted Wiesbaden: M. Sändig, 1969 .—Historically important thematic catalogue, by a pioneering 19th Century Beethoven scholar.
Schürmann, Kurt E. Ludwig van Beethoven: alle vertonten und musikalisch bearbeiteten Texte. Münster : Aschendorff, 1980.
Solomon, Maynard. Beethoven (1st edition). New York: Schirmer, 1977. . pp. 372, 386–391.—Popular biographical study; includes bibliographical notes and (incomplete) works lists.
Thayer, Alexander Wheelock. Chronologisches Verzeichniss der Werke Ludwig van Beethovens. Berlin: Ferdinand Schneider, 1865.
Tyson, Alan. The Authentic English Editions of Beethoven. London: Faber & Faber, 1963.
Works collections (scores)
Ludwig van Beethovens Werke: Vollständige kritisch durchgesehene überall berechtigte Ausgabe. Leipzig: Breitkopf & Härtel,vols i–xxiv, 1862–65; vol xxv (supplement), 1888. —Original critical "complete works" edition, commonly known as the Beethoven Gesamtausgabe.
Beethoven: Sämtliche Werke: Supplemente zur Gesamtausgabe, ed. W. Hess. Wiesbaden: Breitkopf & Härtel, 1959. —Hess's supplement to the 19th century Breitkopf edition.
Beethovens Werke: neue Ausgabe sämtlicher Werke, edited by Joseph Schmidt-Görg, Martin Staehelin, et al. München: G. Henle, 1961 – (current). – New critical edition, "herausgaben vom Beethoven-Archiv, Bonn"; 56 volumes in 13 categories, 36 volumes released as of January 2009.
Books
Cooper, Barry (ed). Beethoven Compendium: a Guide to Beethoven's Life and Music. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1991.
Cooper, Barry. The Creation of Beethoven's 35 Piano Sonatas. Oxford: Routledge, 2017.
External links
Opus numbers, Kinsky, Hess and Biamonti catalogue from lvbeethoven.com – includes dedicatees, librettists, and other information, as well as sound files.
"Beethoven, Ludwig van" in Oxford Music Online (by subscription)
Works Index
Catalogue
Beethoven
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Channel%20Islands%20National%20Marine%20Sanctuary
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Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary
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The Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary is a sanctuary off the Pacific coast in Southern California that provides protection of its natural and cultural resources through education, conservation, science, and stewardship programs. It is part of the National Marine Sanctuary program under the administration of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).
Established on May 5, 1980, the sanctuary is located in an area of in the Santa Barbara Channel. Its extension encompasses the waters surrounding the isles of Anacapa, Santa Cruz, Santa Rosa, San Miguel and Santa Barbara Islands. These are five of the eight Channel Islands of California. The sanctuary is home to a variety of marine species, including whales, and it provides protection to more than 150 historic shipwrecks. It is a place of important cultural significance for the Chumash people.
Recreational activities
The sanctuary is also a site for recreational activities, such as scuba diving, snorkeling, kayaking, boating, guided trips and sailing, viewing whales and adiversity of other marine mammals, and other wildlife, and fishing.
In an effort to balance recreation and conservation, the California Fish and Game Commission established a network of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) within the nearshore waters of the sanctuary in 2002. The NOAA expanded the MPA network into the sanctuary's deeper waters in 2006 and 2007. The entire MPA network consists of 11 marine reserves: Richardson Rock, Judith Rock, Harris Point, South Point, Carrington Point, Skunk Point, Gull Island, Painted Cave, Scorpion, Footprint, and Anacapa Island. All take and harvest from these marine reserves is prohibited. There are two marine conservation areas that allow limited take of lobster and pelagic fish. This MPA network encompasses 241 square nautical miles (318 square miles).
More than 150 historic ships and aircraft have been reported lost within the waters of the sanctuary, although just 25 have been discovered to date. Scuba divers can view some of the protected wrecks within the sanctuary.
Education
The Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary (CINMS) is dedicated to education and outreach. Its programs help teach about understanding and conservation of marine resources.
MERITO
The Multicultural Education for Resource Issues Threatening Oceans (MERITO) is a program that promotes multicultural education and partners with the sanctuary. MERITO (which means 'merit' in Spanish) includes a bilingual outreach program, internships, and the MERITO academy, which is sponsored by CINMS.
Visitors Centers, Education Partners and Related Organizations
The sanctuary's visitor center and exhibits display, promote and interpret the importance of the sanctuary and the resources it protects. The Channel Islands Naturalist Corps is a group of specially trained volunteers dedicated to educating passengers on board whale watch vessels visiting the sanctuary and Channel Islands National Park.
Marine Protected Area Education
Sanctuary staff work with the Sanctuary Education Team (SET), a working group of the Sanctuary Advisory Council, to identify target audiences, outreach tools, and delivery methods to communicate messages about the Marine Protected Area (MPA) network. Educational tools include workshops for teachers and students, curriculum materials, signage and exhibits, multimedia products and adult education programs.
Outreach Products
The sanctuary distributes brochures and pamphlets for the public covering topics such as boat safety, scuba diver safety and responsible whale watching to promote responsible use of the sanctuary. The sanctuary's official website also contains additional information such as a shipwreck database, an encyclopedia of species found within the sanctuary, and a marine mammal sightings database.
Teacher and Student Resources
Long term Monitoring Program and Experiential Training for Students is an environmental monitoring and education program for students, educators and volunteer groups throughout California to collect rocky intertidal and sandy beach data.
MERITO Academy is multicultural education professional development program for 5-8th grade teachers that includes lesson plans, classroom visits, and field trips.
The NOAA California Bay Watershed Education and Training (B-WET) Program provides funds to support environment-based education throughout the watersheds of San Francisco Bay, Monterey Bay, and Santa Barbara Channel. Funded projects provide meaningful watershed educational experiences to students, teachers, and communities.
The NOAA's Teacher at Sea (TAS) program gives teachers clearer insight into our ocean planet, a greater understanding of maritime work and studies, and increases their level of environmental literacy by fostering interdisciplinary research experiences.
Research
The sanctuary has partnerships with National Marine Fisheries Service, the National Park Service, and the Department of Fisheries and Oceans Canada, as well as regional and international academic institutions such as the University of California, Santa Barbara, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Simon Fraser University, and the University of Auckland, New Zealand. These partnerships are facilitated by staff research expertise as well as operational support provided by the NOAA research vessels Shearwater and Shark Cat.
The sanctuary is currently engaging in the following research:
Marine Protected Area monitoring
Within the sanctuary, there is a network of 13 state and federal marine reserves and conservation areas that provide additional protections to the ecosystem. The marine reserves network was established to protect whole ecosystems and restore ecosystem health. One possible effect of marine reserves is that they may provide "spillover benefits" to areas outside the reserves. Sanctuary staff are currently conducting research on the effectiveness of marine reserves for community dynamics. In one project, performed in collaboration with the Channel Islands National Park and colleagues at Simon Fraser University in Burnaby B.C., staff are evaluating the food web interactions expressed in the long-term, Kelp Forest Monitoring data set that the Channel Islands National Park has been collecting since 1984. That project has revealed that trophic relationships within MPAs are more robust, while outside MPAs these relationships are less so and the food web shows lower resilience and stability. In other work, with colleagues at the University of Auckland, they are examining potential competition between predators protected within MPAs (large fish and lobsters) and fishers who are targeting the prey of those predators (sea urchins). In addition, the sanctuary's ongoing maintenance of a network of oceanographic sensors provides a data stream that can contribute to our understanding of larval transport and adult animal movement across MPA boundaries.
Climate variability
Sanctuary staff are currently looking at how short-term changes in climate can affect local conditions across large areas. Their work on the role of variability in jet stream trajectory and strength in determining seasonal variability in central Siberia allows a new and significantly more accurate ability to forecast the arrival of harsh winters several months in advance. This work has contributed to a better, more mechanistic understanding of the connectedness of climate processes across the Northern Hemisphere, from Siberia all the way to the US West Coast. More recently, they are looking at how these same processes manifest in long term data on winds along the Central and Southern California coast to see how climate variability signals can affect local winds in the Santa Barbara Channel area. Variation in wind strength has ecological effects by driving upwelling and also has a practical implication for local mariners: if climate change causes more windy days, there are fewer days for boating and fishing in the sanctuary. Additionally, the sanctuary's ongoing maintenance of a network of moorings provides a continuous data series of oceanographic conditions in nearshore waters that is informing climate variability studies.
Sanctuary Aerial Monitoring and Spatial Analysis Program
The Sanctuary Aerial Monitoring and Spatial Analysis Program (SAMSAP) is an ongoing long-term aerial monitoring program that collects data on vessel and visitor use patterns and cetacean populations within the sanctuary. SAMSAP has been active since 1997 and has been instrumental in providing vital data for management, research, and emergency response needs.
Whale research
After populations of large whales were decimated by whaling in the last two centuries, several species are rebounding. Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary is a seasonal home to several species of those large whales. From early spring to late fall, the sanctuary sees increasing numbers of humpback, blue, and fin whales- with seasonally migrating gray whales transiting the sanctuary on their trips between the North Pacific and the lagoons of Baja California. At times, large whales aggregate in tremendous numbers, with as many as 186 unique photo identifications occurring in a single day. Understanding the causes of this aggregation, such as bloom dynamics of the krill the whales feed on, can provide valuable forecasting information to predict where whales are likely to be in the near term. This information in turn could aid in reducing whale-ship interactions. Ongoing work has focused on behavioral responses of large whales to close encounters with large vessels transiting the Santa Barbara Channel. This work is being extended to focus on two problems: how variability in krill depth is key to whale decision making, and how the whales are selecting specific sized prey within pools of mixed-age krill. To get after these questions, sanctuary staff and contractors are combining an ongoing program of tagging large whales with time-depth-location recording tags with systematic mapping of krill fields around the sanctuary. The sanctuary is assisting the work of partners from Cascadia Research Collective and Scripps Institution of Oceanography.
Shipping
The Port of Los Angeles and Long Beach is the largest commercial harbor on the west coast with over 6,500 vessels stopping each year. Much of that traffic passes the Santa Barbara Channel and the Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary on its way to ports around the Pacific Rim. These vessels are large, with some being over 1,000 feet long, and fast; they can travel at speeds over 20 knots. They also emit significant exhaust into the area and are the principal source of underwater noise in the sanctuary. To keep track of how these ships may affect the sanctuary staff have been building on a long-term program to monitor broad band acoustics in and around the sanctuary. As a first step they are developing data management solutions with partners at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography and the National Center for Ecological Analysis and Synthesis for two new data streams: broadband acoustic data and Automatic Identification System (AIS) data on ship travel. Although both sources of data were originally developed for other objectives—oceanographic research and safety at sea—these data streams provide valuable information for evaluation of spatial use patterns. For example, recent work evaluating California State air quality rulings on vessel fuel use demonstrated a major change in traffic patterns and emerging conflicts in use of the ocean by shipping and National Defense interests. Evaluating these data in the context of shifts of vessel traffic has also revealed quantitative relationships between economic indicators (numbers of ships and amount of cargo) and noise levels in the sanctuary.
Deep water communities
The sanctuary contains a significant amount of deep-water habitat: about 91.5% of the sanctuary is deeper than 100ft. From depths of 100ft to over 5,000ft, deep water habitat experiences cold water, almost no light, and low oxygen, yet a variety of specially adapted animals such as corals, sponges, crabs, shrimp, fish, anemones, cucumbers, sea stars, and worms reside here. In 2010, a NOAA expedition surveyed an underwater feature in the Footprint Marine Reserve to learn more about the abundance and distribution of coral and sponge habitat and to study the chemistry of the water in which these animals live.
Maritime Heritage
Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary is responsible for the protection and preservation of submerged remains of the past that occupy the bottomlands of the sanctuary. Cultural and historic submerged sites include archaeological remains of shipwrecks and prehistoric land sites. Sanctuary stewardship responsibilities include a mandate to inventory sites, encourage research, provide public education and oversee responsible visitor use.
Chumash
The Northern Channel Islands have been home to the Chumash people for millennia, with the earliest known human remains dating back more than 13,000 years ago. The Chumash community continues to celebrate their maritime heritage through local cultural events such as an annual crossing of the Santa Barbara Channel on traditional plank canoes known as tomols.
Protected species
The species listed below, found within the Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary, are recognized as endangered, threatened, or species of concern under the Endangered Species Act and/or the California Endangered Species Act.
Endangered species found within the sanctuary
The species listed below are categorized by Federal and California state government as endangered:
White abalone
Tidewater goby
Blue whale
Humpback whale
Fin whale
Sei whale
Sperm whale
California least tern
Black abalone
Leatherback sea turtle
Green sea turtle
Threatened species found within the sanctuary
The species listed below are categorized by Federal and California state government as threatened:
Scripps's murrelet
Guadalupe murrelet
Southern sea otter
Canary rockfish
Snowy plover
Island Fox
Species of concern found within the sanctuary
The species listed below are categorized by Federal and California state government as species of concern
Copper rockfish
Brown rockfish
Pink abalone
Bocaccio rockfish
Ashy storm petrel
Delisted species found within the sanctuary
The species listed below are categorized by Federal and California state government as delisted
Peregrine falcon
Gray whale
Brown pelican
Bald eagle
Steller sea lion
Sanctuary Advisory Council
The Sanctuary Advisory Council was established on December 1998 to assure continued public participation in management of the sanctuary. It provides a public forum for consultation and community deliberation on resource management issues affecting the waters surrounding the Channel Islands. It is composed of 21 members and 21 alternate seats that include local stakeholder groups and governmental agencies.
Threats to the sanctuary
Protecting the resources of Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary is a collaborative effort involving local, state and federal agencies as well as numerous non-governmental organizations. The sanctuary focuses on education, permitting, regulations, emergency response preparedness, enforcement, and consultation with other agencies to help protect the sanctuary's resources.
Current threats in the sanctuary include ship strikes on endangered whales, ocean acidification, invasive species, damage to eelgrass beds, marine debris, poaching, and water pollution.
See also
Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary at Commons
List of marine protected areas of California
References
External links
Official Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary Website
http://mcbi.marine-conservation.org/what/what_pdfs/Channel_Islands.pdf
http://www.eoearth.org/article/Channel_Islands_National_Marine_Sanctuary
https://web.archive.org/web/20120109063517/http://www.edcnet.org/learn/current_cases/marine_conservation/sbchannel_issues/index.html
http://channelislands.noaa.gov
http://sanctuaries.noaa.gov/report2011/pdf/cinms.pdf
Channel Islands of California
Marine sanctuaries in California
National Marine Sanctuaries of the United States
Protected areas of Santa Barbara County, California
Protected areas of Ventura County, California
Protected areas of Southern California
1980 establishments in California
Protected areas established in 1980
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottawa%2067%27s
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Ottawa 67's
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The Ottawa 67's are a major junior ice hockey team based in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, that plays in the Ontario Hockey League (OHL). Established during Canada's centennial year of 1967 and named in honour of this, the 67's currently play their home games at TD Place Arena. The 67's are three-time OHL champions, and have played in the Memorial Cup five times, winning in 1984 and as host team in 1999.
History
The Ontario Hockey Association granted the city of Ottawa an expansion franchise on February 16, 1967. Four months later, the team was given the nickname 67's, in honour of Canada's centennial year. Three local businessmen—Bill Cowley, Howard Darwin and Bill Touhey as well as Alderman Howard Henry—helped bring junior hockey back to Canada's capital. The 67's filled the overall hockey void left by the departure of the junior Ottawa-Hull Canadiens in 1959 and the semi-professional Hull-Ottawa Canadiens in 1963.
Bill Long was the team's first head coach. The 67's played their first game on October 6, 1967, losing 9–0 on the road to the Niagara Falls Flyers. The first 11 home games of the season were played in the Hull Arena, Hull, Quebec, as their new home arena was still under construction. The first season for the 67's was terrible at best, with the team posting a final record of six wins, 45 losses and three ties. They then made the playoffs in their second season, but lost in the quarter-finals to the Niagara Falls Flyers.
The 67's reached the OHA finals during their fifth season in 1971–72, losing to the Peterborough Petes 3–0, with two ties. The 67's came close to playing at home in the Memorial Cup, as the Ottawa Civic Centre hosted the tournament that year.
Brian Kilrea joins the 67's
After a rebuilding season in 1973–74, the 67's hired a young up-and-coming coach named Brian Kilrea, who has since become a legend in Ottawa. Kilrea coached the team to three successive improved winning records, culminating in a victory in the J. Ross Robertson Cup finals in 1977, versus the London Knights, who were coached by former 67's bench boss Bill Long. During the late 1970s, Ottawa was led by scoring champions Peter Lee, Bobby Smith and Jim Fox.
The 67's moved on to New Westminster, B.C., to compete for the Memorial Cup, versus the New Westminster Bruins and Sherbrooke Castors. The 1977 Memorial Tournament was the first to be held in British Columbia and the first to use a double round-robin format. Ottawa lost the first game 7–6 to the Bruins, then won three in a row, 6–1 over the Castors, 4–3 in overtime versus the Bruins, and then 5–2 against Sherbrooke. However, Ottawa lost to the host Bruins 6–5 in the championship game.
Ottawa finished first in their division the following season, but lost to the rival Peterborough Petes in the semi-finals. Kilrea and the 67's rebuilt during the 1978–79 season, following that season up with two second-place finishes and then three consecutive division titles from 1982 to 1984.
First Memorial Cup victory
In 1984, the 67's reached the OHL championship series in a rematch from the 1982 OHL finals, against the Kitchener Rangers. Kitchener had been chosen to host the Memorial Cup tournament that year, and the Rangers also made it to the OHL finals. This meant that Ottawa gained an automatic berth in the tournament when they reached the league championship against the Rangers. In the OHL itself, however, Ottawa had unfinished business, having lost to Kitchener two years earlier. The 67's, who finished second overall to Kitchener in the OHL, defeated the Rangers 3–0, with two ties, winning the J. Ross Robertson Cup for the second time in franchise history.
At the Memorial Cup in Kitchener, Ottawa defeated the Laval Voisins, featuring Mario Lemieux, by a score 6–5 in their first game, then beat the Kamloops Jr. Oilers 5–1 in game two, before losing to Kitchener 7–2 to conclude the round-robin. In the semi-final game, Ottawa beat Kamloops again, this time in a 7–2 victory. In the finals versus Kitchener, Ottawa scored a victory in the third consecutive 7–2 game in the tournament, defeating the Rangers and winning their first Memorial Cup. The Most Valuable Player of the Tournament was Adam Creighton. After the season ended, Brian Kilrea left Ottawa to become an assistant coach in the NHL.
Kilrea returns from the NHL
The 67's suffered through two dismal seasons after winning the cup, finishing third-last in the OHL in 1985 and second-last in 1986. Ottawa's saviour would again be Brian Kilrea returning for the 1986–87 season. The second Kilrea era wasn't as superb as his first coaching stint. The 67's finished as high as second place in their division two times, and reached the league's playoff semi-finals three times. The highlight of this era was Andrew Cassels, the rookie of the year in 1986–87, and scoring champion in 1987–88. Kilrea went into retirement after the 1993–94 season. For the 1994–95 season, the 67's were coached by former scoring champion Peter Lee.
The third Kilrea era
Brian Kilrea came out of coaching retirement in 1995 and also became the team's general manager. Kilrea would remain as coach until the end of the 2008–09 season, retaining his duties as general manager until the 2011–12 season.
The Kilrea-coached 67's resurged to the top of the OHL, winning five consecutive east division titles from 1996 to 2000. The 1996–97 season of 104 points is the best in team history, and also the best in the league that year. Ottawa, however, lost in the finals 4–2 to their division rivals, the Oshawa Generals. The 67's reached the finals again in 1998, losing to the Guelph Storm in five games.
Memorial Cup hosts, 1999
In 1999, 67's owner Jeff Hunt led the team's bid to host the 1999 Memorial Cup tournament. Despite the fact that in 1997 the tournament had been hosted across the river in Hull, he was able to convince the Canadian Hockey League to host the event in the city of Ottawa and guarantee his team a berth in the tournament. The 67's did not disappoint, as every game of the series was sold out at the 10,550 seat TD Place Arena.
In the 1998–99 season, the 67's lost to the eventual OHL champion Belleville Bulls in the second round of the playoffs. However, the 67's beat those same Belleville Bulls in the Memorial Cup semi-finals and went on to defeat the Calgary Hitmen of the WHL in the final in a thrilling over-time game that saw Matt Zultek score the winning goal. Nick Boynton was named MVP.
The 67's became the second team to win the Memorial Cup as tournament hosts without winning a league championship. The first team to do so were the Portland Winter Hawks in 1983.
Memorial Cup, 2001
It wasn't long before the 67's went to the Memorial Cup again. Ottawa defeated the Plymouth Whalers in the league championship. The 2001 Memorial Cup was played in Regina, Saskatchewan. Ottawa had tougher luck in this tournament, winning just one game in the round robin versus the hometown Regina Pats, then ultimately losing to Regina 5–0 in the tie-breaker game.
In the 2002–03 season, the 67's reached the OHL finals again, but fell to the eventual Memorial Cup champions Kitchener Rangers in five games. Ottawa also suffered a heart-breaking first round defeat in 2003–04 to the Brampton Battalion.
Memorial Cup, 2005
The 67's finished 6th place in the Eastern Conference in 2004–05, but had a veteran-laden team that managed an impressive playoff run.
Ottawa upset Barrie, Sudbury and Peterborough to reach the finals. The 67's qualified for the 2005 Memorial Cup by virtue of being the league finalists versus the London Knights, who were also hosting the event.
Ottawa won the longest ever game played in the Memorial Cup tournament, when they beat the Kelowna Rockets in double overtime. Ottawa finished third place in the round-robin, then lost to the Rimouski Océanic featuring Sidney Crosby in the semi-finals.
Championships
The Ottawa 67's have appeared in the Memorial Cup tournament five times, winning twice. Ottawa has also won the J. Ross Robertson Cup three times, won the Hamilton Spectator Trophy three times, and have won fourteen division titles, the most in the OHL.
Coaches
Brian Kilrea is a national coaching legend and a coaching presence behind the Ottawa bench for 31 years. Kilrea led the 67's to three OHL Championships and two Memorial Cups. Kilrea briefly moved up to the NHL as an assistant coach with the New York Islanders from 1984 to 1986, and briefly retired for the 1994–95 season. Kilrea, also known as "Killer", has over 1,000 wins coaching junior hockey, all with the Ottawa 67's. He has been named the OHL Coach of the Year five times, and CHL Coach of the Year once in 1996–97. Kilrea was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 2003.
On September 3, 2008, Kilrea announced that at the end of the 2008–09, he would step down from his head coaching position. He remained with the team as their general manager until the 2011–12 season, after which he was replaced in that post by head coach Chris Byrne.
Andre Tourigny won OHL Coach of the Year award in 2018–19 leading the 67's to a 50–12–6 record and a franchise record-breaking 106 points. Tourigny won a second consecutive OHL Coach of the Year award in 2019–20 going 50–11–1 in a shortened season and earning the CHL Coach of the Year in the process. Dave Cameron is the 67's most recent recipient of the award, taking home the honours after leading the club to their record setting 51-win season in 2022-23. He also won CHL Coach of the Year in that same season.
List of coaches with multiple seasons in parentheses.
Players
Denis Potvin and Doug Wilson are the only Ottawa 67's alumni to be inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame as players.
Award winners
Retired numbers
NHL alumni
Source
Yearly results
Regular season
Legend: OTL = Overtime loss, SL = Shootout loss
Playoffs
1967–68 Did not qualify.
1968–69 Lost to Niagara Falls Flyers 9 points to 5 in quarter-finals.
1969–70 Lost to Montreal Junior Canadiens 8 points to 2 in quarter-finals.
1970–71 Defeated Hamilton Red Wings 9 points to 5 in quarter-finals. Lost to Toronto Marlboros 8 points to 0 in semi-finals.
1971–72 Defeated London Knights 8 points to 6 in quarter-finals.Defeated Oshawa Generals 9 points to 3 in semi-finals.Lost to Peterborough Petes 8 points to 0 in finals.
1972–73 Defeated Sudbury Wolves 8 points to 0 in quarter-finals.Lost to Toronto Marlboros 8 points to 0 in semi-finals.
1973–74 Lost to Peterborough Petes 9 points to 5 in quarter-finals.
1974–75 Lost to Sudbury Wolves 8 points to 6 in first round.
1975–76 Defeated Kingston Canadians 9 points to 5 in quarter-finals. Lost to Sudbury Wolves 8 points to 2 in semi-finals.
1976–77 Defeated S.S.Marie Greyhounds 4 games to 0 and 1 tie, in quarter-finals. Defeated Kingston Canadians 4 games to 3 and 1 tie, in semi-finals. Defeated London Knights 4 games to 2 in finals. OHL CHAMPIONS Finished Memorial Cup round-robin tied for first place. Lost to New Westminster Bruins 6–5 in championship game.
1977–78 Defeated S.S.Marie Greyhounds 9 points to 7 in quarter-finals. Lost to Peterborough Petes 9 points to 7 in semi-finals.
1978–79 Lost to Kingston Canadians 6 points to 2 in first round.
1979–80 Defeated Oshawa Generals 4 games to 3 in quarter-finals. Lost to Peterborough Petes 4 games to 0 in semi-finals.
1980–81 Lost to Kingston Canadians 9 points to 5 in division semi-finals.
1981–82 Earned first round bye. 1st place in Leyden. Defeated Toronto Marlboros 8 points to 2 in quarter-finals. Defeated Oshawa Generals 8 points to 6 in semi-finals. Lost to Kitchener Rangers 9 points to 1 in finals.
1982–83 Earned first round bye. 1st place in Leyden. Defeated Cornwall Royals 8 points to 0 in quarter-finals. Lost to Oshawa Generals 8 points to 2 in semi-finals.
1983–84 Earned first round bye. 1st place in Leyden. Defeated Oshawa Generals 8 points to 0 in quarter-finals. Defeated Toronto Marlboros 8 points to 0 in semi-finals. Defeated Kitchener Rangers 8 points to 2 in finals. OHL CHAMPIONS Finished Memorial Cup round-robin in 2nd place. Defeated Kamloops Junior Oilers 7–2 in semi-final game. Defeated Kitchener Rangers 7–2 in championship game. MEMORIAL CUP CHAMPIONS
1984–85 Lost to Peterborough Petes 9 points to 1 in first round.
1985–86 Did not qualify. Awarded First overall selection.
1986–87 Defeated Cornwall Royals 4 games to 1 in first round. Lost to Peterborough Petes 4 games to 2 in quarter-finals.
1987–88 Defeated Oshawa Generals 4 games to 3 in first round. Defeated Cornwall Royals 4 games to 1 in quarter-finals. Lost to Peterborough Petes 4 games to 0 in semi-finals.
1988–89 Defeated Oshawa Generals 4 games to 2 in first round. Lost to Cornwall Royals 4 games to 2 in quarter-finals.
1989–90 Lost to Peterborough Petes 4 games to 0 in first round.
1990–91 Defeated Belleville Bulls 4 games to 2 in first round. Defeated North Bay Centennials 4 games to 2 in quarter-finals. Lost to Oshawa Generals 4 games to 1 in semi-finals.
1991–92 Defeated Cornwall Royals 4 games to 2 in first round. Lost to Peterborough Petes 4 games to 1 in quarter-finals.
1992–93 Did not qualify.
1993–94 Defeated Peterborough Petes 4 games to 3 in division quarter-finals. Defeated Sudbury Wolves 4 games to 2 in division semi-finals. Lost to North Bay Centennials 4 games to 1 in semi-finals.
1994–95 Did not qualify.
1995–96 Earned bye through division quarter-finals. First place in East. Lost to Belleville Bulls 4 games to 0 in quarter-finals.
1996–97 Declined first round bye. Defeated Belleville Bulls 4 games to 2 in division quarter-finals. Defeated Barrie Colts 4 games to 1 in quarter-finals. Defeated Guelph Storm 4 games to 3 in semi-finals. Lost to Oshawa Generals 4 games to 2 in finals.
1997–98 Earned bye through division quarter-finals. 2nd place in OHL. Defeated Owen Sound Platers 4 games to 1 in quarter-finals. Defeated London Knights 4 games to 0 in semi-finals. Lost to Guelph Storm 4 games to 1 in finals.
1998–99 Defeated North Bay Centennials 4 games to 0 in conference quarter-finals. Lost to Belleville Bulls 4 games to 1 in conference semi-finals. Hosted Memorial Cup tournament in 1999. Finished Memorial Cup round-robin in third place, 1 win & 2 losses. Defeated Belleville Bulls 4–2 in semi-final game. Defeated Calgary Hitmen 7–6 in OT in championship game. MEMORIAL CUP CHAMPIONS
1999–2000 Defeated Oshawa Generals 4 games to 1 in conference quarter-finals. Lost to Belleville Bulls 4 games to 2 in conference semi-finals.
2000–01 Defeated North Bay Centennials 4 games to 0 in conference quarter-finals. Defeated Belleville Bulls 4 games to 2 in conference semi-finals. Defeated St. Michael's Majors 4 games to 0 in conference finals. Defeated Plymouth Whalers 4 games to 2 in finals. OHL CHAMPIONS Finished Memorial Cup round-robin tied for 3rd place. Lost to Regina Pats 5–0 in tie-breaker game.
2001–02 Defeated Peterborough Petes 4 games to 2 in conference quarter-finals. Lost to St. Michael's Majors 4 games to 3 in conference semi-finals.
2002–03 Defeated Mississauga IceDogs 4 games to 1 in conference quarter-finals. Defeated Oshawa Generals 4 games to 2 in conference semi-finals. Defeated St. Michael's Majors 4 games to 3 in conference finals. Lost to Kitchener Rangers 4 games to 1 in finals.
2003–04 Lost to Brampton Battalion 4 games to 3 in conference quarter-finals.
2004–05 Defeated Barrie Colts 4 games to 2 in conference quarter-finals. Defeated Sudbury Wolves 4 games to 2 in conference semi-finals. Defeated Peterborough Petes 4 games to 0 in conference finals. Lost to London Knights 4 games to 1 in finals. Finished Memorial Cup round-robin in third place, 1 win & 2 losses. Lost to Rimouski Océanic 7–4 in semi-final game.
2005–06 Lost to Peterborough Petes 4 games to 2 in conference quarter-finals.
2006–07 Lost to Belleville Bulls 4 games to 1 in conference quarter-finals.
2007–08 Lost to Oshawa Generals 4 games to 0 in conference quarter-finals.
2008–09 Lost to Niagara IceDogs 4 games to 3 in conference quarter-finals.
2009-10 Defeated Niagara IceDogs 4 games to 1 in conference quarter-finals. Lost to Mississauga St.Michaels Majors 4 games to 3 in conference semi-finals.
2010–11 Lost to Sudbury Wolves 4 games to 0 in conference quarter-finals.
2011–12 Defeated Belleville Bulls 4 games to 2 in conference quarter-finals. Defeated Barrie Colts 4 games to 3 in conference semi-finals. Lost to Niagara IceDogs 4 games to 1 in conference finals.
2012–13 Did not qualify.
2013–14 Did not qualify.
2014–15 Lost to Niagara IceDogs 4 games to 2 in conference quarter-finals.
2015–16 Lost to Niagara IceDogs 4 games to 1 in conference quarter-finals.
2016–17 Lost to Mississauga Steelheads 4 games to 2 in conference quarter-finals.
2017–18 Lost to Hamilton Bulldogs 4 games to 1 in conference quarter-finals.
2018–19 Defeated Hamilton Bulldogs 4 games to 0 in conference quarter-finals. Defeated Sudbury Wolves 4 games to 0 in conference semi-finals. Defeated Oshawa Generals 4 games to 0 in conference finals. Lost to Guelph Storm 4 games to 2 in finals.
2019–20 Cancelled.
2020–21 Cancelled.
2021–22 Lost to North Bay Battalion 4 games to 0 in conference quarter-finals.
2022–23 Defeated Oshawa Generals 4 games to 1 in conference quarter-finals. Lost to Peterborough Petes 4 games to 2 in conference semi-finals.
Uniforms and logos
The 67's colours and original uniforms are based on those of the Ottawa Senators from the 1920s and 1930s. The team colours are red, white & black. The 67's dark jerseys, only slightly altered from the original design, have horizontal "barber-pole" stripes with the rectangular 67's logo. The 67's have also used a white background jersey with barber-pole stripes on the shoulders and sleeves.
An alternate jersey was unveiled in 2001. In keeping with their new "Hockey With Bite" slogan, it featured a logo with an angry puck, and a white background body with jagged red and black trim lines along the bottom and arms. It also had an opposite black background style with white & red trim. This third jersey was discontinued in 2012, but the "Angry Puck" motif still features on some 67's merchandise.
Mascots: Riley Raccoon, The Killer Puck
Arenas
The Ottawa 67's played the first half of their 1967–68 inaugural season at the Robert Guertin Arena in Hull, Quebec, until completion of the new arena at Lansdowne Park.
The Ottawa 67's have played at TD Place Arena since January 1968 when it was known as the Ottawa Civic Centre. The Arena has the largest capacity of all current OHL arenas.
The design of TD Place Arena is unique in that it is built into the side of a football stadium, and includes a large conference hall under its north stands. The seating in TD Place Arena is almost all on the north side and ends of the arena, with very few seats on the south side towards the football stadium.
TD Place Arena has played host to many OHL and CHL events including:
The Memorial Cup in 1972 and 1999.
The Chrysler Challenge Cup in 1986 and 1987.
The Hershey Cup in 2002.
The Ottawa 67's also play the occasional home game at the Canadian Tire Centre. Twice the 67's played host to an interleague game versus the Gatineau Olympiques of the QMJHL. On December 30, 2004, the arena hosted the largest crowd ever witnessed in the Ontario Hockey League as 20,081 people saw the Ottawa 67's defeated by the Kingston Frontenacs. This came as a result of the arena seating capacity being expanded by 600 seats.
In early February 2012, it was announced that the 67's would move to the Canadian Tire Centre for two seasons while renovations were finished at TD Place Arena. This came as a result of delays in construction originally planned to allow the 67's to stay at TD Place through the rebuild but now a closed site is needed to meet deadlines for NASL and CFL expansion.
See also
Ice hockey in Ottawa
List of ice hockey teams in Ontario
References
External links
Official website
Ontario Hockey League teams
67
Ice hockey clubs established in 1967
Ice hockey teams in Ontario
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416276
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shawn%20Graham
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Shawn Graham
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Shawn Michael Graham (born February 22, 1968) is a Canadian politician, who served as the 31st premier of New Brunswick from 2006 to 2010. He was elected leader of the New Brunswick Liberal Party in 2002 and became premier after his party captured a majority of seats in the 2006 election. After being elected, Graham initiated a number of changes to provincial policy especially in the areas of health care, education and energy. His party was defeated in the New Brunswick provincial election held September 27, 2010, and Graham resigned as Liberal leader on November 9, 2010.
Early career
Graham was born in Rexton, New Brunswick, Canada and raised in a political family, with his father Alan R. Graham being the longest serving member of the Legislative Assembly of New Brunswick. The family has ancestral homes in the communities of Five Rivers and Main River with roots going back to the early 19th century. Shawn Graham was born the year after his father's first election as MLA for Kent County, New Brunswick.
Graham graduated from the University of New Brunswick, as an alumnus of both Harrison House and Neill House, after which he completed an education degree at St Thomas University in Fredericton. Graham spent much of his career before entering elected politics working for the province's civil service and when his father resigned from the legislature in 1998, Shawn Graham was elected to replace him in a by-election called by Premier Camille Theriault as a member of the Liberal Party. Following the general election of 1999, the Liberals were reduced to 10 seats from 45, and by early 2001 they were down to 7 seats following the resignation of several former cabinet ministers. This gave the young politician the chance to rise to prominence.
Leadership campaign
Liberal leader Camille Theriault resigned in March 2001, and a leadership convention was set for May 12, 2002. Few candidates emerged for this campaign and it appeared that former cabinet minister Paul Duffie would win virtually unopposed. Graham was urged to run, and eventually entered the race with the support of Greg Byrne, a previous leadership contender, and many of the supporters of Bernard Richard, also a former leadership contender and the interim leader following the resignation of Theriault.
Surprising many pundits, Graham was successful in taking a solid lead during delegate selection meetings in February and March 2002, and, as a result, Duffie dropped out of the race. This left only fringe candidate Jack MacDougall in the race who Graham defeated by a 3 to 1 margin at the May convention.
Toward the 2003 election
As leader, Graham was considered a lightweight by pundits and by the governing Progressive Conservative Party, and few gave him a chance in the 2003 election.
Graham surprised pundits again during the 2003 election, running an energetic campaign and winning 26 of 55 seats, just two short of the Conservatives, and coming within 1% of the Conservatives in the popular vote. Pundits said Graham and Lord had fought the English language debate to a draw, while they viewed Graham as the winner of the French debate; this was despite the fact that Lord was a francophone and that Graham's command of French was viewed as one of his largest liabilities. The Liberals controlled the agenda of the campaign, always keeping their three key issues: public automobile insurance, public health care and public power in the forefront of the agenda.
Graham often cited the fact that had 10 votes swung from the Conservatives to the Liberals in the riding of Kennebecasis there would have been a 27–27 tie which may have led to a Liberal minority government supported by the New Democrats whose one member would have held the balance of power. Graham was quoted on election night saying "until five minutes ago, I thought I was going to be premier".
Toward the 2006 election
Graham's Liberals captured a by-election victory on October 4, 2004, in Shediac-Cap-Pelé. Graham's upward momentum continued when, in an opinion poll released on December 9, 2004, the Liberals expanded their lead over the Conservatives to 46% to 36%, but also, for the first time since Graham became leader, he was the preferred choice of New Brunswickers for premier beating the incumbent Bernard Lord 34% to 27%.
In the spring session of the legislature, Graham attempted to pass a snap motion of no confidence during his speech on the budget. There was brief excitement on Liberal benches as less than half of the government caucus was present for Graham's speech, however the speaker ruled that the vote would be held along with the main budget motion at the end of the following week. Graham was criticised because when the vote was held two of his members were absent. Graham defended their absence arguing that, because New Democratic Party leader Elizabeth Weir was also absent, it was impossible to defeat the government, and he did not see the need to whip his members.
Graham's victory in a subsequent by-election on November 14, 2005, in Saint John Harbour with candidate Ed Doherty, as well as his continued lead in opinion polls, quieted any criticism of his leadership for a time. In 2006, however, following the brief minority government when Michael Malley left the government caucus for 6 weeks, Graham took a very aggressive stance towards forcing an election. A prolonged dispute over the functioning of legislature was undertaken, crippling most of the business of the House. Graham and the Liberals were criticized for this and, for the first time in over 2 years, in June 2006 the PCs regained the lead in opinion polls and Lord took a double-digit lead in preference for Premier.
Throughout the term that began following the 2003 election, Graham has worked hard to portray himself and his caucus as a "government-in-waiting". From the Lord government's introduction of controversial health reforms in the spring of 2004, Graham said he would force an election at his earliest opportunity.
His strategy was to focus heavily on policy, and his party introduced a record number of pieces of legislation for an opposition party.
In addition to his legislative agenda, Graham and the Liberals launched a series of regional policy meetings culminating in a policy convention in the fall of 2005. Graham also convened a meeting of all of the Liberal leaders of the Maritime provinces to discuss common policy objectives, engaged in several tours of the province on particular policy issues and took several trips to Ottawa to meet with federal ministers on various issues.
In early 2006, Graham set out on a tour of the northeast United States, Washington, D.C. and the Maritimes to promote New Brunswick as an "energy hub" and his idea of building a second reactor at the Point Lepreau Nuclear Generating Station.
On February 17, 2006, Bernard Lord's government was reduced to a minority when Michael Malley crossed the floor to sit as an independent. Graham said, if Malley would support the Liberals, he would have brought down the government on an April 7, 2006 budget vote forcing an early election. Malley was subsequently elected speaker however, creating an equality of government and opposition members; the April 7 vote came to a tie which was broken in favour of the government by Malley in accordance with tradition.
Following this, Malley rejoined the Conservative caucus from the speaker's chair. This created some controversy and Graham's Liberals held up some business in the House as a procedural stalemate ensued for some weeks. Finally the Conservative and Liberal House Leaders signed an agreement on May 31, 2006, which laid out a detailed plan for the conduct of the business of the House and which seemingly guaranteed that the next election would be held on Lord's preferred date of October 15, 2007. This protracted procedural battle did not seem to go well for the Liberals when, in an opinion poll released on June 12, 2006, the Tories took the lead over the Liberals for the first time in any poll since August 2003.
The election campaign
Bernard Lord announced on August 10, 2006, that an election would be held on September 18, 2006, due to the pending resignation of Conservative MLA Peter Mesheau from the legislature that would have created another minority government.
Graham had already started a campaign in earnest, having announced his energy platform on August 8 and having nominated several candidates already. With the election call, the party gave him the authority to appoint the 25 MLAs seeking re-election as candidates bringing the total number of nominated Liberal candidates to 30 of 55. Graham said he would pursue education, economic development and energy as three key issues during the campaign.
Graham stated that if he did not win the election, he would resign as Liberal leader.
Graham won the 2006 election by taking 29 out of the 55 seats in the legislature despite the Liberals narrowly trailing the Progressive Conservatives in the popular vote.
Premier of New Brunswick
Graham was elected premier under a platform called the Charter for Change, he pledged to focus on "the three Es": energy, education and the economy. He also pledged to make the province self-sufficient, that is to no longer depend on federal equalization payments, by 2026.
Though they won the election with a slight deficit in the popular vote, upon taking office, the Liberals surged in popularity. In December 2006, a poll showed the Liberals had surged to a lead of 65–27 in opinion polls, thereafter polls have showed the Liberals ahead by a minimum of 17%.
Graham's Liberals maintained the lead in a number of polls despite addressing a number of controversial issues such as post-secondary education reform, French second-language education, a bailout of a credit union and the restructuring of the province's public health care administration.
Transition and day-one actions
On September 20, 2006, Graham appointed a transition team to begin to transfer power headed by Doug Tyler. Graham, as New Brunswick's 31st Premier, and the rest of the cabinet were sworn in by Lieutenant-Governor Herménégilde Chiasson on October 3, 2006.
On his first day in office, Graham acted on five campaign promises. His government cut the excise tax on gasoline by 3.8 cents per litre, moved nursing home payments from an assets-based test to an income-based test, provided students with a reduced tuition of $2000 for their first year in university, provided the City of Saint John with a memorandum of understanding to provide a third of required monies for the clean up of Saint John harbour and established separate ministers for Agriculture & Aquaculture, Fisheries, Housing and Seniors. Additionally, on its first day in office, it pledged $2 million to assist in maintaining ferry service from Saint John to Digby, Nova Scotia.
In addition to being Premier and Minister of Intergovernmental Affairs (a post often held by premiers in Canada), Graham took on the role of Minister of Wellness, Culture and Sport. Graham, who has a background in athletics competing in the 1985 Canada Games for New Brunswick in track and field, wanted to take the portfolio to ensure it was a priority in large part to fight childhood obesity in the province, which is the highest in the country.
First year (2006–07)
On October 12, 2006, Graham announced several senior appointments. He appointed a president of NB Liquor and deputy ministers for the Department of Energy and the Department of Justice and Consumer Affairs to replace Conservative political appointees who had resigned when Graham took office. He also appointed former cabinet minister Bernard Thériault as his chief of staff and his former Opposition chief of staff Chris Baker to be secretary of the Policy and Priorities Committee of Cabinet.
Early in its mandate, the government implemented increases to the amount of care received by nursing home and homecare clients. It also appointed Bernard Richard as Child and Youth Advocate, a position which had been vacant since its creation in 2005 as a result of a then-opposition Liberal-sponsored bill. In December 2006, the province announced an agreement with private auto insurance companies that would see some restructuring of regulations and an average decrease of 13.5% in insurance rates by March 1, 2007. The province also appointed several commissions to investigate larger issues: a Community Non-Profit Task Force, a Self-Sufficiency Task Force and a Commission on Post-Secondary Education. The Liberals however cancelled a tax rebate on energy costs brought forward by the previous government which they had said they would maintain. The Liberals defended the move saying that the Conservatives had left the province's finances "in a downward spiral" and that the program was bad policy because it didn't encourage energy conservation.
On March 13, 2007, Graham's Finance Minister Victor Boudreau introduced the government's first budget. While the budget was balanced, despite warnings months earlier from an independent auditor that the province was facing a massive deficit, and increased spending in priority areas, it was criticized by the opposition for having raised some taxes. Boudreau defended the increases saying "we all enjoy lower taxes, but when the level of taxation is insufficient to ensure the continued provision of essential public services, it needs to be addressed."
The spring of 2007 saw the Liberal majority grow by six; they added a seat when Chris Collins won a by-election in Moncton East, the seat vacated when former Premier Bernard Lord stepped down from provincial politics. A short time later, Tory MLAs and spouses Wally Stiles and Joan MacAlpine-Stiles crossed the floor to give the Liberals 32 seats, compared to 23 for the opposition.
The report of the Self-Sufficiency Task Force was released in May will 91 recommendations covering 11 themes, 80 of which were to be acted upon within one year.
During a marathon 79-day spring sitting of the legislature, Graham's government unveiled an education plan called When Kids Come First the stated aim of which is to build the best education system in Canada. The government began a refurbishment of its Point Lepreau Nuclear Generating Station, launched a feasibility study into building a second reactor there, and began projects to add 300 megawatts of wind power to the province's electric grid. It also invested $40 million into affordable housing and opened 125 new nursing home beds. Additionally, Graham and his Environment Minister Roland Haché launched a Climate Change Action Plan, a five-year strategy to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in the province.
Over the summer, a number of major economic projects were announced by Graham including a $1.7 billion potash mine near Sussex and a $21.5 million steel fabrication plan and centre of excellence in Miramichi.
In August, Graham hosted all 13 Canadian premiers and territorial leaders in Moncton as incoming chair of the Council of the Federation. The meeting focused on issues of energy and climate change.
In September, the report of the Commission on Post-Secondary Education was released. It contained a wide-number of recommendations meant to be considered together as a comprehensive reform package. The authors indicated in their submission to government that:
Due to the complexities and interrelationships involved, this is a document that cannot be easily scanned. Readers will need to spend time understanding the dynamics and relevance of the issues raised. At the risk of stating the obvious, the recommendations are also highly interrelated and should not be considered discrete advice. Such an approach could result in the essence of the report being misinterpreted.
The day the report was presented to government, Post-Secondary Education Minister Ed Doherty was quoted at the top of a news release saying, "these are only recommendations from an independent commission and final decisions haven't been made yet by our government" and that government would take time to evaluate them before making any decisions.
The most controversial proposal was to convert the Saint John campus of the University of New Brunswick, and the Edmundston and Shippagan campuses of the University of Moncton into "polytechnics." Controversy surrounded the Saint John school in particular. A month later the government said it would set aside the possibility of UNB Saint John losing its status as a 'university' and would refer the report to a working group for further study. The government would go on to announce in January that UNBSJ would retain its liberal arts program and its association with UNB and the working group reported back to government in May, with its findings and government's response being made public in June.
Second year (2007–08)
Shortly after the first anniversary of his election, Graham shuffled his cabinet. He added two new ministers: outgoing speaker Eugene McGinley and Wally Stiles. Five other ministers were affected by the shuffle. Two ministers who had multiple portfolios ceded some of their responsibilities: the premier ceded his responsibility for the Department of Wellness, Culture and Sport; and Finance Minister Victor Boudreau gave up responsibility for the Department of Local Government. Three other ministers, namely Hédard Albert, Carmel Robichaud and Mary Schryer changed portfolios, including a promotion for Schryer who moved from minister of state to full minister. There was another minor adjustment to cabinet in January 2008 when Roly MacIntyre resigned from cabinet, his portfolios were taken on by other ministers in the cabinet.
In January, Graham unveiled a new brand called Be... in this place to give a common look and feel to provincial activities. A new brand was the first recommendation of the Self-Sufficiency Task Force. In February, the province unveiled its population growth strategy called Be Our Future setting out the plan to attract 100,000 new people to the province by 2026 as part of achieving self-sufficiency.
In March, the government tabled its second balanced budget which included record increases to the health and education budgets and a tuition freeze for students at the province's four public universities.
In March and April, the province unveiled its plans for healthcare. A dramatic change to the administration of the province's public healthcare moved the province from eight regional health authorities to two with a new crown corporation to handle non-clinical functions on behalf of both authorities. A new provincial health plan, was also launched with plans to invest over $154 million in addition to regular inflationary increases over four years. The plan included plans for new community health centres, broader addiction treatment services, HPV vaccinations for school children, the introduction of midwifery to the public health system, enabling pharmacists to write some prescriptions and the hiring of 100 new doctors and 40 nurse practitioners.
Much of the spring and summer of Graham's second year in office was dominated by the debate of French second-language programs. In February, a commission recommended that government should scrap early immersion in favour of a universal curriculum in elementary school which would see anglophone students learn in their mother tongue from kindergarten through Grade 4 and then all study French through an intensive program in Grade 5 before choosing between an immersion or non-immersion program. The commission said that this was the best route because under the existing model, over 93% of those students with special learning needs were being streamed into non-immersion classrooms, though critics argued the problem was a lack of the type of resources that would enable more students to stay in immersion programmes. In March, Minister of Education Kelly Lamrock announced that the government would move forward with the recommendations for the reasons stated by the commissioners. Lamrock said the changes would further promote bilingualism by giving all students access to a quality second-language program noting that the early immersion model had been implemented in a time when there was resistance to bilingualism and that it only worked well for small groups of students, not the large groups that were now interested in becoming bilingual. There was considerable opposition to this move, including from the province's official languages commissioner and ombudsman. In June, the Court of Queen's Bench ruled on a case brought forward by opponents to the changes. The court sided with the opponents on one ground that the government had implied that there would be two months of consultation on the commission report, when there had only been two weeks. Though the court ruled in favour of the government on two other grounds, it quashed the decision saying that the government could go forward with the changes as is but first must consult the public. Following an additional six weeks of consultation, on August 5 the government announced a revised model to be implemented in September 2008, which would provide a "universal learning environment" including exposure to French culture from kindergarten through Grade 2 projected to start in 2009, an optional entry to immersion in Grade 3 projected to start in 2010, further French instruction for non-immersion students in grades 3 through 5 with another optional entry to late immersion in Grade 6. The revised program has been generally well received.
In June, the working group that had been appointed to review the Commission on Post-Secondary Education reported back to government. Graham announced that the government would forgo the recommendations about creating polytechnics, but would follow through on recommendations to greater integrate the universities and colleges in the province, and promised at least $90 million in new money. In July, Graham committed $20 million to the restoration of the Petitcodiac River. The river system had been changed by the construction of a causeway in the 1960s.
Third year (2008–09)
Graham began the third year of his mandate in October 2008.
From October 17 to 19, Graham attended the 12th Francophonie Summit in Quebec City to discuss four major issues: democracy and rule of law; economic governance and solidarity; environment (water management and forest management); and the French language. In addition to the official deliberations, New Brunswick helped organize a cultural event called Passion Francophonie which featured artists from Madagascar, France, Vietnam, Quebec, and New Brunswick; New Brunswick also hosted a breakfast for heads of government that featured New Brunswick food products.
Graham participated in a Council of the Federation trade mission to China from November 2 to 7. The mission yielded $75.5 million in new business for New Brunswick companies on its first full day in China. A by-election was held in the conservative riding of New Maryland-Sunbury West on November 3, 2008. Although the Liberals increased their share of the vote by nearly 3%, they were unable to capture the riding.
On November 12, Graham announced a second major cabinet shuffle. Two ministers - Eugene McGinley and Carmel Robichaud - were dropped from cabinet, while three new individuals joined the cabinet - Rick Brewer, Brian Kenny and Bernard LeBlanc. Three other ministers changed portfolios, including: Donald Arseneault, Ed Doherty and Wally Stiles.
The third legislative session of Graham's government began with a throne speech on November 25, 2008. The speech focussed on "keeping commitments, carefully managing through the current economic downturn, and a renewed focus on and commitment to achieving self-sufficiency."
On the second day of the session, Graham's government introduced a 100-page bill called the Modernization of Benefits and Obligations Act to change all provincial laws making same-sex common law couples equal to opposite-sex couples, in accordance with the M. v. H. decision of the Supreme Court of Canada in 1999. The previous Conservative government, in office from 1999 to 2006, did not introduce such legislation.
On December 3, 2008, Graham's finance minister, Victor Boudreau, gave an economic and fiscal update in light of the economic situation. The statement indicated that the 2008-09 fiscal year would likely see a $285 million deficit, instead of the $19 million surplus that had been projected. In order to stimulate the economy, the government announced it would bring forward a two-year capital spending plan that would total more than $1.2 billion, including the largest capital budget in the province's history for 2009–10 to be tabled on December 9, 2008. Other measures announced to control spending and ensure economic growth in light of the economic situation were: a review of all government programs, providing capital to small, medium and large businesses, renewing a commitment to tax reform that will include "lowering personal and corporate income taxes". Additionally, Boudreau indicated the salaries for members of the legislature would be frozen for one year "to lead by example."
In Graham's 2009 state of the province address, he pledged to make the economy his government's top priority and amended the three Es from his campaign platform (formerly education, energy and the economy) to read, "the economy, the economy, and the economy." He also pledged that his promised changes to the tax system would mean more than $100 million in savings to New Brunswickers in the coming year.
In early March, Graham's party won a by-election in Restigouche-La-Vallée on a swing of nearly 15 per cent. Since the previous election, this was the third by-election, all held in ridings previously held by the Conservative opposition. Graham's Liberals improved their showing in all three ridings, and won two counting this one.
On March 17, Graham joined his finance minister Victor Boudreau to introduce the budget for the 2009-10 fiscal year. The budget included $144 million in personal and corporate tax reductions and a pledge to lower taxes by a total of over $380 million over four years, and budget deficit of $741 million. It centred around the so-called Plan for a Stronger Economy which included the tax cuts, a four-year plan to return the province to balanced budgets, the $1.2 billion in infrastructure spending previously announced in December, investments in priority areas with cuts in other areas to ensure "responsible management" of government expenditure. Savings were released by instituting a two-year wage freeze for all government employees, the elimination of 700 civil service positions and the elimination of some services, most controversially the elimination of three ferries in the lower Saint John River Valley. Later there was also controversy surrounding some cuts to education services—despite an increase of funding to the education department, and a dispute with the province's physicians over their payment. The province's tax reforms attracted positive national attention, however, with the Canadian Federation of Independent Business, the National Post newspaper, and the Atlantic Institute for Market Studies all spoke on it favourably.
In May 2009, Atcon, a long-standing business in the Miramichi region, fell into financial difficulty. Both political parties in the legislature agreed that some sort of assistance should be made to the company, though there was disagreement on the details. In June 2009, Graham's government granted $50 million in loan guarantees, which was in addition to previous assistance granted to the company totalling about $20 million which had been provided by governments of both political stripes over the years. The company eventually failed anyway and the Progressive Conservatives filed an allegation of conflict of interest against Graham which was not resolved until after his government left office.
On June 22, 2009, Graham undertook another cabinet shuffle. In the most significant shuffle since taking office, Graham moved all of his major ministers. There were new ministers for the three largest departments in government – Health, Education and Social Development – as well as the important portfolios of Finance, Attorney General and Business New Brunswick.
Fourth year (2009–10)
In October 2009 Premier Graham announced a Memorandum of Understanding between the provinces of New Brunswick and Quebec proposing to sell the New Brunswick Power electricity generation, transmission and distribution network to the Quebec government-owned Hydro-Québec electricity corporation. Under this plan Hydro-Québec would pay the $4.8 billion debt of NB Power and provide rate savings valued at $5.6 billion by freezing New Brunswick residential electricity rates for five years and matching industrial rates to Quebec for five years, while rising both at the rate of inflation thereafter. The plan met with some support and some opposition in New Brunswick with opinion polls showing the Liberals losing support because of the proposed agreement, Graham hoped to finalize the deal before March 31, 2010, when a 3% rate increase was scheduled. The opposition Conservatives were very critical of the proposal, though some accused them of hypocrisy for having tried to sell major NB Power assets when they were in power.
On December 1, 2009, Graham's new finance minister Greg Byrne introduced his first budget. It showed the deficit for 2009–10 had come in roughly as expected and that the 2010-11 would be in the same range - about $750 million. The province also revised its target date to return to balanced budgets to 2014–15 from 2012 to 2013, and boosted its two-year stimulus package to $1.6 billion from $1.2 billion.
On January 4, 2010, a minor cabinet shuffle was precipitated by the resignation from cabinet of Justice Minister Mike Murphy for personal reasons. Local Government Minister Bernard LeBlanc replaced Murphy as justice minister, while his other responsibilities - those of attorney general and government house leader - went to Kelly Lamrock and Greg Byrne respectively. Backbencher Chris Collins joined the cabinet to replace LeBlanc as local government minister.
On September 27, 2010, Shawn Graham lost his bid to be re-elected as Premier (13 to 42) to provincial PC leader David Alward, but remained MLA for Kent riding. He stepped down as leader of the party on November 9, 2010; Victor Boudreau was selected as the party's interim leader the following day.
Later career
After resigning as leader of the Liberal Party, Graham continued as a member of the legislative assembly until 2013. Graham said he remained in office in part to allow for the completion of an investigation that had been launched by a political opponent about the granting of financial support to the Atcon companies. The New Brunswick Members' Conflict of Interest Act only applies to sitting politicians, and others have left office before investigations were able to conclude.
After nearly three years of investigation, an 80-page report was issued by the provincial conflict commissioner in February 2013. The report found that Graham's father had a business interest in Atcon and that "the furthering of his father’s private interest although serious, was incidental to the financial aid" Graham's government had granted to Atcon. Because Graham had not excused himself from meetings where assistance to Atcon was discussed, the commissioner fined him $3,500, less than the $8,000 to $16,000 proposed by the commissioners' counsel.
Graham stepped down as MLA for the riding of Kent on March 11, 2013, and paid the fine even though his resignation meant he had no legal obligation to do so. The opposing Progressive Conservative party said that the ensuing by-election would be a chance for voters to issue their own "verdict" on the Atcon case. Graham's successor as Liberal leader, Brian Gallant, won the by-election by more than a 2-to-1 margin over the New Democratic Party with the governing Progressive Conservatives coming a distant third with less than 14% of the vote.
References
External links
CBC News: Graham expects to win leadership, May 7, 2002
Graham's bio as Premier
Graham's bio as Leader of the Opposition
1968 births
Living people
Members of the Executive Council of New Brunswick
New Brunswick Liberal Association MLAs
New Brunswick Liberal Association leaders
Premiers of New Brunswick
St. Thomas University (New Brunswick) alumni
University of New Brunswick alumni
People from Kent County, New Brunswick
21st-century Canadian politicians
Intelligent Community Forum
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caroline%20Harrison
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Caroline Harrison
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Caroline Lavinia Harrison (née Scott; October 1, 1832 – October 25, 1892) was an American music teacher and the first lady of the United States from 1889 until her death. She was married to President Benjamin Harrison, and she was the second first lady to die while serving in that role.
The daughter of a college professor, Harrison was well-educated, and she expressed interest in art, music, and literature throughout her life. She married Benjamin Harrison in 1853 and taught music while he engaged in a legal and political career. She was heavily involved in the community, working at her church, participating in charity work, and managing local institutions such as an orphanage and a women's club. During the Civil War, she contributed to the war effort through women's volunteer groups. When her husband was nominated for the presidency, she was a hostess as her home became the center of a front porch campaign.
As first lady, Harrison took little interest in her duties as hostess and dedicated much of her time to charity work. She was in favor of women's rights, and she co-founded the Daughters of the American Revolution, serving as its first President General. Harrison engaged in a major undertaking to renovate the White House, having much of its interior and utilities entirely redone. These renovations included the addition of electricity, though the family declined to use it for fear of electrocution. Her plans for the White House would later influence the construction of the East Wing and the West Wing. She also took inventory of furnishings and other possessions kept in the White House, beginning the practice of White House historical preservation.
Early life
Caroline Lavinia Scott was born on October 1, 1832, in Oxford, Ohio, to Mary Potts Neal, a teacher at a girls' school, and John Witherspoon Scott, a Presbyterian minister and professor at Miami University. Caroline's parents were abolitionists, and were active in the Underground Railroad. Her great-grandfather was the founder of the first Presbyterian church in the United States, and of the College of New Jersey, which was later renamed Princeton University. She had two sisters and two brothers. Among her family, she was known as "Carrie". Her father left Miami University following a dispute over his abolitionist beliefs, and the family moved to Cincinnati. Her parents were supporters of women's education, and they ensured that she was well educated.
While in Cincinnati, Caroline attended a girls' school that her father founded. Caroline's father also took a job teaching science and mathematics at Farmer's College in Cincinnati. Caroline began a courtship with Benjamin Harrison, one of her father's students at Farmer's College. The extent of their relationship was kept secret, and the two would often meet for buggy and sleigh rides together. They would also secretly attend dancing parties, which were seen as sinful at her father's institute. When Caroline's father was appointed the first president of the Oxford Female Institute, the Scotts returned to Oxford, and Benjamin transferred to Miami University so he could be close to Caroline.
In addition to her enrollment as a student, Scott took a part-time job at the institute teaching art and music. They were engaged in 1852, but they delayed the marriage until the following year. While Harrison advanced his legal career, Scott took a job as a music teacher in Carrollton, Kentucky, with Bethania Bishop Bennet. Bennet had previously been in charge of the Oxford Female Institute. Caroline was severely overworked while in Kentucky, which negatively affected her health: as a result she and Benjamin wed sooner than originally planned. They were married on October 20, 1853, with Caroline's father presiding.
Benjamin and Caroline were often contrasted with one another, as Benjamin's serious personality was distinct from Caroline's friendly demeanor. After their marriage, they stayed at the Harrison family home in North Bend, Ohio until Benjamin was admitted to the bar 1854, at which point they moved to Indianapolis. The Harrisons struggled financially in the early years of their marriage; though the Harrison family had been well-to-do, their wealth had been diluted over generations. Caroline kept house while Benjamin worked as an attorney. While she was pregnant with her first child in 1854, Caroline stayed at her family home in Ohio. The Harrisons' lives were further complicated by a fire that destroyed their home in Indianapolis the same year.
The Harrisons had three children, two of whom survived to adulthood. Russell Benjamin Harrison was born on August 12, 1854; Mary Scott Harrison was born on April 3, 1858; and another daughter died at birth in 1861. The family lived more comfortably as Benjamin's legal career advanced. In addition to keeping house, Caroline took up several hobbies. She began china painting and playing the piano and the organ. Harrison also established an art studio from which she taught ceramics and other forms of art. The Harrisons were active in the First Presbyterian Church; Caroline participated in the church choir, sewing society, and fundraisers, and she also taught Sunday school. She was also active in the community, joining the Indianapolis Orphans' Asylum board of managers in 1860 and holding the position until her death. She served as the president of the Indianapolis Woman's Club. Other organizations to which she contributed include the Indianapolis Benevolent Society, a group that distributed aid in the community, and the Home for Friendless Women, a woman's retirement home.
Civil War and senator's wife
Harrison experienced periods of loneliness and depression as her husband began his political career, for he was often away and their marriage was neglected. This was exacerbated by the onset of the Civil War, at which time both Caroline and Benjamin sought to help in the war effort. Caroline joined volunteer groups such as the Ladies Patriotic Association and the Ladies Sanitary Committee. When visiting her husband at the soldiers' camp, she would mend uniforms and perform other chores, and when at home in Indianapolis, she would tend to wounded soldiers. She continued her education after the war, taking literature and art classes. Her pursuit of literature led her to establish the Impromptu Club, a local literary discussion group, while her pursuit of art became such that she began featuring her work in art exhibitions. She also took a position on the board of lady managers of the Garfield Hospital. Harrison faced several serious health problems in the 1880s: she took a severe fall on the ice, underwent surgery in 1883, and became seriously ill in 1886. In 1874, the Harrisons oversaw the construction of a sixteen-room house. It was finished in 1875, and gave Caroline experience in planning a home that would prove valuable when she became first lady years later.
Benjamin continued to pursue politics after the war. He ran an unsuccessful campaign to be the Governor of Indiana in 1876, and he was elected to the United States Senate in 1880. After his election, Caroline oversaw the family's move to a rented suite in Washington, D.C. She served as an advisor in his political career and assisted him in his political campaigns. Her work as a family hostess grew significantly when her husband was chosen as the Republican candidate for the 1888 presidential election. He ran a front porch campaign as was common at the time, bringing thousands of people through their home. She also became a public figure in her own right, and she was used in the campaign to contrast with the popular incumbent first lady Frances Cleveland. The campaign was stressful for Harrison, and she expressed a hope to find privacy in the White House. Her husband was elected president, and was sworn in on March 4, 1889.
First Lady of the United States
Harrison was responsible for a large family in the White House; in addition to the president and herself, the White House was home to their two children and their families, Caroline's father, Caroline's sister Elizabeth, and Elizabeth's widowed daughter. Managing this large family contributed to her image as grandmotherly and as an ideal of domestic life. Both her daughter and her daughter-in-law helped with the responsibilities of the first lady. She considered her domestic duties to be her primary responsibilities, expressing little interest in her role as White House hostess. Harrison continued in her artistic pursuits while she was first lady, and she would mail ceramic milk sets to parents that named their children after the president.
To appeal to the public, Harrison would arrange publicity photos of her infant grandson, popularly known as "Baby McKee". She also continued her charitable work as first lady, giving her little time to organize grand receptions. She did implement some reforms for presidential receptions; Harrison abolished the practice of handshaking in receiving lines, and she restored dancing as a common practice. Harrison caused one major political controversy in 1889 when she accepted a seaside cottage from John Wanamaker as a gift, leading to accusations of bribery.
Harrison supported women's rights movements while serving as first lady. It was on her advice that her husband appointed Alice Sanger to the White House staff, the first woman to hold such a position. Harrison also organized educational programs in the White House for the wives and daughters of cabinet members, including ceramics and French classes. In 1890, Harrison was one of the founding members of the Daughters of the American Revolution, a woman's organization that celebrated the contributions of women during the founding of the United States. Her involvement gave the organization legitimacy, and her first speech to the group was the first public speech to be written and delivered by a first lady. The same year, she and several other women helped raise funds for the Johns Hopkins University Medical School on the condition that it admit women. This was the first medical school in the United States to accept women, and it would lead to similar policies in other medical schools.
Renovations and preservation
When she became the first lady, Harrison inspected the White House in its entirety and found many problems that she wished to address. The structure had been damaged by rot as well as by pests such as termites and rats. She consulted with Thomas Edison to bring electricity into the building, but he concluded that it could not safely incorporate electrical wiring in its current state. The extended family also found that there were not enough bedrooms between them and that there was only one bathroom. She took particular issue with the integration of the residential spaces and public offices, allowing visitors access to the family's quarters. She wished to entirely reconstruct the White House, even drawing plans with architect Frederick D. Owen, but Congress was unwilling to fund the project. Instead, Congress authorized $35,000 () for renovations, decoration, and modernization.
Harrison made large changes with the allocated funds. The rooms were repainted, and the drapes, carpets, and upholstery were replaced. The kitchens, which had not been updated in over forty years, were modernized. More bathrooms were installed, and new furniture was purchased for the house. Wooden structures in the state rooms were repainted ivory, and five layers of floorboards were replaced due to rot. She oversaw the installation of electrical wiring over a period of four months, but the family and much of the staff were afraid to use the light switches. She also authorized other utilities, including the installation of a heating system and modernized plumbing. The wood-frame bathtubs were replaced with iron tubs. To address the rat problem, she released ferrets,and she had the basement redone with concrete floors and tiled walls. For decoration, Harrison introduced the use of orchids as the official floral decoration at state receptions, and she also had the first White House Christmas tree put up. The Green Room was redone in rococo style. By the time she had finished, she had refurbished the White House in its entirety, becoming the first first lady to do so.
Harrison took interest in the history of the White House, and she would offer personal tours. She ended the practice of selling off furnishing at the end of a presidential administration to preserve historic pieces from past administrations and mitigate a continual need of refurnishing. She especially took interest in china from previous administrations that had been stored in the attic, organizing it and creating what would become the White House china collection. She also designed china of her own to be used as the official White House china of her husband's presidency. She had her husband order a total account of the furniture in the White House that documented the history of every item. One such item, the Resolute desk, was also used by subsequent presidents. Under her management, the White House hired its first art curator, a practice that would be revived by the Kennedy administration.
Illness and death
In 1891, it was discovered that Harrison had tuberculosis. As her health declined, she delegated her responsibilities to relatives, primarily her daughter Mary. This caused conflict with the second lady and the wife of the Secretary of State, who both felt that they were entitled to the position. She traveled to spend the summer of 1892 in the Adirondack Mountains, as the air was considered healthful for tuberculosis patients. After her condition became terminal, she returned to the White House. Her condition was worsened by suspicions that her husband had begun a romantic relationship with her niece Mary Scott Dimmick. In respect for her condition, both her husband and his opponent limited their campaign activity in the 1892 presidential election.
Harrison died on October 25, 1892, two weeks before her husband was defeated for reelection. It is believed that she died from a combination of tuberculosis and another illness, such as typhoid fever or influenza. Preliminary services were held in the East Room, then her body was returned to Indianapolis for the final funeral at her church and her burial at Crown Hill Cemetery. Her duties as first lady were taken over by their daughter Mary for the remainder of the term. In 1896, Benjamin married Mary Scott Dimmick.
Legacy
Harrison is described as an "underrated" first lady who was more active than most first ladies of her generation. She is ranked poorly by historians, typically being placed in the bottom quartile in historian polls. Coverage of Harrison in historical analysis has been limited. Early historical analysis of Harrison's performance as first lady often emphasized her role as a housekeeper, but her legacy has been reconsidered to include her advocacy for the arts, women's causes, and White House preservation. A bronze statue of Harrison was placed in the Oxford Community Arts Center garden in 2018, the site previously being the location of the Oxford Female Institute.
Harrison was celebrated in her day as a model of domestic life for proficiently managing the White House. In her role as White House hostess, she is described as unsuccessful, being unable to maintain good relations with Washington society and lacking the grandeur associated with past first ladies. Her desire for privacy often superseded her duties as the public face of the White House. In particular, she was often compared to and sometimes overshadowed by her immediate predecessor Frances Cleveland, who was much younger and widely beloved.
Contemporary historians recognize Harrison for her renovation work in the White House, and her renovation projects had a major effect on future presidencies. Her rejected proposal to remodel the White House would be adapted into a future renovation plan, resulting in the construction of the building's East Wing and West Wing. Frances Cleveland, who managed the White House both before and after Harrison, expressed her approval of the renovations. Harrison's work remains one of the most comprehensive projects to affect the White House. Her measures to preserve White House china and other furnishings have established long-standing collections.
See also
Letitia Christian Tyler – wife of John Tyler who also died while serving as first lady
Ellen Axson Wilson – wife of Woodrow Wilson who also died while serving as first lady
References
External links
"First Lady Biographies: Caroline Harrison" , First Ladies Library website
Caroline Harrison at C-SPAN's First Ladies: Influence & Image
1832 births
1892 deaths
19th-century American educators
19th-century American women educators
19th-century deaths from tuberculosis
Benjamin Harrison
Burials at Crown Hill Cemetery
First ladies of the United States
Presidents General of the Daughters of the American Revolution
Caroline
Tuberculosis deaths in Washington, D.C.
Miami University alumni
People from Oxford, Ohio
American women music educators
American music educators
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416314
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lij%20Iyasu
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Lij Iyasu
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Lij Iyasu (; 4 February 1895 – 25 November 1935) was the designated Emperor of Ethiopia from 1913 to 1916. His baptismal name was Kifle Yaqob (ክፍለ ያዕቆብ kəflä y’aqob). Ethiopian emperors traditionally chose their regnal name on the day they were crowned, and since he was never crowned, he is usually referred to as Lij Iyasu, "Lij" meaning child, especially one born of royal blood.
Early life and ancestry
Lij Iyasu was born on 4 February 1895 in the city of Dessie, in the Wollo province of Ethiopia. Iyasu’s father was descended from the Muslim rulers of Wollo and was of mostly Amhara descent, while his mother Woizero ("Lady") Shoaregga, was a Shewan Amhara and the eldest daughter of Emperor Menelik II. Iyasu's father was Ras Mikael, Governor of Wollo and longstanding friend of Menelik. Mikael had been born Mohammed Ali and was a Muslim until 1875, when he converted to Christianity.
Emperorship
Background
Late in his life, Emperor Menelik was confronted with the problem of his succession; if he did not explicitly name an heir before he died, the nation he had built would likely dissolve into civil war and be devoured by European colonial powers. He had four possible heirs. According to the traditional rules of succession, the next direct patrilineal descendant was the grandson of Menelik's uncle, Dejazmach Taye Gulilat. His other three heirs were all in the female line. The first of these was his oldest grandson, Dejazmach Wosan Seged, son of his daughter Shoaregga Menelik by her first marriage to Wedadjo Gobena. The second heir of the female line was his younger grandson Lij Iyasu. Finally, the third heir of the female line was Menelik's elder daughter Woizero Zewditu, who was married to Ras Gugsa Welle, nephew of the Empress Taitu.
Menelik refused to consider Taye Gulilat, whom he deeply disliked. Wosan Seged was eliminated from consideration due to dwarfism. In March 1908, at any rate, Wosan Seged was in poor health and dying of tuberculosis. It was clear that the aristocracy would not respect a woman as their leader, so Zewditu was also not seriously considered at this time. On 11 June 1908, Menelik experienced a stroke while on pilgrimage to Debre Libanos. On 15 May 1909 Menelik informed his ministers that Iyasu would succeed him. However, due to Iyasu's youth, Menelik agreed to the suggestion that he appoint a Regent (Enderase) during the minority of his heir apparent. Until Iyasu came of age, the elder statesman Ras Tessema Nadew would be Regent Plenipotentiary (Balemulu 'Enderase).
In May 1909, shortly before the Emperor made this decision, Lij Iyasu was married to Woizero Romanework Mengesha, the daughter of Ras Mengesha Yohannes, granddaughter of Emperor Yohannes IV, and the niece of Empress Taitu. However, that marriage was annulled without having been consummated. Subsequently, in April 1910, Iyasu married Seble Wengel Hailu, the daughter of Ras Hailu Tekle Haymanot of Gojjam.
Regency
Not long after his decision that Lij Iyasu would succeed him, Emperor Menelik succumbed to further strokes. These eventually left him a mere shell of his once-powerful self, and incapacitated until his death in 1913. During his last years, in a bid to retain power, Empress Taitu intrigued against his choice, intending to substitute either her step-daughter Leilt Zewditu or her daughter's husband Ras Gugsa Welle (who happened to be Taitu's nephew) for Iyasu. In response to Taitu's intriguing, a number of nobles organized in an ever-closer alliance against her. On 28 October 1909, after a massive stroke, Menelik's choice of Iyasu as his heir was made public with Ras Bitweded Tessema Nadew as regent.
The new regent found his authority undermined not only by the still living but paralyzed Emperor Menelik, but also by the Empress. For example, she insisted that questions from the foreign legations in Addis Ababa be directed to her, not to Tessema. Furthermore, Tessema himself suffered from an illness, which left him appearing helpless and apathetic and would take his life within a year. It took a coup d'état engineered by a group of aristocrats and the head of the Imperial Bodyguard to convince Ras Tesemma and Habte Giyorgis to decisively limit the influence of the Empress. Despite these developments, the imperial government continued to falter: administrators were unwilling to make decisions because Tessema himself might be overthrown, and foreign affairs likewise suffered. Despite this, Harold Marcus notes that the presence of Tessema "did curb ministerial dissensions and intrigues and was a reminder of the existence of central authority."
With Tessema, Iyasu continued Menelik's program of modernization, including the establishment of the first police force in Addis Ababa. On 10 April 1911, Tessema Nadew died and, when the council met to appoint a successor as Enderase, Lij Iyasu demanded a role in the process. When asked whom he desired in the position, he is reported to have replied, "Myself!" On 11 May, the seal of Iyasu replaced that of his grandfather, although not with the style of Emperor.
Marcus describes Iyasu's abilities as a ruler:
In the first year, he was faced with several serious challenges to his rule. On 31 May, Ras Abate attempted a coup d’état by seizing the arsenal and its modern weapons in the palace, but was eventually convinced to make a public submission in return for being allowed to depart for his estates in the southern provinces. On 14 July, an attempt was made to poison Iyasu. That same year Menelik's soldiers sent a delegation demanding back pay and regular supplies, which made clear that the government was on the brink of financial insolvency. Intelligence reached Iyasu's father, Ras Mikael, of another plot, and he arrived on 14 November in Addis Ababa with an army of 8,000 men. This was only the first of many efforts Ras Mikael made to keep his son on the Imperial throne. Mikael established a powerful position behind the scenes.
At this point, Lij Iyasu decided to leave the capital, ostensibly on a military expedition against the Afar, but he simply traveled through eastern Shewa and into Wollo, meeting with the common people. He had promised to return to Addis Ababa in May 1912, but instead visited Debre Libanos, then Addis Alem, before joining Dajazmach Kabbada's expedition into southwest Ethiopia. Here Lij Iyasu took part in a series of slave raids, in which 40,000 people of both sexes were captured, "half of whom died en route of smallpox, dysentery, hunger and fatigue." Marcus explains this constant journeying beyond the capital by his will "to prove that the government could not function without him and to force the ministers to authorize his immediate coronation."
Once he finally returned to the capital, he came into conflict with the commander of the Imperial Bodyguard, which was eventually settled by the mediation of Abuna Mattewos. The conflict began when Iyasu expressed his wish to the ministers that the incapacitated Emperor be removed from the Imperial Palace so that Iyasu himself could take up residence there. Trying to please the heir, the ministers asked for an audience with Empress Taitu and suggested that she take the Emperor to Ankober as a change of scene that might be beneficial for his health. Taitu had however been informed that Iyasu was intent on moving into the Imperial Palace, and defiantly refused to move either herself or her husband from the Palace. Informed of this exchange, the commander of the Imperial Bodyguard swore that he would protect the Emperor in his palace with his life. Angrily, Iyasu ordered the palace complex surrounded by his soldiers and only allowed in enough food for the Emperor himself. With Iyasu's soldiers in a tense standoff with the Imperial guard, the situation deteriorated to the point that gunfire was exchanged, and the bedridden Emperor had to be moved to the cellars as his bedroom windows were shattered in the battle. Hearing the guns, the Archbishop rushed to the scene and arranged for a ceasefire. Empress Taitu then emerged from the palace to publicly berate Iyasu as an ungrateful child who wanted to kill his grandfather. She angrily declared that neither she nor the Emperor would be going anywhere and returned to her rooms. Iyasu was thwarted, but demanded vengeance against the commander of the Imperial Bodyguard. Although he had wanted him severely punished, he was convinced to accept a sentence of banishment from the capital. Iyasu indulged in a lavish celebration, which led the European diplomats to conclude "that he was purposely neglecting urgent business and impeding the ministers from carrying out their duties".
Lij Iyasu left the capital after little more than a month, and during this time engaged in a raid upon the Afar, who had reportedly massacred 300 of the Karayu Oromo at the village of Sadimalka on the Awash River. Unable to find the responsible parties, he made a punitive raid upon the general population which provoked a general uprising of the Afar. On 8 April, after repeated messages from his father to return to the capital, he finally did arrive at the city and managed to accomplish nothing. On 8 May, Iyasu left to meet his father in Dessie.
Reign
On the night of 12–13 December 1913, Emperor Menelik II died. Iyasu was informed of his grandfather's death. The Emperor's body was secretly locked away in a small room adjoining the Se'el Bet Kidane Meheret (Our Lady Covenant of Mercy) Church on the grounds of the Imperial Palace. No public announcement of the Emperor's death was made, and no requiem or any type of mourning ritual was allowed. Empress Taitu was immediately expelled from the Imperial Palace and sent to the old palace on Mt. Entoto. Lij Iyasu's aunt, Zewditu Menelik, was also removed from the palace and banished into internal exile at her estates at Falle. By mid-January, the news had slipped through the official wall of silence. On 10 January 1914, the leading nobles of Ethiopia had gathered to discuss their response to his loss and the future of Ethiopia. "Although no records of the 1914 meeting have come to the author's notice," Marcus admits, he states that "it is safe to conclude" that their arrival in Addis Ababa "indicated their fidelity to Menelik's heir." However, they opposed his immediate coronation, although they did approve of his proposal to crown his father "Negus of the North".
Lij Iyasu showed a pronounced lack of interest in the day-to-day running of the government, leaving most of the work for the ministers to deal with. However, the cabinet of ministers remained largely unchanged from the days of his grandfather, and by now the ministers wielded much power and influence. They were constantly subject to insults and disparagement by Lij Iyasu who referred to them as "my grandfather's fattened sheep." He constantly spoke of his intention of dismissing "these Shewans", as he called them, and appointing new officials and creating a new aristocracy of his own choosing. His essentially reformist orientation clashed with the conservatism of his grandfather's old ministers. As Paul Henze notes, Iyasu "seems deliberately to have antagonized the Shewan establishment. He lacked the diplomatic skill and the refined sense of discretion that came naturally to Tafari."
Iyasu's many capricious acts served only to further alienate the aristocracy. One was his betrothal of his royal-blooded cousin Woizero Sakamyelesh Seyfu to his former driver, Tilahun. Another was the appointment of his Syrian friend, the rubber merchant Hasib Ydlibi, to the position of Nagadras (or Customs-Master) at the railway depot at Dire Dawa, thus giving him control of the vast tariffs and customs that were collected there. All this, combined with Iyasu's frequent absences from the capital, created the ideal environment for the ministers, led by Fitawrari Habte Giyorgis, the Minister of War, to plot his downfall.
Alleged conversion to Islam
In 1914, Iyasu assigned Abdullahi Sadiq with the governorship of Ogaden, a decision that was vehemently opposed by the British. In February 1915, Iyasu travelled to Harar with Abdullahi Sadiq, who had become his constant companion, and went to the largest mosque of the city, the Jamia Mosque, for a three-hour service. Throughout his stay in Harar he was friendly towards the Muslims, an act which worried the priests of Ethiopia; when he remained in this Muslim community over Easter, they were scandalized.
However, the foreign delegations in Addis Ababa had been lobbying for him to join their sides in World War I. According to Marcus, many of the Ethiopian nobility and commoners were impressed by the early successes of the Central Powers, and both listened eagerly to German and Turkish propaganda concerning events. Both sides sought Ethiopian support: the Central Powers wanted the Ethiopians to drive the Italians out of Eritrea and Somalia. Rumors circulated that, in return for Iyasu invading the Sudan with 50,000 soldiers, he would be rewarded with the strategic port of Djibouti. At a minimum, the Allies sought to keep Ethiopia neutral.
In August 1915, Iyasu went to French Somaliland in disguise, without informing either French diplomats in Addis Ababa or even the colonial government. There he spent two days in mysterious meetings. Although Marcus states that "What actually happened will not be known until information from the French archives becomes available," Fitawrari ("Commander of the Vanguard") Tekle Hawariat Tekle Mariyam, a fervent reformer and a onetime friend of Iyasu, states in his recently published autobiography that the Djibouti trip was something of a vacation for Lij Iyasu, and that he spent much of his time consorting with Muslim notables in the city and consuming large amounts of qat as well as completely depleting the funds of the Ethiopian mission in the French colony.
Around the same time, the British reported that documents preaching jihad against the Europeans had been posted in the Harar marketplace. That August, the British reported that supplies were being sent to Jijiga to support the activities of Mohammed Abdullah Hassan and Sheikh Hassan Barsane, a devout Muslim pair who were at war with the British and Italians in Somalia and Somaliland. Then in September, the Italians revealed that one of their Somali agents had witnessed Iyasu declaring to an assemblage of Muslim leaders that he was a Muslim, and swore to his apostasy on a Quran. Although Harold Marcus accepts these reports at face value, Bahru Zewde is more suspicious of their veracity and instead argues that Iyasu's intent was to integrate the Somalis into the Ethiopian Empire, but "Allied ingenuity lent palpability to Iyasu's apostasy (which was the main charge levelled against him) by forging pictures and documents to prove the charge." Whatever the truth, these reports brought the simmering discontent with Iyasu to a fierce boil against him. European colonial powers in the region began supporting a coup d'état against Iyasu because of signs he was about join World War 1 on the opposing side.
Fall
On 27 September 1916, while at the city of Harar, Lij Iyasu was deposed in favor of his aunt, Zewditu. The nobility under the leadership of Fitawrari Habte Giyorgis Dinagde had assembled in the capital and charged Lij Iyasu with apostasy, alleging that he had converted to Islam and had thus forfeited the Imperial crown. The Coptic Archbishop Mattewos, after some hesitation, was convinced to release the nobility from its oath of loyalty to Iyasu, and he was declared deposed from the throne and excommunicated from the Church. The assembly of nobles then named Zewditu Menelik as Empress of Ethiopia, and Dejazmatch Tafari Makonnen was elevated to the title of Ras, and made heir to the throne. Iyasu sent an army to attack Addis Ababa, which was met at Mieso and turned back. His father initially hesitated, then marched south from Dessie with 80,000 troops. On 27 October, Negus Mikael was defeated at the Battle of Segale. According to Paul Henze, Iyasu had reached Ankober the morning of the battle with a few thousand loyal followers, and after witnessing his father's defeat, fled towards the Eritrean border. On 8 November, Iyasu appeared in Dessie where he vainly sought the support from the nobility of Tigray and then the Italians. On 10 December, Iyasu fled and took refuge with his followers on the abandoned amba of Maqdala. At Maqdala, he was surrounded and subjected to an uninspired siege. On 18 July 1917, Iyasu slipped through the siege lines and rallied the peasantry of Wollo to revolt. On 27 August in Wello, troops under Habte Giyorgis defeated the rebels and captured many of Iyasu's generals, including Ras Imer. After this defeat, with a few hundred picked men, Iyasu fled to the desert of the Afar Triangle, where he roamed for five years. On 11 January 1921, Iyasu was captured and taken into custody by Gugsa Araya Selassie. He was handed over to the custody of his cousin Ras Kassa Haile Darge. Ras Kassa kept Iyasu in comfortable house arrest at his country home at Fiche.
Empress Zewditu I, who in spite of having been treated harshly by her nephew seems to have had considerable sympathy for Iyasu's fate, is said to have tried to have him handed over to her personal custody in order that he "be brought back to Christ and salvation" under her guidance. In her view, the most serious part of his fate was his excommunication, and she deeply wanted to save her nephew from what she regarded as assured damnation. While her plea to have her nephew moved to the Imperial Palace in Addis Ababa was vehemently vetoed by both Fitawrari Habte Giorgis and by the Crown Prince, Ras Teferi Makonnen, the Empress took care that Iyasu lived in luxury and was supplied with whatever he desired. Ras Kassa also adhered to this policy for as long as Iyasu was in his custody, so the terms of Iyasu's imprisonment were not particularly harsh.
Later years
Empress Zewditu died in 1930, and was succeeded by Emperor Haile Selassie, who was considerably less sympathetic to Iyasu. In 1931, Iyasu escaped from imprisonment at Fiche. He apparently achieved his freedom with the aid of his former father-in-law, Ras Hailu Tekle Haymanot of Gojjam, although Haile Selassie claimed that the Italians had a hand in his escape – or at least planned to assist in Iyasu's attempt to regain the throne. In his autobiography, Haile Selassie reports that when Italian Baron Raimondo Franchetti landed his plane in a field outside of Addis Alem, onlookers "noticed that inside it were a machine-gun as well as rifles and many cartridges" – implying these were to arm Iyasu's followers.
Iyasu was recaptured shortly after his escape. Having deeply alienated Ras Kassa with his escape, and having angered the Emperor, Iyasu was taken to a fortress on the slopes of Mount Gara Muleta in Girawa, where he was guarded closely by locals loyal to Emperor Haile Selassie. When the forces of Italy invaded Ethiopia in 1935, aircraft of the Royal Italian Air Force scattered fliers asking the population to rebel against Haile Selassie and support the "true Emperor Iyasu V." It was feared that the Italians would make use of Iyasu to fragment Ethiopian resistance to their conquest.
In November 1935, Iyasu's death was announced. The circumstances surrounding his death and his burial place remain shrouded in mystery. One rumour that persists to this day is that Emperor Haile Selassie ordered his guards to kill him. Others dispute this and allege that Iyasu died of natural causes. His grandson and current Iyasuist claimant to the Ethiopian throne, Lij Girma Yohannes, claims that Iyasu's body was brought to the Church of St. Mark at Addis Ababa's Guenete Leul Palace (since 1961 the main campus of Addis Ababa University) and buried there in secret. Because he had been excommunicated, these claims are extremely unlikely. Another recently published account states that Iyasu was interred in the grave prepared for Emperor Haile Selassie's confessor and almoner, Abba Hanna Jimma, at Debre Libanos. This account contends that, upon the priest's death, Lij Iyasu's remains were moved to the crypt of St. Tekle Haimanot's Church at the monastery, and placed below the tomb prepared for Ethiopia's first Patriarch, Abuna Basilios.
Family
His younger sister Zenebe Worq was married off at a young age to Ras Bezabih of Gojjam, but died in childbirth. Iyasu also had an elder half-sister, Woizero Sehin Mikael, married to Jantirar Asfaw, Lord of Ambassel, whose daughter would eventually become Empress Menen Asfaw, wife of Emperor Haile Selassie. Another half sister of Lij Iyasu was Woizero Tewabech Mikael, second wife of Ras Seyoum Mangasha of Tigray. While through his Imperial mother, Iyasu could claim to be descended from King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba, through his father, he claimed descent from Muhammad. Iyasu seems to have had at least thirteen secondary wives and an uncertain number of natural children, several of whom have been Iyasuist claimants to the Imperial throne, as well as grandchildren like Girma Yohannes. Lij Iyasu's only legitimate child was a daughter born in 1928 to him and Seble Wengel Hailu, Alem Tsahai Iyasu, who was granted the title of Emebet-hoy by Emperor Haile Selassie.
Evaluation
The Ethiopian historian Bahru Zewde describes Iyasu's reign as "one of the most enigmatic in Ethiopian history." A common account of his reign is provided by J. Spencer Trimingham, who writes that his acts favoring Islam were
...encouraged by German and Turkish diplomats. He made the fuqaha construct a genealogy deriving his ancestry on his father's side from the Prophet. He made prolonged stays in Harar where he adopted Muslim dress and customs. He put away his Christian wife, Romane-Warq, and started a harim by marrying the daughters of 'Afar and Oromo chiefs, including a daughter and niece of Abba Jifar of Jimma. He built mosques at Dire Dawa and Jigjiga. In 1916 he officially placed Abyssinia in religious dependence upon Turkey, and sent the Turkish consul-general an Abyssinian flag embroidered with a crescent and the Islamic formula of faith. He sent similar flags to his own Muslim chiefs and promised to lead them to the jihad. He entered into negotiations with Muhammed ibn 'Abd Allah, the Mahdi of the Ogaden, and sent him rifles and ammunition. He then issued a summons to all Somalis, some of whom regarded him as true Mahdi, to follow him in a jihad against the Christians, and went to Jigjiga to collect an army.
According to Fitawrari Tekle Hawariat Tekle Mariyam, Lij Iyasu at one point announced "If I do not make Ethiopia Muslim, then I am not Iyasu." He also recalls Lij Iyasu's visit to Dire Dawa in 1916, when the ruler walked into a Roman Catholic church in that city (this an act alone would scandalize the Ethiopian Orthodox establishment) and commenced to light and smoke a cigarette while Mass was being conducted. Tekle Hawariat concludes that Iyasu was completely unsuited for the throne, and that his deposing was necessary for the survival of the Empire and the good of the people.
Bahru Zewde on the other hand, while admitting that "contradiction and inconsistency were the hallmark of his character and policies", notes that Iyasu's reign was characterized by "a series of measures which, because of the social and economic security they implied, may well be considered progressive." Iyasu modernized many sections of the Ethiopian criminal code, and created a municipal police force, the Terenbulle. His overtures to the Muslim inhabitants of Ethiopia "can be interpreted as one of trying to redress the injustices of the past, of making the Muslims feel at home in their own country."
However, Iyasu had the misfortune of being succeeded (in Bahru Zewde's words) "by a ruler of extraordinary political longevity who found it in his interest to suppress any objective appreciation of the man." According to Paul B. Henze, during the reign of his cousin Haile Selassie, Iyasu was "practically an 'unperson'. If he was referred to at all, it was invariably in extremely negative terms." While admitting the lack of information about this man, Henze suggests that "the fairest conclusion that can be reached on the basis of present knowledge may be to credit him with good intentions but condemn him for intemperate, inept and in the end, disastrous performance."
Honours
National
Knight Grand Cordon of the Order of Solomon
Foreign
Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Leopold (Austro-Hungarian Empire, 1912)
Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Crown of Italy (Kingdom of Italy, 1912)
Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order (United Kingdom, 7 September 1911)
Notes and references
Footnotes
Citations
Bibliography
External links
Ethiopian Treasures – Lij Iyasu – Ethiopia
Imperial Ethiopie Homepages – Lij Eyasu – Ethiopia
1895 births
1935 deaths
19th-century Ethiopian people
20th-century emperors of Ethiopia
Ethiopian former Christians
Ethiopian Muslims
Converts to Islam
Honorary Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order
Leaders ousted by a coup
People from Amhara Region
Solomonic dynasty
Oromo people
Recipients of orders, decorations, and medals of Ethiopia
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416328
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20United%20States%20senators%20from%20Alabama
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List of United States senators from Alabama
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Alabama was admitted to the Union on December 14, 1819. The state elects U.S. senators to class 2 and class 3. Its United States Senate seats were declared vacant from March 1861 to July 1868 due to its secession from the Union during the American Civil War. Richard Shelby is Alabama's longest serving senator (served 1987–2023). Alabama's current U.S. senators are Republicans Tommy Tuberville (since 2021) and Katie Britt (since 2023).
List of senators
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=21 | 1
| rowspan=21 align=left | William R. King
| rowspan=4 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=21 nowrap | Dec 14, 1819 –Apr 15, 1844
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1819.
| rowspan=3 | 1
|
| rowspan=4 | 1
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1819.Resigned.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Dec 14, 1819 –Dec 12, 1822
| rowspan=2 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=2 align=right | John Williams Walker
! rowspan=2 | 1
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Walker's term.Retired.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Dec 12, 1822 –Mar 3, 1825
| rowspan=2 | Democratic-Republican
| align=right rowspan=2 | William Kelly
! rowspan=2 | 2
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=6 | Re-elected in 1822.
| rowspan=6 | 2
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=9 | Jacksonian
| rowspan=4
| rowspan=6 | 2
| Elected in 1824 or 1825.Died.
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1825 –Jan 24, 1826
| | Jacksonian
| align=right | Henry H. Chambers
! 3
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Jan 24, 1826 –Feb 17, 1826
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to continue Chambers's term.Successor elected.
| nowrap | Feb 17, 1826 –Nov 27, 1826
| | Jacksonian
| align=right | Israel Pickens
! 4
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish Chambers's term.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Nov 27, 1826 –Mar 3, 1831
| rowspan=3 | Jacksonian
| rowspan=3 align=right | John McKinley
! rowspan=3 | 5
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1828.
| rowspan=3 | 3
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 3
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1831.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1831 –Mar 3, 1837
| | Jacksonian
| rowspan=3 align=right | Gabriel Moore
! rowspan=3 | 6
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=2 | NationalRepublican
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1834.
| rowspan=5 | 4
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=8 | Democratic
| rowspan=3
| rowspan=7 | 4
| Elected in 1837.Resigned to become a Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court.
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1837 –Apr 22, 1837
| | Democratic
| align=right | John McKinley
! 7
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Apr 22, 1837 –Jun 19, 1837
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish McKinley's term.Resigned.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jun 19, 1837 –Nov 15, 1841
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 align=right | Clement Comer Clay
! rowspan=3 | 8
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4 | Re-elected in 1840.Resigned to become U.S. Minister to France.
| rowspan=7 | 5
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
|
| Nov 15, 1841 –Nov 24, 1841
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Elected to finish McKinley's term.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Nov 24, 1841 –Jun 16, 1848
| rowspan=6 | Democratic
| rowspan=6 align=right | Arthur P. Bagby
! rowspan=6 | 9
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
| rowspan=9 | 5
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1842.Resigned to become U.S. Minister to Russia.
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Apr 15, 1844 –Apr 22, 1844
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=5 | 2
| rowspan=5 align=left | Dixon Hall Lewis
| rowspan=5 | Democratic
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Apr 22, 1844 –Oct 24, 1848
| rowspan=2 | Appointed to finish King's term.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1847.Died.
| rowspan=10 | 6
| rowspan=5
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Jun 16, 1848 –Jul 1, 1848
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Appointed to continue Bagby's term.Elected to finish Bagby's term.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Jul 1, 1848 –Dec 20, 1852
| rowspan=6 | Democratic
| rowspan=6 align=right | William R. King
! rowspan=6 | 10
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Oct 24, 1848 –Nov 25, 1848
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 3
| rowspan=2 align=left | Benjamin Fitzpatrick
| rowspan=2 | Democratic
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Nov 25, 1848 –Nov 30, 1849
| rowspan=2 | Appointed to continue Lewis's term.Successor elected.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
| rowspan=7 | 6
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1848 or 1849.Resigned due to poor health.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=4 | 4
| rowspan=4 align=left | Jeremiah Clemens
| rowspan=4 | Democratic
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Nov 30, 1849 –Mar 3, 1853
| rowspan=4 | Elected to finish Lewis's term.Lost re-election.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Dec 20, 1852 –Jan 14, 1853
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Appointed to continue King's term.Elected in 1853 to finish King's term.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jan 14, 1853 –Mar 3, 1855
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 align=right | Benjamin Fitzpatrick
! rowspan=7 | 11
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1853 –Nov 29, 1853
| Legislature failed to elect.
| rowspan=5 | 7
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=5 | 5
| rowspan=5 align=left | Clement Claiborne Clay
| rowspan=5 | Democratic
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Nov 29, 1853 –Jan 21, 1861
| rowspan=4 | Elected late in 1853.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
| rowspan=5 | 7
| Legislature failed to elect.
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1855 –Nov 26, 1855
| colspan=2 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected late.Withdrew.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Nov 26, 1855 –Jan 21, 1861
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 align=right | Benjamin Fitzpatrick
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| Re-elected in 1858.Withdrew.
| rowspan=4 | 8
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 colspan=3 | Vacant
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Jan 21, 1861 –Jul 13, 1868
| rowspan=5 valign=center | Civil War and Reconstruction
| rowspan=5 valign=center | Civil War and Reconstruction
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Jan 21, 1861 –Jul 13, 1868
| rowspan=5 colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 8
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4 | 9
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
| rowspan=4 | 9
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 6
| rowspan=2 align=left | Willard Warner
| rowspan=2 | Republican
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Jul 13, 1868 –Mar 3, 1871
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1868 to finish vacant term.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1868 to finish vacant term.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Jul 13, 1868 –Mar 3, 1879
| rowspan=6 | Republican
| rowspan=6 align=right | George E. Spencer
! rowspan=6 | 12
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 7
| rowspan=3 align=left | George Goldthwaite
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1871 –Mar 3, 1877
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1870.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 10
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 10
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1872.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=19 | 8
| rowspan=19 align=left | John T. Morgan
| rowspan=19 | Democratic
| rowspan=19 nowrap | Mar 4, 1877 –Jun 11, 1907
| rowspan=6 | Elected in 1876.
| rowspan=6 | 11
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4
| rowspan=6 | 11
| Elected in 1878.Died.
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1879 –Dec 31, 1879
| | Democratic
| align=right | George S. Houston
! 13
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Dec 31, 1879 –Jan 7, 1880
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to continue Houston's term.Successor qualified.
| nowrap | Jan 7, 1880 –Nov 23, 1880
| | Democratic
| align=right | Luke Pryor
! 14
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish Houston's term.
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Nov 24, 1880 –Mar 3, 1897
| rowspan=9 | Democratic
| rowspan=9 align=right | James L. Pugh
! rowspan=9 | 15
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1882.
| rowspan=3 | 12
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 12
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1884.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1888.
| rowspan=3 | 13
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 13
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1890.Lost renomination.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1894.
| rowspan=3 | 14
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 14
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1897.
| rowspan=8 nowrap | Mar 4, 1897 –Jul 27, 1907
| rowspan=8 | Democratic
| rowspan=8 align=right | Edmund Pettus
! rowspan=8 | 16
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1900.
| rowspan=3 | 15
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=7 | 15
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1903.Re-elected early in 1907, but died.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| Re-elected in 1907.Died.
| rowspan=7 | 16
| rowspan=5
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| Jun 11, 1907 –Jun 18, 1907
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=11 | 9
| rowspan=11 align=left | John H. Bankhead
| rowspan=11 | Democratic
| rowspan=11 nowrap | Jun 18, 1907 –Mar 1, 1920
| rowspan=5 | Appointed to continue Morgan's term.Elected in 1907 to finish Morgan's term.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| Jul 27, 1907 –Aug 6, 1907
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Elected to finish Pettus's term.
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Aug 6, 1907 –Aug 8, 1913
| rowspan=4 | Democratic
| rowspan=4 align=right | Joseph F. Johnston
! rowspan=4 | 17
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 16
| rowspan=3 | Elected in to next term.Died.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected early January 17, 1911.
| rowspan=5 | 17
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
| Henry De Lamar Clayton Jr. (D) was appointed in 1913 to continue the term, but his appointment was challenged and withdrawn.Franklin Potts Glass Sr. (D) was subsequently appointed to continue the term, but the Senate refused to seat him.
| Aug 8, 1913 –May 11, 1914
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Elected to finish Johnston's term.Retired.
| May 11, 1914 –Mar 3, 1915
| | Democratic
| align=right | Francis S. White
! 18
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=6 | 17
| rowspan=6 | Elected in 1914.
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Mar 4, 1915 –Mar 3, 1927
| rowspan=9 | Democratic
| rowspan=9 align=right | Oscar Underwood
! rowspan=9 | 19
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| Re-elected in 1918.Died.
| rowspan=6 | 18
| rowspan=4
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| Mar 1, 1920 –Mar 5, 1920
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 10
| align=left | B. B. Comer
| | Democratic
| Mar 5, 1920 –Nov 2, 1920
| Appointed to continue Bankhead's term.Successor elected.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=6 | 11
| rowspan=6 align=left | J. Thomas Heflin
| rowspan=6 | Democratic
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Nov 3, 1920 –Mar 3, 1931
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish Bankhead's term.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 18
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1920.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 |Re-elected in 1924.Disqualified.
| rowspan=3 | 19
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 19
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1926.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Mar 4, 1927 –Aug 19, 1937
| rowspan=6 | Democratic
| rowspan=6 align=right | Hugo Black
! rowspan=6 | 20
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=10 | 12
| rowspan=10 align=left | John H. Bankhead II
| rowspan=10 | Democratic
| rowspan=10 nowrap | Mar 4, 1931 –Jun 12, 1946
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1930.
| rowspan=3 | 20
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 20
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1932.Resigned to become a Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1936.
| rowspan=5 | 21
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed by her husband to continue Black's term.Resigned when her successor won the Democratic primary.
| Aug 20, 1937 –Jan 10, 1938
| | Democratic
| align=right | Dixie Bibb Graves
! 21
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to continue Black's term.Elected in 1938 to finish Black's term.
| rowspan=20 nowrap | Jan 11, 1938 –Jan 3, 1969
| rowspan=20 | Democratic
| rowspan=20 align=right | J. Lister Hill
! rowspan=20 | 22
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=7 | 21
| rowspan=7 | Re-elected in 1938.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Re-elected in 1942.Died.
| rowspan=7 | 22
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| Jun 12, 1946 –Jun 15, 1946
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 13
| align=left | George R. Swift
| | Democratic
| Jun 15, 1946 –Nov 5, 1946
| Appointed to continue Bankhead's term.Successor elected.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=20 | 14
| rowspan=20 align=left | John Sparkman
| rowspan=20 | Democratic
| rowspan=20 nowrap | Nov 6, 1946 –Jan 3, 1979
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish Bankhead's term.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | 22
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1944.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1948.
| rowspan=3 | 23
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 23
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1950.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1954.
| rowspan=3 | 24
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 24
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1956.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1960.
| rowspan=3 | 25
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 25
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1962.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1966.
| rowspan=3 | 26
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 26
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1968.
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Jan 3, 1969 –Jun 1, 1978
| rowspan=5 | Democratic
| rowspan=5 align=right | James Allen
! rowspan=5 | 23
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1972.Retired.
| rowspan=5 | 27
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=6 | 27
| rowspan=2 | Re-elected in 1974.Died.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to continue her husband's term.Lost nomination to finish her husband's term.
| Jun 8, 1978 –Nov 7, 1978
| | Democratic
| align=right | Maryon Pittman Allen
! 24
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish James Allen's term.Lost renomination; resigned one day early to give his successor advantageous seniority.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Nov 7, 1978 –Jan 2, 1981
| rowspan=2 | Democratic
| rowspan=2 align=right | Donald Stewart
! rowspan=2 | 25
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=11 | 15
| rowspan=11 align=left | Howell Heflin
| rowspan=11 | Democratic
| rowspan=11 nowrap | Jan 3, 1979 –Jan 3, 1997
| rowspan=4 | Elected in 1978.
| rowspan=4 | 28
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to finish Allen's term, having already been elected to the next term.
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Jan 2, 1981 –Jan 3, 1987
| rowspan=4 | Republican
| rowspan=4 align=right | Jeremiah Denton
! rowspan=4 | 26
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 28
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1980.Lost re-election.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1984.
| rowspan=3 | 29
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 29
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1986.
| rowspan=21 | Jan 3, 1987 –Jan 3, 2023
| rowspan=4 | Democratic
| rowspan=21 align=right | Richard Shelby
! rowspan=21 | 27
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4 | Re-elected in 1990.Retired.
| rowspan=4 | 30
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
| rowspan=4 | 30
| rowspan=4 | Re-elected in 1992.Changed parties in 1994.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=17 | Republican
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=11 | 16
| rowspan=11 align=left | Jeff Sessions
| rowspan=11 | Republican
| rowspan=11 nowrap | Jan 3, 1997 –Feb 8, 2017
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1996.
| rowspan=3 | 31
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 31
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1998.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2002.
| rowspan=3 | 32
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 32
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2004.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2008.
| rowspan=3 | 33
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 33
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2010.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Re-elected in 2014.Resigned to become U.S. Attorney General.
| rowspan=5 | 34
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
| rowspan=5 | 34
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 2016.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
! 17
| align=left | Luther Strange
| | Republican
| nowrap | Feb 9, 2017 –Jan 3, 2018
| Appointed to continue Sessions's term.Lost nomination to finish Sessions's term.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 18
| rowspan=2 align=left | Doug Jones
| rowspan=2 | Democratic
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Jan 3, 2018 –Jan 3, 2021
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 2017 to finish Sessions's term.Lost re-election.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 19
| rowspan=3 align=left | Tommy Tuberville
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jan 3, 2021 –present
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 2020.
| rowspan=3 | 35
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3| 35
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 2022.
| rowspan=3| Jan 3, 2023 – present
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 align=right | Katie Britt
! rowspan=3| 28
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 colspan=5 | To be determined in the 2026 election.
| rowspan=2| 36
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| 36
| colspan=5 | To be determined in the 2028 election.
See also
List of United States representatives from Alabama
United States congressional delegations from Alabama
Elections in Alabama
List of United States Senate elections in Alabama
Notes
References
External links
senators
Alabama
|
416334
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20United%20States%20senators%20from%20Connecticut
|
List of United States senators from Connecticut
|
This is a chronological listing of the United States senators from Connecticut.
United States senators are popularly elected, for a six-year term, beginning January 3. Elections are held the first Tuesday after November 1. Before 1914, they were chosen by the Connecticut General Assembly, and before 1935, their terms began March 4. Its current U.S. senators are Democrats Richard Blumenthal (serving since 2011) and Chris Murphy (serving since 2013). Chris Dodd is Connecticut's longest-serving senator (1981–2011).
List of senators
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=7 | 1
| rowspan=7 align=left | Oliver Ellsworth
| rowspan=6 | Pro-Administration
| rowspan=7 nowrap | Mar 4, 1789 –Mar 8, 1796
| Elected in 1788.
| 1
|
| rowspan=6 | 1
| Elected in 1788.Resigned.
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1789 –Mar 3, 1791
| | Pro-Administration
| align=right | William S. Johnson
! 1
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=6 | Re-elected in 1791.Resigned to become Chief Justice of the United States.
| rowspan=10 | 2
| rowspan=2
|
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1791 –Jun 13, 1791
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Johnson's term.Died.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Jun 13, 1791 –Jul 23, 1793
| rowspan=2 | Pro-Administration
| rowspan=2 align=right | Roger Sherman
! rowspan=2 | 2
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Jul 23, 1793 –Dec 2, 1793
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Elected to finish Sherman's term.Retired.
| nowrap | Dec 2, 1793 –Mar 3, 1795
| | Pro-Administration
| align=right | Stephen Mix Mitchell
! 3
|- style="height:2em"
| | Federalist
| rowspan=5
| rowspan=7 | 2
| rowspan=2 | Election date unknown.Resigned to become Lieutenant Governor of Connecticut.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Mar 4, 1795 –Jun 10, 1796
| rowspan=2 | Federalist
| rowspan=2 align=right | Jonathan Trumbull Jr.
! rowspan=2 | 4
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 colspan=3 | Vacant
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 8, 1796 –May 12, 1796
| rowspan=3 |
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Jun 10, 1796 –Oct 13, 1796
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4 | Elected to finish Trumbull's term.
| rowspan=8 nowrap | Oct 13, 1796 –Jul 19, 1807
| rowspan=8 | Federalist
| rowspan=8 align=right | Uriah Tracy
! rowspan=8 | 5
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=10 | 2
| rowspan=10 align=left | James Hillhouse
| rowspan=10 | Federalist
| rowspan=10 nowrap | May 12, 1796 –Jun 10, 1810
| Elected to finish Ellsworth's term.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1797.
| rowspan=3 | 3
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 3
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1801.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1802.
| rowspan=5 | 4
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
| rowspan=7 | 4
| Re-elected in 1807.Died.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Jul 19, 1807 –Oct 25, 1807
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | Elected to finish Tracy's term.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Oct 25, 1807 –May 13, 1813
| rowspan=6 | Federalist
| rowspan=6 align=right | Chauncey Goodrich
! rowspan=6 | 6
|- style="height:2em"
| Re-elected in 1809.Resigned.
| rowspan=6 | 5
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Jun 10, 1810 –Dec 4, 1810
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=7 | 3
| rowspan=7 align=left nowrap | Samuel W. Dana
| rowspan=7 | Federalist
| rowspan=7 nowrap | Dec 4, 1810 –Mar 3, 1821
| rowspan=4 | Elected to finish Hillhouse's term.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
| rowspan=4 | 5
| Re-elected in 1813.Resigned to become Lieutenant Governor of Connecticut.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish Goodrich's term.Retired.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | May 13, 1813 –Mar 3, 1819
| rowspan=3 | Federalist
| rowspan=3 align=right | David Daggett
! rowspan=3 | 7
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1814.
| rowspan=3 | 6
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 6
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1818.Re-elected in 1824 and presented his credentials but was not permitted to qualify.
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Mar 4, 1819 –Mar 3, 1825
| rowspan=5 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=5 align=right | James Lanman
! rowspan=5 | 8
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 4
| rowspan=2 align=left | Elijah Boardman
| rowspan=2 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Mar 4, 1821 –Aug 18, 1823
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1821.Died.
| rowspan=6 | 7
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Aug 18, 1823 –Oct 8, 1823
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 5
| rowspan=3 align=left | Henry W. Edwards
| | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Oct 8, 1823 –Mar 3, 1827
| rowspan=3 | Appointed to continue Boardman's term.Elected in 1824 to finish Boardman's term.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Jacksonian
| rowspan=2
| rowspan=4 | 7
|
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1825 –May 4, 1825
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected late to complete Lanman's term.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | May 4, 1825 –Mar 3, 1831
| rowspan=3 | NationalRepublican
| rowspan=3 align=right | Calvin Willey
! rowspan=3 | 9
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 6
| rowspan=3 align=left | Samuel A. Foot
| rowspan=3 | NationalRepublican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1827 –Mar 3, 1833
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1826.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 8
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 8
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1831.
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Mar 4, 1831 –Mar 3, 1837
| rowspan=5 | NationalRepublican
| rowspan=5 align=right | Gideon Tomlinson
! rowspan=5 | 10
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 7
| rowspan=2 align=left | Nathan Smith
| rowspan=2 | NationalRepublican
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Mar 4, 1833 –Dec 6, 1835
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1832.Died.
| rowspan=5 | 9
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Dec 6, 1835 – Dec 21, 1835
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 8
| rowspan=2 align=left | John Milton Niles
| | Jacksonian
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Dec 21, 1835 –Mar 3, 1839
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Smith's term.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
| | Democratic
|
| rowspan=5 | 9
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1837.
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Mar 4, 1837 –Mar 3, 1843
| rowspan=5 | Democratic
| rowspan=5 | Perry Smith
! rowspan=5 | 11
|- style="height:2em"
! 9
| align=left nowrap | Thaddeus Betts
| | Whig
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1839 –Apr 7, 1840
| Elected in 1838 or 1839.Died.
| rowspan=5 | 10
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Apr 7, 1840 –May 4, 1840
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=5 | 10
| rowspan=5 align=left | Jabez W. Huntington
| rowspan=5 | Whig
| rowspan=5 nowrap | May 4, 1840 –Nov 1, 1847
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish Betts's term.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 10
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1842.Retired.
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Mar 4, 1843 –Mar 3, 1849
| rowspan=5 | Democratic
| rowspan=5 align=right | John Milton Niles
! rowspan=5 | 12
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Re-elected in 1844 or 1845.Died.
| rowspan=5 | 11
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Nov 1, 1847 –Nov 11, 1847
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 11
| rowspan=2 align=left | Roger Sherman Baldwin
| rowspan=2 | Whig
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Nov 11, 1847 –Mar 3, 1851
| rowspan=2 | Appointed to continue Huntington's term.Elected in 1848 to finish Huntington's term.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 11
| rowspan=4 | Elected in 1848 or 1849.Resigned.
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Mar 4, 1849 –May 24, 1854
| rowspan=4 | Whig
| rowspan=4 align=right | Truman Smith
! rowspan=4 | 13
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1851 –May 12, 1852
|
| rowspan=5 | 12
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=4 | 12
| rowspan=4 align=left | Isaac Toucey
| rowspan=4 | Democratic
| rowspan=4 nowrap | May 12, 1852 –Mar 3, 1857
| rowspan=4 | Elected late in 1852.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
| Elected to finish Smith's term.Retired.
| nowrap | May 24, 1854 –Mar 3, 1855
| | Free Soil
| align=right | Francis Gillette
! 14
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 12
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1854.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Mar 4, 1855 –Mar 3, 1867
| rowspan=6 | Republican
| rowspan=6 align=right | Lafayette S. Foster
! rowspan=6 | 15
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=6 | 13
| rowspan=6 align=left | James Dixon
| rowspan=6 | Republican
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Mar 4, 1857 –Mar 3, 1869
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1856.
| rowspan=3 | 13
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 13
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1860.Lost re-election.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1863.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 14
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 14
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1866.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Mar 4, 1867 –Nov 21, 1875
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=6 align=right | Orris S. Ferry
! rowspan=6 | 16
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 14
| rowspan=3 align=left | William A. Buckingham
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1869 –Feb 5, 1875
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1868 or 1869.Lost re-election and died before end of term.
| rowspan=4 | 15
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
| rowspan=7 | 15
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1872.Died.
| rowspan=2 | Liberal Republican
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=7 | 15
| rowspan=7 align=left | William W. Eaton
| rowspan=7 | Democratic
| rowspan=7 nowrap | Feb 5, 1875 –Mar 3, 1881
| Appointed to finish Buckingham's term, having been elected to the next term.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=6 | Elected in 1874.Unknown if retired or lost re-election.
| rowspan=6 | 16
| rowspan=4
| | Republican
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Nov 21, 1875 –Nov 27, 1875
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to continue Ferry's term.Retired when successor elected.
| nowrap | Nov 27, 1875 –May 17, 1876
| | Democratic
| align=right | James E. English
! 17
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Ferry's term.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | May 17, 1876 –Mar 3, 1879
| rowspan=2 | Democratic
| rowspan=2 align=right | William Barnum
! rowspan=2 | 18
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 16
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1879.
| rowspan=13 nowrap | Mar 4, 1879 –Apr 21, 1905
| rowspan=13 | Republican
| rowspan=13 align=right | Orville H. Platt
! rowspan=13 | 19
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=13 | 16
| rowspan=13 align=left | Joseph R. Hawley
| rowspan=13 | Republican
| rowspan=13 nowrap | Mar 4, 1881 –Mar 3, 1905
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1881.
| rowspan=3 | 17
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 17
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1885.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1887.
| rowspan=3 | 18
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 |18
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1891.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1893.
| rowspan=3 | 19
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 19
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1897.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4 | Re-elected in 1899.Retired.
| rowspan=4 | 20
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
| rowspan=5 | 20
| Re-elected in 1903.Died.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 |
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Apr 21, 1905 –May 10, 1905
| rowspan=2 colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=4 | 17
| rowspan=4 align=left | Morgan Bulkeley
| rowspan=4 | Republican
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Mar 4, 1905 –Mar 3, 1911
| rowspan=4 | Elected in 1905.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=4 | 21
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Platt's term.
| rowspan=10 nowrap | May 10, 1905 –Oct 14, 1924
| rowspan=10 | Republican
| rowspan=10 align=right | Frank B. Brandegee
! rowspan=10 | 20
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 21
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1909.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=11 | 18
| rowspan=11 align=left | George P. McLean
| rowspan=11 | Republican
| rowspan=11 nowrap | Mar 4, 1911 –Mar 3, 1929
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1911.
| rowspan=3 | 22
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 22
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1914.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1916.
| rowspan=3 | 23
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 23
| rowspan=2 | Re-elected in 1920.Died.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1922.Retired.
| rowspan=5 | 24
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Oct 14, 1924 –Dec 17, 1924
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Brandegee's term and seated Jan 8, 1925.
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Dec 17, 1924 –Mar 3, 1933
| rowspan=5 | Republican
| rowspan=5 align=right | Hiram Bingham III
! rowspan=5 | 21
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 24
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1926.Lost re-election.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 19
| rowspan=3 align=left | Frederic C. Walcott
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1929 –Jan 3, 1935
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1928.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 25
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 25
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1932.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1933 –Jan 3, 1939
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 align=right | Augustine Lonergan
! rowspan=3 | 22
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=6 | 20
| rowspan=6 align=left | Francis T. Maloney
| rowspan=6 | Democratic
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Jan 3, 1935 –Jan 16, 1945
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1934.
| rowspan=3 | 26
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 26
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1938.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jan 3, 1939 –Jan 3, 1945
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 align=right | John A. Danaher
! rowspan=3 | 23
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1940.Died.
| rowspan=7 | 27
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5
| rowspan=8 | 27
| rowspan=8 | Elected in 1944.
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Jan 3, 1945 –Jul 28, 1952
| rowspan=9 | Democratic
| rowspan=9 align=right | Brien McMahon
! rowspan=9 | 24
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Jan 16, 1945 –Feb 15, 1945
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 21
| align=left | Thomas C. Hart
| | Republican
| nowrap | Feb 15, 1945 –Nov 5, 1946
| Appointed to continue Maloney's term.Successor qualified.
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Nov 5, 1946 –Dec 27, 1946
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 22
| rowspan=3 align=left | Raymond E. Baldwin
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Dec 27, 1946 –Dec 16, 1949
| Elected to finish Maloney's term.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Elected to full term in 1946.Resigned.
| rowspan=7 | 28
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=5 | 23
| rowspan=5 align=left nowrap | William Benton
| rowspan=5 | Democratic
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Dec 17, 1949 –Jan 3, 1953
| rowspan=5 | Appointed to continue Baldwin's term.Elected to finish Baldwin's term.Lost re-election.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4
| rowspan=6 | 28
| Re-elected in 1950.Died.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Jul 28, 1952 –Aug 29, 1952
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to continue McMahon's term.Retired when successor elected, and elected to the class 1 seat.
| nowrap | Aug 29, 1952 –Nov 4, 1952
| | Republican
| align=right | William A. Purtell
! 25
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish McMahon's term.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Nov 4, 1952 –Jan 3, 1963
| rowspan=6 | Republican
| rowspan=6 align=right | Prescott Bush
! rowspan=6 | 26
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 24
| rowspan=3 align=left | William A. Purtell
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jan 3, 1953 –Jan 3, 1959
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1952.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 29
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 29
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1956.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=6 | 25
| rowspan=6 align=left | Thomas J. Dodd
| rowspan=6 | Democratic
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Jan 3, 1959 –Jan 3, 1971
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1958.
| rowspan=3 | 30
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 30
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1962.
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Jan 3, 1963 –Jan 3, 1981
| rowspan=9 | Democratic
| rowspan=9 align=right | Abraham Ribicoff
! rowspan=9 | 27
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1964.Lost renomination, and lost re-election as an independent.
| rowspan=3 | 31
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 31
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1968.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=9 | 26
| rowspan=9 align=left | Lowell Weicker
| rowspan=9 | Republican
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Jan 3, 1971 –Jan 3, 1989
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1970.
| rowspan=3 | 32
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 32
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1974.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1976.
| rowspan=3 | 33
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 33
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1980.
| rowspan=15 nowrap | Jan 3, 1981 –Jan 3, 2011
| rowspan=15 | Democratic
| rowspan=15 align=right | Chris Dodd
! rowspan=15 | 28
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1982.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 34
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 34
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1986.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=12 | 27
| rowspan=12 align=left | Joe Lieberman
| rowspan=9 | Democratic
| rowspan=12 nowrap | Jan 3, 1989 –Jan 3, 2013
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1988.
| rowspan=3 | 35
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 35
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1992.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1994.
| rowspan=3 | 36
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 36
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1998.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2000.
| rowspan=3 | 37
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 37
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2004.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Independent
| rowspan=3 | Lost re-nomination, but re-elected in 2006 as an Independent.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 38
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 38
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 2010.
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Jan 3, 2011 –present
| rowspan=9 | Democratic
| rowspan=9 align=right | Richard Blumenthal
! rowspan=9 | 29
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=6 | 28
| rowspan=6 align=left | Chris Murphy
| rowspan=6 | Democratic
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Jan 3, 2013 –present
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 2012.
| rowspan=3 | 39
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 39
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2016.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2018.
| rowspan=3 | 40
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 40
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2022.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 colspan=5 | To be determined in the 2024 election.
| rowspan=3 | 41
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| 41
| colspan=5 | To be determined in the 2028 election.
See also
List of United States representatives from Connecticut
United States congressional delegations from Connecticut
Elections in Connecticut
References
Connecticut
United States senators
|
416336
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20United%20States%20senators%20from%20Delaware
|
List of United States senators from Delaware
|
Below is a chronological listing of the United States senators from Delaware. U.S. senators were originally elected by the Delaware General Assembly for designated six-year terms beginning March 4. Frequently portions of the term would remain only upon a U.S. senator's death or resignation. From 1914 and the enforcement of the Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, adopted in 1913 but rejected by the General Assembly that year and not ratified until July 1, 2010, officeholders were popularly elected on the first Tuesday after November 1; starting 1935, the beginning of their term is January 3. Delaware's current U.S. senators are Democrats Tom Carper (serving since January 3, 2001) and Chris Coons (serving since November 15, 2010). Joe Biden is Delaware's longest serving senator (1973–2009).
List of senators
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 1
| rowspan=3 align=left | George Read
| rowspan=3 | Pro-Admin.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1789 –Sep 18, 1793
| Elected in 1788.
| 1
|
| rowspan=2 | 1
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1788.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Mar 4, 1789 –Mar 3, 1793
| | Anti-Admin.
| rowspan=2 align=right | Richard Bassett
! rowspan=2 | 1
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Re-elected in 1790.Resigned to become Chief Justice of Delaware.
| rowspan=5 | 2
|
| | Pro-Admin.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
| rowspan=8 | 2
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1793.Resigned.
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Mar 4, 1793 –Jan 19, 1798
| rowspan=3 | Pro-Admin.
| rowspan=5 align=right | John Vining
! rowspan=5 | 2
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Sep 18, 1793 –Feb 7, 1795
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=7 | 2
| rowspan=7 align=left | Henry Latimer
| | Pro-Admin.
| rowspan=7 nowrap | Feb 7, 1795 –Feb 28, 1801
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1795 to finish Read's term.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=6 | Federalist
|
| rowspan=2 | Federalist
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1797.Resigned.
| rowspan=7 | 3
| rowspan=4
|- style="height:2em"
| Elected in 1798 to finish Vining's term.Died.
| nowrap | Jan 19, 1798 –Aug 11, 1798
| | Federalist
| align=right | Joshua Clayton
! 3
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Aug 11, 1798 –Jan 17, 1799
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Elected in 1799 to finish Clayton's term.
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Jan 17, 1799 –Nov 6, 1804
| rowspan=5 | Federalist
| rowspan=5 align=right | William H. Wells
! rowspan=5 | 4
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
| rowspan=6 | 3
| rowspan=4 | Re-elected in 1799.Resigned.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=8 | 3
| rowspan=8 align=left | Samuel White
| rowspan=8 | Federalist
| rowspan=8 nowrap | Feb 28, 1801 –Nov 4, 1809
| rowspan=2 | Appointed to finish Latimer's term.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1803.
| rowspan=5 | 4
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Nov 6, 1804 –Nov 13, 1804
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Elected in 1804 to finish Wells's term.
| rowspan=7 nowrap | Nov 13, 1804 –Mar 3, 1813
| rowspan=7 | Federalist
| rowspan=7 align=right | James A. Bayard
! rowspan=7 | 5
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 4
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1805.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| Re-elected in 1809.
Died.
| rowspan=6 | 5
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Nov 4, 1809 –Jan 12, 1810
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=7 | 4
| rowspan=7 align=left | Outerbridge Horsey
| rowspan=7 | Federalist
| rowspan=7 nowrap | Jan 12, 1810 –Mar 3, 1821
| rowspan=4 | Elected in 1810 to finish White's term.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=4 | 5
| Re-elected in 1811.Resigned.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
|
| nowrap | Mar 3, 1813 –May 21, 1813
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1813 to finish Bayard's term.Retired.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | May 21, 1813 –Mar 3, 1817
| rowspan=2 | Federalist
| rowspan=2 align=right | William H. Wells
! rowspan=2 | 6
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1815.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 6
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 6
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1817.Legislature failed to elect.
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Mar 4, 1817 –Mar 3, 1823
| rowspan=5 | Federalist
| rowspan=5 align=right | Nicholas Van Dyke
! rowspan=9 | 7
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1821 –Jan 23, 1822
|
| rowspan=10 | 7
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
! 5
| align=left | Caesar A. Rodney
| | Democratic-Republican
| nowrap | Jan 24, 1822 –Jan 29, 1823
| Elected late to finish vacant term.Resigned to become U.S. Minister to the United Provinces of the River Plate.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 colspan=3 | Vacant
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jan 29, 1823 –Jan 8, 1824
| rowspan=3 |
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
| rowspan=8 | 7
|
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1823 –Jan 8, 1824
| colspan=2 | Vacant
|-
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected late.Died.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jan 8, 1824 –May 21, 1826
| rowspan=2 | Federalist
| rowspan=3 align=right | Nicholas Van Dyke
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=5 | 6
| rowspan=5 align=left | Thomas Clayton
| | Federalist
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Jan 8, 1824 –Mar 3, 1827
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1824 to finish Rodney's term.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4 | NationalRepublican
| rowspan=4
| | NationalRepublican
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | May 21, 1826 –Nov 8, 1826
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to continue Van Dyke's term.Retired.
| nowrap | Nov 8, 1826 –Jan 12, 1827
| | NationalRepublican
| align=right | Daniel Rodney
! 8
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1827 to finish Van Dyke's term.Retired.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Jan 12, 1827 –Mar 3, 1829
| rowspan=2 | Jacksonian
| rowspan=2 align=right | Henry M. Ridgely
! rowspan=2 | 9
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 7
| rowspan=2 align=left | Louis McLane
| rowspan=2 | Jacksonian
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Mar 4, 1827 –Apr 16, 1829
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1827.Resigned to become U.S. Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to England.
| rowspan=5 | 8
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
| rowspan=5 | 8
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1829.
| rowspan=7 nowrap | Mar 4, 1829 –Dec 29, 1836
| rowspan=7 | NationalRepublican
| rowspan=7 align=right | John M. Clayton
! rowspan=7 | 10
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Apr 16, 1829 –Jan 7, 1830
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=4 | 8
| rowspan=4 align=left | Arnold Naudain
| rowspan=4 | NationalRepublican
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Jan 7, 1830 –Jun 16, 1836
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1830 to finish McLane's term.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Re-elected in 1832.Resigned.
| rowspan=6 | 9
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4
| rowspan=8 | 9
| rowspan=2 | Re-elected in 1835.Resigned.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=9 | 9
| rowspan=5 align=left | Richard H. Bayard
| rowspan=3 | NationalRepublican
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Jun 17, 1836 –Sep 19, 1839
| rowspan=4 | Elected in 1836 to finish Naudain's term.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Dec 29, 1836 –Jan 9, 1837
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1837 to finish his cousin's term.
| rowspan=8 nowrap | Jan 9, 1837 –Mar 3, 1847
| | NationalRepublican
| rowspan=8 align=right | Thomas Clayton
! rowspan=8 | 11
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Whig
|
| rowspan=7 | Whig
|- style="height:2em"
| Re-elected during the 1838/39 cycle.Resigned to become Chief Justice of Delaware.
| rowspan=5 | 10
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=2 | Vacant
| nowrap | Sep 19, 1839 –Jan 11, 1841
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 align=left | Richard H. Bayard
| rowspan=3 | Whig
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jan 12, 1841 –Mar 3, 1845
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1841 to finish his own term.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 10
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1841.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 10
| rowspan=2 align=left | John M. Clayton
| rowspan=2 | Whig
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Mar 4, 1845 –Feb 23, 1849
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1845.Resigned to become U.S. Secretary of State.
| rowspan=4 | 11
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
| rowspan=4 | 11
| rowspan=4 | Elected in 1846 or 1847.Retired.
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Mar 4, 1847 –Mar 3, 1853
| rowspan=4 | Whig
| rowspan=4 align=right | Presley Spruance
! rowspan=4 | 12
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 11
| rowspan=2 align=left | John Wales
| rowspan=2 | Whig
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Feb 23, 1849 –Mar 3, 1851
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1849 to finish Clayton's term.Lost re-election.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=10 | 12
| rowspan=10 align=left | James A. Bayard Jr.
| rowspan=10 | Democratic
| rowspan=10 nowrap | Mar 4, 1851 –Jan 29, 1864
| rowspan=6 | Elected in 1851.
| rowspan=6 | 12
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=6 | 12
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1853.Died.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Mar 4, 1853 –Nov 9, 1856
| rowspan=2 | Whig
| rowspan=2 align=right | John M. Clayton
! rowspan=2 | 13
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Nov 9, 1856 –Nov 19, 1856
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to continue Clayton's term.Declined nomination to finish Clayton's term.
| nowrap | Nov 19, 1856 –Jan 14, 1857
| | Whig
| align=right | Joseph P. Comegys
! 14
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1857 to finish Clayton's term.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Jan 14, 1857 –Mar 3, 1859
| rowspan=2 | Democratic
| rowspan=2 align=right | Martin W. Bates
! rowspan=2 | 15
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1857.
| rowspan=3 | 13
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=4 | 13
| rowspan=4 | Elected in 1858.
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Mar 4, 1859 –Mar 3, 1871
| rowspan=9 | Democratic
| rowspan=9 align=right | Willard Saulsbury Sr.
! rowspan=9 | 16
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| Re-elected in 1863.Resigned.
| rowspan=6 | 14
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 13
| rowspan=3 align=left | George R. Riddle
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jan 29, 1864 –Mar 29, 1867
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1864 to finish Bayard's term.Died.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 14
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1864.Lost re-election.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 29, 1867 –Apr 5, 1867
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 14
| align=left | James A. Bayard Jr.
| | Democratic
| nowrap | Apr 5, 1867 –Mar 3, 1869
| Appointed to continue his own term.Elected in 1869 to finish his own term.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=9 | 15
| rowspan=9 align=left | Thomas F. Bayard
| rowspan=9 | Democratic
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Mar 4, 1869 –Mar 6, 1885
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1869.
| rowspan=3 | 15
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 15
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1870.
| rowspan=11 nowrap | Mar 4, 1871 –Mar 3, 1889
| rowspan=11 | Democratic
| rowspan=11 align=right | Eli Saulsbury
! rowspan=11 | 17
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1875.
| rowspan=3 | 16
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 16
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1876.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1881.Resigned to become U.S. Secretary of State.
| rowspan=5 | 17
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 17
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1883.Lost re-election.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 6, 1885 –Mar 18, 1885
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=8 | 16
| rowspan=8 align=left | George Gray
| rowspan=8 | Democratic
| rowspan=8 nowrap | Mar 18, 1885 –Mar 3, 1899
| Elected in 1885 to finish Bayard's term.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1887.
| rowspan=3 | 18
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 18
| rowspan=3 | Election year unknown.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1889 –Mar 3, 1895
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 align=right | Anthony Higgins
! rowspan=3 | 18
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4 | Re-elected in 1893.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=4 | 19
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
| rowspan=4 | 19
| Legislature failed to elect.
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1895 –Jan 19, 1897
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1897 to finish vacant term.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jan 19, 1897 –Mar 3, 1901
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 align=right | Richard R. Kenney
! rowspan=3 | 19
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 colspan=3 | Vacant
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Mar 4, 1899 –Mar 1, 1903
| rowspan=2 | Legislature failed to elect.
| rowspan=4 | 20
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
| rowspan=5 | 20
| Legislature failed to elect.
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1901 –Mar 2, 1903
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 17
| rowspan=2 align=left | L. Heisler Ball
| rowspan=2 | Republican
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Mar 2, 1903 –Mar 3, 1905
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1903 to finish vacant term.
| rowspan=4 | Elected in 1903 to finish vacant term.Retired.
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Mar 2, 1903 –Mar 3, 1907
| rowspan=4 | Republican
| rowspan=4 align=right | J. Frank Allee
! rowspan=4 | 20
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1905 –Jun 12, 1906
| Legislature failed to elect.
| rowspan=4 | 21
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=6 | 18
| rowspan=6 align=left | Henry A. du Pont
| rowspan=6 | Republican
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Jun 13, 1906 –Mar 3, 1917
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1906 to finish vacant term.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 21
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1907.Retired.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1907 –Mar 3, 1913
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 align=right | Harry A. Richardson
! rowspan=3 | 21
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1911.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 22
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 22
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1913.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1913 –Mar 3, 1919
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 align=right | Willard Saulsbury Jr.
! rowspan=3 | 22
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 19
| rowspan=3 align=left | Josiah O. Wolcott
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1917 –Jul 2, 1921
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1916.Resigned to become Chancellor of Delaware.
| rowspan=5 | 23
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 23
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1918.Lost renomination.
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Mar 4, 1919 –Mar 3, 1925
| rowspan=5 | Republican
| rowspan=5 align=right | L. Heisler Ball
! rowspan=5 | 23
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
! 20
| align=left | T. Coleman du Pont
| | Republican
| nowrap | Jul 7, 1921 –Nov 6, 1922
| Appointed to finish Wolcott's term.Lost election to finish Wolcott's term.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=6 | 21
| rowspan=6 align=left | Thomas F. Bayard Jr.
| rowspan=6 | Democratic
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Nov 7, 1922 –Mar 3, 1929
| Elected in 1922 to finish Wolcott's term.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1922.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=5 | 24
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 24
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1924.Resigned.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Mar 4, 1925 –Dec 8, 1928
| rowspan=2 | Republican
| rowspan=2 align=right | T. Coleman du Pont
! rowspan=2 | 24
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Dec 8, 1928 –Dec 10, 1928
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Appointed to finish du Pont's term.Elected in 1930 to finish du Pont's term.
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Dec 10, 1928 –Jan 3, 1937
| rowspan=5 | Republican
| rowspan=5 align=right | Daniel O. Hastings
! rowspan=5 | 25
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=6 | 22
| rowspan=6 align=left | John G. Townsend Jr.
| rowspan=6 | Republican
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Mar 4, 1929 –Jan 3, 1941
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1928.
| rowspan=3 | 25
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 25
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1930.Lost re-election.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1934.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 26
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 26
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1936.Lost renomination.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jan 3, 1937 –Jan 3, 1943
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 align=right | James H. Hughes
! rowspan=3 | 26
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 23
| rowspan=3 align=left | James M. Tunnell
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jan 3, 1941 –Jan 3, 1947
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1940.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 27
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 27
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1942.Lost re-election.
| nowrap rowspan=3 | Jan 3, 1943 –Jan 3, 1949
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 align=right | C. Douglass Buck
! rowspan=3 | 27
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=12 | 24
| rowspan=12 align=left | John J. Williams
| rowspan=12 | Republican
| rowspan=12 nowrap | Jan 3, 1947 –Dec 31, 1970
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1946.
| rowspan=3 | 28
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 28
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1948.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Jan 3, 1949 –Jan 3, 1961
| rowspan=6 | Democratic
| rowspan=6 align=right | J. Allen Frear Jr.
! rowspan=6 | 28
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1952.
| rowspan=3 | 29
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 29
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1954.Lost re-election.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1958.
| rowspan=3 | 30
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 30
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1960.
| rowspan=7 nowrap | Jan 3, 1961 –Jan 3, 1973
| rowspan=7 | Republican
| rowspan=7 align=right | J. Caleb Boggs
! rowspan=7 | 29
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1964.Retired and resigned to give his successor preferential seniority.
| rowspan=4 | 31
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=4 | 31
| rowspan=4 | Re-elected in 1966.Lost re-election.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=16 | 25
| rowspan=16 align=left | William Roth
| rowspan=16 | Republican
| rowspan=16 nowrap | Jan 1, 1971 –Jan 3, 2001
| Appointed to finish Williams's term, having been elected to the next term.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1970.
| rowspan=3 | 32
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 32
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1972.
| rowspan=19 nowrap | Jan 3, 1973 –Jan 15, 2009
| rowspan=19 | Democratic
| rowspan=19 align=right | Joe Biden
! rowspan=19 | 30
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1976.
| rowspan=3 | 33
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 33
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1978.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1982.
| rowspan=3 | 34
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 34
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1984.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1988.
| rowspan=3 | 35
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 35
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1990.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1994.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 36
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 36
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1996.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=14 | 26
| rowspan=14 align=left | Tom Carper
| rowspan=14 | Democratic
| rowspan=14 nowrap | Jan 3, 2001 –present
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 2000.
| rowspan=3 | 37
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 37
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2002.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 2006.
| rowspan=5 | 38
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
| rowspan=5 | 38
| Re-elected in 2008.Resigned to become U.S. Vice President.
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to continue Biden's term.Retired when his successor was elected.
| nowrap|Jan 15, 2009 –Nov 15, 2010
| | Democratic
| align=right | Ted Kaufman
! 31
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 2010 to finish Biden's term.
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Nov 15, 2010 –present
| rowspan=9 | Democratic
| rowspan=9 align=right | Chris Coons
! rowspan=9 | 32
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2012.
| rowspan=3 | 39
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 39
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2014.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2018.Retiring at end of term.
| rowspan=3 | 40
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 40
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2020.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 colspan=5 | To be determined in the 2024 election.
| rowspan=2|41
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| 41
| colspan=5 | To be determined in the 2026 election.
See also
List of United States representatives from Delaware
List of United States Senate elections in Delaware
United States congressional delegations from Delaware
References
External links
Members of Congress from Delaware, govtrack.us
U.S. Senate members from Delaware, civil.services
United States Senators
Delaware
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20Sharpe%20Shaver
|
Richard Sharpe Shaver
|
Richard Sharpe Shaver (October 8, 1907 – November 5, 1975) was an American writer and artist who achieved notoriety in the years following World War II as the author of controversial stories that were printed in science fiction magazines (primarily Amazing Stories). In Shaver's story, he claimed that he had had personal experience of a sinister ancient civilization that harbored fantastic technology in caverns under the earth. The controversy stemmed from the claim by Shaver, and his editor and publisher Ray Palmer, that Shaver's writings, while presented in the guise of fiction, were fundamentally true. Shaver's stories were promoted by Ray Palmer as "The Shaver Mystery".
During the last decades of his life, Shaver devoted himself to "rock books"—stones that he believed had been created by the advanced ancient races and embedded with legible pictures and texts. He produced paintings allegedly based on the rocks' images and photographed the rock books extensively, as well as writing about them. Posthumously, Shaver has gained a reputation as an artist and his paintings and photos have been exhibited in Los Angeles, New York and elsewhere.
The Shaver Mystery
During 1943, Shaver wrote a letter to Amazing Stories magazine. He claimed to have discovered an ancient language he called "Mantong", a sort of Proto-Human language that was the source of all Earthly languages. In Mantong, each sound had a hidden meaning, and by applying this formula to any word in any language, one could decode a secret meaning to any word, name or phrase. Editor Ray Palmer applied the Mantong formula to several words, and said he realized Shaver was on to something.
According to Palmer (in his autobiography The Secret World), Palmer wrote back to Shaver, asking how he had learned of Mantong. Shaver responded with an approximately 10,000-word document entitled "A Warning to Future Man". Shaver claimed to have worked in a factory where, in 1932, odd things began to occur. As Bruce Lanier Wright notes, Shaver "began to notice that one of the welding guns on his job site, 'by some freak of its coil's field atunements', was allowing him to hear the thoughts of the men working around him. More frighteningly, he then received the telepathic record of a torture session conducted by malign entities in caverns deep within the earth". According to Michael Barkun, Shaver offered inconsistent accounts of how he first learned of the hidden cavern world, but that the assembly line story was the "most common version".
Shaver wrote of extremely advanced prehistoric races who had built cavern cities inside the Earth before abandoning Earth for another planet due to damaging radiation from the Sun. Those ancients also abandoned some of their own offspring here, a minority of whom remained noble and human "Teros", while most degenerated over time into a population of mentally impaired sadists known as "Deros"—short for "detrimental robots". Shaver's "robots" were not mechanical constructs, but were robot-like due to their savage behavior.
These Deros still lived in the cave cities, according to Shaver, kidnapping surface-dwelling people by the thousands for meat or torture. With the sophisticated "ray" machinery that the great ancient races had left behind, they spied on people and projected tormenting thoughts and voices into our minds (reminiscent of schizophrenia's "influencing machines" such as the air loom). Deros could be blamed for nearly all misfortunes, from minor "accidental" injuries or illnesses to airplane crashes and catastrophic natural disasters. Women especially were singled out for brutal treatment, including rape, and Mike Dash notes that "[s]ado-masochism was one of the prominent themes of Shaver's writings". Though generally confined to their caves, Shaver claimed that the Deros sometimes traveled with spaceships or rockets, and had dealings with equally evil extraterrestrial beings. Shaver claimed to possess first-hand knowledge of the Deros and their caves, insisting he had been their prisoner for several years.
Palmer edited and rewrote the manuscript, increasing the total word count to a novella length of 31,000. Palmer insisted that he did not alter the main elements of Shaver's story, but that he only added an exciting plot so the story would not read "like a dull recitation". Retitled "I Remember Lemuria!"; it was published in the March 1945 issue of Amazing. The issue sold out, and generated quite a response: Between 1945 and 1949, many letters arrived attesting to the truth of Shaver's claims (tens of thousands of letters, according to Palmer). The correspondents claimed that they, too, had heard strange voices or encountered denizens of the Hollow Earth. One of the letters to Amazing Stories was from a woman who claimed to have gone into a deep subbasement of a Paris, France building via a secret elevator. After months of rape and other torture, the woman was freed by a benevolent Tero. Another letter claiming involvement with Deros came from Fred Crisman, later to gain notoriety for his role in the Maury Island Incident and the John F. Kennedy assassination. "Shaver Mystery Club" societies were created in several cities. The controversy gained some notice in the mainstream press at the time, including a mention in a 1951 issue of Life magazine.
Palmer claimed that Amazing Stories magazine had a great increase of circulation because of the Shaver Mystery, and the magazine emphasized the Shaver Mystery for several years. Barkun notes that, by any measure, the Shaver Mystery was successful in increasing sales of Amazing Stories. There was disagreement as to the precise increase in circulation, but Barkun notes that reliable sources reflect an increase in monthly circulation from about 135,000 to 185,000.
From 1945 to 1948, Barkun notes that about 75% of the issues of Amazing Stories featured Shaver Mystery content, sometimes to the near-exclusion of any other topic. Historian Mike Dash declares that "Shaver's tales were amongst the wildest ever spun, even in the pages of the pulp science fiction magazines of the period". He also published in Other Worlds magazine; the first issue featured his story "The Fall of Lemuria".
Many science fiction fans felt compelled to condemn the Shaver Mystery as "the Shaver Hoax". These fans, already distressed by Palmer's shift away from the literary or hard science fiction of earlier years to often slapdash space operas, organized letter-writing campaigns to try to persuade the publishers of Amazing Stories to cease all Shaver Mystery articles. In fact, Palmer printed a number of critical or skeptical letters sent to Amazing Stories, and he and other contributors occasionally rebutted or replied to such letters in print. As Bruce Lanier Wright notes, "[t]he young Harlan Ellison, later a famously abrasive writer, allegedly badgered [Palmer] into admitting that the Shaver Mystery was a 'publicity grabber'; when the story came out, Palmer angrily responded that this was hardly the same thing as calling it a hoax". Dash writes that the "critics of the 'Shaver Mystery' were quick to point out that its author was suffering from several of the classic symptoms of paranoid schizophrenia, and that many of the letters pouring into Amazing recounting personal experiences that backed up the author's stories patently came from the sorts of people who would otherwise spend their time claiming that they were being persecuted by invisible voices or their neighbor's dog".
During 1948, Amazing Stories ceased all publication of Shaver's stories. Palmer would later claim the magazine was pressured by sinister outside forces to make the change; science fiction fans would credit their boycott and letter-writing campaigns for the change. The magazine's owners said later that the Shaver Mystery had simply run its course and sales were decreasing.
The Shaver Mystery Clubs had surprising longevity: Representatives of a club discussed the Shaver Mystery on John Nebel's popular radio show several times through the late 1950s. Nebel said he thought the discussion was entertaining, but in extant recordings he was also skeptical about the entire subject.
Even after the pulp magazines lost popularity, Palmer continued promoting the Shaver Mystery to a diminishing audience via the periodical The Hidden World. Lanier describes the magazine as "Shaver in the raw" with little of Palmer's editing. Shaver and his wife produced the Shaver Mystery Magazine irregularly for some years.
Rock books
During the 1960s and 1970s, now living in obscurity, Shaver searched for physical evidence of the bygone prehistoric races. He claimed to find it in certain rocks, which he believed were "rock books" that had been created by the great ancients and embedded with legible pictures and texts. For years he wrote about the rock books, photographed them and made paintings of the images he found in them to demonstrate their historic importance. He even ran a "rock book" lending library through the mail, sending a slice of polished agate with a detailed description of what writings, drawings and photographs he claimed were archived by Atlanteans inside the stone using special laser-like devices.
Shaver never succeeded in generating much attention for his later findings during his lifetime, but there have been exhibits of Shaver's art and photographs in the years since his death. Artist Brian Tucker created an exhibition about Shaver's life and work in 1989 at California Institute of the Arts, and presented Shaver's work again in later years at the Santa Monica Museum of Art and the Guggenheim Gallery of Chapman University in Orange County, California. In 2009, Tucker curated "Mantong and Protong", an exhibition at Pasadena City College which pairs Shaver's work with that of Stanislav Szukalski. Shaver's art has also been exhibited in galleries in New York City and in a traveling exhibition of "outsider photography" called "Create and Be Recognized" that originated at the Yerba Buena Center for the Arts in San Francisco in 2004. In that exhibition, which toured the U.S., Shaver's "rock book" photography was grouped with works by famous "outsider artists", including Henry Darger and Adolf Wolfli.
Influence and references to the Shaver Mystery
After its initial effect on the Amazing Stories readership, the Shaver Mystery continued to influence science fiction and other general literature. Many modern books, films, and games make references to Deros and other aspects of Shaver's story. The Shaver Mystery has also influenced believers of paranormal phenomena. This has taken various forms, from suspected connections between the Deros and UFOs to appearances of the Deros in the mythology of the Church of the Subgenius.
Shaver in science fiction, fantasy and horror
As noted above, writer Harlan Ellison reportedly thought the Shaver Mystery was nonsense. However, he did use elements of the Shaver Mystery in one of his own science fiction short stories. "From A to Z, in the Chocolate Alphabet" featured 26 brief stories, some a few pages long, others comprising only a few sentences. One story, "The Elevator People", reports that "[t]here are five hundred buildings in the United States whose elevators go deeper than the basement". Those unfortunates who descend to the caverns emerge nearly catatonic after being "treated" by the evil cavern inhabitants.
The 2004 Japanese horror movie Marebito, directed by Takashi Shimizu, also references Shaver's work and the Deros. The movie references Shaver's books directly, as well as showing Deros at several times during the film.
Richard Shaver and the Deros are mentioned on a plaque in the video game Shivers, next to a sculpture of a Dero in the "Subterranean World" room.
Both Shaver and his work, as well as Amazing Stories, are amongst the esoteric and unusual ideas referred to in the Philip K. Dick novel Confessions of a Crap Artist.
In the role-playing game Dungeons & Dragons, which was heavily influenced by pulp and weird fiction in its development, there exists a race of evil subterranean dwarves called the derro, which were first described in the AD&D First Edition of Monster Manual II. These derro make raids on the surface to kidnap humans for use as slaves and food, and some among them, called Savants, possess magical and psychic powers which they can use to influence people's minds. They are said to have a main stronghold deep underground where they plot the overthrow of humanity.
The novel Tamper, by Bill Ectric, takes its name from Shaver's description of the Deros' ability to tamper with the minds of humans with invisible rays. In the book, a boy obsessed with the "Shaver Mystery" begins to hear strange noises in his parents' basement which may or may not be real.
Shaver and UFOs
In the summer of 1947, Kenneth Arnold claimed to have seen some unusual flying objects near Mount Rainier. His report caused widespread interest in unidentified flying objects, and Palmer was quick to argue that the "flying saucers" were validation of the Shaver Mystery—for several years, he noted, Shaver had mentioned the Deros' supposed spaceships. The idea that Shaver and Palmer had somehow predicted or presaged the "flying saucer" craze was later championed by writer John Keel. His 1983 article "The Man Who Invented Flying Saucers" (first published in Fortean Times) declared that "Palmer assigned artists to make sketches of objects described by readers and disc-shaped flying machines appeared on the covers of his magazine long before June 1947. So we can note that a considerable number of people—millions—were exposed to the flying saucer concept before the national news media were even aware of it. Anyone who glanced at the magazines on a newsstand and caught a glimpse of the saucer-emblazoned Amazing Stories cover had the image implanted in his subconscious".
However, UFO researcher Jerome Clark would argue just the contrary, writing that "[i]t must be stressed that Palmer did not depict the deros' 'rockets' as disc shaped. Nonetheless in later years, some would insist, with more hyperbole than reason, that through Shaver's yarns Palmer 'invented flying saucers'. In fact, Palmer's influence beyond his relatively minuscule audience of science fiction fans and Forteans was nonexistent".
Other influences
The poet and folklorist Jesse Glass joined Shaver's Atlantean Library in the early 1970s as a young man and briefly corresponded with him. He was intrigued by Shaver's "rock books" with their accompanying descriptions, but noted that sometimes the surfaces of the stones seemed to be treated in some manner. One piece of stone looked like the surface was actually a drawing or rubbing on paper that had been heavily shellacked or somehow glued on. In fact, bits of white paper seemed to be showing through the shellac. Glass corresponded with Shaver and found him to be an intelligent and well-read correspondent until one day, out of the blue, the letters took on an abusive tone. It was then that Glass ended the correspondence.
The artist Jermaine Rogers has often used his version of the Deros in his many posters used to advertise rock music concerts. Rogers has approached the subject of the Deros with an ambiguity that some have taken as proof that he truly believes in these beings. Starting in 1994, Rogers' Dero has appeared in dozens of his posters and art prints and in 2004 it became a designer vinyl toy line.
Some aspects of the QAnon conspiracy theory have also been compared to Shaver’s ideas, particularly the theme of sadomasochistic abusive acts taking place in subterranean tunnels with the perpetrators also manipulating events on the surface world.
Gallery
{{Gallery
|title=Shaver cover art
|align=center
|mode=traditional
|File:Amazing stories 194503.jpg|Shaver's first published work, the novella "I Remember Lemuria", was the cover story in the March 1945 Amazing Stories
|File:Amazing stories 194506.jpg|Shaver's novella "Thought Records of Lemuria", his second published story, took the cover of the June 1945 Amazing Stories
|File:Amazing stories 194509.jpg|Shaver's run of Amazing cover stories continued in September 1945 with "Cave City of Hel"
|File:Amazing stories 194512.jpg|"Quest of Brail" closed out 1945's Amazing Stories, with every issue featuring a Shaver cover painted by Robert Gibson Jones
|File:Amazing stories 194607.jpg|Shaver Mystery stories continued to dominate Amazing'''s covers in 1946
|File:Amazing stories 194611.jpg|Some of Shaver's stories were written in collaboration with Philadelphia radio personality Bob McKenna
|File:Amazing0647.jpg|The June 1947 issue of Amazing Stories featured the "Shaver Mystery"
|File:Fantastic adventures 194705.jpg|Shaver once wrote under the eccentric pseudonym "The Red Dwarf"
|File:Mammoth adventure 194705.jpg|Shaver also wrote more conventional stories for adventure pulps like Mammoth Adventures|File:Amazing stories 195001.jpg|Shaver's stories continued to appear in Amazing after Howard Browne replaced Ray Palmer as editor
|File:Other worlds science stories 195207.jpg|Even after his work fell out of favor with Amazing readers, Ray Palmer continued to publish Shaver in other genre magazines
|File:Fantastic 195807.jpg|A special issue of Fantastic devoted to the "Shaver Mystery" was published in 1958
}}
Bibliography
Short stories
"I Remember Lemuria", Amazing Stories (March 1945)
"Thought Records of Lemuria", Amazing Stories (June 1945)
"Cave City of Hel", Amazing Stories (September 1945)
"Quest of Brail", Amazing Stories (December 1945)
"Invasion of the Micro-Men", Amazing Stories (February 1946)
"The Masked World", Amazing Stories (May 1946)
"Cult of the Witch-Queen", Amazing Stories (July 1946)
"The Sea People", Amazing Stories (August 1946)
"Earth Slaves to Space", Amazing Stories (September 1946)
"The Return of Sathanas", Amazing Stories (November 1946)
"The Land of Kui", Amazing Stories (December 1946)
"Joe Dannon Pioneer", Amazing Stories (March 1947)
"Loot of Babylon", Mammoth Adventure (May 1947)
"The Tale of the Red Dwarf Who Writes with his Tail", Fantastic Adventures (May 1947)
"Formula from The Underworld", Amazing Stories (June 1947)
"Zigor Mephisto's Collection of Mentalia", Amazing Stories (June 1947)
"Witch's Daughter", Amazing Stories (June 1947)
"The Red Legion", Amazing Stories (June 1947)
"Mer-Witch of Ether 18", Amazing Stories (August 1947)
"Gods of Venus", Amazing Stories (March 1948)
"When the Moon Bounced", Amazing Stories (May 1949)
"The Fall of Lemuria", Other Worlds (November 1949)
"We Dance for the Dom!", Amazing Stories (January 1950)
"The Sun-Smiths", Other Worlds (July 1952)
"Beyond the Barrier", Other Worlds (November 1952–February 1953)
"The Dream Makers", Fantastic (July 1958)
Nonfiction
The Secret World (with Ray Palmer) (1975)
See also
"On the Origin of the 'Influencing Machine' in Schizophrenia", an influential 1919 paper
Agartha, a legendary kingdom that is said to be located in the Earth's core popular with 19th- and 20th-century occultists theosophists.
Bionics
"The Mound" by H. P. Lovecraft from a short description by Zealia Bishop – underground civilization fiction set in the southwestern U.S., part of the Cthulhu Mythos
The Phantom Empire – film serial with a similar theme that was perhaps an inspiration on Richard Sharpe Shaver's work
Stanislav Szukalski developed strange theories about Earth being ruled by a race called the Sons of Yeti.
Deadline (science fiction story), another wartime atomic fiction
Dark City (1998 film) features humans as captives of a race of mind-controlling strangers.
Us (2019 film) directed by Jordan Peele depicts a race of subterranean machine-like humans designed to copy their counterparts on the surface.
Footnotes
References
Ackerman, Forrest J, "Amazing! Astounding! Incredible! Pulp Science Fiction", Forrest J Ackerman's World of Science Fiction.; Los Angeles: RR Donnelley & Sons Company, 1997; .
Barkun, Michael, A Culture of Conspiracy: Apocalyptic Visions in Contemporary America; University of California Press Berkeley, Los Angeles, 2003;
Clark, Jerome, The UFO Book: Encyclopedia of the Extraterrestrial; Visible Ink, 1998;
Dash, Mike, Borderlands: The Ultimate Exploration of the Unknown; Overlook Press, 2000;
Ellison, Harlan, Strange Wine (paperback edition), Warner Books, 1978;
Foti, Claudio, Lo Strano Caso di Richard Sharpe Shaver, Weirdbooks, 2018;
Keel, John, "The Man Who Invented Flying Saucers" ; Fortean Times, 1983.
Klochko, Deborah and Turner, John, eds., "Create and Be Recognized: Photography on the Edge," San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 2004.
Mott, Wm. Michael, This Tragic Earth: The Art and World of Richard Sharpe Shaver, Grave Distractions Publications, 2011; http://www.gravedistractions.com/this-tragic-earth.php
Mott, Wm. Michael, The Deep Dwellers from Caverns, Cauldrons, and Concealed Creatures, Expanded Third Edition, Grave Distractions Publications, 2011,http://www.gravedistractions.com/caverns-caldrons-and-concealed-creatures.php
Roth, Christopher F., "Ufology as Anthropology: Race, Extraterrestrials, and the Occult." In E.T. Culture: Anthropology in Outerspaces, ed. by Debbora Battaglia. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2005.
Skinner, Doug, What's This? A Shaver Revival?, Fate, June 2005
Toronto, Richard, The Shaver Mystery. Fate'', March 1998
Tucker, Brian, "Shaver Declared a Master Surrealist!," Shavertron (online publication), 2003(?).
Wright, Bruce Lanier, Fear Down Below: The Curious History of the Shaver Mystery. Retrieved on 3 April 2006.
External links
Shavertron magazine
Blog dedicated to the memory of Richard Shaver
The Positively True Story of Kenneth Arnold - Part Four at Saturday Night Uforia
American science fiction writers
Outsider artists
1907 births
1975 deaths
American conspiracy theorists
20th-century American novelists
American male novelists
American male short story writers
20th-century American short story writers
20th-century American male writers
Fred Crisman
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20United%20States%20senators%20from%20Georgia
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List of United States senators from Georgia
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Georgia was admitted to the Union on January 2, 1788. The state has had senators since the 1st Congress. Its Senate seats were declared vacant in Mar 1861 owing to its secession from the Union. They were again filled from February 1871.
United States senators are popularly elected to six-year terms that begin on January 3 of the year after their election. Elections are held the first Tuesday after November 1. Before 1914, Georgia's senators were chosen by the Georgia General Assembly, and before 1935, their terms began March 4. Popular Senate elections remained despite the General Assembly not taking action to ratify the Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution that was passed in 1913.
Rebecca Latimer Felton was the first female U.S. senator, representing Georgia in the Senate for one day in 1922, having been appointed to the seat to replace the late Thomas E. Watson.
Richard Russell Jr. was the state's longest serving senator, served from 1933 to 1971.
Since January 20, 2021, Georgia has been represented in the Senate by Democrats Jon Ossoff and Raphael Warnock. Ossoff defeated Republican David Perdue in the regularly-scheduled 2020 election, while Warnock defeated appointed Republican incumbent Kelly Loeffler in the concurrent special election, both of which were decided in runoffs on January 5, 2021. Ossoff is the first Jewish senator from Georgia and Warnock the first black senator from Georgia.
List of senators
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 1
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:left;"| William Few
| rowspan=2 | Anti-Admin.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Mar 4, 1789 –Mar 4, 1793
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1789.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=2 | 1
|
| rowspan=3 | 1
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1789.
| rowspan=8 nowrap | Mar 4, 1789 –Mar 4, 1801
| rowspan=3 | Anti-Admin.
| rowspan="8" style="text-align:right;"| James Gunn
! rowspan=8 | 1
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 2
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:left;"| James Jackson
| | Anti-Admin.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Mar 4, 1793 –Nov 16, 1795
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1793.Resigned to run for the Georgia legislature.
| rowspan=5 | 2
|
|- style="height:2em"
| | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=3
| rowspan=5 | 2
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1794.Retired.
| rowspan=5 | Federalist
|- style="height:2em"
! 3
| align=left | George Walton
| | Federalist
| nowrap | Nov 16, 1795 –Feb 20, 1796
| Appointed to continue Jackson's term.Retired when successor elected.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 4
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:left;"| Josiah Tattnall
| rowspan=2 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Feb 20, 1796 –Mar 4, 1799
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Jackson's term.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=6 | 5
| rowspan="6" style="text-align:left;"| Abraham Baldwin
| rowspan=6 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Mar 4, 1799 –Mar 4, 1807
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1799.
| rowspan=3 | 3
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 3
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1800.Died.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1801 –Mar 19, 1806
| rowspan=3 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan="3" style="text-align:right;"| James Jackson
! rowspan=3 | 2
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1804.Died.
| rowspan=9 | 4
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Mar 19, 1806 –Jun 19, 1806
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Elected to finish Jackson's term.
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Jun 19, 1806 –Nov 14, 1809
| rowspan=5 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan="5" style="text-align:right;"| John Milledge
! rowspan=5 | 3
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1807 –Aug 27, 1807
|
| rowspan=3
| rowspan=7 | 4
| rowspan=4 | Re-elected in 1806.Resigned.
|- style="height:2em"
! 6
| align=left | George Jones
| | Democratic-Republican
| nowrap | Aug 27, 1807 –Nov 7, 1807
| Appointed to continue Baldwin's term.Lost special election.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=6 | 7
| rowspan="6" style="text-align:left;"| William H. Crawford
| rowspan=6 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Nov 7, 1807 –Mar 23, 1813
| rowspan=4 | Elected to finish Baldwin's term.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Nov 14, 1809 –Nov 27, 1809
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Milledge's term.
| rowspan=13 nowrap | Nov 27, 1809 –Mar 4, 1819
| rowspan=13 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan="13" style="text-align:right;"| Charles Tait
! rowspan=13 | 4
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Re-elected in 1810 or 1811Resigned to become U.S. Minister to France.
| rowspan=8 | 5
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4
| rowspan=11 | 5
| rowspan=11 | Re-elected in 1813.
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 23, 1813 –Apr 8, 1813
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 8
| align=left | William Bellinger Bulloch
| | Democratic-Republican
| nowrap | Apr 8, 1813 –Nov 6, 1813
| Appointed to continue Crawford's term.Retired when successor elected.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 9
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:left;"| William Wyatt Bibb
| rowspan=2 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Nov 6, 1813 –Nov 9, 1816
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Crawford's term.Resigned.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Nov 9, 1816 –Nov 13, 1816
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 10
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:left;"| George Troup
| rowspan=2 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Nov 13, 1816 –Sep 23, 1818
| Elected to finish Crawford's term.
|- style="height:2em"
| Elected to full term in 1816.Resigned.
| rowspan=9 | 6
| rowspan=4
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Sep 23, 1818 –Nov 23, 1818
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 11
| align=left | John Forsyth
| | Democratic-Republican
| nowrap | Nov 23, 1818 –Feb 17, 1819
| Elected to finish Troup's term.Resigned to become U.S. Minister to Spain.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 colspan=3 | Vacant
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Feb 17, 1819 –Nov 6, 1819
| rowspan=2 |
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
| rowspan=8 | 6
| rowspan=8 | Elected in 1819.
| rowspan=8 nowrap | Mar 4, 1819 –Mar 4, 1825
| rowspan=8 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan="8" style="text-align:right;"| John Elliott
! rowspan=8 | 5
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 12
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:left;"| Freeman Walker
| rowspan=2 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Nov 6, 1819 –Aug 6, 1821
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Troup's term.Resigned.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Aug 6, 1821 –Nov 10, 1821
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 13
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:left;"| Nicholas Ware
| rowspan=2 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Nov 10, 1821 –Sep 7, 1824
| Elected to finish Troup's term.
|- style="height:2em"
| Re-elected in 1823.Died.
| rowspan=6 | 7
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Sep 7, 1824 –Dec 6, 1824
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 14
| rowspan="3" style="text-align:left;"| Thomas W. Cobb
| | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Dec 6, 1824 –Nov 7, 1828
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish Ware's term.Resigned.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Jacksonian
|
| rowspan=6 | 7
| rowspan=4 | Elected in 1825.Resigned to become U.S. Attorney General.
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Mar 4, 1825 –Mar 9, 1829
| rowspan=4 | Jacksonian
| rowspan="4" style="text-align:right;"| John M. Berrien
! rowspan=4 | 6
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
! 15
| align=left | Oliver H. Prince
| | Jacksonian
| nowrap | Nov 7, 1828 –Mar 4, 1829
| Elected to finish Ware's term.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=5 | 16
| rowspan="5" style="text-align:left;"| George Troup
| rowspan=5 | Jacksonian
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Mar 4, 1829 –Nov 8, 1833
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1828.Resigned.
| rowspan=9 | 8
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Mar 9, 1829 –Nov 9, 1829
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Elected to finish Berrien's term.
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Nov 9, 1829 –Jun 27, 1834
| rowspan=5 | Jacksonian
| rowspan="5" style="text-align:right;"| John Forsyth
! rowspan=5 | 7
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=7 | 8
| rowspan=4 | Re-elected in 1830 or 1831.Resigned to become U.S. Secretary of State.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Nov 8, 1833 –Nov 21, 1833
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=5 | 17
| rowspan="5" style="text-align:left;"| John P. King
| rowspan=4 | Jacksonian
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Nov 21, 1833 –Nov 1, 1837
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish Troup's term.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Jun 27, 1834 –Jan 12, 1835
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Forsyth's term.
| rowspan=7 nowrap | Jan 12, 1835 –Mar 4, 1843
| rowspan=2 | Jacksonian
| rowspan="7" style="text-align:right;"| Alfred Cuthbert
! rowspan=7 | 8
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Re-elected in 1834.Resigned.
| rowspan=5 | 9
|
|- style="height:2em"
| | Democratic
| rowspan=3
| rowspan=5 | 9
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1837.Retired.
| rowspan=5 | Democratic
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Nov 1, 1837 –Nov 22, 1837
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 18
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:left;"| Wilson Lumpkin
| rowspan=2 | Democratic
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Nov 22, 1837 –Mar 4, 1841
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish King's term.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=9 | 19
| rowspan="3" style="text-align:left;"| John M. Berrien
| rowspan=3 | Whig
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1841 –May 1845
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1840.Resigned to become judge of the Supreme Court of Georgia.
| rowspan=5 | 10
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=6 | 10
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1843.Resigned.
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Mar 4, 1843 –Feb 4, 1848
| rowspan=5 | Democratic
| rowspan="5" style="text-align:right;"| Walter T. Colquitt
! rowspan=5 | 9
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=2 | Vacant
| nowrap | May 1845 –Nov 13, 1845
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan="5" style="text-align:left;"| John M. Berrien
| rowspan=5 | Whig
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Nov 13, 1845 –May 28, 1852
| Elected to finish his own term.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4 | Re-elected in 1846.Resigned.
| rowspan=5 | 11
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to finish Colquitt's term.Retired.
| nowrap | Feb 4, 1848 –Mar 4, 1849
| | Democratic
| align=right | Herschel V. Johnson
! 10
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 11
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1847 for the term beginning in 1849.
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Mar 4, 1849 –Mar 4, 1855
| rowspan=5 | Whig
| rowspan="5" style="text-align:right;"| William Crosby Dawson
! rowspan=5 | 11
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | May 28, 1852 –May 31, 1852
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 20
| align=left | Robert M. Charlton
| | Democratic
| nowrap | May 31, 1852 –Mar 4, 1853
| Appointed to finish Berrien's term.
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=5 | 21
| rowspan="5" style="text-align:left;"| Robert Toombs
| rowspan=5 | Democratic
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Mar 4, 1853 –Feb 4, 1861
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1852.
| rowspan=3 | 12
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 12
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1854 or 1855.Withdrew.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1855 –Jan 28, 1861
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan="3" style="text-align:right;"| Alfred Iverson Sr.
! rowspan=3 | 12
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Re-elected in 1858.Withdrew.
| rowspan=5 | 13
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=7 | Civil War and Reconstruction
| rowspan=7 nowrap | Jan 28, 1861 –Feb 1, 1871
| rowspan=7 colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=7 colspan=3 | Vacant
| rowspan=7 nowrap | Feb 4, 1861 –Feb 24, 1871
| rowspan=7 | Civil War and Reconstruction
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 13
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | 14
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=6 | 14
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4 | Elected in 1867 to finish the term, but not seated until Georgia's readmission.Retired.
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Feb 1, 1871 –Mar 4, 1873
| rowspan=4 | Republican
| rowspan="4" style="text-align:right;"| Joshua Hill
! rowspan=4 | 13
|- style="height:2em"
! 22
| align=left | Homer V. M. Miller
| | Democratic
| nowrap | Feb 24, 1871 –Mar 4, 1871
| Elected to finish term.
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1871 –Nov 14, 1871
| Foster Blodgett (R) presented credentials as Senator-elect, but the Senate declared him not elected.
| rowspan=4 | 15
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 23
| rowspan="3" style="text-align:left;"| Thomas M. Norwood
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Nov 14, 1871 –Mar 4, 1877
| rowspan=3 | Elected after Blodgett's credentials were rejected.Lost re-election.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 15
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1873.
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Mar 4, 1873 –May 26, 1880
| rowspan=4 | Democratic
| rowspan="4" style="text-align:right;"| John B. Gordon
! rowspan=4 | 14
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=4 | 24
| rowspan="4" style="text-align:left;"| Benjamin Harvey Hill
| rowspan=4 | Democratic
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Mar 4, 1877 –Aug 16, 1882
| rowspan=4 | Elected in 1877.Died.
| rowspan=6 | 16
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
| rowspan=6 | 16
| Re-elected in 1879.Resigned to promote a venture for the Georgia Pacific Railway.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | Elected to finish Gordon's term.
| rowspan=8 nowrap | May 26, 1880 –Mar 4, 1891
| rowspan=8 | Democratic
| rowspan="8" style="text-align:right;"| Joseph E. Brown
! rowspan=8 | 15
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Aug 16, 1882 –Nov 15, 1882
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 25
| align=left | Middleton P. Barrow
| | Democratic
| nowrap | Nov 15, 1882 –Mar 4, 1883
| Elected to finish Hill's term.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=6 | 26
| rowspan="6" style="text-align:left;"| Alfred H. Colquitt
| rowspan=6 | Democratic
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Mar 4, 1883 –Mar 26, 1894
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1883.
| rowspan=3 | 17
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 17
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1885.Retired due to illness.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1888Died.
| rowspan=5 | 18
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 18
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1890.Retired.
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Mar 4, 1891 –Mar 4, 1897
| rowspan=5 | Democratic
| rowspan="5" style="text-align:right;"| John B. Gordon
! rowspan=5 | 16
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 26, 1894 –Apr 2, 1894
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 27
| align=left | Patrick Walsh
| | Democratic
| nowrap | Apr 2, 1894 –Mar 4, 1895
| Appointed to continue Colquitt's term.Elected in 1894 to finish Colquitt's term.Lost renomination.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=13 | 28
| rowspan="13" style="text-align:left;"| Augustus Octavius Bacon
| rowspan=13 | Democratic
| rowspan=13 nowrap | Mar 4, 1895 – Feb 14, 1914
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1894.
| rowspan=3 | 19
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 19
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1896.
| rowspan=7 nowrap | Mar 4, 1897 –Nov 13, 1910
| rowspan=7 | Democratic
| rowspan="7" style="text-align:right;"| Alexander S. Clay
! rowspan=7 | 17
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1900.Legislature failed to elect.
| rowspan=3 | 20
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 20
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1902.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=6 | Appointed to begin the next term.Re-elected in 1907.Legislature failed to elect.
| rowspan=6 | 21
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
| rowspan=9 | 21
| Re-elected in 1909.Died.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Nov 13, 1910 –Nov 17, 1910
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Appointed to continue Clay's term.Lost election to finish Clay's term.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Nov 17, 1910 –Jul 14, 1911
| rowspan=2 | Democratic
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:right;"| Joseph M. Terrell
! rowspan=2 | 18
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | Elected to finish Clay's term.Did not take office until Nov 16 upon resigning as Governor of Georgia.
| rowspan=8 nowrap | Jul 14, 1911 –Mar 4, 1921
| rowspan=8 | Democratic
| rowspan="8" style="text-align:right;"| Hoke Smith
! rowspan=8 | 19
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to begin the term.Re-elected in 1913, the first election by popular vote.Died.
| rowspan=6 | 22
| rowspan=4
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Feb 14, 1914 –Mar 2, 1914
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 29
| align=left | William S. West
| | Democratic
| nowrap | Mar 2, 1914 –Nov 3, 1914
| Appointed to continue Bacon's term.Successor elected.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 30
| rowspan="3" style="text-align:left;"| Thomas W. Hardwick
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Nov 4, 1914 –Mar 4, 1919
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish Bacon's term.Lost renomination.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 22
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1914.Lost renomination.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=10 | 31
| rowspan="10" style="text-align:left;"| William J. Harris
| rowspan=10 | Democratic
| rowspan=10 nowrap | Mar 4, 1919 –Apr 18, 1932
| rowspan=6 | Elected in 1918.
| rowspan=6 | 23
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4
| rowspan=6 | 23
| Elected in 1920.Died.
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1921 –Sep 26, 1922
| | Democratic
| align=right | Thomas E. Watson
! 20
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Sep 26, 1922 –Oct 3, 1922
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to continue Watson's term.Retired.
| nowrap | Oct 3, 1922 –Nov 21, 1922
| | Democratic
| align=right | Rebecca Latimer Felton
! 21
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish Watson's term.
| rowspan=21 nowrap | Nov 22, 1922 –Jan 3, 1957
| rowspan=21 | Democratic
| rowspan="21" style="text-align:right;"| Walter F. George
! rowspan=21 | 22
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1924.
| rowspan=3 | 24
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=6 | 24
| rowspan=6 | Re-elected in 1926.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| Re-elected in 1930.Died.
| rowspan=6 | 25
| rowspan=4
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Apr 18, 1932 –Apr 25, 1932
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 32
| align=left | John S. Cohen
| | Democratic
| nowrap | Apr 25, 1932 –Jan 11, 1933
| Appointed to continue Harris's term.Successor elected.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=21 | 33
| rowspan="21" style="text-align:left;"| Richard Russell Jr.
| rowspan=21 | Democratic
| rowspan=21 nowrap | Jan 12, 1933 –Jan 21, 1971
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1932 to finish Harris's term.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 25
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1932.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1936.
| rowspan=3 | 26
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 26
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1938.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1942.
| rowspan=3 | 27
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 27
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1944.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1948.
| rowspan=3 | 28
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 28
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1950.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1954.
| rowspan=3 | 29
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 29
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1956.
| rowspan=15 nowrap | Jan 3, 1957 – Jan 3, 1981
| rowspan=15 | Democratic
| rowspan="15" style="text-align:right;"| Herman Talmadge
! rowspan=15 | 23
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1960.
| rowspan=3 | 30
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 30
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1962.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1966.Died.
| rowspan=6 | 31
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=6 | 31
| rowspan=6 | Re-elected in 1968.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Jan 21, 1971 –Feb 1, 1971
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 34
| align=left | David H. Gambrell
| | Democratic
| nowrap | Feb 1, 1971 –Nov 7, 1972
| Appointed to continue Russell's term.Lost nomination to finish Russell's term.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=13 | 35
| rowspan="13" style="text-align:left;"| Sam Nunn
| rowspan=13 | Democratic
| rowspan=13 nowrap | Nov 8, 1972 –Jan 3, 1997
| Elected to finish Russell's term.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected to full term in 1972.
| rowspan=3 | 32
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 32
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1974.Lost re-election.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1978.
| rowspan=3 | 33
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 33
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1980.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jan 3, 1981 –Jan 3, 1987
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan="3" style="text-align:right;"| Mack Mattingly
! rowspan=3 | 24
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1984.
| rowspan=3 | 34
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 34
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1986.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jan 3, 1987 –Jan 3, 1993
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan="3" style="text-align:right;"| Wyche Fowler
! rowspan=3 | 25
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1990.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 35
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 35
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1992 in runoff election.
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Jan 3, 1993 –Jul 18, 2000
| rowspan=4 | Republican
| rowspan="4" style="text-align:right;"| Paul Coverdell
! rowspan=4 | 26
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=5 | 36
| rowspan="5" style="text-align:left;"| Max Cleland
| rowspan=5 | Democratic
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Jan 3, 1997 –Jan 3, 2003
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1996.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=5 | 36
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
| rowspan=5 | 36
| Re-elected in 1998.Died.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | July 18, 2000 –July 27, 2000
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Appointed to continue Coverdell's term.Elected in 2000 to finish Coverdell's term.Retired.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | July 27, 2000 –Jan 3, 2005
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan="3" style="text-align:right;"| Zell Miller
! rowspan=3 | 27
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=6 | 37
| rowspan="6" style="text-align:left;"| Saxby Chambliss
| rowspan=6 | Republican
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Jan 3, 2003 –Jan 3, 2015
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 2002.
| rowspan=3 | 37
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 37
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 2004.
| rowspan=8 nowrap | Jan 3, 2005 –Dec 31, 2019
| rowspan=8 | Republican
| rowspan="8" style="text-align:right;"| Johnny Isakson
! rowspan=8 | 28
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2008 in runoff election.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 38
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 38
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2010.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=5 | 38
| rowspan="5" style="text-align:left;"| David Perdue
| rowspan=5 | Republican
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Jan 3, 2015 –Jan 3, 2021
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 2014.Term expired before runoff election.Lost re-election in runoff.
| rowspan=5 | 39
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=6 | 39
| rowspan=2 | Re-elected in 2016.Resigned.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Dec 31, 2019 –Jan 6, 2020
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Appointed to continue Isakson's term.Lost election in runoff to finish Isakson's term.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Jan 6, 2020 –Jan 20, 2021
| rowspan=2 | Republican
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:right;"| Kelly Loeffler
! rowspan=2 | 29
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Jan 3, 2021 –Jan 20, 2021
|
| rowspan=4 | 40
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 39
| rowspan="3" style="text-align:left;"| Jon Ossoff
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jan 20, 2021 –present
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 2021 in runoff election.
| Elected in 2021 in runoff election to finish Isakson's term.
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Jan 20, 2021 –present
| rowspan=4 | Democratic
| rowspan="4" style="text-align:right;"| Raphael Warnock
! rowspan=4 | 30
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 40
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2022 in runoff election.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 colspan=5 | To be determined in the 2026 election.
| rowspan=2| 41
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| 41
| colspan=6 | To be determined in the 2028 election.
See also
List of United States representatives from Georgia
United States congressional delegations from Georgia
Elections in Georgia (U.S. state)
Notes
References
Georgia
United States Senators
|
416356
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julia%20Gardiner%20Tyler
|
Julia Gardiner Tyler
|
Julia Tyler ( Gardiner; May 4, 1820 – July 10, 1889) was the first lady of the United States from June 26, 1844, to March 4, 1845, as the second wife of President John Tyler. A member of the influential Gardiner family, she became a prominent socialite early in life who received many notable figures as suitors. She met the recently widowed President Tyler in 1842, and she agreed to marry him after he comforted her in the aftermath of her father's death. They married in secret, and she became first lady immediately upon their marriage, serving in the role for the final eight months of his presidency.
Tyler was delighted with her role as first lady, redecorating the White House and establishing her own "court" of ladies-in-waiting to mimic the practices of European monarchies that she had visited years before. She also established the tradition of playing "Hail to the Chief" when the president arrived at an event, and she popularized the waltz and polka dances in the United States. Tyler was a fierce advocate for her husband's political priorities, organizing social events to lobby Congressmen, particularly for the Texas annexation. She is credited with revitalizing the position of first lady, both socially and politically, after several inactive first ladies before her.
After leaving the White House, Tyler moved to the Sherwood Forest Plantation in Virginia with her husband and had seven children. She became a prominent supporter of slavery in the United States, writing an influential pamphlet in 1853 that defended the practice. During the American Civil War, she provided support to the Confederate States of America, creating a permanent rift with her family in New York. After the war, she was involved in a legal dispute regarding her mother's estate with her brother, who had been a loyal Unionist. Tyler returned to Washington in the 1870s as her reputation recovered, assisting first lady Julia Grant at the White House and convincing Congress to provide a pension for widowed first ladies. She spent her final years in Richmond, Virginia, where she lived in poor health. She died of a stroke on July 10, 1889, in the same hotel where her husband had died from the same illness 27 years before.
Early life
Julia Gardiner was born on May 4, 1820, on Gardiner's Island in New York. She was the daughter of David Gardiner, a landowner and New York State senator (1824–1828), and Juliana MacLachlan Gardiner. Her ancestry was Dutch, Scottish, and English, and she was the third of four children. The Gardiners were a wealthy and influential family, and she was taught to value social class and advantageous marriages. She was educated at home until she was 16 years old, and she then attended the Chagaray Institute in New York, where she studied music, French literature, ancient history, arithmetic, and composition. She was raised as a Presbyterian.
As a young woman Gardiner was a budding socialite, closely following fashion trends and courting potential suitors. She was introduced in Saratoga Springs, New York at the age of 15. In 1840, she shocked polite society by appearing in an advertisement for a department store, posed with an unidentified man and identified as "The Rose of Long Island". Her family took her to Europe, possibly to avoid further publicity, while the nickname "Rose of Long Island" became permanently associated with Gardiner. They first left for London, arriving on October 29, 1840. They visited England, France, Italy, Switzerland, Germany, Holland, Belgium, Ireland, and Scotland before returning to New York in September 1841. While in France, she was presented to the French court, adding to her list of suitors. After returning from Europe, the Gardiners spent time in Washington, D.C.
Courtship and wedding
Courtship with President Tyler
In Washington, Gardiner and her sister Margaret would accumulate so many suitors that an extra room had to be rented to entertain them. She would continue to make visits to Washington over the following years. She received marriage proposals from several prominent figures, including two congressmen and a Supreme Court justice. She would also receive such proposals from President John Tyler.
She first met Tyler in January 1842, when she was introduced to him at a White House reception. On Gardiner's request, her family spent more time in Washington, returning in 1843. President Tyler invited Gardiner to a private game of cards on February 7, 1843, after which he playfully chased her around the tables. After the death of his first wife, Letitia Christian Tyler, Tyler made it clear that he wished to be romantically involved with Gardiner. Though the Gardiner and Tyler families grew closer, Julia initially felt little attraction to the president, who was 30 years her senior. The increased time that Gardiner and President Tyler spent together prompted public speculation about their relationship. Tyler first proposed to her at a White House Masquerade Ball on February 22, 1843, when she was 22 years old. She refused that and later proposals he made, though they reached an understanding by the following month that they would someday be wed.
On February 22, 1844, Gardiner, her sister Margaret, and her father joined a presidential excursion on the new steam frigate Princeton. During this excursion, her father, David Gardiner, along with others, lost his life in the explosion of a huge naval gun called the Peacemaker. Gardiner is said to have fainted after learning of her father's death, having President Tyler carry her off the ship. While she grieved for her father, even Gardiner acknowledged that the president had become a surrogate father. She became much more receptive to his advances over the following weeks, and she agreed to marry him.
Wedding of Julia Gardiner and John Tyler
It was decided that the wedding of Gardiner and Tyler would be carried out in secret. They were wed on June 26, 1844, at the Church of the Ascension in New York. The wedding was controversial when it was announced to the public. It was the first time that a president had married while holding the office, and critics felt that it was inappropriate for him to remarry while he was president, so shortly after the death of his first wife. Their age difference was also a subject of criticism: President Tyler was 54 years old, while Gardiner was 24. Some, such as Congressman and former President John Quincy Adams, mocked the president for marrying a young bride so soon after meeting her. Julia Tyler's new stepchildren were dismayed by the marriage, especially as some of them were older than she and it was so soon after their mother's death. Her stepdaughters in particular were distrustful, though she was ultimately accepted by all of them with the exception of Letitia Semple. After her marriage, Tyler determined that she would give up being a New Yorker and identify instead as a Virginian like her husband.
First Lady of the United States
White House hostess
As the wife of the president, Julia Tyler served as first lady of the United States for the final eight months of his presidency. After their marriage, they honeymooned in Washington, Old Point Comfort, and the president's privately owned Sherwood Forest Plantation. Tyler was enthralled by the crowds that followed them and the public interest in their secret wedding. After arriving at the White House, she sought to make the presidential home more extravagant; she had the building cleaned, the furniture replaced, and the staff uniforms updated. Access to the Gardiner family fortune allowed her to remake the White House more than would have otherwise been possible. She also purchased many elaborate dresses at personal expense, becoming a prominent influence in fashion. The extravagance was muted, however, by her period of mourning for her father.
Tyler's sister Margaret would assist her in her duties while visiting Washington, serving as a social secretary. Tyler became a point of contact for those wishing to receive favors from the president, and the Gardiner family in particular regularly sought support from the first lady. Among her favorite requests were those for pardons and commutations by the president, and it was Tyler's interjection that spared a convict, "Babe" the pirate, from a death sentence in New York. Tyler was often the subject of human-interest stories, particularly those by Washington correspondent F. W. Thomas of the New York Herald. Thomas' coverage of her was consistently positive, and he bestowed upon her the nickname "Lady Presidentress" with which she would be popularly identified.
Political influence
Tyler did not have strong political views of her own. Rather, she adopted and defended those of her husband. She would encourage her husband to pursue whatever policies he desired, and she would even flatter members of the Senate to win their support. Political considerations were always factored into social events, and Tyler used her influence to exert power in her own right. In particular, she lobbied for the annexation of Texas as she believed it would benefit her husband's legacy. Her open expression of political opinion diverged from previous first ladies, who generally expressed little interest in politics. After the president signed off on the annexation of Texas in one of his final official acts, Tyler began wearing the pen he used around her neck. Her lobbying on the Texas issue is credited as a major factor in its success. Her support for the annexation of Texas became publicly known to the point where she was identified with the topic, and it was the subject of the first political cartoon to tie a first lady to a political issue.
Public image
As first lady, Tyler wished to emulate the customs of European courts. She had her own court formed from her sister, her cousins, and her daughter-in-law, who served as her ladies-in-waiting, and she would invite ladies of prominent families to join her at events and receiving lines. She also kept an Italian Greyhound that accompanied her, which the president had ordered for her from Naples. Her sense of extravagance was also noted when she drove four horses and when she received guests on an armchair that was slightly elevated. To bring an element of grandiose to the presidency, she began the tradition of a presidential anthem, having "Hail to the Chief" played to announce the entry of the president.
Tyler broke social norms by dancing in public, which was considered scandalous by the country's Puritan tradition. Her love for the polka helped popularize the dance in the United States. She also introduced the waltz to White House events despite the president's previous opposition to dancing. Several "Julia Waltzes" were written in her honor and saw wide success. Though Tyler was generally popular as first lady, her love of drinking and dancing earned her the ire of religious citizens amidst the Second Great Awakening. In the last month of her husband's administration, Tyler hosted a grand White House ball for 3,000 guests.
Post-presidency
Motherhood at Sherwood Forest Plantation
After leaving the White House, the Tylers retired to the Sherwood Forest Plantation. Although a Northerner by birth, Tyler adopted her new Southern identity wholeheartedly, saying that she was "ashamed" of New York. The Tylers had seven children together after leaving the White House: David Gardiner Tyler in 1846, John Alexander Tyler in 1848, Julia Gardiner Tyler in 1849, Lachlan Tyler in 1851, Lyon Gardiner Tyler in 1853, Robert Fitzwalter Tyler in 1856, and Pearl Tyler in 1860.
Tyler was responsible for the care of not only her seven children, but several of her adult stepchildren, their two hired workers, and approximately 70 slaves who were made to work on the plantation. Tyler often hosted social gatherings and long-term guests at their home, and the family regularly traveled throughout the United States for vacation and for speaking engagements. She also carried out renovations on their home, their boat, and their carriage. Tyler eventually bought the Villa Margaret summer home in Hampton, Virginia to accommodate their growing family. The Tylers spent beyond their means, depleting the Gardiner fortune and plunging them into financial trouble for much of their marriage.
When several women of the British aristocracy published an open letter challenging slavery in the Southern United States, Tyler wrote a response that defended slavery, publishing it in the Southern Literary Messenger in 1853. In this response, Tyler made several false claims to suggest that slaves lived comfortably in the United States. Such a public expression of political opinion was unusual for a woman in the Southern United States, but the nature of the slavery debate won acceptance for her essay among the South. In the North, she was regarded as a doughface, a disparaging term for a Northerner that supported the South. In response to Tyler's essay, Harriet Jacobs, a former slave and later abolitionist writer, authored her first published work, a letter to the New York Tribune in 1853.
Civil War
Though their allegiance was with the South, the Tylers did not want the Southern states to secede in the buildup to the Civil War. They went to Washington in early 1861 to alleviate the crisis, with Tyler involving herself in the city's social life to help improve Northern–Southern relations. By February, however, Tyler and her husband accepted secession and aligned themselves with the Confederate States of America. She volunteered to support the Confederate war effort during the civil war, and she cut ties with her family in New York when they remained loyal to the Union. She became further opposed to the Union after Union soldiers captured her summer home Villa Margaret.
When a nightmare caused her to worry for her husband's health while he was away, Tyler joined him at the Confederate House of Representatives in Richmond, Virginia. He died of a stroke on January 18, 1862, at the age of 71, days after she arrived. Tyler hired a manager and two employees to tend to Sherwood Forest Plantation. Then with her two youngest children, she traveled to Bermuda where she lived with other Confederates who had settled there, and she returned to her family home in New York in November 1862 She bitterly argued with her Unionist brother, who was eventually banished from the house after striking her. Tyler was upset to hear that Sherwood Forest Plantation had been captured while she was in New York, that her former slaves had been given the crops that they grew, and that the building was being used as a desegregated school.
Tyler continued to support the Confederacy throughout the war, making donations to the Confederate Army and distributing pamphlets in support of the cause. The day after the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln in 1865, three men broke into her home demanding that she turn over her Confederate flag, searching for it after she denied having one. She suspected her brother of orchestrating the attack. The Tylers remained unpopular after the war for supporting the Confederacy, so the Tyler children were sent out of the country for schooling.
Later life and death
Tyler's mother died in October 1864, writing a new will while she was on her deathbed. Tyler's brother challenged the will, arguing that Tyler had exerted "undue influence" over their mother. The dispute was resolved in 1868, when she was granted the Gardiner-Tyler House in Staten Island and three-eighths of the family's property in New York City. She moved into the Gardiner-Tyler House and lived there until 1874. Tyler was also involved in a separate legal battle to regain her summerhouse Villa Margaret, which she eventually won back in 1869. After trying to sell it to President Ulysses S. Grant, she was forced to sell Villa Margaret at a loss.
Tyler resumed her socialite status in Washington in the 1870s as the stigma of her Confederate sympathies subsided. She would sometimes tend to White House events, supporting first lady Julia Grant as hostess. In 1870, Tyler donated a portrait of herself to the White House, starting the first ladies portrait collection. In 1872, Tyler moved to Georgetown. Seeking meaning later in life, she and her daughter Pearl converted from the Tyler family's Episcopalianism to Roman Catholicism in 1872. The economic depression that followed the Panic of 1873 depleted her finances, forcing her to sell her other properties so she could purchase Sherwood Forest Plantation back from the Bank of Virginia that had come to control it. She lobbied Congress for a pension and was granted a monthly allowance in 1880. Following the assassination of President James Garfield in 1881, Congress granted an annual pension of $5,000 to widows of former presidents.
In 1882, Tyler moved to Richmond, Virginia. Toward the end of her life, she suffered from malaria. She made her final visit to Washington in 1887, when she met with first lady Frances Cleveland, to whom she would sometimes provide advice. Tyler suffered a stroke and died on July 10, 1889, while she was staying at the Exchange Hotel—the same hotel where her husband had died of a stroke 27 years before. She was buried next to him at Hollywood Cemetery in Richmond. Tyler had lived the longest post-White House life of any first lady, living another 44 years after leaving the White House. She held this record until it was overtaken by Frances Cleveland.
Legacy
The papers of the Tyler family, including Julia Gardiner Tyler, are held by the Special Collections Research Center at the College of William and Mary. Tyler's son Lyon, like his father, married his second wife late in life. As a result, Julia Tyler had two grandsons who survived into the 21st century: one died in September 2020, while Harrison Ruffin Tyler was still alive as of that date.
Tyler was generally well received during her time as first lady, and she is credited with revitalizing social life in Washington after the death of her husband's first wife. She also provided a level of extravagance to the presidency, but she did little to change or expand the substance of the role of first lady. Instead, she strongly affected the role's imagery, incorporating regal elements. She is recognized as one of the most successful hostesses in the history of the White House due to her charm and the grandiosity of her parties, and she was one of the earliest first ladies to be directly active in politics. Her prominence in Washington has prompted greater historical interest in her life compared to the less active presidential wives that immediately preceded her.
Regard by historians
Since 1982 Siena College Research Institute has periodically conducted surveys asking historians to assess American first ladies according to a cumulative score on the independent criteria of their background, value to the country, intelligence, courage, accomplishments, integrity, leadership, being their own women, public image, and value to the president. Consistently, Tyler has been ranked in the lower half of first ladies by historians in these surveys. In terms of cumulative assessment, Tyler has been ranked:
27th of 42 in 1982
27th of 37 in 1993
26th of 38 in 2003
28th of 38 in 2008
27th of 39 in 2014
In the 2014 survey, Tyler and her husband were ranked the 34th out of 39 first couples in terms of being a "power couple".
References
Further reading
External links
Finding aid for the Tyler Family Papers, Group A
Julia Tyler at C-SPAN's First Ladies: Influence & Image
1820 births
1889 deaths
19th-century American women
19th-century Roman Catholics
American people of Dutch descent
American people of English descent
American people of Scottish descent
Burials at Hollywood Cemetery (Richmond, Virginia)
First ladies of the United States
Gardiner family
Julia Tyler
People from Bay Shore, New York
People from Charles City County, Virginia
People from East Hampton (town), New York
People from Richmond, Virginia
People from Staten Island
American proslavery activists
Catholics from Virginia
Catholics from New York (state)
People from West New Brighton, Staten Island
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20United%20States%20senators%20from%20Indiana
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List of United States senators from Indiana
|
Indiana was admitted to the Union on December 11, 1816. Since then, the state has been represented in the United States Senate by 44 different men in class 1 and 3; David Turpie served non-consecutive terms in class 1, Dan Coats served non-consecutive terms in class 3, and William E. Jenner served in both classes. Until the passage of the Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1913, Senators were elected by the Indiana General Assembly; after that, they were elected popularly by Indiana citizens. A senatorial term lasts six years beginning on January 3. In case of a vacancy, the Governor of Indiana has the duty to appoint a new U.S. senator. Indiana's current U.S. senators are Republicans Todd Young (serving since 2017) and Mike Braun (serving since 2019). Richard Lugar was the state's longest serving senator (1977–2013).
List of senators
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=8 | 1
| rowspan=8 align=left | James Noble
| rowspan=5 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=8 nowrap | Dec 11, 1816 –Feb 26, 1831
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1816.
| rowspan=3 | 1
|
| rowspan=2 | 1
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1816.
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Dec 11, 1816 –Mar 3, 1825
| rowspan=5 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=5 align=right | Waller Taylor
! rowspan=5 | 1
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 2
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1818.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1821.
| rowspan=3 | 2
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | NationalRepublican
|
| rowspan=4 | 3
| rowspan=4 | Elected in 1824.
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Mar 4, 1825 –Mar 3, 1837
| rowspan=9 | NationalRepublican
| rowspan=9 align=right | William Hendricks
! rowspan=9 | 2
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Re-elected in 1827.Died.
| rowspan=4 | 3
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 colspan=3 | Vacant
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Feb 26, 1831 –Aug 19, 1831
| rowspan=2 |
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
| rowspan=5 | 4
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1830.Lost re-election.
|- style="height:2em"
! 2
| align=left | Robert Hanna
| | NationalRepublican
| nowrap | Aug 19, 1831 –Jan 3, 1832
| Appointed to continue Noble's term.Retired when successor qualified.
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=4 | 3
| rowspan=4 align=left | John Tipton
| rowspan=3 | Jacksonian
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Jan 3, 1832 –Mar 3, 1839
| Elected to finish Noble's term.
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1832.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 4
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| | Democratic
|
| rowspan=3 | 5
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1836.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1837 –Mar 3, 1843
| rowspan=3 | Whig
| rowspan=3 align=right | Oliver H. Smith
! rowspan=3 | 3
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 4
| rowspan=3 align=left | Albert Smith White
| rowspan=3 | Whig
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1839 –Mar 3, 1845
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1838.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 5
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 6
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1842.Lost renomination.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1843 –Mar 3, 1849
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 align=right | Ned Hannegan
! rowspan=3 | 4
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=13 | 5
| rowspan=13 align=left | Jesse D. Bright
| rowspan=13 | Democratic
| rowspan=13 nowrap | Mar 4, 1845 –Feb 5, 1862
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1844.
| rowspan=3 | 6
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=6 | 7
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1848.Died.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Mar 4, 1849 –Oct 4, 1852
| rowspan=2 | Democratic
| rowspan=2 align=right | James Whitcomb
! rowspan=2 | 5
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=7 | Re-elected in 1850.
| rowspan=7 | 7
| rowspan=4
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Oct 4, 1852 –Dec 6, 1852
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to continue Whitcomb's term.Retired when successor qualified.
| nowrap | Dec 6, 1852 –Jan 18, 1853
| | Democratic
| align=right | Charles W. Cathcart
! 6
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Whitcomb's term.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Jan 18, 1853 –Mar 3, 1855
| rowspan=2 | Democratic
| rowspan=2 align=right | John Pettit
! rowspan=2 | 7
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
| rowspan=4 | 8
| Legislature failed to elect.
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1855 –Feb 4, 1857
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected late in 1857.Retired.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Feb 4, 1857 –Mar 3, 1861
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 align=right | Graham N. Fitch
! rowspan=3 | 8
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1856.Expelled for sympathizing with the Confederacy.
| rowspan=6 | 8
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4
| rowspan=6 | 9
| rowspan=6 | Elected in 1860.Unknown if retired or lost re-election.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Mar 4, 1861 –Mar 3, 1867
| rowspan=6 | Republican
| rowspan=6 align=right | Henry S. Lane
! rowspan=6 | 9
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Feb 5, 1862 –Feb 24, 1862
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 6
| align=left | Joseph A. Wright
| | Unionist
| nowrap | Feb 24, 1862 –Jan 14, 1863
| Appointed to finish Bright's term.Retired when successor qualified.
|- style="height:2em"
! 7
| align=left | David Turpie
| | Democratic
| nowrap | Jan 14, 1863 –Mar 3, 1863
| Elected to finish Bright's term.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 8
| rowspan=3 align=left | Thomas A. Hendricks
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1863 –Mar 3, 1869
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1862.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 9
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 10
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1867.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Mar 4, 1867 –Nov 1, 1877
| rowspan=6 | Republican
| rowspan=6 align=right | Oliver P. Morton
! rowspan=6 | 10
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 9
| rowspan=3 align=left | Daniel D. Pratt
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1869 –Mar 3, 1875
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1868.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 10
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 11
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1873.Died.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=5 | 10
| rowspan=5 align=left | Joseph E. McDonald
| rowspan=5 | Democratic
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Mar 4, 1875 –Mar 3, 1881
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1874 or 1875Lost re-election.
| rowspan=5 | 11
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Nov 1, 1877 –Nov 6, 1877
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to continue Morton's term.Elected in 1879 to finish Morton's term.
| rowspan=10 nowrap | Nov 6, 1877 –Mar 3, 1897
| rowspan=10 | Democratic
| rowspan=10 align=right | Daniel W. Voorhees
! rowspan=10 | 11
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 12
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1879.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 11
| rowspan=3 align=left | Benjamin Harrison
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1881 –Mar 3, 1887
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1881.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 12
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 13
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1885.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=6 | 12
| rowspan=6 align=left | David Turpie
| rowspan=6 | Democratic
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Mar 4, 1887 –Mar 3, 1899
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1887.
| rowspan=3 | 13
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 14
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1891.Lost re-election.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1893.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 14
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 15
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1897.
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Mar 4, 1897 –Mar 3, 1905
| rowspan=4 | Republican
| rowspan=4 align=right | Charles W. Fairbanks
! rowspan=4 | 12
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=6 | 13
| rowspan=6 align=left | Albert J. Beveridge
| rowspan=6 | Republican
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Mar 4, 1899 –Mar 3, 1911
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1899.
| rowspan=3 | 15
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 16
| Re-elected in 1903.Resigned to become U.S. Vice President.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1905.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 16
|
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Fairbanks's term.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Mar 4, 1905 –Mar 3, 1909
| rowspan=2 | Republican
| rowspan=2 align=right | James A. Hemenway
! rowspan=2 | 13
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 17
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1909.
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Mar 4, 1909 –Mar 14, 1916
| rowspan=4 | Democratic
| rowspan=4 align=right | Benjamin F. Shively
! rowspan=4 | 14
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=6 | 14
| rowspan=6 align=left | John W. Kern
| rowspan=6 | Democratic
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Mar 4, 1911 –Mar 3, 1917
| rowspan=6 | Elected in 1911.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=6 | 17
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4
| rowspan=6 | 18
| Re-elected in 1914.Died.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Mar 14, 1916 –Mar 20, 1916
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to continue Shiveley's term.Lost election to finish Shiveley's term.
| nowrap | Mar 20, 1916 –Nov 7, 1916
| | Democratic
| align=right | Thomas Taggart
! 15
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish Shiveley's term.
| rowspan=11 nowrap | Nov 8, 1916 –Mar 3, 1933
| rowspan=11 | Republican
| rowspan=11 align=right | James E. Watson
! rowspan=11 | 16
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 15
| rowspan=3 align=left | Harry S. New
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1917 –Mar 3, 1923
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1916.Lost renomination.
| rowspan=3 | 18
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 19
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1920.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 16
| rowspan=2 align=left | Samuel M. Ralston
| rowspan=2 | Democratic
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Mar 4, 1923 –Oct 14, 1925
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1922.Died.
| rowspan=5 | 19
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Oct 14, 1925 –Oct 20, 1925
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=5 | 17
| rowspan=5 align=left | Arthur Raymond Robinson
| rowspan=5 | Republican
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Oct 20, 1925 –Jan 3, 1935
| rowspan=2 | Appointed to continue Ralston's term.Elected in 1926 to finish Ralston's term.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 20
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1926.Lost re-election.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1928.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 20
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 21
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1932.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Mar 4, 1933 –Jan 25, 1944
| rowspan=6 | Democratic
| rowspan=6 align=right | Frederick Van Nuys
! rowspan=6 | 17
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 18
| rowspan=3 align=left | Sherman Minton
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jan 3, 1935 –Jan 3, 1941
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1934.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 21
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=6 | 22
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1938.Died.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=6 | 19
| rowspan=6 align=left | Raymond E. Willis
| rowspan=6 | Republican
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Jan 3, 1941 –Jan 3, 1947
| rowspan=6 | Elected in 1940.Retired.
| rowspan=6 | 22
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Jan 25, 1944 –Jan 28, 1944
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to continue Van Nuys's term.Retired when successor elected.
| nowrap | Jan 28, 1944 –Nov 13, 1944
| | Democratic
| align=right | Samuel D. Jackson
! 18
|- style="height:2em"
| Elected to finish Van Nuys's term.Retired.
| nowrap | Nov 14, 1944 –Jan 3, 1945
| | Republican
| align=right | William E. Jenner
! 19
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 23
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1944.
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Jan 3, 1945 –Jan 3, 1963
| rowspan=9 | Republican
| rowspan=9 align=right | Homer E. Capehart
! rowspan=9 | 20
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=6 | 20
| rowspan=6 align=left | William E. Jenner
| rowspan=6 | Republican
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Jan 3, 1947 –Jan 3, 1959
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1946.
| rowspan=3 | 23
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 24
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1950.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1952.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 24
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 25
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1956.Lost re-election.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=9 | 21
| rowspan=9 align=left | Vance Hartke
| rowspan=9 | Democratic
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Jan 3, 1959 –Jan 3, 1977
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1958.
| rowspan=3 | 25
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 26
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1962.
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Jan 3, 1963 –Jan 3, 1981
| rowspan=9 | Democratic
| rowspan=9 align=right | Birch Bayh
! rowspan=9 | 21
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1964.
| rowspan=3 | 26
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 27
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1968.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1970.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 27
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 28
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1974.Lost re-election.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=18 | 22
| rowspan=18 align=left | Richard Lugar
| rowspan=18 | Republican
| rowspan=18 nowrap | Jan 3, 1977 –Jan 3, 2013
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1976.
| rowspan=3 | 28
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 29
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1980.
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Jan 3, 1981 –Jan 3, 1989
| rowspan=4 | Republican
| rowspan=4 align=right | Dan Quayle
! rowspan=4 | 22
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1982.
| rowspan=3 | 29
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 30
| Re-elected in 1986.Resigned to become U.S. Vice President.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1988.
| rowspan=3 | 30
|
| rowspan=2 | Appointed to continue Quayle's term.Elected in 1990 to finish Quayle's term.
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Jan 3, 1989 –Jan 3, 1999
| rowspan=5 | Republican
| rowspan=5 align=right | Dan Coats
! rowspan=5 | 23
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 31
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1992.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1994.
| rowspan=3 | 31
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 32
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1998.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Jan 3, 1999 –Jan 3, 2011
| rowspan=6 | Democratic
| rowspan=6 align=right | Evan Bayh
! rowspan=6 | 24
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2000.
| rowspan=3 | 32
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 33
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2004.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2006.Lost renomination.
| rowspan=3 | 33
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 34
| rowspan=3 | Elected again in 2010.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | Jan 3, 2011 –Jan 3, 2017
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 align=right | Dan Coats
! rowspan=3 | 25
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 23
| rowspan=3 align=left | Joe Donnelly
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 | Jan 3, 2013 –Jan 3, 2019
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 2012.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 34
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 35
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 2016.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Jan 3, 2017 –present
| rowspan=6 | Republican
| rowspan=6 align=right | Todd Young
! rowspan=6 | 26
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 24
| rowspan=3 align=left | Mike Braun
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 | Jan 3, 2019 –present
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 2018.Retiring at end of term to run for Governor of Indiana.
| rowspan=3 | 35
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 36
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2022.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 colspan=5 | To be determined in the 2024 election.
| rowspan=3 | 36
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| 37
| colspan=5 | To be determined in the 2028 election.
See also
List of United States representatives from Indiana
United States congressional delegations from Indiana
Elections in Indiana
References and external links
United States senators
Indiana
|
416367
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20United%20States%20senators%20from%20Illinois
|
List of United States senators from Illinois
|
Illinois was admitted to the Union on December 3, 1818, and has been represented in the United States Senate by 47 senators. Senators from Illinois are elected to class 2 and class 3.
The Senate twice refused to seat Frank L. Smith, in December 1926 for an appointed term and in March 1927 for an elected one, due to corruption, but he is included in this list because Smith and the Governor considered him to be a senator for approximately two years.
Of the eight African Americans ever to sit in the U.S. Senate since Reconstruction, three have held Illinois's class 3 seat, including Barack Obama who went on to become the president of the United States. This makes Illinois the state with the most African-American senators. Illinois's current U.S. senators are Democrats Dick Durbin (serving since 1997) and Tammy Duckworth (serving since 2017). Shelby Moore Cullom was the longest serving senator, who served from 1883 to 1913.
List of senators
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=8 | 1
| rowspan=8 align=left | Jesse B. Thomas
| rowspan=6 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=8 nowrap | Dec 3, 1818 –Mar 3, 1829
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1818.
| rowspan=3 | 1
|
| 1
| Elected in 1818.
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Dec 3, 1818 –Mar 3, 1824
| rowspan=4 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=4 align=right | Ninian Edwards
! rowspan=4 | 1
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 2
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1819.Resigned.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1823.Retired.
| rowspan=5 | 2
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1824 –Nov 24, 1824
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Elected to finish Edwards's term.Retired.
| nowrap | Nov 24, 1824 –Mar 3, 1825
| | Democratic-Republican
| align=right | John McLean
! 2
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | NationalRepublican
|
| rowspan=6 | 3
| rowspan=6 | Elected in 1825.
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Mar 4, 1825 –Dec 12, 1835
| rowspan=9 | Jacksonian
| rowspan=9 align=right | Elias Kane
! rowspan=9 | 3
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 2
| align=left | John McLean
| | Jacksonian
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1829 –Oct 14, 1830
| Elected in 1829.Died.
| rowspan=6 | 3
|
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Oct 14, 1830 –Nov 12, 1830
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 3
| align=left | David J. Baker
| | Jacksonian
| nowrap | Nov 12, 1830 –Dec 11, 1830
| Appointed to continue McLean's term.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=8 | 4
| rowspan=8 align=left | John M. Robinson
| rowspan=6 | Jacksonian
| rowspan=8 nowrap | Dec 11, 1830 –Mar 3, 1841
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish McLean's term.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 4
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1831.Died.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1835.Retired.
| rowspan=5 | 4
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Dec 12, 1835 –Dec 30, 1835
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to finish Kane's term.Lost election to full term.
| nowrap | Dec 30, 1835 –Mar 3, 1837
| | Jacksonian
| align=right | William Lee D. Ewing
! 4
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Democratic
|
| rowspan=3 | 5
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1837.Retired.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1837 –Mar 3, 1843
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 align=right | Richard M. Young
! rowspan=3 | 5
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 5
| rowspan=2 align=left | Samuel McRoberts
| rowspan=2 | Democratic
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Mar 4, 1841 –Mar 27, 1843
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1841.Died.
| rowspan=5 | 5
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 6
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1843.Lost renomination.
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Mar 4, 1843 –Mar 3, 1849
| rowspan=5 | Democratic
| rowspan=5 align=right | Sidney Breese
! rowspan=5 | 6
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 27, 1843 –Aug 16, 1843
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 6
| rowspan=2 align=left | James Semple
| rowspan=2 | Democratic
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Aug 16, 1843 –Mar 3, 1847
| rowspan=2 | Appointed to continue McRoberts's term.Elected in 1844 to finish McRoberts's term.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=10 | 7
| rowspan=10 align=left | Stephen A. Douglas
| rowspan=10 | Democratic
| rowspan=10 nowrap | Mar 4, 1847 –Jun 3, 1861
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1846.
| rowspan=5 | 6
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 7
| Elected in 1849.Election voided.
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1849 –Mar 15, 1849
| | Democratic
| align=right | James Shields
! rowspan=5 | 7
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Mar 15, 1849 –Oct 27, 1849
| colspan=2 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish his own term.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Oct 27, 1849 –Mar 3, 1855
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 align=right | James Shields
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1852.
| rowspan=3 | 7
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 8
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1855.
| rowspan=12 nowrap | Mar 4, 1855 –Mar 3, 1873
| | Democratic
| rowspan=12 align=right | Lyman Trumbull
! rowspan=12 | 8
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=10 | Republican
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Re-elected in 1859.Died.
| rowspan=6 | 8
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=6 | 9
| rowspan=6 | Re-elected in 1861.
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Jun 3, 1861 –Jun 26, 1861
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 8
| align=left | Orville Browning
| | Republican
| nowrap | Jun 26, 1861 –Jan 12, 1863
| Appointed to continue Douglas's term.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 9
| rowspan=2 align=left | William A. Richardson
| rowspan=2 |Democratic
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Jan 12, 1863 –Mar 3, 1865
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Douglas's term.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 10
| rowspan=3 align=left | Richard Yates
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1865 –Mar 3, 1871
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1864 or 1865.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 9
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 10
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1867.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 11
| rowspan=3 align=left | John A. Logan
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1871 –Mar 3, 1877
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1870 or 1871.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 10
|
| | LiberalRepublican
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 11
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1873.Retired.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1873 –Mar 3, 1879
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 align=right | Richard J. Oglesby
! rowspan=3 | 9
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 12
| rowspan=3 align=left | David Davis
| rowspan=3 | Independent
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1877 –Mar 3, 1883
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1877.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 11
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 12
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1879.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1879 –Mar 3, 1885
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 align=right | John A. Logan
! rowspan=5 | 10
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=20 | 13
| rowspan=20 align=left | Shelby M. Cullom
| rowspan=20 | Republican
| rowspan=20 nowrap | Mar 4, 1883 –Mar 3, 1913
| rowspan=6 | Elected in 1882.
| rowspan=6 | 12
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=6 | 13
| Legislature failed to elect.
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1885 –May 18, 1885
| colspan=2 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Re-elected late in 1885.Died.
| nowrap | May 19, 1885 –Dec 26, 1886
| | Republican
| align=right | John A. Logan
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Dec 26, 1886 –Jan 19, 1887
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish Logan's term.Retired.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jan 19, 1887 –Mar 3, 1891
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 align=right | Charles Farwell
! rowspan=3 | 11
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1888.
| rowspan=3 | 13
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 14
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1890.Retired.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1891 –Mar 3, 1897
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 align=right | John Palmer
! rowspan=3 | 12
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1894.
| rowspan=3 | 14
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 15
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1897.Retired.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1897 –Mar 3, 1903
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 align=right | William Mason
! rowspan=3 | 13
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1901.
| rowspan=3 | 15
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 16
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1903.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1903 –Mar 3, 1909
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 align=right | Albert Hopkins
! rowspan=3 | 14
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1907.Lost renomination.
| rowspan=5 | 16
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=6 | 17
|
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1909 –Jun 18, 1909
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1909, but ineligible until resignation from U.S. House.Election voided.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Jun 18, 1909 –Jul 13, 1912
| rowspan=2 | Republican
| rowspan=2 align=right | William Lorimer
! rowspan=2 | 15
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 |
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Jul 13, 1912 –Mar 26, 1913
| rowspan=2 colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1913 –Mar 26, 1913
| Legislature elected late.
| rowspan=4 | 17
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 14
| rowspan=3 align=left | J. Hamilton Lewis
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 26, 1913 –Mar 3, 1919
| rowspan=3 | Elected late in 1913.Lost re-election.
| Elected in 1913 to finish Lorimer's term.
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Mar 26, 1913 –Mar 3, 1921
| rowspan=4 | Republican
| rowspan=4 align=right | Lawrence Y. Sherman
! rowspan=4 | 16
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 18
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1914.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 15
| rowspan=3 align=left | Medill McCormick
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1919 –Feb 25, 1925
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1918.Lost renomination and died just before the end of the term.
| rowspan=4 | 18
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=6 | 19
| rowspan=4 | Elected in 1920.Lost renomination and died just before the end of the term.
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Mar 4, 1921 –Dec 7, 1926
| rowspan=4 | Republican
| rowspan=4 align=right | William B. McKinley
! rowspan=4 | 17
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=7 | 16
| rowspan=7 align=left | Charles S. Deneen
| rowspan=7 | Republican
| rowspan=7 nowrap | Feb 26, 1925 –Mar 3, 1931
| Appointed to finish McCormick's term, having already been elected to the next term.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=6 | Elected in 1924.Lost renomination.
| rowspan=6 | 19
|
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to continue McKinley's term.Not seated/resigned.
| Dec 7, 1926
| | Republican
| align=right | Frank L. Smith
! | 18
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 |
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Dec 7, 1926 –Dec 3, 1928
| rowspan=2 colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=4 | 20
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish the term.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Dec 3, 1928 –Mar 3, 1933
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 align=right | Otis F. Glenn
! rowspan=3 | 19
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=5 | 17
| rowspan=5 align=left | J. Hamilton Lewis
| rowspan=5 | Democratic
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Mar 4, 1931 –Apr 9, 1939
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1930.
| rowspan=3 | 20
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 21
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1932.Retired.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1933 –Jan 3, 1939
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 align=right | William H. Dieterich
! rowspan=3 | 20
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Re-elected in 1936.Died.
| rowspan=6 | 21
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=6 | 22
| rowspan=6 | Elected in 1938.
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Jan 3, 1939 –Jan 3, 1951
| rowspan=9 | Democratic
| rowspan=9 align=right | Scott W. Lucas
! rowspan=9 | 21
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Apr 9, 1939 –Apr 14, 1939
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 18
| align=left | James M. Slattery
| | Democratic
| nowrap | Apr 14, 1939 –Nov 21, 1940
| Appointed to continue Lewis's term.Lost election to finish Lewis's term.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=5 | 19
| rowspan=5 align=left | C. Wayland Brooks
| rowspan=5 | Republican
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Nov 22, 1940 –Jan 3, 1949
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Lewis's term.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1942.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 22
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 23
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1944.Lost re-election.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=9 | 20
| rowspan=9 align=left | Paul Douglas
| rowspan=9 | Democratic
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Jan 3, 1949 –Jan 3, 1967
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1948.
| rowspan=3 | 23
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 24
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1950.
| rowspan=10 nowrap | Jan 3, 1951 –Sep 7, 1969
| rowspan=10 | Republican
| rowspan=10 align=right | Everett Dirksen
! rowspan=10 | 22
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1954.
| rowspan=3 | 24
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 25
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1956.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1960.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 25
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 26
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1962.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=13 | 21
| rowspan=13 align=left | Charles H. Percy
| rowspan=13 | Republican
| rowspan=13 nowrap | Jan 3, 1967 –Jan 3, 1985
| rowspan=7 | Elected in 1966.
| rowspan=7 | 26
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=7 | 27
| Re-elected in 1968.Died.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Sep 7, 1969 –Sep 17, 1969
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to continue Dirksen's term.Lost election to finish Dirksen's term.
| nowrap | Sep 17, 1969 –Nov 3, 1970
| | Republican
| align=right | Ralph T. Smith
! 23
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Nov 3, 1970 –Nov 17, 1970
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish Dirksen's term.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Nov 17, 1970 –Jan 3, 1981
| rowspan=6 | Democratic
| rowspan=6 align=right | Adlai Stevenson III
! rowspan=6 | 24
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1972.
| rowspan=3 | 27
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 28
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1974.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1978.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 28
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 29
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1980.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Jan 3, 1981 –Jan 3, 1993
| rowspan=6 | Democratic
| rowspan=6 align=right | Alan J. Dixon
! rowspan=6 | 25
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=6 | 22
| rowspan=6 align=left |Paul Simon
| rowspan=6 | Democratic
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Jan 3, 1985 –Jan 3, 1997
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1984.
| rowspan=3 | 29
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 30
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1986.Lost renomination.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1990.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 30
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 31
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1992.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jan 3, 1993 –Jan 3, 1999
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 align=right | Carol Moseley Braun
! rowspan=3 | 26
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=18 | 23
| rowspan=18 align=left | Dick Durbin
| rowspan=18 | Democratic
| rowspan=18 nowrap | Jan 3, 1997 –present
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1996.
| rowspan=3 | 31
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 32
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1998.Retired.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jan 3, 1999 –Jan 3, 2005
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 align=right | Peter Fitzgerald
! rowspan=3 | 27
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4 | Re-elected in 2002.
| rowspan=4 | 32
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=6 | 33
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 2004.Resigned to become U.S. President.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Jan 3, 2005 –Nov 16, 2008
| rowspan=2 | Democratic
| rowspan=2 align=right | Barack Obama
! rowspan=2 | 28
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 |
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Nov 16, 2008 –Jan 12, 2009
| rowspan=2 colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 2008.
| rowspan=5 | 33
|
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to continue Obama's term.<efn | Appointed to continue Obama's term, certified late.Retired when successor qualified.
| | Jan 12, 2009–Nov 29, 2010
| | Democratic
| align=right | Roland Burris
! 29
|- style="height:2em"
| Elected to finish Obama's term.
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Nov 29, 2010 –Jan 3, 2017
| rowspan=4 | Republican
| rowspan=4 align=right | Mark Kirk
! rowspan=4 | 30
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 34
| rowspan=3 | Elected to full term in 2010.Lost re-election.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2014.
| rowspan=3 | 34
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 35
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 2016.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Jan 3, 2017 –present
| rowspan=6 | Democratic
| rowspan=6 align=right | Tammy Duckworth
! rowspan=6 | 31
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 |Re-elected in 2020.
| rowspan=3 | 35
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3|36
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2022.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 colspan=5 | To be determined in the 2026 election.
| rowspan=2| 36
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| 37
| colspan=5 | To be determined in the 2028 election.
See also
List of United States representatives from Illinois
United States congressional delegations from Illinois
Elections in Illinois
Notes
References
External links
United States Senators
Illinois
|
416380
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20United%20States%20senators%20from%20Kentucky
|
List of United States senators from Kentucky
|
This is a list of United States senators from Kentucky. The state's senators belong to classes 2 and 3. Kentucky is currently represented in the U.S. Senate by Republicans Mitch McConnell (serving since 1985) and Rand Paul (serving since 2011). Currently, on his seventh term in office, McConnell has been the Senate Republican Leader since 2007, and is Kentucky's longest-serving senator.
List of senators
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Jun 1, 1792 –Jun 18, 1792
| Kentucky elected its senators a couple of weeks after statehood.
| rowspan=2 | 1
| rowspan=2
| rowspan=3 | 1
| Kentucky elected its senators a couple of weeks after statehood.
| nowrap | Jun 1, 1792 –Jun 18, 1792
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=7 | 1
| rowspan=7 align=left | John Brown
| rowspan=2 | Anti-Admin.
| rowspan=7 nowrap | Jun 18, 1792 –Mar 3, 1805
| Elected in 1792.
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1792.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Jun 18, 1792 –Mar 3, 1795
| rowspan=2 | Anti-Admin.
| rowspan=2 align=right | John Edwards
! rowspan=2 | 1
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1792.
| rowspan=3 | 2
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | Democratic-Republican
|
| rowspan=3 | 2
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1794.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1795 –Mar 3, 1801
| rowspan=3 | Federalist
| rowspan=3 align=right | Humphrey Marshall
! rowspan=3 | 2
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1798.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 3
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=6 | 3
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1800.Resigned to become U.S. Attorney General.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1801 –Aug 7, 1805
| rowspan=3 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=3 align=right | John Breckinridge
! rowspan=3 | 3
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=6 | 2
| rowspan=6 align=left | Buckner Thruston
| rowspan=6 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Mar 4, 1805 –Dec 18, 1809
| rowspan=6 | Elected in 1804.Resigned to become judge of the U.S. Circuit Court.
| rowspan=8 | 4
| rowspan=4
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Aug 7, 1805 –Nov 8, 1805
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Elected to finish Breckinridge's term.Lost re-election and resigned because of participation in the Burr conspiracy.
| nowrap | Nov 8, 1805 –Nov 18, 1806
| | Democratic-Republican
| align=right | John Adair
! 4
|- style="height:2em"
| Elected to finish Adair's term, despite not meeting the constitutional age minimum.Retired.
| nowrap | Nov 19, 1806 –Mar 3, 1807
| | Democratic-Republican
| align=right | Henry Clay
! 5
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 4
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1806.Retired.
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Mar 4, 1807 –Mar 3, 1813
| rowspan=5 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=5 align=right | John Pope
! rowspan=5 | 6
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Dec 18, 1809 –Jan 10, 1810
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 3
| align=left | Henry Clay
| | Democratic-Republican
| nowrap | Jan 10, 1810 –Mar 3, 1811
| Appointed to finish Thruston's term.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 4
| rowspan=2 align=left | George Bibb
| rowspan=2 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Mar 4, 1811 –Aug 23, 1814
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1811.Resigned to return to private practice.
| rowspan=10 | 5
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=6
| rowspan=10 | 5
| rowspan=4 | Elected in 1813.Resigned.
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Mar 4, 1813 –Dec 24, 1814
| rowspan=4 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=4 align=right | Jesse Bledsoe
! rowspan=4 | 7
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Aug 23, 1814 –Aug 30, 1814
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 5
| align=left | George Walker
| | Democratic-Republican
| nowrap | Aug 30, 1814 –Feb 2, 1815
| Appointed to continue Bibb's term.Successor qualified.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=4 | 6
| rowspan=4 align=left | William Barry
| rowspan=4 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Feb 2, 1815 –May 1, 1816
| rowspan=4 | Elected to finish Bibb's term.Resigned to become judge of the Kentucky Circuit Court.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Dec 24, 1814 –Feb 2, 1815
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1815 to finish Bledsoe's term.Retired or lost re-election.
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Feb 2, 1815 –Mar 3, 1819
| rowspan=5 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=5 align=right | Isham Talbot
! rowspan=5 | 8
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | May 1, 1816 –Nov 3, 1816
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 7
| align=left | Martin Hardin
| | Democratic-Republican
| nowrap | Nov 3, 1816 –Mar 3, 1817
| Appointed to continue Barry's term.Elected in 1816 to finish Barry's termRetired.
|- style="height:2em"
! 8
| align=left | John J. Crittenden
| | Democratic-Republican
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1817 –Mar 3, 1819
| Elected in 1816.Resigned to return to private practice.
| rowspan=6 | 6
|
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 3, 1819 –Dec 10, 1819
|
| rowspan=4
| rowspan=6 | 6
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1818.Resigned to run for governor.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Mar 4, 1819 –May 28, 1820
| rowspan=2 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=2 align=right | William Logan
! rowspan=2 | 9
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=7 | 9
| rowspan=7 align=left | Richard Mentor Johnson
| rowspan=5 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=7 nowrap | Dec 10, 1819 –Mar 3, 1829
| rowspan=4 | Elected to finish Logan's term.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | May 28, 1820 –Oct 19, 1820
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish Logan's term.Retired or lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Oct 19, 1820–Mar 3, 1825
| rowspan=3 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=3 align=right | Isham Talbot
! rowspan=3 | 10
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1823.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 7
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Jacksonian
|
| rowspan=3 | 7
| rowspan=3 | Election year unknown.Retired or lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1825 –Mar 3, 1831
| rowspan=3 | Jacksonian
| rowspan=3 align=right | John Rowan
! rowspan=3 | 11
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=4 | 10
| rowspan=4 align=left | George Bibb
| rowspan=4 | Jacksonian
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Mar 4, 1829 –Mar 3, 1835
| rowspan=4 | Elected in 1829.Retired or lost re-election.
| rowspan=4 | 8
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
| rowspan=4 | 8
|
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1831 –Nov 10, 1831
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected late in 1831.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Nov 10, 1831 –Mar 31, 1842
| rowspan=3 | NationalRepublican
| rowspan=6 align=right | Henry Clay
! rowspan=6 | 12
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 11
| rowspan=3 align=left | John J. Crittenden
| | NationalRepublican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1835 –Mar 3, 1841
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1835.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 9
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Whig
|
| rowspan=4 | 9
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1836.Resigned.
| rowspan=3 | Whig
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=4 | 12
| rowspan=4 align=left | James T. Morehead
| rowspan=4 | Whig
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Mar 4, 1841 –Mar 3, 1847
| rowspan=4 | Elected in 1841.Retired or lost re-election.
| rowspan=4 | 10
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
| Elected to finish Clay's term.
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Mar 31, 1842 –Jun 12, 1848
| rowspan=4 | Whig
| rowspan=4 align=right | John J. Crittenden
! rowspan=4 | 13
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 10
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1843.Resigned to become Governor of Kentucky.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=8 | 13
| rowspan=8 align=left | Joseph R. Underwood
| rowspan=8 | Whig
| rowspan=8 nowrap | Mar 4, 1847 –Mar 3, 1853
| rowspan=8 | Election year unknown.Retired.
| rowspan=8 | 11
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Jun 12, 1848 –Jun 23, 1848
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to continue Crittenden's term.Elected in 1849 to finish Crittenden's term.Retired or lost re-election.
| nowrap | Jun 23, 1848 –Mar 3, 1849
| | Whig
| align=right | Thomas Metcalfe
! 14
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=6 | 11
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1849.Resigned effective Sep 6, 1852, but died Jun 24, 1852.
| rowspan=2 nowrap |Mar 4, 1849 –Jun 24, 1852
| rowspan=2 | Whig
| rowspan=2 align=right | Henry Clay
! rowspan=2 | 15
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Jun 24, 1852 –Jul 6, 1852
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to continue Clay's term.Lost election to finish Clay's term.
| nowrap | Jul 6, 1852 –Aug 31, 1852
| | Democratic
| align=right | David Meriwether
! 16
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1851 to finish Clay's term, in anticipation of Clay's resignation.Retired.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Sep 1, 1852 –Mar 3, 1855
| rowspan=2 | Whig
| rowspan=2 align=right | Archibald Dixon
! rowspan=2 | 17
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 14
| rowspan=3 align=left | John B. Thompson
| rowspan=3 | Know Nothing
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1853 –Mar 3, 1859
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1851, far in advance of the term.Retired or lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 12
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 12
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1854.Retired.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1855–Mar 3, 1861
| | Whig
| rowspan=3 align=right | John J. Crittenden
! rowspan=3 | 18
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=2 | Know Nothing
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=5 | 15
| rowspan=5 align=left | Lazarus W. Powell
| rowspan=5 | Democratic
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Mar 4, 1859 –Mar 3, 1865
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1858.Retired to run for U.S. President.
| rowspan=5 | 13
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
| rowspan=5 | 13
| Elected in 1859, far in advance of the term.Expelled for supporting the Confederacy.
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1861 –Dec 4, 1861
| | Democratic
| align=right | John C. Breckinridge
! 19
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Dec 4, 1861 –Dec 10, 1861
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish Breckinridge's term.
| rowspan=8 nowrap | Dec 10, 1861 –Sep 22, 1872
| rowspan=3 | Unionist
| rowspan=8 align=right | Garrett Davis
! rowspan=8 | 20
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 16
| rowspan=2 align=left | James Guthrie
| rowspan=2 | Democratic
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Mar 4, 1865 –Feb 7, 1868
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1865.Resigned due to ill health.
| rowspan=5 | 14
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
| rowspan=7 | 14
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1867.Died.
| rowspan=5 | Democratic
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Feb 7, 1868 –Feb 19, 1868
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 17
| rowspan=2 align=left | Thomas C. McCreery
| rowspan=2 | Democratic
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Feb 19, 1868 –Mar 3, 1871
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Guthrie's term.Lost re-election.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=5 | 18
| rowspan=5 align=left | John W. Stevenson
| rowspan=5 | Democratic
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Mar 4, 1871 –Mar 3, 1877
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1871.Retired.
| rowspan=5 | 15
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Sep 22, 1872 –Sep 27, 1872
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to continue Davis's term.Elected in 1873 to finish Davis's term.Retired or lost re-election.
| nowrap | Sep 27, 1872 –Mar 3, 1873
| | Democratic
| align=right | Willis B. Machen
! 21
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 15
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1872.Retired.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1873 –Mar 3, 1879
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 align=right | Thomas C. McCreery
! rowspan=3 | 22
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=7 | 19
| rowspan=7 align=left | James B. Beck
| rowspan=7 | Democratic
| rowspan=7 nowrap | Mar 4, 1877 –May 3, 1890
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1876.
| rowspan=3 | 16
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 16
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1879.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1879 –Mar 3, 1885
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 align=right | John Stuart Williams
! rowspan=3 | 23
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1882.
| rowspan=3 | 17
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 17
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1884.
| rowspan=10 nowrap | Mar 4, 1885 –Mar 3, 1897
| rowspan=10 | Democratic
| rowspan=10 align=right | J. C. S. Blackburn
! rowspan=10 | 24
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| Re-elected in 1888.Died.
| rowspan=7 | 18
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | May 3, 1890 –May 26, 1890
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 20
| rowspan=2 align=left | John Carlisle
| rowspan=2 | Democratic
| rowspan=2 nowrap | May 26, 1890 –Feb 4, 1893
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Beck's term.Resigned.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
| rowspan=5 | 18
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1890.Lost re-election.
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Feb 4, 1893 –Feb 15, 1893
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=5 | 21
| rowspan=5 align=left | William Lindsay
| rowspan=5 | Democratic
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Feb 15, 1893 –Mar 3, 1901
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Carlisle's term.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1894.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 19
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 19
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1897.Retired.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1897 –Mar 3, 1903
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 align=right | William J. Deboe
! rowspan=3 | 25
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 22
| rowspan=3 align=left | J. C. S. Blackburn
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1901 –Mar 3, 1907
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1900.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 20
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 20
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1902.Lost renomination.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1903 –Mar 3, 1909
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 align=right | James B. McCreary
! rowspan=3 | 26
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 23
| rowspan=3 align=left | Thomas H. Paynter
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1907 –Mar 3, 1913
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1906.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 21
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 21
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1908.Died.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1909 –May 23, 1914
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 align=right | William O. Bradley
! rowspan=3 | 27
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=5 | 24
| rowspan=5 align=left | Ollie Murray James
| rowspan=5 | Democratic
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Mar 4, 1913 –Aug 28, 1918
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1912.Died.
| rowspan=7 | 22
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | May 23, 1914 –Jun 16, 1914
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to continue Bradley's term.Elected in 1914 to finish Bradley's term.Retired.
| nowrap | Jun 16, 1914 –Mar 3, 1915
| | Democratic
| align=right | Johnson N. Camden Jr.
! 28
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 22
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1914.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Mar 4, 1915 –Mar 3, 1921
| rowspan=5 | Democratic
| rowspan=5 align=right | J. C. W. Beckham
! rowspan=5 | 29
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Aug 28, 1918 –Sep 7, 1918
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 25
| align=left | George B. Martin
| | Democratic
| nowrap | Sep 7, 1918 –Mar 3, 1919
| Appointed to finish James's term.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 26
| rowspan=3 align=left | A. O. Stanley
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1919 –Mar 3, 1925
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1918.Didn't take seat until May 19, 1919, in order to remain Governor of Kentucky.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 23
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 23
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1920.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1921 –Mar 3, 1927
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 align=right | Richard P. Ernst
! rowspan=3 | 30
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 27
| rowspan=3 align=left | Fred Sackett
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1925 –Jan 9, 1930
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1924.Resigned to become U.S. Ambassador to Germany.
| rowspan=6 | 24
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=6 | 24
| rowspan=6 | Elected in 1926.
| rowspan=20 nowrap | Mar 4, 1927 –Jan 19, 1949
| rowspan=20 | Democratic
| rowspan=20 align=right | Alben W. Barkley
! rowspan=20 | 31
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Jan 9, 1930 –Jan 11, 1930
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 28
| align=left | John Robsion
| | Republican
| nowrap | Jan 11, 1930 –Nov 30, 1930
| Appointed to continue Sackett's term.Lost elections to finish Sackett's term and to next term.
|- style="height:2em"
! 29
| align=left | Ben M. Williamson
| | Democratic
| nowrap | Dec 1, 1930 –Mar 3, 1931
| Elected in 1930 to finish Sackett's term.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=5 | 30
| rowspan=5 align=left | M. M. Logan
| rowspan=5 | Democratic
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Mar 4, 1931 –Oct 3, 1939
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1930.
| rowspan=3 | 25
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 25
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1932.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Re-elected in 1936.Died.
| rowspan=5 | 26
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
| rowspan=5 | 26
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1938.
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Oct 3, 1939 –Oct 10, 1939
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=4 | 31
| rowspan=4 align=left | Happy Chandler
| rowspan=4 | Democratic
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Oct 10, 1939 –Nov 1, 1945
| rowspan=2 | Appointed to continue Logan's term.Elected in 1940 to finish Logan's term.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Re-elected in 1942.Resigned to become Commissioner of Baseball.
| rowspan=6 | 27
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4
| rowspan=8 | 27
| rowspan=6 | Re-elected in 1944.Resigned to become U.S. Vice President.
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Nov 1, 1945 –Nov 19, 1945
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 32
| align=left | William A. Stanfill
| | Republican
| nowrap | Nov 19, 1945 –Nov 5, 1946
| Appointed to continue Chandler's term.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 33
| rowspan=2 align=left | John Sherman Cooper
| rowspan=2 | Republican
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Nov 6, 1946 –Jan 3, 1949
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Chandler's term.Lost re-election.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=1
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=4 | 34
| rowspan=4 align=left | Virgil Chapman
| rowspan=4 | Democratic
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Jan 3, 1949 –Mar 8, 1951
| rowspan=4 | Elected in 1948.Died.
| rowspan=8 | 28
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=1 | Appointed to continue Barkley's term.Resigned to trigger special election.
| rowspan=1 nowrap | Jan 20, 1949 –Nov 26, 1950
| rowspan=1 | Democratic
| rowspan=1 align=right | Garrett Withers
! rowspan=1 | 32
|- style="height:2em"
| Elected to finish Barkley's term, having been elected to the next term.
| rowspan=10 nowrap | Nov 27, 1950 –Jan 3, 1957
| rowspan=10 | Democratic
| rowspan=10 align=right | Earle Clements
! rowspan=10 | 33
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4
| rowspan=9 | 28
| rowspan=9 | Elected to full term in 1950.Lost re-election.
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 8, 1951 –Mar 19, 1951
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 35
| align=left | Thomas R. Underwood
| | Democratic
| nowrap | Mar 19, 1951 –Nov 4, 1952
| Appointed to continue Chapman's term.Lost election to finish Chapman's term.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 36
| rowspan=2 align=left | John Sherman Cooper
| rowspan=2 | Republican
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Nov 5, 1952 –Jan 3, 1955
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Chapman's term. Lost re-election.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 37
| align=left | Alben W. Barkley
| | Democratic
| nowrap | Jan 3, 1955 –Apr 30, 1956
| Elected in 1954.Died.
| rowspan=6 | 29
| rowspan=4
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Apr 30, 1956 –Jun 21, 1956
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 38
| align=left | Robert Humphreys
| | Democratic
| nowrap | Jun 21, 1956 –Nov 6, 1956
| Appointed to continue Barkley's term.Retired when elected successor qualified.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=10 | 39
| rowspan=10 align=left | John Sherman Cooper
| rowspan=10 | Republican
| rowspan=10 nowrap | Nov 7, 1956 –Jan 3, 1973
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish Barkley's term.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 29
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1956.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Jan 3, 1957 –Dec 16, 1968
| rowspan=6 | Republican
| rowspan=6 align=right | Thruston Morton
! rowspan=6 | 34
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1960.
| rowspan=3 | 30
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=4 | 30
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1962.Retired, and resigned early to give successor preferential seniority.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4 | Re-elected in 1966.Retired.
| rowspan=4 | 31
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to finish Morton's term, having already been elected to the next term.
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Dec 17, 1968 –Dec 27, 1974
| rowspan=4 | Republican
| rowspan=4 align=right | Marlow Cook
! rowspan=4 | 35
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=4 | 31
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1968.Lost re-election, and resigned early to give successor preferential seniority.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=7 | 40
| rowspan=7 align=left | Walter Dee Huddleston
| rowspan=7 | Democratic
| rowspan=7 nowrap | Jan 3, 1973 –Jan 3, 1985
| rowspan=4 | Elected in 1972.
| rowspan=4 | 32
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to finish Cook's term, having already been elected to the next term.
| rowspan=13 nowrap | Dec 28, 1974 –Jan 3, 1999
| rowspan=13 | Democratic
| rowspan=13 align=right | Wendell Ford
! rowspan=13 | 36
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 32
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1974.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1978.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 33
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 33
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1980.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=21 | 41
| rowspan=21 align=left | Mitch McConnell
| rowspan=21 | Republican
| rowspan=21 nowrap | Jan 3, 1985 –present
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1984.
| rowspan=3 | 34
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 34
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1986.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1990.
| rowspan=3 | 35
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 35
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1992.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1996.
| rowspan=3 | 36
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 36
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1998.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Jan 3, 1999 –Jan 3, 2011
| rowspan=6 | Republican
| rowspan=6 align=right | Jim Bunning
! rowspan=6 | 37
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2002.
| rowspan=3 | 37
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 37
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2004.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2008.
| rowspan=3 | 38
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 38
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 2010.
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Jan 3, 2011 –present
| rowspan=9 | Republican
| rowspan=9 align=right | Rand Paul
! rowspan=9 | 38
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2014.
| rowspan=3 | 39
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 39
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2016.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 |Re-elected in 2020.
| rowspan=3 | 40
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3|40
| rowspan=3| Re-elected in 2022.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 colspan=5 | To be determined in the 2026 election.
| rowspan=2| 41
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| 41
| colspan=5 | To be determined in the 2028 election.
See also
List of United States representatives from Kentucky
United States congressional delegations from Kentucky
Elections in Kentucky
Notes
References
United States Senators
Kentucky
|
416385
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20United%20States%20senators%20from%20Louisiana
|
List of United States senators from Louisiana
|
Louisiana was admitted to the Union on April 30, 1812, and elects senators to class 2 and class 3. Its current senators are Republicans Bill Cassidy and John Kennedy. Russell Long was the state's longest serving senator, served 1948–1987.
List of senators
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| Apr 30, 1812 –Sep 3, 1812
| Louisiana did not elect its senators until four months after statehood.
| rowspan=7 | 1
| rowspan=5
| rowspan=5 | 1
| Louisiana did not elect its senators until four months after statehood.
| Apr 30, 1812 –Sep 3, 1812
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
! 1
| align=left | Jean Noël Destréhan
| | Democratic-Republican
| nowrap | Sep 3, 1812 –Oct 1, 1812
| Resigned
| rowspan=4 | Elected in 1812.
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Sep 3, 1812 –Mar 3, 1813
| rowspan=4 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=4 align=right | Allan B. Magruder
! rowspan=4 | 1
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Oct 1, 1812 –Oct 8, 1812
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 2
| align=left | Thomas Posey
| | Democratic-Republican
| nowrap | Oct 8, 1812 –Feb 4, 1813
| Appointed to continue Destréhan's term.Lost election to finish Destréhan's term.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 3
| rowspan=3 align=left | James Brown
| rowspan=3 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Feb 5, 1813 –Mar 3, 1817
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish Destréhan's term.Lost election to full term.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 2
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1813Retired.
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Mar 4, 1813 –Mar 3, 1819
| rowspan=5 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=5 align=right | Eligius Fromentin
! rowspan=5 | 2
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 4
| align=left | William C. C. Claiborne
| | Democratic-Republican
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1817 –Nov 23, 1817
| Elected in 1817.Died.
| rowspan=5 | 2
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Nov 23, 1817 –Jan 12, 1818
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=6 | 5
| rowspan=6 align=left | Henry Johnson
| rowspan=6 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Jan 12, 1818 –May 27, 1824
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish Claiborne's term.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=7 | 3
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1819.Resigned to become U.S. Minister to France.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1819 –Dec 10, 1823
| rowspan=3 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=3 align=right | James Brown
! rowspan=3 | 3
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected to full term in 1823.Resigned to become Governor of Louisiana.
| rowspan=7 | 3
| rowspan=5
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Dec 10, 1823 –Jan 15, 1824
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish Brown's term.
| rowspan=10 nowrap | Jan 15, 1824 –May 19, 1833
| rowspan=3 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=10 align=right | Josiah S. Johnston
! rowspan=10 | 4
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | May 27, 1824 –Nov 19, 1824
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 6
| rowspan=3 align=left | Dominique Bouligny
| | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Nov 19, 1824 –Mar 3, 1829
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish Johnson's term.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | NationalRepublican
|
| rowspan=3 | 4
| rowspan=3 | Elected to full term in 1825.
| rowspan=7 | NationalRepublican
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 7
| rowspan=2 align=left | Edward Livingston
| rowspan=2 | Jacksonian
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Mar 4, 1829 –May 24, 1831
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1829.Resigned to become U.S. Secretary of State.
| rowspan=7 | 4
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
| rowspan=10 | 5
| rowspan=4 | Re-elected in 1831.Died.
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | May 24, 1831 –Nov 15, 1831
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=4 | 8
| rowspan=4 align=left | George A. Waggaman
| rowspan=4 | NationalRepublican
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Nov 15, 1831 –Mar 3, 1835
| rowspan=4 | Elected to finish Livingston's term.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | May 19, 1833 –Dec 19, 1833
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish Johnston's term.Resigned due to ill health.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Dec 19, 1833 –Jan 5, 1837
| rowspan=3 | NationalRepublican
| rowspan=3 align=right | Alexander Porter
! rowspan=3 | 5
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1835 –Jan 13, 1836
| Charles Gayarré (J) was elected in 1835, but resigned due to ill health.
| rowspan=6 | 5
| rowspan=4
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=5 | 9
| rowspan=5 align=left | Robert C. Nicholas
| rowspan=3 | Jacksonian
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Jan 13, 1836 –Mar 3, 1841
| rowspan=5 | Elected to finish Gauarré's term.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Jan 5, 1837 –Jan 12, 1837
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Elected to finish Porter's term.
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Jan 12, 1837 –Mar 1, 1842
| | Jacksonian
| rowspan=4 align=right | Alexandre Mouton
! rowspan=4 | 6
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Democratic
|
| rowspan=5 | 6
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1837.Resigned.
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=7 | 10
| rowspan=7 align=left | Alexander Barrow
| rowspan=7 | Whig
| rowspan=7 nowrap | Mar 4, 1841 –Dec 29, 1846
| rowspan=7 | Elected in 1840.Died.
| rowspan=9 | 6
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Mar 1, 1842 –Apr 14, 1842
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to finish Mouton's term.Lost election to full term.
| nowrap | Apr 14, 1842 –Mar 3, 1843
| | Whig
| align=right | Charles Conrad
! 7
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=7 | 7
| Elected in 1843, but due to ill health did not take his seat.Died.
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1843 –Jan 13, 1844
| | Whig
| align=right | Alexander Porter
! 8
|-
|
| nowrap | Jan 13, 1844 –Feb 12, 1844
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 |Elected to finish Porter's termLost election to full term in 1849.
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Feb 12, 1844 –Mar 3, 1849
| rowspan=5 | Whig
| rowspan=5 align=right | Henry Johnson
! rowspan=5 | 9
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Dec 29, 1846 –Jan 21, 1847
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 11
| align=left | Pierre Soulé
| | Democratic
| nowrap | Jan 21, 1847 –Mar 3, 1847
| Elected to finish Barrow's term.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 12
| rowspan=3 align=left | Solomon W. Downs
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1847 –Mar 3, 1853
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1847.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 7
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 8
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1848.Resigned to become U.S. Minister to Spain.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 3, 1849 –Apr 11, 1853
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 align=right | Pierre Soulé
! rowspan=3 | 10
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=6 | 13
| rowspan=6 align=left | Judah P. Benjamin
| rowspan=4 | Whig
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Mar 4, 1853 –Feb 4, 1861
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1852.
| rowspan=5 | 8
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Apr 11, 1853 –Dec 5, 1853
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Elected to finish Soulé's term.
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Dec 5, 1853 –Feb 4, 1861
| rowspan=4 | Democratic
| rowspan=4 align=right | John Slidell
! rowspan=4 | 11
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=4 | 9
| rowspan=3 | Re-election year unknown.Resigned.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Democratic
|
|- style="height:2em"
| Re-elected in 1859.Withdrew.
| rowspan=4 | 9
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 colspan=3 | Vacant
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Feb 4, 1861 –Jul 8, 1868
| rowspan=5 | Civil War and Reconstruction
| rowspan=6 | Civil War and Reconstruction
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Feb 4, 1861 –Jul 9, 1868
| rowspan=6 colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 10
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | 10
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
| rowspan=6 | 11
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 14
| rowspan=3 align=left | John S. Harris
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jul 8, 1868 –Mar 3, 1871
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish incomplete term in 1868..
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish incomplete term.Resigned to become Governor of Louisiana.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jul 9, 1868 –Nov 1, 1872
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 align=right | William Pitt Kellogg
! rowspan=3 | 12
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=5 | 15
| rowspan=5 align=left | J. R. West
| rowspan=5 | Republican
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Mar 4, 1871 –Mar 3, 1877
| rowspan=5 | Election year unknown.Retired.
| rowspan=5 | 11
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Senate declined to seat rival claimants William L. McMillen and P. B. S. Pinchback
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Nov 1, 1872 –Jan 12, 1876
| rowspan=3 colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=4 | 12
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish incomplete term in 1876.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Jan 12, 1876 –Mar 3, 1879
| rowspan=2 | Democratic
| rowspan=2 align=right | James B. Eustis
! rowspan=2 | 13
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 16
| rowspan=3 align=left | William Pitt Kellogg
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1877 –Mar 3, 1883
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1876.Retired to run for U.S. House.
| rowspan=3 | 12
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 13
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1879.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1879 –Mar 3, 1885
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 align=right | Benjamin F. Jonas
! rowspan=3 | 14
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=5 | 17
| rowspan=5 align=left | Randall L. Gibson
| rowspan=5 | Democratic
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Mar 4, 1883 –Dec 15, 1892
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1882.
| rowspan=3 | 13
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 14
| rowspan=3 | Election year unknown.Retired.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1885 –Mar 3, 1891
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 align=right | James B. Eustis
! rowspan=3 | 15
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Re-elected in 1889.Died.
| rowspan=6 | 14
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
| rowspan=6 | 15
| rowspan=4 | Elected in 1891.Resigned to become U.S. Supreme Court Justice.
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Mar 4, 1891 –Mar 12, 1894
| rowspan=4 | Democratic
| rowspan=4 align=right | Edward Douglass White
! rowspan=4 | 16
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Dec 15, 1892 –Dec 31, 1892
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=6 | 18
| rowspan=6 align=left | Donelson Caffery
| rowspan=6 | Democratic
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Dec 31, 1892 –Mar 3, 1901
| rowspan=3 | Appointed to continue Gibson's term.Elected in 1894 to finish Gibson's term.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Appointed to continue White's term.Elected in 1894 to finish White's term.Retired.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Mar 12, 1894 –Mar 3, 1897
| rowspan=2 | Democratic
| rowspan=2 align=right | Newton C. Blanchard
! rowspan=2 | 17
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1894 to the next term, before election to finish Gibson's term.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 15
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 16
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1896.
| rowspan=7 nowrap | Mar 4, 1897 –Jun 28, 1910
| rowspan=7 | Democratic
| rowspan=7 align=right | Samuel D. McEnery
! rowspan=7 | 18
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=8 | 19
| rowspan=8 align=left | Murphy J. Foster
| rowspan=8 | Democratic
| rowspan=8 nowrap | Mar 4, 1901 –Mar 3, 1913
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1900.
| rowspan=3 | 16
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 17
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected early in 1900.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected early in 1904.Lost renomination.
| rowspan=5 | 17
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
| rowspan=5 | 18
| Re-elected in 1908.Died.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Jun 28, 1910 –Dec 7, 1910
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 |Elected to finish McEnery's term.Retired.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Dec 7, 1910 –Mar 3, 1915
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 align=right | John Thornton
! rowspan=3 | 19
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=12 | 20
| rowspan=12 align=left | Joseph E. Ransdell
| rowspan=12 | Democratic
| rowspan=12 nowrap | Mar 4, 1913 –Mar 3, 1931
| rowspan=6 | Elected in 1912.
| rowspan=6 | 18
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=6 | 19
| rowspan=2 | Elected early in 1912.Died.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Mar 4, 1915 –Apr 12, 1918
| rowspan=2 | Democratic
| rowspan=2 align=right | Robert F. Broussard
! rowspan=2 | 20
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Apr 12, 1918 –Apr 22, 1918
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to continue Broussard's term.Retired when elected successor qualified.
| nowrap | Apr 22, 1918 –Nov 5, 1918
| | Democratic
| align=right | Walter Guion
! 21
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Broussard's term.Retired.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Nov 6, 1918 –Mar 3, 1921
| rowspan=2 | Democratic
| rowspan=2 align=right | Edward J. Gay
! rowspan=2 | 22
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1918.
| rowspan=3 | 19
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 20
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1920.
| rowspan=7 nowrap | Mar 4, 1921 –Mar 3, 1933
| rowspan=7 | Democratic
| rowspan=7 align=right |Edwin S. Broussard
! rowspan=7 | 23
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1924.Lost renomination.
| rowspan=3 | 20
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=4 | 21
| rowspan=4 | Re-elected in 1926.Lost renomination.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1931 –Jan 25, 1932
|
| rowspan=6 | 21
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 21
| rowspan=3 align=left | Huey Long
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jan 25, 1932 –Sep 10, 1935
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1930, but continued to serve as Louisiana governor until Jan 25, 1932.Assassinated.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 22
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1932.
| rowspan=10 nowrap | Mar 4, 1933 –May 14, 1948
| rowspan=10 | Democratic
| rowspan=10 align=right | John Overton
! rowspan=10 | 24
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Sep 10, 1935 –Jan 31, 1936
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 22
| align=left | Rose M. Long
| | Democratic
| nowrap | Jan 31, 1936 –Jan 3, 1937
| Appointed to continue her husband's term.Elected in 1936 to finish her husband's term.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=21 | 23
| rowspan=21 align=left | Allen Ellender
| rowspan=21 | Democratic
| rowspan=21 nowrap | Jan 3, 1937 –July 27, 1972
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1936.
| rowspan=3 | 22
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 23
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1938.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=6 | Re-elected in 1942.
| rowspan=6 | 23
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=6 | 24
| rowspan=2 | Re-elected in 1944.Died.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | May 14, 1948 –May 18, 1948
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to continue Overton's term.Retired when elected successor qualified.
| nowrap | May 18, 1948 –Dec 30, 1948
| | Democratic
| align=right | William C. Feazel
! 25
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Overton's term.
| rowspan=23 nowrap | Dec 31, 1948 –Jan 3, 1987
| rowspan=23 | Democratic
| rowspan=23 align=right | Russell Long
! rowspan=23 | 26
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1948.
| rowspan=3 | 24
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 25
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1950.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1954.
| rowspan=3 | 25
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 26
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1956.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1960.
| rowspan=3 | 26
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 27
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1962.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1966.Died.
| rowspan=6 | 27
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=6 | 28
| rowspan=6 | Re-elected in 1968.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Jul 27, 1972 –Aug 1, 1972
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 24
| align=left | Elaine Edwards
| | Democratic
| nowrap | Aug 1, 1972 –Nov 13, 1972
| Appointed by her husband to continue Ellender's term.Retired when successor qualified and resigned early.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=13 | 25
| rowspan=13 align=left | J. Bennett Johnston
| rowspan=13 | Democratic
| rowspan=13 nowrap | Nov 14, 1972 –Jan 3, 1997
| Appointed to finish Ellender's term, having already been elected to the next term.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1972.
| rowspan=3 | 28
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 29
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1974.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1978.
| rowspan=3 | 29
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 30
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1980.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1984.
| rowspan=3 | 30
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 31
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1986.
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Jan 3, 1987 –Jan 3, 2005
| rowspan=9 | Democratic
| rowspan=9 align=right | John Breaux
! rowspan=9 | 27
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1990.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 31
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 32
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1992.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=9 | 26
| rowspan=9 align=left | Mary Landrieu
| rowspan=9 | Democratic
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Jan 3, 1997 –Jan 3, 2015
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1996.
| rowspan=3 | 32
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 33
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1998.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2002 in runoff election.
| rowspan=3 | 33
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 34
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 2004.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Jan 3, 2005 –Jan 3, 2017
| rowspan=6 | Republican
| rowspan=6 align=right | David Vitter
! rowspan=6 | 28
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2008.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 34
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 35
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2010.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=6 | 27
| rowspan=6 align=left | Bill Cassidy
| rowspan=6 | Republican
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Jan 3, 2015 –present
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 2014 in runoff election.
| rowspan=3 | 35
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 36
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 2016 in runoff election.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Jan 3, 2017 –present
| rowspan=6 | Republican
| rowspan=6 align=right | John Kennedy
! rowspan=6 | 29
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2020.
| rowspan=3 | 36
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 |37
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2022.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 colspan=5 | To be determined in the 2026 election.
| rowspan=2 | 37
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| 38
| colspan=5 | To be determined in the 2028 election.
See also
List of United States representatives from Louisiana
United States congressional delegations from Louisiana
Elections in Louisiana
Notes
References
United States Senators
Louisiana
|
416394
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20United%20States%20senators%20from%20Maryland
|
List of United States senators from Maryland
|
This is a list of United States senators from Maryland, which ratified the United States Constitution April 28, 1788, becoming the seventh state to do so. To provide for continuity of government, the framers divided senators into staggered classes that serve six-year terms, and Maryland's senators are in the first and third classes. Before the passage of the Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1913, which allowed for direct election of senators, Maryland's senators were chosen by the Maryland General Assembly, which ratified the amendment on April 1, 2010. Until the assembly appointed George L. Wellington of Cumberland in 1897, senators in class 3 were chosen from the Eastern Shore while senators in class 1 were chosen from the remainder of the state. Barbara Mikulski has been Maryland's longest-serving senator (1987–2017).
List of senators
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 1
| rowspan=2 align=left | Charles Carroll
| rowspan=2 | Pro-Admin.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Mar 4, 1789 –Nov 30, 1792
| Elected in 1788.
| 1
|
| rowspan=5 | 1
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1788.
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Mar 4, 1789 –Dec 10, 1797
| rowspan=9 | Pro-Admin.
| rowspan=9 align=right | John Henry
! rowspan=9 | 1
|- style="height:2em"
| Re-elected in 1791.Resigned to remain in the Maryland Senate.
| rowspan=7 | 2
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Nov 30, 1792 –Jan 10, 1793
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 2
| rowspan=3 align=left | Richard Potts| rowspan=3 | Pro-Admin.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jan 10, 1793 –Oct 24, 1796
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish Carroll's term.Resigned.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
| rowspan=8 | 2
| rowspan=4 | Re-elected in 1795.Resigned to become Governor of Maryland.
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Oct 24, 1796 –Nov 30, 1796
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=8 | 3
| rowspan=8 align=left | John Eager Howard| rowspan=8 | Federalist
| rowspan=8 nowrap | Nov 30, 1796 –Mar 3, 1803
| Elected to finish Carroll's term.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=7 | Re-elected in 1796.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=7 | 3
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Henry's term.Resigned.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Dec 11, 1797 –Dec 1, 1800
| rowspan=2 | Federalist
| rowspan=2 align=right | James Lloyd
! rowspan=2 | 2
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Dec 1, 1800 –Dec 12, 1800
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Elected to finish Henry's term.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Dec 12, 1800 –Nov 19, 1801
| rowspan=2 | Federalist
| rowspan=2 align=right | William Hindman
! rowspan=2 | 3
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
| rowspan=6 | 3
| Appointed to fill the vacancy after the Legislature failed to elect.Retired when successor elected.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish term.Resigned to become Governor of Maryland.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Nov 19, 1801 –Nov 12, 1806
| rowspan=3 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=3 align=right | Robert Wright
! rowspan=3 | 4
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=9 | 4
| rowspan=9 align=left | Samuel Smith
| rowspan=9 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Mar 4, 1803 –Mar 3, 1815
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1802.
| rowspan=5 | 4
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Nov 12, 1806 –Nov 25, 1806
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Elected to finish Wright's term.
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Nov 25, 1806 –Mar 3, 1813
| rowspan=4 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=4 align=right | Philip Reed
! rowspan=4 | 5
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 4
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1806.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4 | Re-elected in 1809.
| rowspan=4 | 5
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
| rowspan=7 | 5
| Legislature failed to elect.
| nowrap | Mar 3, 1813 –May 21, 1813
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=6 | Elected in 1813 to finish term.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | May 21, 1813 –Mar 3, 1819
| rowspan=6 | Federalist
| rowspan=6 align=right | Robert Henry Goldsborough
! rowspan=6 | 6
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1815 –Jan 29, 1816
| Legislature failed to elect
| rowspan=8 | 6
| rowspan=4
|- style="height:2em"
! 5
| align=left | Robert Goodloe Harper
| | Federalist
| nowrap | Jan 29, 1816 –Dec 6, 1816
| Elected to finish term.Resigned.
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Dec 6, 1816 –Dec 20, 1816
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 6
| rowspan=3 align=left | Alexander Hanson
| rowspan=3 | Federalist
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Dec 20, 1816 –Apr 23, 1819
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish Harper's term.Died.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
| rowspan=7 | 6
| rowspan=2 | Legislature did not elect until after the term began.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Mar 4, 1819 –Dec 20, 1819
| rowspan=2 colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Apr 23, 1819 –Dec 21, 1819
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 7
| rowspan=2 align=left | William Pinkney
| rowspan=2 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Dec 20, 1819 –Feb 25, 1822
| Elected in 1819 to finish Harper's term.
| rowspan=5 | Elected late in 1819.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Dec 21, 1819 –Jan 14, 1826
| rowspan=5 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=6 align=right | Edward Lloyd
! rowspan=6 | 7
|- style="height:2em"
| Re-elected in 1821.Died.
| rowspan=7 | 7
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Feb 25, 1822 –Dec 17, 1822
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=8 | 8
| rowspan=8 align=left | Samuel Smith
| rowspan=2 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=8 nowrap | Dec 17, 1822 –Mar 3, 1833
| rowspan=5 | Elected to finish Pinkney's term.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=6 | Jacksonian
| rowspan=3
| rowspan=5 | 7
| Re-elected in 1825.Resigned.
| | Jacksonian
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Jan 14, 1826 –Jan 24, 1826
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish Lloyd's term.
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Jan 24, 1826 –Dec 20, 1834
| rowspan=5 | NationalRepublican
| rowspan=5 align=right | Ezekiel F. Chambers
! rowspan=5 | 8
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1827.
| rowspan=3 | 8
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=7 | 8
| rowspan=2 | Re-elected in 1831.Resigned to become judge of the Maryland Court of Appeals.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=7 | 9
| rowspan=7 align=left | Joseph Kent
| rowspan=6 | NationalRepublican
| rowspan=7 nowrap | Mar 4, 1833 –Nov 24, 1837
| rowspan=7 | Elected in 1833.Died.
| rowspan=9 | 9
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Dec 20, 1834 –Jan 13, 1835
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Chambers's term.Died.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Jan 13, 1835 –Oct 5, 1836
| rowspan=2 | NationalRepublican
| rowspan=2 align=right | Robert Henry Goldsborough
! rowspan=2 | 9
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Oct 5, 1836 –Dec 31, 1836
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Elected to finish Chambers's term.
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Dec 31, 1836 –Oct 24, 1840
| | NationalRepublican
| rowspan=5 align=right | John S. Spence
! rowspan=5 | 10
|- style="height:2em"
| | Whig
| rowspan=3
| rowspan=7 | 9
| rowspan=4 | Re-elected in 1837.Died.
| rowspan=4 | Whig
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Nov 24, 1837 –Jan 4, 1838
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=6 | 10
| rowspan=6 align=left | William Duhurst Merrick
| rowspan=6 | Whig
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Jan 4, 1838 –Mar 3, 1845
| Elected to finish Kent's term.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1839.
| rowspan=5 | 10
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Oct 24, 1840 –Jan 5, 1841
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Spence's term.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Jan 5, 1841 –Mar 3, 1843
| rowspan=2 | Whig
| rowspan=2 align=right | John Leeds Kerr
! rowspan=2 | 11
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 10
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1843.
| rowspan=13 nowrap | Mar 4, 1843 –Dec 20, 1862
| rowspan=10 | Whig
| rowspan=13 align=right | James Pearce
! rowspan=13 | 12
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 11
| rowspan=3 align=left | Reverdy Johnson
| rowspan=3 | Whig
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1845 –Mar 7, 1849
| rowspan=3 | Election year unknown.Resigned to become U.S. Attorney General.
| rowspan=6 | 11
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4
| rowspan=6 | 11
| rowspan=6 | Re-elected in 1849.
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 7, 1849 –Dec 6, 1849
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 12
| align=left | David Stewart
| | Democratic
| nowrap | Dec 6, 1849 –Jan 12, 1850
| Appointed to continue Johnson's term.Retired when successor elected.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=4 | 13
| rowspan=4 align=left | Thomas Pratt
| rowspan=4 | Whig
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Jan 12, 1850 –Mar 3, 1857
| Elected to finish Johnson's term.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1851.
| rowspan=3 | 12
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 12
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1855.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=5 | 14
| rowspan=5 align=left | Anthony Kennedy
| rowspan=2 | American
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Mar 4, 1857 –Mar 3, 1863
| rowspan=5 | Election year unknown.
| rowspan=5 | 13
|
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Unionist
| rowspan=3
| rowspan=7 | 13
| Re-elected in 1861.Died.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Dec 20, 1862 –Dec 29, 1862
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Appointed to continue Pearce's term.Elected in 1864 to finish Pearce's term.Died.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Dec 29, 1862 –Feb 14, 1865
| | Unionist
| rowspan=2 align=right | Thomas Holliday Hicks
! rowspan=2 | 13
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=6 | 15
| rowspan=6 align=left | Reverdy Johnson
| rowspan=2 | Unionist
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Mar 4, 1863 –Jul 10, 1868
| rowspan=6 | Election year unknown.Resigned to become U.S. Ambassador to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.
| rowspan=8 | 14
| rowspan=2
| | Unconditional Unionist
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 |
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Feb 14, 1865 –Mar 9, 1865
| rowspan=2 colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4 | Democratic
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
| Elected to finish Hicks's term.
| nowrap | Mar 9, 1865 –Mar 3, 1867
| | Unconditional Unionist
| rowspan=1 align=right | John Creswell
! 14
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4
| rowspan=6 | 14
| Philip F. Thomas (D) was elected but failed to qualify due to his support for the Confederacy.
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1867 –Mar 7, 1868
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | Elected to finish Thomas's term.
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Mar 7, 1868 –Mar 3, 1873
| rowspan=5 | Democratic
| rowspan=5 align=right | George Vickers
! rowspan=5 | 15
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Jul 10, 1868 –Jul 13, 1868
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 16
| align=left | William Whyte
| | Democratic
| nowrap | Jul 13, 1868 –Mar 3, 1869
| Appointed to finish Johnson's term.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 17
| rowspan=3 align=left | William T. Hamilton
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1869 –Mar 3, 1875
| rowspan=3 | Election year unknown.Retired to run for governor.
| rowspan=3 | 15
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 15
| rowspan=3 | Election year unknown.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1873 –Mar 3, 1879
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 align=right | George R. Dennis
! rowspan=3 | 16
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 18
| rowspan=3 align=left | William Whyte
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1875 –Mar 3, 1881
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1874.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 16
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 16
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1878.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1879 –Mar 3, 1885
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 align=right | James Black Groome
! rowspan=3 | 17
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=11 | 19
| rowspan=11 align=left | Arthur P. Gorman
| rowspan=11 | Democratic
| rowspan=11 nowrap | Mar 4, 1881 –Mar 3, 1899
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1880.
| rowspan=3 | 17
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=4 | 17
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1884.Re-elected in 1890.Died.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1885 –Feb 24, 1891
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 align=right | Ephraim Wilson
! rowspan=3 | 18
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1886.
| rowspan=5 | 18
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 |
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Feb 24, 1891 –Nov 19, 1891
| rowspan=2 colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
| rowspan=4 | 18
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Appointed to continue Wilson's term.Elected in 1892 to finish Wilson's term.Unknown if retired or lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Nov 19, 1891 –Mar 3, 1897
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 align=right | Charles H. Gibson
! rowspan=3 | 19
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1892.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 19
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 19
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1896.Retired.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1897 –Mar 3, 1903
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 align=right | George L. Wellington
! rowspan=3 | 20
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 20
| rowspan=3 align=left | Louis E. McComas
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1899 –Mar 3, 1905
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1898.Retired to become judge of the U.S. Court of Appeals.
| rowspan=3 | 20
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=7 | 20
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1902.Died.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Mar 4, 1903 –Jun 4, 1906
| rowspan=2 | Democratic
| rowspan=2 align=right | Arthur P. Gorman
! rowspan=2 | 21
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=8 | 21
| rowspan=8 align=left | Isidor Rayner
| rowspan=8 | Democratic
| rowspan=8 nowrap | Mar 4, 1905 –Nov 25, 1912
| rowspan=7 | Elected in 1904.
| rowspan=7 | 21
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Jun 4, 1906 –Jun 8, 1906
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Appointed to continue Gorman's term.Elected in 1908 to finish Gorman's term.Died.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Jun 8, 1906 –Mar 17, 1908
| rowspan=2 | Democratic
| rowspan=2 align=right | William Whyte
! rowspan=2 | 22
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Mar 17, 1908 –Mar 25, 1908
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Elected to finish Gorman's term, having already been elected to the next term.
| rowspan=10 nowrap | Mar 25, 1908 –Mar 3, 1921
| rowspan=10 | Democratic
| rowspan=10 align=right | John Walter Smith
! rowspan=10 | 23
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=6 | 21
| rowspan=6 | Elected in 1908.
|- style="height:2em"
| Re-elected in 1910.Died.
| rowspan=6 | 22
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Nov 25, 1912 –Nov 29, 1912
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 22
| rowspan=2 align=left | William P. Jackson
| rowspan=2 | Republican
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Nov 29, 1912 –Jan 28, 1914
| rowspan=2 | Appointed to continue Rayner's term.Retired when successor elected.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 23
| rowspan=2 align=left | Blair Lee
| rowspan=2 | Democratic
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Jan 28, 1914 –Mar 3, 1917
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1913 to finish Rayner's term.Lost re-election.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 22
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1914.Lost re-election.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 24
| rowspan=3 align=left | Joseph I. France
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1917 –Mar 3, 1923
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1916.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 23
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 23
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1920.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1921 –Mar 3, 1927
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 align=right | Ovington Weller
! rowspan=3 | 24
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 25
| rowspan=3 align=left | William Cabell Bruce
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1923 –Mar 3, 1929
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1922.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 24
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 24
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1926.
| rowspan=12 nowrap | Mar 4, 1927 –Jan 3, 1951
| rowspan=12 | Democratic
| rowspan=12 align=right | Millard Tydings
! rowspan=12 | 25
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 26
| rowspan=3 align=left | Phillips Lee Goldsborough
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1929 –Jan 3, 1935
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1928.Retired to run for governor.
| rowspan=3 | 25
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 25
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1932.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=6 | 27
| rowspan=6 align=left | George L. P. Radcliffe
| rowspan=6 | Democratic
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Jan 3, 1935 –Jan 3, 1947
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1934.
| rowspan=3 | 26
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 26
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1938.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1940.Lost renomination.
| rowspan=3 | 27
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 27
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1944.Lost re-election.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 28
| rowspan=3 align=left | Herbert O'Conor
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jan 3, 1947 –Jan 3, 1953
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1946.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 28
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 28
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1950.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Jan 3, 1951 –Jan 3, 1963
| rowspan=6 | Republican
| rowspan=6 align=right | John Marshall Butler
! rowspan=6 | 26
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=6 | 29
| rowspan=6 align=left | J. Glenn Beall
| rowspan=6 | Republican
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Jan 3, 1953 –Jan 3, 1965
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1952.
| rowspan=3 | 29
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 29
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1956.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1958.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 30
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 30
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1962.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jan 3, 1963 –Jan 3, 1969
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 align=right | Daniel Brewster
! rowspan=3 | 27
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 30
| rowspan=3 align=left | Joseph Tydings
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jan 3, 1965 –Jan 3, 1971
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1964.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 31
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 31
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1968.
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Jan 3, 1969 –Jan 3, 1987
| rowspan=9 | Republican
| rowspan=9 align=right | Charles Mathias
! rowspan=9 | 28
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 31
| rowspan=3 align=left | J. Glenn Beall Jr.
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jan 3, 1971 –Jan 3, 1977
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1970.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 32
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 32
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1974.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=15 | 32
| rowspan=15 align=left | Paul Sarbanes
| rowspan=15 | Democratic
| rowspan=15 nowrap | Jan 3, 1977 –Jan 3, 2007
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1976.
| rowspan=3 | 33
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 33
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1980.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1982.
| rowspan=3 | 34
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 34
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1986.
| rowspan=15 nowrap | Jan 3, 1987 –Jan 3, 2017
| rowspan=15 | Democratic
| rowspan=15 align=right | Barbara Mikulski
! rowspan=15 | 29
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1988.
| rowspan=3 | 35
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 35
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1992.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1994.
| rowspan=3 | 36
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 36
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1998.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2000.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 37
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 37
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2004.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=9 | 33
| rowspan=9 align=left | Ben Cardin
| rowspan=9 | Democratic
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Jan 3, 2007 –present
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 2006.
| rowspan=3 | 38
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 38
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2010.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2012.
| rowspan=3 | 39
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 39
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 2016.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Jan 3, 2017 –present
| rowspan=6 | Democratic
| rowspan=6 align=right | Chris Van Hollen
! rowspan=6 | 30
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2018.Retiring at the end of term.
| rowspan=3 | 40
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 40
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2022.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 colspan=5 | To be determined in the 2024 election.
| rowspan=3| 41
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| 41
| colspan=5 | To be determined in the 2028 election.
See also
United States congressional delegations from Maryland
List of United States representatives from Maryland
Elections in Maryland
References
United States Senate
Maryland
|
416406
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20United%20States%20senators%20from%20Massachusetts
|
List of United States senators from Massachusetts
|
Below is a chronological listing of the United States senators from the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. According to the Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution adopted in 1913, U.S. senators are popularly elected for a six-year term. Elections are held the first Tuesday after November 1, and terms begin on January 3, about two months after the vote. Before 1914, and the enforcement of the Seventeenth Amendment, the state's U.S. senators were chosen by the Massachusetts General Court, and before 1935, their terms began March 4.
The current senators are Democrats Elizabeth Warren and Ed Markey. Ted Kennedy was Massachusetts's longest-serving senator, serving from 1962 until his death in 2009.
Mid-term vacancy appointment processes
Through the 20th century, mid-term vacancies were filled with the governor's appointee, with the appointment expiring at the next biennial state election. In 2004, the Democratic-controlled state legislature changed the vacancy-filling process, mandating that a special election occur, which removed the governor's appointment power. This statute was enacted over the veto by the governor, Mitt Romney. The leadership of the Massachusetts legislature at the time was concerned that the Republican Governor Mitt Romney would appoint a Republican if Democratic Senator John Kerry were elected president of the United States in the 2004 election. Generally, the law requires a special election within 145 to 160 days from the date of the filing of a Senate resignation. The law contemplates resignations that become effective some period of time after the filing of the resignation, so long as the election occurs after effective date of the resignation.
While terminally ill with brain cancer, Ted Kennedy requested that the Massachusetts legislature change the law to allow an interim appointment. Kennedy died shortly thereafter, and the legislature quickly passed a bill providing for an interim appointment. On September 24, 2009, Governor Deval Patrick signed the bill, and appointed Paul G. Kirk, who had previously served as one of Kennedy's congressional aides and as chairman of the Democratic National Committee.
List of senators
|- style="height:2em"
! 1
| align=left | Tristram Dalton
| | Pro-Admin.
| Mar 4, 1789 –Mar 3, 1791
| Elected in 1788.Lost re-election.
| 1
|
| rowspan=2 | 1
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1788.
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Mar 4, 1789 –Jun 1, 1796
| rowspan=3 | Pro-Admin.
| rowspan=4 align=right | Caleb Strong
! rowspan=4 | 1
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 2
| rowspan=3 align=left | George Cabot
| rowspan=2 | Pro-Admin.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1791 –Jun 9, 1796
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1790.Resigned.
| rowspan=5 | 2
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 2
| rowspan=2 | Re-elected in 1793.Resigned.
|- style="height:2em"
| | Federalist
| rowspan=3
| | Federalist
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| Jun 9, 1796 –Jun 11, 1796
| Vacant
| Vacant
| Jun 1, 1796 –Jun 11, 1796
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=5 | 3
| rowspan=5 align=left | Benjamin Goodhue
| rowspan=5 | Federalist
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Jun 11, 1796 –Nov 8, 1800
| Elected to finish Cabot's term.
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Strong's term.Retired to run for the U.S. House of Representatives.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Jun 11, 1796 –Mar 3, 1799
| rowspan=2 | Federalist
| rowspan=2 align=right | Theodore Sedgwick
! rowspan=2 | 2
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4 | Also elected to full term in 1796.Resigned.
| rowspan=8 | 3
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5
| rowspan=8 | 3
| Elected in 1798.Resigned to become U.S. Secretary of War.
| Mar 4, 1799 –May 30, 1800
| | Federalist
| align=right | Samuel Dexter
! 3
|- style="height:2em"
| Vacant
| May 31, 1800 –Jun 5, 1800
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4 | Elected to finish Dexter's term.Resigned.
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Jun 6, 1800 –Mar 3, 1803
| rowspan=4 | Federalist
| rowspan=4 align=right | Dwight Foster
! rowspan=4 | 4
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| Nov 8, 1800 –Nov 14, 1800
| Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 4
| rowspan=3 align=left | Jonathan Mason
| rowspan=3 | Federalist
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Nov 14, 1800 –Mar 3, 1803
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish Goodhue's term.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
| Vacant
| Mar 2, 1803 –Mar 3, 1803
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 5
| rowspan=3 align=left | John Quincy Adams
| rowspan=3 | Federalist
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1803 –Jun 8, 1808
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1803.Resigned, having lost re-election to the next term.
| rowspan=4 | 4
|
| Elected to finish Foster's term.
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Mar 4, 1803 –Mar 3, 1811
| rowspan=5 | Federalist
| rowspan=5 align=right | Timothy Pickering
! rowspan=5 | 5
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=4 | 4
| rowspan=4 | Re-elected in 1805.Lost re-election.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=5 | 6
| rowspan=5 align=left | James Lloyd
| rowspan=5 | Federalist
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Jun 9, 1808 –May 1, 1813
| Elected to finish Adams's term, having already been elected to the next term.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4 | Elected in 1808.Resigned.
| rowspan=6 | 5
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
| rowspan=8 | 5
| State Senate failed to elect.
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1811 –Jun 28, 1811
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=7 | Elected in 1811, to finish the vacant term.Retired or lost re-election.
| rowspan=7 nowrap | Jun 29, 1811 –Mar 3, 1817
| rowspan=7 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=7 align=right | Joseph Bradley Varnum
! rowspan=7 | 6
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| May 1, 1813 –May 5, 1813
| Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 7
| rowspan=2 align=left | Christopher Gore
| rowspan=2 | Federalist
| rowspan=2 nowrap | May 5, 1813 –May 30, 1816
| Appointed to finish Lloyd's term.
|- style="height:2em"
| Elected to full term in 1815.Resigned.
| rowspan=9 | 6
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| May 31, 1816 –Jun 11, 1816
| Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 8
| rowspan=2 align=left | Eli P. Ashmun
| rowspan=2 | Federalist
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Jun 12, 1816 –May 10, 1818
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Gore's term.Resigned.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
| rowspan=9 | 6
| rowspan=7 | Elected in 1816.Resigned to run for Mayor of Boston.
| rowspan=7 nowrap | Mar 4, 1817 –May 30, 1822
| rowspan=7 | Federalist
| rowspan=7 align=right | Harrison Gray Otis
! rowspan=7 | 7
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | May 11, 1818 –Jun 4, 1818
| Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 9
| rowspan=2 align=left | Prentiss Mellen
| rowspan=2 | Federalist
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Jun 5, 1818 –May 15, 1820
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Ashmun's term.Resigned to become Chief Justice of Maine.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | May 16, 1820 –Jun 12, 1820
| Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=8 | 10
| rowspan=8 align=left | Elijah H. Mills
| rowspan=5 | Federalist
| rowspan=8 nowrap | Jun 12, 1820 –Mar 3, 1827
| Elected to finish Mellen's term.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=7 | Re-elected in 1820.Lost re-election in 1826.
| rowspan=7 | 7
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
| Vacant
| nowrap | May 30, 1822 –Jun 5, 1822
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Elected to finish Otis's term.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jun 5, 1822 –May 23, 1826
| rowspan=2 | Federalist
| rowspan=3 align=right | James Lloyd
! rowspan=3 | 8
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=6 | 7
| rowspan=2 | Re-elected in 1822.Resigned.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | NationalRepublican
| rowspan=3
| | NationalRepublican
|- style="height:2em"
| Vacant
| nowrap | May 23, 1826 –May 31, 1826
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish Lloyd's term.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | May 31, 1826 –Mar 3, 1835
| rowspan=6 | NationalRepublican
| rowspan=6 align=right| Nathaniel Silsbee
! rowspan=6 | 9
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1827 – Jun 8, 1827
| Vacant
| rowspan=4 | 8
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=9 | 11
| rowspan=9 align=left | Daniel Webster
| rowspan=5 | NationalRepublican
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Jun 8, 1827 –Feb 22, 1841
| rowspan=3 | Elected late in 1827.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 8
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1828.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1833.
| rowspan=3 | 9
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=6 | 9
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1835.Resigned to become Governor of Massachusetts.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1835 –Jan 5, 1841
| | NationalRepublican
| rowspan=3 align=right | John Davis
! rowspan=3 | 10
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4 | Whig
|
| rowspan=2 | Whig
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1839.Resigned to become U.S. Secretary of State.
| rowspan=6 | 10
| rowspan=4
|- style="height:2em"
| Vacant
| nowrap | Jan 5, 1841 –Jan 13, 1841
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Davis's term.
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Jan 13, 1841 –Mar 16, 1845
| rowspan=5 | Whig
| rowspan=5 align=right | Isaac C. Bates
! rowspan=5 | 11
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 12
| rowspan=3 align=left | Rufus Choate
| rowspan=3 | Whig
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Feb 23, 1841 –Mar 3, 1845
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish Webster's term.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 10
| rowspan=3 | Elected to full term in 1841.Died.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=5 | 13
| rowspan=5 align=left | Daniel Webster
| rowspan=5 | Whig
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Mar 4, 1845 –Jul 22, 1850
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1845.Resigned to become U.S. Secretary of State again.
| rowspan=8 | 11
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
| Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 16, 1845 –Mar 24, 1845
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Elected to finish Bates's term.
| rowspan=8 nowrap | Mar 24, 1845 –Mar 3, 1853
| rowspan=8 | Whig
| rowspan=8 align=right | John Davis
! rowspan=8 | 12
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=7 | 11
| rowspan=7 | Re-elected in 1847.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Jul 23, 1850 –Jul 30, 1850
| Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
! 14
| align=left | Robert C. Winthrop
| | Whig
| nowrap | Jul 30, 1850 –Feb 1, 1851
| Appointed to continue Webster's term.Lost election to finish Webster's term.
|- style="height:2em"
! 15
| align=left | Robert Rantoul Jr.
| | Democratic
| nowrap | Feb 1, 1851 –Mar 3, 1851
| Elected to finish Webster's term.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1851 –Apr 24, 1851
| rowspan=7 scope=row class=small | The legislature initially deadlocked on who should succeed Daniel Webster. Sumner was eventually elected late.
| rowspan=7 | 12
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=16 | 16
| rowspan=16 align=left | Charles Sumner
| rowspan=6 | Free Soil
| rowspan=16 nowrap | Apr 24, 1851 –Mar 11, 1874
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4
| rowspan=6 | 12
| Elected in 1853.Resigned.
| Mar 4, 1853 –Jun 1, 1854
| | Whig
| align=right | Edward Everett
! 13
|- style="height:2em"
| Vacant
| Jun 1, 1854 –Jun 3, 1854
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to continue Everett's term.Successor was elected.
| Jun 3, 1854 –Jan 31, 1855
| | Whig
| align=right | Julius Rockwell
! 14
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish Everett's term.
| rowspan=10 nowrap | Jan 31, 1855 –Mar 3, 1873
| | Free Soil
| rowspan=10 align=right | Henry Wilson
! rowspan=10 | 15
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=9 | Republican
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=8 | Republican
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1857.
| rowspan=3 | 13
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 13
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1859.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1863.
| rowspan=3 | 14
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 14
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1865.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4 | Re-elected in 1869.Died.
| rowspan=6 | 15
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=6 | 15
| Re-elected in 1871.Resigned to become the Vice President of the United States.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Liberal Republican
| rowspan=4
| Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 3, 1873 –Mar 17, 1873
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4 | Elected to finish Wilson's term.Lost renomination.
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Mar 17, 1873 –Mar 3, 1877
| rowspan=4 | Republican
| rowspan=4 align=right | George S. Boutwell
! rowspan=4 | 16
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 12, 1874 –Apr 16, 1874
| Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
! 17
| align=left | William B. Washburn
| | Republican
| nowrap | Apr 17, 1874 –Mar 3, 1875
| Elected to finish Sumner's term.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=9 | 18
| rowspan=9 align=left | Henry L. Dawes
| rowspan=9 | Republican
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Mar 4, 1875 –Mar 3, 1893
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1875.
| rowspan=3 | 16
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 16
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1877.
| rowspan=14 nowrap | Mar 4, 1877 –Sep 30, 1904
| rowspan=14 | Republican
| rowspan=14 align=right | George F. Hoar
! rowspan=14 | 17
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1881.
| rowspan=3 | 17
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 17
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1883.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1887.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 18
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 18
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1889.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=18 | 19
| rowspan=18 align=left | Henry Cabot Lodge
| rowspan=18 | Republican
| rowspan=18 nowrap | Mar 4, 1893 –Nov 9, 1924
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1893.
| rowspan=3 | 19
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 19
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1895.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1899.
| rowspan=5 | 20
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 20
| rowspan=2 | Re-elected in 1901.Died.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
| Vacant
| nowrap | Sep 30, 1904 –Oct 12, 1904
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Appointed to continue Hoar's term.Elected to finish Hoar's term.
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Oct 12, 1904 –Mar 3, 1913
| rowspan=5 | Republican
| rowspan=5 align=right | Winthrop M. Crane
! rowspan=5 | 18
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1905.
| rowspan=3 | 21
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 21
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1907.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1911.
| rowspan=3 | 22
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 22
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1913.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1913 –Mar 3, 1919
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 align=right | John W. Weeks
! rowspan=3 | 19
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1916.
| rowspan=3 | 23
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 23
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1918.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Mar 4, 1919 –Mar 3, 1925
| rowspan=5 | Democratic
| rowspan=5 align=right | David I. Walsh
! rowspan=5 | 20
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| Re-elected in 1922.Died.
| rowspan=6 | 24
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Nov 9, 1924 –Nov 13, 1924
| Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 20
| rowspan=2 align=left | William M. Butler
| rowspan=2 | Republican
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Nov 13, 1924 –Dec 6, 1926
| rowspan=2 | Appointed to continue Lodge's term.Lost election to finish Lodge's term.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
| rowspan=4 | 24
| rowspan=4 | Elected in 1924.Retired.
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Mar 4, 1925 –Mar 3, 1931
| rowspan=4 | Republican
| rowspan=4 align=right| Frederick H. Gillett
! rowspan=4 | 21
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=14 | 21
| rowspan=14 align=left | David I. Walsh
| rowspan=14 | Democratic
| rowspan=14 nowrap | Dec 6, 1926 –Jan 3, 1947
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Lodge's term.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1928.
| rowspan=3 | 25
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 25
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1930.Retired.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1931 –Jan 3, 1937
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 align=right | Marcus A. Coolidge
! rowspan=3 | 22
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1934.
| rowspan=3 | 26
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 26
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1936.
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Jan 3, 1937 –Feb 3, 1944
| rowspan=4 | Republican
| rowspan=4 align=right | Henry Cabot Lodge Jr.
! rowspan=4 | 23
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=6 | Re-elected in 1940.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=6 | 27
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4
| rowspan=6 | 27
| Re-elected in 1942.Resigned to return to active duty in the U.S. Army.
|- style="height:2em"
| Vacant
| nowrap | Feb 4, 1944 –Feb 7, 1944
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to continue Lodge's term.Did not run for election to finish the term.
| Feb 8, 1944 –Dec 19, 1944
| | Republican
| align=right | Sinclair Weeks
! 24
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish Lodge's term.Didn't take seat until Jan 4, 1945 in order to remain Governor of Massachusetts.
| rowspan=15 nowrap | Dec 19, 1944 –Jan 3, 1967
| rowspan=15 | Republican
| rowspan=15 align=right | Leverett Saltonstall
! rowspan=15 | 25
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 22
| rowspan=3 align=left | Henry Cabot Lodge Jr.
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jan 3, 1947 –Jan 3, 1953
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1946.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 28
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 28
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1948.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=4 | 23
| rowspan=4 align=left | John F. Kennedy
| rowspan=4 | Democratic
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Jan 3, 1953 –Dec 22, 1960
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1952.
| rowspan=3 | 29
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 29
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1954.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| Re-elected in 1958.Resigned to become U.S. President.
| rowspan=6 | 30
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Dec 22, 1960 –Dec 27, 1960
| Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 24
| rowspan=2 align=left | Benjamin Smith
| rowspan=2 | Democratic
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Dec 27, 1960 –Nov 7, 1962
| rowspan=2 | Appointed to continue John Kennedy's term.Did not run for election to finish the term.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
| rowspan=4 | 30
| rowspan=4 | Re-elected in 1960.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=26 | 25
| rowspan=26 align=left | Ted Kennedy
| rowspan=26 | Democratic
| rowspan=26 nowrap | Nov 7, 1962 –Aug 25, 2009
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish his brother's term.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1964.
| rowspan=3 | 31
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 31
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1966.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Jan 3, 1967 –Jan 3, 1979
| rowspan=6 | Republican
| rowspan=6 align=right | Edward Brooke
! rowspan=6 | 26
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1970.
| rowspan=3 | 32
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 32
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1972.Lost re-election.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1976.
| rowspan=3 | 33
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=4 | 33
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1978.Retired and resigned early to give successor preferential seniority.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jan 3, 1979 –Jan 2, 1985
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 align=right | Paul Tsongas
! rowspan=3 | 27
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4 | Re-elected in 1982.
| rowspan=4 | 34
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to finish Tsongas's term, having already been elected to the next term.
| rowspan=19 nowrap | Jan 2, 1985 –Feb 1, 2013
| rowspan=19 | Democratic
| rowspan=19 align=right | John Kerry
! rowspan=19 | 28
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 34
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1984.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1988.
| rowspan=3 | 35
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 35
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1990.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1994.
| rowspan=3 | 36
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 36
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1996.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2000.
| rowspan=3 | 37
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 37
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2002.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Re-elected in 2006.Died.
| rowspan=6 | 38
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 rowspan=4
| rowspan=8 | 38
| rowspan=6 | Re-elected in 2008.Resigned to become U.S. Secretary of State.
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Aug 25, 2009 –Sep 24, 2009
| Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
! 26
| align=left | Paul G. Kirk
| | Democratic
| nowrap | Sep 24, 2009 –Feb 4, 2010
| Appointed to continue Ted Kennedy's term.Did not run for election to finish the term.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 27
| rowspan=2 align=left | Scott Brown
| rowspan=2 | Republican
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Feb 4, 2010 –Jan 3, 2013
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Ted Kennedy's term.Lost re-election.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=8 | 28
| rowspan=8 align=left | Elizabeth Warren
| rowspan=8 | Democratic
| rowspan=8 nowrap | Jan 3, 2013 –present
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 2012.
| rowspan=5 | 39
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to continue Kerry's term.Did not run for election to finish the term.
| nowrap | Feb 1, 2013 –Jul 15, 2013
| | Democratic
| align=right | Mo Cowan
! 29
|- style="height:2em"
| Elected to finish Kerry's term.
| rowspan=7 nowrap | Jul 16, 2013 –present
| rowspan=7 | Democratic
| rowspan=7 align=right | Ed Markey
! rowspan=7 | 30
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 39
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2014.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2018.
| rowspan=3 | 40
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 40
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2020.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 colspan=5 | To be determined in the 2024 election.
| rowspan=2 |41
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| 41
| colspan=5 | To be determined in the 2026 election.
See also
List of United States representatives from Massachusetts
United States congressional delegations from Massachusetts
Elections in Massachusetts
References
United States Senators
Massachusetts
|
416410
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20United%20States%20senators%20from%20Mississippi
|
List of United States senators from Mississippi
|
Mississippi was admitted to the Union on December 10, 1817, and elects senators to class 1 and class 2. Its current senators are Republicans Cindy Hyde-Smith and Roger Wicker. As of February 2022, 51 people have served as U.S. senators from Mississippi. John C. Stennis was Mississippi's longest-serving senator (1947–1989).
Mississippi last elected a Democrat in 1982, and both seats have been occupied by the Republicans since 1989.
List of senators
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 1
| rowspan=2 align=left | Walter Leake
| rowspan=2 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Dec 10, 1817 –May 15, 1820
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1817.Resigned.
| rowspan=4 | 1
|
| rowspan=5 | 1
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1817.
| rowspan=11 nowrap | Dec 10, 1817 –Mar 4, 1829
| rowspan=6 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=11 align=right | Thomas Hill Williams
! rowspan=11 | 1
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | May 15, 1820 –Aug 30, 1820
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=4 | 2
| rowspan=4 align=left | David Holmes
| rowspan=3 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Aug 30, 1820 –Sep 25, 1825
| Elected to finish Leake's term.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-election year unknown.Resigned to become Governor of Mississippi.
| rowspan=6 | 2
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=6 | 2
| rowspan=6 | Re-elected in 1823.
|- style="height:2em"
| | Jacksonian
|
| rowspan=5 | Jacksonian
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Sep 25, 1825 –Sep 28, 1825
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 3
| align=left | Powhatan Ellis
| | Jacksonian
| nowrap | Sep 28, 1825 –Jan 28, 1826
| Appointed to continue Holmes's term.Lost election to finish Holmes's term.
|- style="height:2em"
! 4
| align=left | Thomas Buck Reed
| | Jacksonian
| nowrap | Jan 28, 1826 –Mar 4, 1827
| Elected to finish Holmes's term.Lost election to full term.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=7 | 5
| rowspan=7 align=left | Powhatan Ellis
| rowspan=7 | Jacksonian
| rowspan=7 nowrap | Mar 4, 1827 –Jul 16, 1832
| rowspan=7 | Election year unknown.Resigned to become a U.S. District Judge.
| rowspan=9 | 3
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=10 | 3
| Elected in 1828.Died.
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1829 –Nov 26, 1829
| | Jacksonian
| align=right | Thomas Buck Reed
! 2
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Nov 26, 1829 –Jan 6, 1830
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Elected to finish Reed's term.Died.
| nowrap | Jan 6, 1830 –Jul 2, 1830
| | Jacksonian
| align=right | Robert H. Adams
! 3
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Jul 2, 1830 –Oct 15, 1830
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=6 | Appointed to continue Adams's term.Elected in 1830 to finish Adams's term.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Oct 15, 1830 –Mar 4, 1835
| | Jacksonian
| rowspan=6 align=right | George Poindexter
! rowspan=6 | 4
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | NationalRepublican
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Jul 16, 1832 –Nov 12, 1832
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=5 | 6
| align=left | John Black
| | Jacksonian
| nowrap | Nov 12, 1832 –Mar 4, 1833
| Appointed to finish Ellis's term.
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=2 | Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1833 –Nov 22, 1833
| Legislature failed to elect.
| rowspan=7 | 4
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 align=left | John Black
| rowspan=2 | NationalRepublican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Nov 22, 1833 –Jan 22, 1838
| rowspan=3 | Elected late.Resigned.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=6 | 4
| rowspan=6 | Elected in 1835.
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Mar 4, 1835 –Mar 5, 1845
| | Jacksonian
| rowspan=9 align=right | Robert J. Walker
! rowspan=9 | 5
|- style="height:2em"
| | Whig
|
| rowspan=8 | Democratic
|- style="height:2em"
! 7
| align=left | James F. Trotter
| | Democratic
| nowrap | Jan 22, 1838 –Jul 10, 1838
| Appointed to continue Black's term.Resigned.
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Jul 10, 1838 –Nov 12, 1838
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 8
| align=left | Thomas H. Williams
| | Democratic
| nowrap | Nov 12, 1838 –Mar 4, 1839
| Appointed to continue Black's term.Elected in 1839 to finish Black's term..
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 9
| rowspan=3 align=left | John Henderson
| rowspan=3 | Whig
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1839 –Mar 4, 1845
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1838..
| rowspan=3 | 5
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 5
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1841.Resigned to become U.S. Secretary of the Treasury.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=4 | 10
| rowspan=4 align=left | Jesse Speight
| rowspan=4 | Democratic
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Mar 4, 1845 –May 1, 1847
| rowspan=4 | Elected in 1844.Died.
| rowspan=7 | 6
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Mar 5, 1845 –Nov 3, 1845
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to continue Walker's term.Elected in 1846 to finish Walker's term..
| nowrap | Nov 3, 1845 –Mar 4, 1847
| | Democratic
| align=right | Joseph W. Chalmers
! 6
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=10 | 6
| rowspan=7 | Elected in 1846 or 1847.Resigned to become Governor of Mississippi.
| rowspan=7 nowrap | Mar 4, 1847 –Jan 8, 1852
| rowspan=7 | Democratic
| rowspan=7 align=right | Henry S. Foote
! rowspan=7 | 7
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | May 1, 1847 –Aug 10, 1847
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 11
| rowspan=3 align=left | Jefferson Davis
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Aug 10, 1847 –Sep 23, 1851
| rowspan=2 | Appointed to continue Speight's term.Elected in 1848 to finish Speight's term.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| Re-elected in 1850.Resigned to run for Governor of Mississippi.
| rowspan=9 | 7
|
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Sep 23, 1851 –Dec 1, 1851
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 12
| rowspan=3 align=left | John J. McRae
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Dec 1, 1851 –Mar 17, 1852
| rowspan=3 | Appointed to continue Davis's term.Successor elected.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Jan 8, 1852 –Feb 18, 1852
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Foote's term.Retired.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Feb 18, 1852 –Mar 4, 1853
| rowspan=2 | Whig
| rowspan=2 align=right | Walker Brooke
! rowspan=2 | 8
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=4 | 13
| rowspan=4 align=left | Stephen Adams
| rowspan=4 | Democratic
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Mar 17, 1852 –Mar 4, 1857
| rowspan=4 | Elected to finish Davis's term..
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=4 | 7
|
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1853 –Jan 7, 1854
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected late in 1854
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Jan 7, 1854 –Jan 12, 1861
| rowspan=4 | Democratic
| rowspan=4 align=right | Albert G. Brown
! rowspan=4 | 9
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 14
| rowspan=3 align=left | Jefferson Davis
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1857 –Jan 21, 1861
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1856 or 1857.Resigned.
| rowspan=5 | 8
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 8
| Re-elected in 1859.Withdrew.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=7 | Civil War and Reconstruction
| rowspan=7 nowrap | Jan 12, 1861 –Feb 23, 1870
| rowspan=7 colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=6 colspan=3 | Vacant
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Jan 21, 1861 –Feb 23, 1870
| rowspan=6 | Civil War and Reconstruction
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | 9
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=4 | 9
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=6 | 10
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=4 | 15
| rowspan=4 align=left | Adelbert Ames
| rowspan=4 | Republican
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Feb 23, 1870 –Jan 4, 1874
| rowspan=4 | Elected in 1870 upon readmission.Resigned to become Governor of Mississippi.
| Elected in 1870 upon readmission..
| nowrap | Feb 23, 1870 –Mar 4, 1871
| | Republican
| align=right | Hiram R. Revels
! 10
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=6 | 10
|
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1871 –Dec 1, 1871
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1870, but remained Governor until Dec 1871..
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Dec 1, 1871 –Mar 4, 1877
| rowspan=5 | Republican
| rowspan=5 align=right | James L. Alcorn
! rowspan=5 | 11
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Jan 4, 1874 –Feb 3, 1874
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 16
| align=left | Henry R. Pease
| | Republican
| nowrap | Feb 3, 1874 –Mar 4, 1875
| Elected to finish Ames's term.Retired.
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 17
| rowspan=3 align=left | Blanche Bruce
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1875 –Mar 4, 1881
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1874..
| rowspan=3 | 11
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 11
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1876.
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Mar 4, 1877 –Mar 6, 1885
| rowspan=5 | Democratic
| rowspan=5 align=right | Lucius Q. C. Lamar
! rowspan=5 | 12
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=13 | 18
| rowspan=13 align=left | James Z. George
| rowspan=13 | Democratic
| rowspan=13 nowrap | Mar 4, 1881 –Aug 14, 1897
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1880.
| rowspan=5 | 12
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 12
| rowspan=2 | Re-elected in 1883.Resigned.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Mar 6, 1885 –Mar 9, 1885
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Appointed to continue Lamar's term.Elected in 1886 to finish Lamar's term.
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Mar 9, 1885 –Jan 24, 1894
| rowspan=5 | Democratic
| rowspan=5 align=right | Edward C. Walthall
! rowspan=5 | 13
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1886.
| rowspan=3 | 13
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 13
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1889.Resigned.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1892.Died.
| rowspan=9 | 14
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Jan 24, 1894 –Feb 7, 1894
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Elected to finish Walthall's term..
| nowrap | Feb 7, 1894 –Mar 4, 1895
| | Democratic
| align=right | Anselm J. McLaurin
! 14
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=7 | 14
| rowspan=4 | Elected early in 1892.Died.
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Mar 4, 1895 –Apr 21, 1898
| rowspan=4 | Democratic
| rowspan=4 align=right | Edward C. Walthall
! rowspan=4 | 15
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Aug 14, 1897 –Oct 8, 1897
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=12 | 19
| rowspan=12 align=left | Hernando Money
| rowspan=12 | Democratic
| rowspan=12 nowrap | Oct 8, 1897 –Mar 4, 1911
| rowspan=3 | Appointed to finish George's term.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Apr 21, 1898 –May 31, 1898
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Appointed to continue Walthall's term.Elected in 1900 to finish Walthall's term.Retired.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | May 31, 1898 –Mar 4, 1901
| rowspan=2 | Democratic
| rowspan=2 align=right | William V. Sullivan
! rowspan=2 | 16
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected to full term in 1899.
| rowspan=3 | 15
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 15
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1900.
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Mar 4, 1901 –Dec 22, 1909
| rowspan=5 | Democratic
| rowspan=5 align=right | Anselm J. McLaurin
! rowspan=5 | 17
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=6 | Re-elected in 1904.Retired.
| rowspan=6 | 16
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=6 | 16
| rowspan=2 | Re-elected early in 1904.Died.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Dec 22, 1909 –Dec 27, 1909
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to continue McLaurin's term.Successor qualified.
| nowrap | Dec 27, 1909 –Feb 22, 1910
| | Democratic
| align=right | James Gordon
! 18
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish McLaurin's term.Lost nomination to full term.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Feb 23, 1910 –Mar 4, 1913
| rowspan=2 | Democratic
| rowspan=2 align=right | LeRoy Percy
! rowspan=2 | 19
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=6 | 20
| rowspan=6 align=left | John Sharp Williams
| rowspan=6 | Democratic
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Mar 4, 1911 –Mar 4, 1923
| rowspan=3 | Elected early in 1908.
| rowspan=3 | 17
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 17
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1912.Lost renomination.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1913 –Mar 4, 1919
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 align=right | James K. Vardaman
! rowspan=3 | 20
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1916.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 18
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 18
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1918.
| rowspan=12 nowrap | Mar 4, 1919 –Jun 22, 1941
| rowspan=12 | Democratic
| rowspan=12 align=right | Pat Harrison
! rowspan=12 | 21
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=6 | 21
| rowspan=6 align=left | Hubert D. Stephens
| rowspan=6 | Democratic
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Mar 4, 1923 –Jan 3, 1935
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1922.
| rowspan=3 | 19
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 19
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1924.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1928.Lost renomination.
| rowspan=3 | 20
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 20
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1930.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=10 | 22
| rowspan=10 align=left | Theodore G. Bilbo
| rowspan=10 | Democratic
| rowspan=10 nowrap | Jan 3, 1935 –Aug 21, 1947
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1934.
| rowspan=3 | 21
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=6 | 21
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1936.Died.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=6 | Re-elected in 1940.
| rowspan=6 | 22
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Jun 22, 1941 –Jun 30, 1941
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to continue Harrison's term.Retired when successor elected.
| nowrap | Jun 30, 1941 –Sep 28, 1941
| | Democratic
| align=right | James Eastland
! 22
|- style="height:2em"
| Elected to finish Harrison's term.Lost renomination.
| nowrap | Sep 29, 1941 –Jan 3, 1943
| | Democratic
| align=right | Wall Doxey
! 23
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 22
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1942.
| rowspan=20 nowrap | Jan 3, 1943 –Dec 27, 1978
| rowspan=20 | Democratic
| rowspan=20 align=right | James Eastland
! rowspan=20 | 24
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| Re-elected in 1946.Died.
| rowspan=5 | 23
|
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Aug 21, 1947 –Nov 5, 1947
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=22 | 23
| rowspan=22 align=left | John C. Stennis
| rowspan=22 | Democratic
| rowspan=22 nowrap | Nov 5, 1947 –Jan 3, 1989
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish Bilbo's term.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 23
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1948.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1952.
| rowspan=3 | 24
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 24
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1954.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1958.
| rowspan=3 | 25
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 25
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1960.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1964.
| rowspan=3 | 26
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 26
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1966.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1970.
| rowspan=3 | 27
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=4 | 27
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1972.Retired, and resigned early to give successor preferential seniority.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4 | Re-elected in 1976.
| rowspan=4 | 28
|
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed early to finish Eastland's term, having already been elected to the next term.
| rowspan=23 nowrap | Dec 27, 1978 –Apr 1, 2018
| rowspan=23 | Republican
| rowspan=23 align=right | Thad Cochran
! rowspan=23 | 25
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 28
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1978.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1982.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 29
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 29
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1984.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=10 | 24
| rowspan=10 align=left | Trent Lott
| rowspan=10 | Republican
| rowspan=10 nowrap | Jan 3, 1989 –Dec 18, 2007
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1988.
| rowspan=3 | 30
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 30
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1990.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1994.
| rowspan=3 | 31
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 31
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1996.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2000.
| rowspan=3 | 32
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 32
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 2002.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| Re-elected in 2006.Resigned.
| rowspan=5 | 33
|
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Dec 18, 2007 –Dec 31, 2007
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=11 | 25
| rowspan=11 align=left | Roger Wicker
| rowspan=11 | Republican
| rowspan=11 nowrap | Dec 31, 2007 –present
| rowspan=3 | Appointed to continue Lott's term.Elected in 2008 to finish Lott's term.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 33
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2008.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 2012.
| rowspan=5 | 34
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 34
| rowspan=2 | Re-elected in 2014.Resigned.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Apr 1, 2018 –Apr 2, 2018
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Appointed to continue Cochran's term.Elected in 2018 in runoff election to finish Cochran's term.
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Apr 2, 2018 –present
| rowspan=5 | Republican
| rowspan=5 align=right | Cindy Hyde-Smith
! rowspan=5 | 26
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2018.
| rowspan=3 | 35
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 35
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2020.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 colspan=5 | To be determined in the 2024 election.
| rowspan=2|36
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| 36
| colspan=5 | To be determined in the 2026 election.
See also
List of United States representatives from Mississippi
United States congressional delegations from Mississippi
Elections in Mississippi
Notes
References
United States senators
Mississippi
|
416413
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20United%20States%20senators%20from%20Missouri
|
List of United States senators from Missouri
|
Missouri was admitted to the Union on August 10, 1821. Its current U.S. senators are Republicans Josh Hawley (class 1, serving since 2019) and Eric Schmitt (class 3, serving since 2023). Francis Cockrell was Missouri's longest-serving senator (1875–1905).
List of senators
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=19 | 1
| rowspan=19 align=left | Thomas Hart Benton
| rowspan=2 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=19 nowrap | Aug 10, 1821 –Mar 3, 1851
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1821.
| rowspan=3 | 1
|
| rowspan=2 | 1
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1821.
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Aug 10, 1821 –Mar 3, 1831
| rowspan=2 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=5 align=right | David Barton
! rowspan=5 | 1
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=8 | Jacksonian
|
| rowspan=3 | 2
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1825.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | NationalRepublican
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1827.
| rowspan=3 | 2
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 3
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1830.Died.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Mar 4, 1831 –Jun 6, 1833
| rowspan=2 | Jacksonian
| rowspan=2 align=right | Alexander Buckner
! rowspan=2 | 2
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1833.
| rowspan=5 | 3
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Jun 6, 1833 –Oct 25, 1833
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Appointed to continue Buckner's term.Elected to finish Buckner's term.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Oct 25, 1833 –Oct 3, 1843
| rowspan=2 | Jacksonian
| rowspan=6 align=right | Lewis F. Linn
! rowspan=6 | 3
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=9 | Democratic
|
| rowspan=3 | 4
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1836.
| rowspan=4 | Democratic
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | Re-elected in 1839.
| rowspan=5 | 4
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
| rowspan=5 | 5
| Re-elected in 1842.Died.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Oct 3, 1843 –Oct 14, 1843
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Appointed to continue Linn's term.Elected to finish Linn's term.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Oct 14, 1843 –Mar 3, 1855
| rowspan=6 | Democratic
| rowspan=6 align=right | David Rice Atchison
! rowspan=6 | 4
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1845.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 5
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 6
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1849.Lost re-election.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=4 | 2
| rowspan=4 align=left | Henry S. Geyer
| rowspan=4 | Whig
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Mar 4, 1851 –Mar 3, 1857
| rowspan=4 | Elected in 1851.Retired.
| rowspan=4 | 6
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
| rowspan=4 | 7
| Failure to elect.
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1855 –Jan 12, 1857
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected late in 1857.Retired or lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jan 12, 1857 –Mar 3, 1861
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 align=right | James S. Green
! rowspan=3 | 5
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=4 | 3
| rowspan=4 align=left | Trusten Polk
| rowspan=4 | Democratic
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Mar 4, 1857 –Jan 10, 1862
| rowspan=4 | Elected in 1857.Expelled for supporting the Confederacy in the American Civil War.
| rowspan=6 | 7
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4
| rowspan=7 | 8
|
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1861 –Mar 17, 1861
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Elected late in 1861.Expelled for supporting the Confederacy in the American Civil War.
| nowrap | Mar 17, 1861 –Jan 10, 1862
| | Democratic
| align=right | Waldo Johnson
! 6
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Jan 10, 1862 –Jan 17, 1862
|
|
| nowrap | Jan 10, 1862 –Jan 17, 1862
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=5 | 4
| rowspan=5 align=left | John B. Henderson
| | Unionist
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Jan 17, 1862 –Mar 3, 1869
| Appointed to finish Polk's term.
| rowspan=2 | Appointed to continue Johnson's term.Successor qualified.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Jan 17, 1862 –Nov 13, 1863
| | Unionist
| rowspan=2 align=right | Robert Wilson
! rowspan=2 | 7
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | UnconditionalUnionist
| rowspan=4 | Elected to the next term in 1863.Retired.
| rowspan=4 | 8
| rowspan=2
| | UnconditionalUnionist
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Johnson's term.Retired due to ill health.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Nov 13, 1863 –Mar 3, 1867
| | UnconditionalUnionist
| rowspan=2 align=right | B. Gratz Brown
! rowspan=2 | 8
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Republican
|
| | Republican
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 9
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1866 or 1867.Resigned to become Chief Justice of the U.S. Court of Claims.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Mar 4, 1867 –Dec 19, 1870
| rowspan=2 | Republican
| rowspan=2 align=right | Charles D. Drake
! rowspan=2 | 9
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=5 | 5
| rowspan=5 align=left | Carl Schurz
| | Republican
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Mar 4, 1869 –Mar 3, 1875
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1868.Retired.
| rowspan=5 | 9
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Liberal Republican
| Appointed to continue Drake's term.Retired when successor elected.
| nowrap | Dec 19, 1870 –Jan 20, 1871
| | Republican
| align=right | Daniel T. Jewett
! 10
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Drake's term.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Jan 20, 1871 –Mar 3, 1873
| rowspan=2 | Democratic
| rowspan=2 align=right | Francis P. Blair
! rowspan=2 | 11
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Republican
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=6 | 10
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1872 or 1873.Died.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1873 –Sep 20, 1877
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 align=right | Lewis V. Bogy
! rowspan=3 | 12
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=18 | 6
| rowspan=18 align=left | Francis Cockrell
| rowspan=18 | Democratic
| rowspan=18 nowrap | Mar 4, 1875 –Mar 3, 1905
| rowspan=6 | Elected in 1874.
| rowspan=6 | 10
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Sep 20, 1877 –Sep 29, 1877
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to continue Bogy's term.Retired.
| nowrap | Sep 29, 1877 –Jan 26, 1879
| | Democratic
| align=right | David H. Armstrong
! 13
|- style="height:2em"
| Elected to finish Bogy's term.Retired.
| nowrap | Jan 27, 1879 –Mar 3, 1879
| | Democratic
| align=right | James Shields
! 14
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 11
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1879.
| rowspan=12 nowrap | Mar 4, 1879 –Mar 3, 1903
| rowspan=12 | Democratic
| rowspan=12 align=right | George G. Vest
! rowspan=12 | 15
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1881.
| rowspan=3 | 11
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 12
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1885.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1887.
| rowspan=3 | 12
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 13
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1891.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1893.
| rowspan=3 | 13
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 14
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1897.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1899.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 14
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=4 | 15
| rowspan=4 | Elected in 1903.
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Mar 4, 1903 –Apr 14, 1918
| rowspan=9 | Democratic
| rowspan=9 align=right | William J. Stone
! rowspan=9 | 16
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1905 –Mar 18, 1905
|
| rowspan=4 | 15
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 7
| rowspan=3 align=left | William Warner
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 18, 1905 –Mar 3, 1911
| rowspan=3 | Elected late in 1905.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 16
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1909.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=15 | 8
| rowspan=15 align=left | James A. Reed
| rowspan=15 | Democratic
| rowspan=15 nowrap | Mar 4, 1911 –Mar 3, 1929
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1910.
| rowspan=3 | 16
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=6 | 17
| rowspan=2 | Re-elected in 1914.Died.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=6 | Re-elected in 1916.
| rowspan=6 | 17
| rowspan=4
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Apr 14, 1918 –Apr 30, 1918
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to continue Stone's term.Lost renomination to finish Stone's term.
| nowrap | Apr 30, 1918 –Nov 5, 1918
| | Democratic
| align=right | Xenophon P. Wilfley
! 17
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1918 to finish Stone's term.
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Nov 6, 1918 –May 16, 1925
| rowspan=5 | Republican
| rowspan=5 align=right | Selden P. Spencer
! rowspan=5 | 18
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=6 | 18
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1920.Died.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=6 | Re-elected in 1922.Retired.
| rowspan=6 | 18
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | May 16, 1925 –May 25, 1925
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to continue Spencer's term.Lost elections to finish Spencer's term and to the next term.
| nowrap | May 25, 1925 –Dec 5, 1926
| | Republican
| align=right | George H. Williams
! 19
|- style="height:2em"
| Elected to finish Spencer's term.
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Dec 6, 1926 –Feb 3, 1933
| rowspan=4 | Democratic
| rowspan=4 align=right | Harry B. Hawes
! rowspan=4 | 20
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=4 | 19
| rowspan=3 | Also elected to the next term in 1926.Retired, then resigned early.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=4 | 9
| rowspan=4 align=left | Roscoe C. Patterson
| rowspan=4 | Republican
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Mar 4, 1929 –Jan 3, 1935
| rowspan=4 | Elected in 1928.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=4 | 19
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to finish Hawes's term, having already been elected to the next term.
| rowspan=7 nowrap | Feb 3, 1933 –Jan 3, 1945
| rowspan=7 | Democratic
| rowspan=7 align=right | Joel B. Clark
! rowspan=7 | 21
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 20
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1932.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=6 | 10
| rowspan=6 align=left | Harry S. Truman
| rowspan=6 | Democratic
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Jan 3, 1935 –Jan 17, 1945
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1934.
| rowspan=3 | 20
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 21
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1938.Lost renomination.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1940.Resigned to become U.S. Vice President.
| rowspan=4 | 21
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
| rowspan=4 | 22
| rowspan=4 | Elected in 1944.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Jan 3, 1945 –Jan 3, 1951
| rowspan=4 | Republican
| rowspan=4 align=right | Forrest C. Donnell
! rowspan=4 | 22
|- style="height:2em"
! 11
| align=left | Frank P. Briggs
| | Democratic
| nowrap | Jan 18, 1945 –Jan 3, 1947
| Appointed to finish Truman's term.Lost election to the next term.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 12
| rowspan=3 align=left | James P. Kem
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jan 3, 1947 –Jan 3, 1953
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1946.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 22
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 23
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1950.
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Jan 3, 1951 –Sep 13, 1960
| rowspan=5 | Democratic
| rowspan=5 align=right | Thomas Hennings
! rowspan=5 | 23
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=15 | 13
| rowspan=15 align=left | Stuart Symington
| rowspan=15 | Democratic
| rowspan=15 nowrap | Jan 3, 1953 –Dec 27, 1976
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1952.
| rowspan=3 | 23
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 24
| rowspan=2 | Re-elected in 1956.Died.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1958.
| rowspan=5 | 24
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Sep 13, 1960 –Sep 23, 1960
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Appointed to continue Henning's term.Elected to finish Henning's term.
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Sep 23, 1960 –Dec 27, 1968
| rowspan=5 | Democratic
| rowspan=5 align=right | Edward V. Long
! rowspan=5 | 24
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=4 | 25
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1962.Lost renomination, and resigned early.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4 | Elected in 1964.
| rowspan=4 | 25
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to finish Long's term, having been elected to next term.
| rowspan=11 nowrap | Dec 28, 1968 –Jan 3, 1987
| rowspan=11 | Democratic
| rowspan=11 align=right | Thomas Eagleton
! rowspan=11 | 25
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 26
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1968.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1970.Retired, then resigned early to give successor preferential seniority.
| rowspan=4 | 26
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
| rowspan=4 | 27
| rowspan=4 | Re-elected in 1974.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=10 | 14
| rowspan=10 align=left | John Danforth
| rowspan=10 | Republican
| rowspan=10 nowrap | Dec 27, 1976 –Jan 3, 1995
| Appointed to finish Symington's term, having already been elected to the next term.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1976.
| rowspan=3 | 27
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 28
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1980.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1982.
| rowspan=3 | 28
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 29
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1986.
| rowspan=13 nowrap | Jan 3, 1987 –Jan 3, 2011
| rowspan=13 | Republican
| rowspan=13 align=right | Kit Bond
! rowspan=13 | 26
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1988.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 29
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 30
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1992.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 15
| rowspan=3 align=left | John Ashcroft
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jan 3, 1995 –Jan 3, 2001
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1994.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 30
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=4 | 31
| rowspan=4 | Re-elected in 1998.
|- style="height:2em"
! 16
| align=left | Jean Carnahan
| | Democratic
| nowrap | Jan 3, 2001 –Nov 23, 2002
| Appointed to begin the term of her husband, Mel Carnahan (D), who was posthumously elected in 2000.Lost election to finish her husband's term.
| rowspan=4 | 31
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 17
| rowspan=3 align=left | Jim Talent
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Nov 23, 2002 –Jan 3, 2007
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 2002 to finish Mel Carnahan's term.Lost re-election.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 32
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2004.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=6 | 18
| rowspan=6 align=left | Claire McCaskill
| rowspan=6 | Democratic
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Jan 3, 2007 –Jan 3, 2019
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 2006.
| rowspan=3 | 32
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 33
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 2010.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Jan 3, 2011 –Jan 3, 2023
| rowspan=6 | Republican
| rowspan=6 align=right | Roy Blunt
! rowspan=6 | 27
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2012.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 33
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 34
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2016.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 19
| rowspan=3 align=left | Josh Hawley
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jan 3, 2019 –present
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 2018.
| rowspan=3 | 34
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 35
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 2022.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jan 3, 2023 –present
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 align=right | Eric Schmitt
! rowspan=3 | 28
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 colspan=5 | To be determined in the 2024 election.
| rowspan=3| 35
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| 36
| colspan=5 | To be determined in the 2028 election.
See also
List of United States representatives from Missouri
United States congressional delegations from Missouri
Elections in Missouri
References
United States Senators
Missouri
|
416423
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20United%20States%20senators%20from%20New%20Jersey
|
List of United States senators from New Jersey
|
This is a chronological listing of the United States senators from New Jersey. Since the enforcement of the Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, U.S. senators are popularly elected for a six-year term beginning January 3. Elections are held the first Tuesday after November 1. Before 1914, they were chosen by the New Jersey Legislature, and before 1935, their terms began March 4. The state's current senators are Democrats Bob Menendez (serving since 2006) and Cory Booker (serving since 2013). Frank Lautenberg was New Jersey's longest-serving senator (1982–2001; 2003–2013).
List of senators
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 1
| rowspan=3 align=left | Jonathan Elmer
| rowspan=3 | Pro-Admin.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1789 –Mar 3, 1791
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1788.
| rowspan=3 | 1
| rowspan=3
| rowspan=4 | 1
| Elected in 1788.Resigned to become New Jersey Governor.
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1789 –Nov 13, 1790
| | Pro-Admin.
| align=right | William Paterson
! 1
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Nov 13, 1790 –Nov 23, 1790
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Paterson's term.Retired.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Nov 23, 1790 –Mar 3, 1793
| rowspan=2 | Pro-Admin.
| rowspan=2 align=right | Philemon Dickinson
! rowspan=2 | 2
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=5 | 2
| rowspan=5 align=left | John Rutherfurd
| rowspan=2 | Pro-Admin.
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Mar 4, 1791 –Dec 5, 1798
| rowspan=4 | Elected in 1790.
| rowspan=4 | 2
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 2
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1792 or 1793.Resigned.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Mar 4, 1793 –Nov 12, 1796
| | Pro-Admin.
| rowspan=2 align=right | Frederick Frelinghuysen
! rowspan=2 | 3
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Federalist
| rowspan=2
| | Federalist
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish Frelinghuysen's term.Retired.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Nov 12, 1796 –Mar 3, 1799
| rowspan=3 | Federalist
| rowspan=3 align=right |Richard Stockton
! rowspan=3 | 4
|- style="height:2em"
| Re-elected in 1796.Resigned.
| rowspan=6 | 3
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
! 3
| align=left | Franklin Davenport
| | Federalist
| nowrap | Dec 5, 1798 –Mar 3, 1799
| Appointed to continue Rutherfurd's term.
|- style="height:2em"
! 4
| align=left | James Schureman
| | Federalist
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1799 –Feb 16, 1801
| Elected to finish Rutherfurd's term.Resigned.
| rowspan=3
| rowspan=6 | 3
| rowspan=6 | Elected in 1798.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Mar 4, 1799–Mar 3, 1805
| rowspan=6 | Federalist
| rowspan=6 align=right | Jonathan Dayton
! rowspan=6 | 5
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Feb 16, 1801 – Feb 28, 1801
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 5
| rowspan=2 align=left | Aaron Ogden
| rowspan=2 | Federalist
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Feb 28, 1801 –Mar 3, 1803
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Rutherfurd's term.Lost
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1803 –Sep 1, 1803
| Legislature failed to elect.
| rowspan=4 | 4
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 6
| rowspan=3 align=left | John Condit
| rowspan=3 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Sep 1, 1803 –Mar 3, 1809
| rowspan=3 | Appointed to begin the vacant term.Elected in 1803 to finish the vacant term.Lost renomination.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 4
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1804.Resigned.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1805 –Mar 12, 1809
| rowspan=3 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=3 align=right | Aaron Kitchell
! rowspan=3 | 6
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=5 | 7
| rowspan=5 align=left | John Lambert
| rowspan=5 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Mar 4, 1809 –Mar 3, 1815
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1808.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=5 | 5
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Mar 12, 1809 –Mar 21, 1809
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to continue Kitchell's termElected in 1809 to finish Kitchell's term.
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Mar 21, 1809 –Mar 3, 1817
| rowspan=4 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=4 align=right | John Condit
! rowspan=4 | 7
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 5
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1810.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 8
| rowspan=3 align=left | James J. Wilson
| rowspan=3 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1815 –Jan 8, 1821
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1815.Lost ,resigned early.
| rowspan=5 | 6
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 6
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1817.
| rowspan=12 nowrap | Mar 4, 1817 –Jan 30, 1829
| rowspan=7 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=12 align=right | Mahlon Dickerson
! rowspan=12 | 8
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Jan 8, 1821 –Jan 26, 1821
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 9
| rowspan=2 align=left | Samuel L. Southard
| rowspan=2 | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Jan 26, 1821 –Mar 3, 1823
| Appointed to finish Wilson's term, having been elected to the next term.
|- style="height:2em"
| Elected in 1820.Resigned to become U.S. Secretary of the Navy.
| rowspan=6 | 7
|
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1823 –Nov 12, 1823
|
| rowspan=2
| rowspan=8 | 7
| rowspan=7 | Re-elected in 1823.Resigned and immediately for the class 1 seat.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 10
| rowspan=2 align=left | Joseph McIlvaine
| | Democratic-Republican
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Nov 12, 1823 –Aug 19, 1826
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Southard's term.Died.
|- style="height:2em"
| | NationalRepublican
| rowspan=3
| rowspan=5 | Jacksonian
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Aug 19, 1826 –Nov 10, 1826
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 11
| rowspan=2 align=left | Ephraim Bateman
| rowspan=2 | NationalRepublican
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Nov 10, 1826 –Jan 12, 1829
| Elected to finish Southard's term.
|- style="height:2em"
| Elected to full term in 1826.Resigned because of failing health.
| rowspan=5 | 8
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Jan 12, 1829 –Jan 30, 1829
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 12
| rowspan=3 align=left | Mahlon Dickerson
| rowspan=3 | Jacksonian
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jan 30, 1829 –Mar 3, 1833
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish Bateman's term.
|
| nowrap | Jan 30, 1829 –Mar 3, 1829
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 8
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1829.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1829 –Mar 3, 1835
| rowspan=3 | NationalRepublican
| rowspan=3 align=right | Theodore Frelinghuysen
! rowspan=3 | 9
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=5 | 13
| rowspan=5 align=left | Samuel L. Southard
| rowspan=2 | NationalRepublican
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Mar 4, 1833 –Jun 26, 1842
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1833.
| rowspan=3 | 9
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 9
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1835.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1835 –Mar 3, 1841
| | Jacksonian
| rowspan=3 align=right | Garret D. Wall
! rowspan=3 | 10
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Whig
|
| rowspan=2 | Democratic
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Re-elected in 1839.Resigned due to failing health.
| rowspan=5 | 10
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
| rowspan=5 | 10
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1840.
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Mar 4, 1841 –Mar 3, 1853
| rowspan=9 | Whig
| rowspan=9 align=right | Jacob W. Miller
! rowspan=9 | 11
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Jun 26, 1842 –Jul 2, 1842
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=5 | 14
| rowspan=5 align=left | William L. Dayton
| rowspan=5 | Whig
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Jul 2, 1842 –Mar 3, 1851
| rowspan=2 | Appointed to continue Southard's term.Elected to finish Southard's term.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1845.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 11
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=4 | 11
| rowspan=4 | Re-elected in 1846.Lost re-election.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 15
| align=left | Robert F. Stockton
| | Democratic
| nowrap | Mar 4, 1851 –Jan 10, 1853
| Elected in 1851.Resigned to become President of the Delaware and Raritan Canal Company.
| rowspan=4 | 12
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Jan 10, 1853 –Mar 4, 1853
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=5 | 16
| rowspan=5 align=left | John Renshaw Thomson
| rowspan=5 | Democratic
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Mar 4, 1853 –Sep 12, 1862
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Stockton's term.
|
| rowspan=3 | 12
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1853.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1853 –Mar 3, 1859
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 align=right | William Wright
! rowspan=3 | 12
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1857.Died.
| rowspan=6 | 13
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=6 | 13
| rowspan=6 | Elected in 1858.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Mar 4, 1859 –Mar 3, 1865
| rowspan=6 | Republican
| rowspan=6 align=right | John C. Ten Eyck
! rowspan=6 | 13
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Sep 12, 1862 –Nov 21, 1862
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 17
| align=left | Richard Stockton Field
| | Republican
| nowrap | Nov 21, 1862 –Jan 14, 1863
| Appointed to continue Thomson's term.Retired when his successor was elected.
|- style="height:2em"
! 18
| align=left | James Walter Wall
| | Democratic
| nowrap | Jan 14, 1863 –Mar 3, 1863
| Elected to finish Thomson's term.Lost re-election.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=5 | 19
| rowspan=5 align=left | William Wright
| rowspan=5 | Democratic
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Mar 4, 1863 –Nov 1, 1866
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1863.Died.
| rowspan=8 | 14
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=6
| rowspan=8 | 14
|
| nowrap | Mar 3, 1865–Mar 15, 1865
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Elected in 1864.Election disputed and seat declared vacant.
| nowrap | Mar 15, 1865 –Mar 27, 1866
| | Democratic
| align=right | John P. Stockton
! 14
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Mar 27, 1866 –Sep 19, 1866
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=5 | Elected to finish Stockton's term.Retired.
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Sep 19, 1866 –Mar 3, 1871
| rowspan=5 | Republican
| rowspan=5 align=right | Alexander G. Cattell
! rowspan=5 | 15
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Nov 1, 1866 –Nov 12, 1866
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 20
| rowspan=2 align=left | Frederick T. Frelinghuysen
| rowspan=2 | Republican
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Nov 12, 1866 –Mar 3, 1869
| rowspan=2 | Appointed to continue Wright's term.Elected in 1867 to finish Wright's term.Lost re-election.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 21
| rowspan=3 align=left | John P. Stockton
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1869 –Mar 3, 1875
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1869.
| rowspan=3 | 15
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 15
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1870 or 1871.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1871–Mar 3, 1877
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 align=right | Frederick T. Frelinghuysen
! rowspan=3 | 16
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 22
| rowspan=3 align=left | Theodore F. Randolph
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1875 –Mar 3, 1881
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1875.
| rowspan=3 | 16
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 16
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1877.
| rowspan=9 nowrap | Mar 4, 1877–Mar 3, 1895
| rowspan=9 | Democratic
| rowspan=9 align=right | John R. McPherson
! rowspan=9 | 17
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 23
| rowspan=3 align=left | William J. Sewell
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1881 –Mar 3, 1887
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1881.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 17
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 17
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1883.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 24
| rowspan=3 align=left | Rufus Blodgett
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1887 –Mar 3, 1893
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1886.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 18
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 18
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1889.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 25
| rowspan=3 align=left | James Smith Jr.
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1893 –Mar 3, 1899
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1893.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 19
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 19
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1895.
| rowspan=4 nowrap | Mar 4, 1895–Dec 27, 1901
| rowspan=4 | Republican
| rowspan=4 align=right | William J. Sewell
! rowspan=4 | 18
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=8 | 26
| rowspan=8 align=left | John Kean
| rowspan=8 | Republican
| rowspan=8 nowrap | Mar 4, 1899 –Mar 3, 1911
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1899.
| rowspan=5 | 20
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
| rowspan=5 | 20
| Re-elected in 1901.Died.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Dec 27, 1901–Jan 29, 1902
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected to finish Sewell's term.Withdrew from election contest to full term.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jan 29, 1902–Mar 3, 1907
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 align=right | John F. Dryden
! rowspan=3 | 19
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1905.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 21
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 21
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1907.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1907 –Mar 3, 1913
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 align=right | Frank O. Briggs
! rowspan=3 | 20
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 27
| rowspan=3 align=left | James E. Martine
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1911 –Mar 3, 1917
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1911.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 22
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=5 | 22
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1913.Died.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1913 –Jan 30, 1918
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 align=right | William Hughes
! rowspan=3 | 21
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=5 | 28
| rowspan=5 align=left | Joseph S. Frelinghuysen Sr.
| rowspan=5 | Republican
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Mar 4, 1917 –Mar 3, 1923
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1916.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=5 | 23
| rowspan=3
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Jan 30, 1918 –Feb 23, 1918
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to continue Hughes's term.Elected in 1918 to finish Hughes's term.Retired.
| nowrap | Feb 23, 1918 –Mar 3, 1919
| | Republican
| align=right | David Baird Sr.
! 22
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 23
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1918.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Mar 4, 1919 –Nov 21, 1929
| rowspan=6 | Republican
| rowspan=6 align=right | Walter E. Edge
! rowspan=6 | 23
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 29
| rowspan=3 align=left | Edward I. Edwards
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Mar 4, 1923 –Mar 3, 1929
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1922.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 | 24
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=6 | 24
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1924.Resigned to become U.S. Ambassador to France.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=8 | 30
| rowspan=8 align=left | Hamilton F. Kean
| rowspan=8 | Republican
| rowspan=8 nowrap | Mar 4, 1929 –Jan 3, 1935
| rowspan=8 | Elected in 1928.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=8 | 25
| rowspan=4
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Nov 21, 1929 –Nov 30, 1929
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to continue Edge's term.Retired when his successor was qualified.
| nowrap | Nov 30, 1929 –Dec 2, 1930
| | Republican
| align=right | David Baird Jr.
! 24
|- style="height:2em"
| Elected in 1930 to finish Edge's term.
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Dec 3, 1930 –Oct 5, 1931
| rowspan=2 | Republican
| rowspan=2 align=right | Dwight Morrow
! rowspan=2 | 25
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
| rowspan=5 | 25
| Elected to full term in 1930.Died.
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Oct 5, 1931 –Dec 1, 1931
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Appointed to continue Morrow's term.Elected in 1932 to finish Morrow's term.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Dec 1, 1931 –Jan 3, 1937
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 align=right | W. Warren Barbour
! rowspan=3 | 26
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=2 | 31
| rowspan=2 align=left | A. Harry Moore
| rowspan=2 | Democratic
| rowspan=2 nowrap | Jan 3, 1935 –Jan 17, 1938
| rowspan=2 | Elected in 1934.Resigned to become governor.
| rowspan=5 | 26
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3
| rowspan=5 | 26
| rowspan=5 | Elected in 1936.Lost re-election.
| rowspan=5 nowrap | Jan 3, 1937 –Jan 3, 1943
| rowspan=5 | Democratic
| rowspan=5 align=right | William H. Smathers
! rowspan=5 | 27
|- style="height:2em"
! 32
| align=left | John Milton
| | Democratic
| nowrap | Jan 18, 1938 –Nov 8, 1938
| Appointed to continue Moore's term.Retired when successor qualified.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=4 | 33
| rowspan=4 align=left | W. Warren Barbour
| rowspan=4 | Republican
| rowspan=4 | Nov 8, 1938 –Nov 22, 1943
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Moore's term
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 | Re-elected in 1940.Died.
| rowspan=6 | 27
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4
| rowspan=6 | 27
| rowspan=6 | Elected in 1942.Retired.
| rowspan=6 nowrap | Jan 3, 1943 –Jan 3, 1949
| rowspan=6 | Republican
| rowspan=6 align=right | Albert W. Hawkes
! rowspan=6 | 28
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Nov 22, 1943 –Nov 26, 1943
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 34
| align=left | Arthur Walsh
| | Democratic
| Nov 26, 1943 –Dec 7, 1944
| Appointed to finish Barbour's termRetired when successor was elected
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=8 | 35
| rowspan=8 align=left | H. Alexander Smith
| rowspan=8 | Republican
| rowspan=8 | Dec 7, 1944–Jan 3, 1959
| rowspan=2 | Elected to finish Barbour's term.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1946.
| rowspan=3 | 28
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 28
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1948.Retired.
| rowspan=3 nowrap | Jan 3, 1949 –Jan 3, 1955
| rowspan=3 | Republican
| rowspan=3 align=right | Robert C. Hendrickson
! rowspan=3 | 29
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1952.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 29
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 29
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1954.
| rowspan=12 nowrap | Jan 3, 1955 –Jan 3, 1979
| rowspan=12 | Republican
| rowspan=12 align=right | Clifford P. Case
! rowspan=12 | 30
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=12 | 36
| rowspan=12 align=left | Harrison A. Williams
| rowspan=12 | Democratic
| rowspan=12 | Jan 3, 1959–Mar 11, 1982
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1958.
| rowspan=3 | 30
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 30
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1960.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1964.
| rowspan=3 | 31
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 31
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1966.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1970.
| rowspan=3 | 32
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 32
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1972.Lost renomination.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1976.Resigned.
| rowspan=6 | 33
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=6 | 33
| rowspan=6 | Elected in 1978.
| rowspan=12 | Jan 3, 1979 –Jan 3, 1997
| rowspan=12 | Democratic
| rowspan=12 align=right | Bill Bradley
! rowspan=12 | 31
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=4
|- style="height:2em"
| colspan=3 | Vacant
| nowrap | Mar 11, 1982 –Apr 12, 1982
|
|- style="height:2em"
! 37
| align=left | Nicholas F. Brady
| | Republican
| nowrap | Apr 12, 1982 –Dec 27, 1982
| Appointed to finish Williams's term.Retired and resigned early to give his elected successor preferential seniority.
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=10 | 38
| rowspan=10 align=left | Frank Lautenberg
| rowspan=10 | Democratic
| rowspan=10 nowrap | Dec 27, 1982 –Jan 3, 2001
| Appointed early to finish Williams's term, having been already elected to the next term.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1982.
| rowspan=3 | 34
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 34
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1984.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1988.
| rowspan=3 | 35
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 35
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1990.Retired.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 1994.Retired.
| rowspan=3 | 36
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 36
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 1996.Ran for re-election, but withdrew.
| rowspan=3 | Jan 3, 1997 –Jan 3, 2003
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 align=right | Robert Torricelli
! rowspan=3 | 32
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=3 | 39
| rowspan=3 align=left | Jon Corzine
| rowspan=3 | Democratic
| rowspan=3 | Jan 3, 2001 –Jan 17, 2006
| rowspan=3 | Elected in 2000.Resigned to become Governor of New Jersey.
| rowspan=4 | 37
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=4 | 37
| rowspan=4 | Elected in 2002.
| rowspan=7 | Jan 3, 2003 –Jun 3, 2013
| rowspan=7 nowrap | Democratic
| rowspan=7 align=right | Frank Lautenberg
! rowspan=7 | 33
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2
|- style="height:2em"
! rowspan=13 | 40
| rowspan=13 align=left | Bob Menendez
| rowspan=13 nowrap | Democratic
| rowspan=13 | Jan 18, 2006 –present
| Appointed to finish Corzine's term.
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Elected to full term in 2006.
| rowspan=3 | 38
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=6 | 38
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2008.Died.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=6 | Re-elected in 2012.
| rowspan=6 | 39
| rowspan=4
|- style="height:2em"
|
| nowrap | Jun 3, 2013 –Jun 6, 2013
| colspan=3 | Vacant
|- style="height:2em"
| Appointed to continue Lautenberg's term.Retired when his successor was elected.
| Jun 6, 2013 –Oct 30, 2013
| | Republican
| align=right | Jeffrey Chiesa
! 34
|- style="height:2em"
| Elected in 2013 to finish Lautenberg's term.
| rowspan=7 | Oct 31, 2013 –present
| rowspan=7 nowrap | Democratic
| rowspan=7 align=right | Cory Booker
! rowspan=7 | 35
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 39
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2014.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=3 | Re-elected in 2018.
| rowspan=3 | 40
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| rowspan=3 | 40
| rowspan=3 |Re-elected in 2020.
|- style="height:2em"
|
|- style="height:2em"
| rowspan=2 colspan=5 | To be determined in the 2024 election.
| rowspan=2|41
|
|- style="height:2em"
|
| 41
| colspan=5 | To be determined in the 2026 election.
See also
List of United States representatives from New Jersey
United States congressional delegations from New Jersey
Elections in New Jersey
Notes
References
United States Senators
New Jersey
|
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